spraypak - cottoncottoninfo.com.au/sites/default/files/documents/spraypak.pdf · spraypak contents...

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SPRAYpak Contents

Foreword .................................................................................................................. i

Summary ................................................................................................................. ii

1. Introduction ................................................................ 1

2. Planning spray applications...................................... 3

2.1 Pesticide Application Management Plan (PAMP) .............................................3

2.1.1 Maps .................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Communication .................................................................................................7

2.2.1 What to communicate .......................................................................................... 7

2.2.2 Who to communicate with .................................................................................... 8

2.3 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) .............................................................. 12

2.3.1 Insecticide resistance management strategy ..................................................... 12

2.4 Agreements ....................................................................................................12

2.5 Equipment checks ......................................................................................... 13

2.6 Recording systems check .............................................................................. 14

2.7 Information sources for planning ................................................................... 14

2.8 Training .......................................................................................................... 15

3. Managing spray applications .................................. 17

3.1 Pesticide Application Management Plan (PAMP) .......................................... 17

3.2 Pesticide selection ......................................................................................... 17

3.3 Mixing pesticides ........................................................................................... 18

3.4 Application orders .......................................................................................... 19

3.5 Application method ........................................................................................ 20

3.6 Meteorological conditions .............................................................................. 21

3.6.1 Air movement ..................................................................................................... 24

3.6.2 Temperature ....................................................................................................... 28

3.6.3 Relative humidity (RH) ....................................................................................... 30

3.6.4 Rainfall ............................................................................................................... 31

3.7 Drift ................................................................................................................ 32

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3.8 Buffers ........................................................................................................... 33

3.9 Observing spray applications ........................................................................ 34

3.9.1 During the spray ................................................................................................. 34

3.9.2 STOP / GO Guidelines ..................................................................................... 36

3.9.3 Delayed sprays. ................................................................................................. 36

3.9.4 Complaints ......................................................................................................... 37

3.9.5 Accidents ............................................................................................................ 38

3.10 Post spray .................................................................................................... 38

3.11 Cleaning equipment ..................................................................................... 39

3.12 Community liaison ....................................................................................... 39

4. Record keeping ........................................................ 40

4.1 Spray records ................................................................................................ 40

4.1.1 Spray orders ....................................................................................................... 41

4.1.2 Spray records ..................................................................................................... 42

4.2 BMP records .................................................................................................. 43

4.3 Chemical details ............................................................................................ 43

4.4 Using records ................................................................................................ 43

5. The target .................................................................. 44

5.1 Target identification ........................................................................................ 46

5.2 Pest biology, ecology and behaviour ............................................................. 46

5.3 Crop characteristics ....................................................................................... 46

5.4 Pest and damage threshold levels ................................................................ 47

6. Pesticides ................................................................. 48

6.1 Formulations .................................................................................................. 49

6.2 Pesticide labels .............................................................................................. 53

6.3 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) ............................................................ 58

6.4 Symbols on chemical containers ................................................................... 59

6.5 Transport ....................................................................................................... 60

6.6 Safe storage .................................................................................................. 61

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6.7 Mixing ............................................................................................................ 64

6.7.1 Before mixing ..................................................................................................... 64

6.7.2 Agitation ............................................................................................................. 65

6.7.3 Water quality ...................................................................................................... 66

6.7.4 Adjuvants ............................................................................................................ 66

6.7.5 After completion of mixing .................................................................................. 67

6.8 Chemical combinations (mixtures) ................................................................ 67

6.9 Protective equipment ..................................................................................... 69

6.9.1 Personal protective equipment (PPE) ................................................................ 69

6.9.2 Controlled atmosphere equipment (CAE) .......................................................... 69

6.10 Protecting others ......................................................................................... 70

6.10.1 People management and safety ...................................................................... 70

6.10.2 Monitoring exposure ......................................................................................... 70

6.11 Poisoning ..................................................................................................... 71

6.12 Pesticides in the environment ...................................................................... 74

6.13 Residues ...................................................................................................... 76

6.14 Disposal of containers and unused pesticides ............................................ 77

6.14.1 How to properly rinse empty containers. .......................................................... 77

6.14.2 Disposal of pesticide containers ....................................................................... 79

6.14.3 Disposal of pesticides ...................................................................................... 80

6.14.4 Establishing a disposal site on a property ........................................................ 81

6.15 Pesticide spills ............................................................................................ 82

6.15.1 Dealing with spills ............................................................................................. 82

6.16 Spray failure ................................................................................................ 83

6.17 Legislation ....................................................................................................84

7. Spray equipment ...................................................... 85

7.1 Ground application ........................................................................................ 85

7.1.1 Groundrig nozzles .............................................................................................. 89

7.1.2 Equipment set-up summaries - Ground rigs ...................................................... 90

7.2 Aerial application ........................................................................................... 94

7.2.1 Aircraft nozzles .................................................................................................. 97

7.2.2 Aircraft set-up ..................................................................................................... 98

7.2.3 Aerial application methods ............................................................................... 100

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7.3 Calibration ....................................................................................................104

Nozzle output (L/min) ................................................................................................. 104

Operating speed (kph) ............................................................................................... 104

Effective sprayer width (m) ......................................................................................... 105

Application volume (L/ha sprayed) ............................................................................. 105

Flow rate for a known application volume (L/min) ...................................................... 105

Amount of product to be added to the spray tank ...................................................... 105

Band / Paddock ratio .................................................................................................. 106

Amount of product required for the paddock area ...................................................... 106

Paddock area (Ha) that can be completed with each full spray tank ......................... 106

Sprayer output per paddock hectare .......................................................................... 106

7.4 Nozzles ........................................................................................................ 107

7.4.1 Nozzle performance ......................................................................................... 112

7.5 Droplets ........................................................................................................ 115

7.5.1 Droplet size ...................................................................................................... 115

7.5.2 BCPC (ASAE S571) Spray Quality Classifications .......................................... 116

7.5.3 Droplet application ........................................................................................... 121

7.5.4 Droplet transmission ........................................................................................ 123

7.5.5 Droplet capture ................................................................................................. 124

7.6 Analysing spray applications in the field ...................................................... 126

7.6.1 Water and oil sensitive paper ........................................................................... 126

7.6.2 Flourescent markers ........................................................................................ 126

7.6.3 Advanced analytical techniques ....................................................................... 127

7.7 Pumps, pressure gauges and ancillary equipment ...................................... 128

7.8 Cleaning and decontamination of equipment ...............................................134

Appendices

1. Useful Unit Conversions

2. Information sources

3. Risk Management

4. Pesticide Fate Processes

5. Bureau of Meteorology Meteograms

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Foreword

Pest management is an integral part of cotton production in Australia. However, when handling,using and disposing of pesticides, the safety of people and the environment must be a primaryconsideration. It is an offence to let a pesticide contaminate another person, their property orthe environment. Everyone involved in the pesticide supply, transport, application and disposalchain must act responsibly when making decisions about pesticide application.

SPRAYpak has been developed for growers and focuses on pesticide application and usage incotton. However, the principles apply to all similar spray application jobs in agriculture. It ispart of the industry commitment to BMP and should be used in conjunction with the currentAustralian Cotton Industry ‘Best Management Practices Manual’.

A key aim of Best Management Practices (BMP) is to ensure that adverse off-target andenvironmental impacts of cotton production are kept to a minimum. Pesticide transport, usageand disposal all have associated hazards, and these must be managed to minimise risks ofadverse outcomes.

To minimise the risk of harm to the environment or to human health, all personnel who areinvolved in pesticide usage and disposal must manage their operations with ‘due diligence’.Due diligence simply means to take care. But taking care also includes living up to thecommunity’s expectation of you as a grower or manager to:

• Act responsibly in all your activities and decision making processes,

• Be aware of local, State and National legislation, issues and decisions that affectyour activities,

• Make decisions and undertake activities with a long term view, paying specialattention to activities which have the potential for significant environmental impacts,

• Test all assumptions before undertaking an activity or making a decision,

• Be aware of and comply with your legal obligations as a grower and/or pesticideapplicator. Ignorance of the law is not a defence.

Photo: Groundrig Operators Association Inc.

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Summary

SPRAYpak provides practical information on pesticide application to growers, applicators and otherpersonnel in the cotton industry.

The handbook layout has been designed to place the sections containing the most frequently usedinformation at the front of the handbook. The more detailed, technical sections follow in latersections. Each section and the general layout aim to follow a practical format so that readers canrelate the information to their own situation.

This edition contains more illustrations and tables than the first edition, and wherever possible a‘summary’ table of the important information has been included. In addition, many of the illustrationsand tables are colour coded so that a preferred option can be clearly identified. The colour codingis as follows:

Best option for most situations.

Preferred option to optimise application and reduce risk.

Suitable option for spray application but caution required.

Extreme caution and monitoring required.

This option is NOT RECOMMENDED.

Note: The BCPC nozzle classifications colours are different to the above.

The colour coding in SPRAYpak should be used as a guide only, and each situation should beassessed individually in order to achieve optimum pesticide application within BMP guidelines. Inall cases the manufacturers guidelines should be followed and, if necessary professional advicesought. Other growers, consultants and suppliers can provide local advice based on experience andthe latest information from manufacturers.

These changes to SPRAYpak also assist in training programs so that all personnel can understandthe content.

Additional details on specific sections and useful information are contained in the Appendices andthe list of information sources.

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SPRAYpak is a field handbook that integrates with components of BMP as shown below:

BMP Relevant SPRAYpak sections.

All sections.

...........................................................................................................................................Section 6 - Pesticides.Section 7 - Equipment.

...........................................................................................................................................Section 2 - Planning spray applications.Section 5 - Targets.Section 6 - Pesticides.

...........................................................................................................................................Section 2 - Planning.Section 3 - Managing spray applications.

...........................................................................................................................................Section 7 - Equipment

...........................................................................................................................................All sectionsAppendix

...........................................................................................................................................

SPRAYpak contains seven main sections. These are summarized below:

1. Introduction

A short introduction to the handbook and individual sections.

2. Planning spray applications

Proper planning is the most fundamental prerequisite of effective pesticide applications. Thecornerstone of effective planning is the development of a comprehensive pesticide applicationmanagement plan (PAMP) covering the following:

• Farm layout and planning

• Identification of sensitive areas, potential hazards and awareness zones

• Communication procedures

• Pesticide management guidelines

• Accident and emergency procedures.

Pre-season planning between growers, neighbours, consultants, workers and applicators is essentialto develop workable strategies for the season. Regular review of these plans and agreements is animportant part of the best management practice (BMP) program in cotton. Similarly, pre-season

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checks of spray equipment, personal protective equipment (PPE), emergency kits and stores willoften prevent problems, downtime and accidents during the season.

Communication channels must be maintained for participants in the application process and withneighbours and other people who may be in the PAMP area (See Section 2.1.1). Constantcommunication and review of procedures with these people is essential to identify weaknesses inthe PAMP and to formulate better operating procedures.

Relevant training of all farm personnel, so that they contribute to BMP, is an integral part of effective,safe pesticide spraying and must be part of the planning and management processes.

3. Managing spray applications

A PAMP will help to ensure that everyone involved in pesticide application has a clear understandingof their responsibilities.

Pesticide selection for each spray must be based on accurate field checking and information providedby suppliers and crop consultants. Consideration should be given to all pest control strategies aspart of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) plan to minimise risk whilst still controlling thetarget pest. Similarly, when the pest management strategy decision includes spraying, the methodof application should aim to maximise effectiveness whilst minimising the risks to personnel andthe environment.

Once the control method has been established, each stage of control should be closely monitored toensure that BMP and PAMP guidelines are being met.

Weather conditions play a critical role in pesticide application and other pest control strategies.Therefore, proper monitoring of conditions before, during and after the application is critical. Duringspray applications the following key meteorological conditions should be monitored and recorded:

• Wind speed - Spraying should only be done if wind speed is between 3 km/hr and15 km/hr ( 0.8 - 4.2 m/sec) and relatively steady,

• Wind direction - Take additional precautions if the wind direction is towardsenvironmentally sensitive non-target areas. In addition, consider chemical odours whichmay persist after the spraying has been completed,

• Atmospheric stability, turbulence, local wind effects, surface temperature inversionlayers, changes in wind effects and any changes that occur whilst spraying is beingundertaken,

• Temperature - Generally, optimum temperatures for spraying water based mixtures areless than 28°C. Risks of reduced efficacy and off-target movement increase attemperatures greater than 28°C. Spraying should proceed with caution at temperaturesgreater than 28°C and applicators should exercise extreme care if the ambient airtemperature at the application site exceeds 30°C,

• Relative Humidity - It is preferable to spray in conditions where the relative humidityis greater than 45%,

• Rainfall - Do not spray if rainfall is imminent. Rainfall during or within 48 hours afterapplication may reduce efficacy and/or move the pesticide off-target.

Be prepared to stop spraying if conditions change and become unsuitable.

After completion, each application should be reviewed and improvements made (if required) to thePAMP.

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Spray drift is a major hazard associated with pesticide application. Awareness of the causes of driftand how to minimise or eliminate drift are part of due diligence.

Buffer zones (buffers) assist in preventing off-target deposition either by providing a physical barrierthat filters out the droplets and/or an area of land or crop to separate the sprayed area from sensitiveareas. Vegetative buffers, such as tree lines, often form part of a sound environmental conservationprogram on farms, and add value to the property.

It is critical to ensure that the application and conditions are actually observed and recorded properly.It is also important that the observer has the knowledge and authority to assess the conditions, delaythe spray if necessary and maintain communication and co-ordination until the application hasbeen completed. Risks can be reduced if positive action is taken promptly. This includesimplementing the correct procedures in the event of a spill, accident or complaint.

4. Record keeping

Efficient record keeping is an essential part of pesticide management to BMP standards. Theminimum information that must be recorded for each application is:

• Date and times of application (including start, refilling and finish times),

• Persons authorising and supervising the application,

• Details of property owner, appointed representative and contact numbers,

• Property, field, crop and area (hectares) details,

• Pest details (or reference to a field check sheet),

• Chemical names, type (e.g. ULV), application rates, spray/water volumes,

• Applicators name and equipment operators name,

• Method of application, equipment, nozzle configuration and specific equipment setup,

• Operating pressures and other relevant information, including any changes that weremade during the application,

• Meteorological conditions (including before, during and after the application),

• Operating conditions and any other observations,

• Compliance with PAMP/BMP guidelines and checks.

To satisfy specific State or National Legislation requirements, these records may have to besupplemented with additional information. Such recording requirements for specific pesticides areusually included on the label.

As part of the BMP process, the following records that are relevant to pesticide application shouldalso be maintained:

• Notes of meetings conducted as part of the BMP/PAMP process,

• A register (list) of personnel training, refresher courses and accreditation gained,

• Details of equipment checks and calibration,

• Agreed notification arrangements and records of notifications (spray advice notices)during the season,

• Details of delayed or postponed spray applications,

• Records of complaints, accidents, spills and operational errors, and what remedial actionwas taken,

• Corrections or updates made to the PAMP.

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Records of chemicals stored on-farm and the relevant labels and MSDS should be maintained sothat they are readily accessible by all personnel. Label information and MSDS can be obtainedfrom product manufacturers and suppliers.

As with any relevant on-farm records, the maintenance of accurate pesticide and spray records mayassist a grower to examine seasonal trends, provide information in the event of a spray failure orcomplaint, and, if incorporated with financial data, provide the basis for future improvement.

5. The Target

Generally, target identification is done by consultants and/or agronomists in consultation with thegrower. It is important that personnel involved in the spraying have an understanding of how thetarget influences pesticide type and formulation, and equipment selection. This section of theSPRAYpak handbook provides a brief outline of the factors which must be considered when assessinga pest target which has to be sprayed.

For more detailed information on insect pests and target identification, growers should refer toENTOpak ‘ A compendium of information on insects in cotton’ which is produced by the AustralianCotton Cooperative Research Centre (Cotton CRC).

6. Pesticides

This section of SPRAYpak provides guidelines on the important aspects of pesticides and theirresponsible use so that growers can incorporate these considerations into their BMP program.

Topics covered in this section include:

• Pesticide formulations

• Labels

• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

• Transport

• Safe storage

• Pesticide mixing

• Personal protective equipment (PPE)

• Monitoring personnel

• Poisoning

• Pesticide residues

• Disposal of containers and unused pesticides

• Pesticide spills and clean-up procedures

• Spray failures

• Legislation pertaining to pesticides.

7. Spray equipment

This section of SPRAYpak includes the following topics:

• Ground application equipment

• Calibration of ground rigs

• Guidelines on ground rig set-up for different spray applications

• Aerial application equipment

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• Aerial application methods

• Nozzles and outlets

• Getting the best from your nozzles

• Droplet formation, transmission and capture

• Droplet size and how this influences spraying decisions

• Analysing spray applications

• Marking and positioning systems

• Pumps and ancilliary equipment

• Cleaning and decontamination of equipment.

Pesticide usage is one of the activities in cotton farming with the greatest potential to cause off-target and/or environmental contamination or damage. It is also one of the areas of greatest recurrentexpenditure in cotton growing. Therefore, it makes sense to ensure that knowledge and farmingpractices are improved to optimise pesticide applications.

SPRAYpak provides guidelines on aspects of spray equipment that are relevant to BMP and effectivespray application. Engineering and performance details of individual pieces of equipment oraccessories can be obtained from the manufacturers or their agents.

Appendices

1. Useful unit conversions.

2. Information sources.

3. Risk management.

4. Pesticide fate processes.

5. Bureau of Meteorology meteograms.

- § -

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Remember:

• You are expected to have knowledge of the laws and any correct practices relating to

pesticide acquisition, storage, usage and disposal.

• It is illegal to use a pesticide that is not registered or subject to a current National

Registration Authority (NRA) permit.

• In New South Wales, it is an offence to pollute waters.

• The New South Wales Pesticides Act creates offences for off-farm damage to people,

property, plants and animals.

• In Queensland, farmers have a legal obligation to carry out their activities in a way that

avoids environmental harm.

• The Queensland Chemical Usage Control Act requires pesticide users to follow label

directions and to dispose of pesticides and pesticide containers in a way that does not

harm people, property or the environment.

• Commercial applicators have particular legal requirements in Queensland.

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1. Introduction

This SPRAYpak handbook provides cotton growers with a concise reference for spray applicationplanning decisions. It builds on the foundations established with the first edition of SPRAYpak, butaims to incorporate additional information which has become available since the first edition waspublished in 1994.

SPRAYpak is designed as a practical field guide and as a reference document for the training ofpersonnel. Detailed technical explanations and terminology have been kept to a minimum.

SPRAYpak is divided into seven main sections:-

Section 1 is the introduction. Sections 2, 3 and 4 cover the planning, managing and recording ofeffective spray applications, which are the most frequent field activities during the season. Referenceto these sections will provide growers with practical information for safe, effective pesticide spraying.The sequence of the first three sections is in the order that they are generally done in the field.Planning is a prerequisite to effective management of spray applications, and proper recording animportant step to complete each application.

Sections 5, 6 and 7 contain more detail on specific issues such as targets, insect pests, pesticidesand application equipment to complement the first three sections. Growers and applicators canrefer to these sections if they require more information on specific topics.

Proper identification of the target and its characteristics often determines not only the pesticidechemistry and formulation, but the best equipment and set-up for effective application. The sectionon targets does not attempt to describe all pests (including weeds) in every cotton growing area, butprovides guidelines on the key characteristics which should be considered prior to selecting a pesticidetype and application equipment.

Following on from target identification, the correct pesticide and equipment must be selected foreach application, and Sections 6 and 7 provide more details of these.

Pesticides are essential to achieve the yields and quality of Australian cotton, and a thoroughunderstanding of the products, formulations and safe handling procedures is essential to minimisethe risk associated with their use. This handbook provides relevant information on pesticideformulations, labels, MSDS’s, transport, storage, mixing, safety, personal protective equipment,safe disposal and management of spills.

Section 7 contains information on equipment that is most commonly used for spraying cotton inAustralia. No pesticide application will be fully effective unless it is applied using the correctequipment that is calibrated and maintained properly. The section contains information on groundand aerial application, calibration, setting up equipment, nozzles and outlets, droplet formation andcharacteristics, pumps and other fittings and cleaning and decontamination. Methods of analysingspray applications and droplets are also included in this section.

SPRAYpak is one component of the best management practice program (BMP) which has beenimplemented in the Australian cotton industry. As with all components of BMP, the handbook is aguide to assist growers to develop their property-specific BMP programs in order to achieve highstandards of responsible and sustainable cotton production.

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2

Introduction

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More information about SPRAYpak and other publications:

Cotton Research and Development Corporation.2 Lloyd Street Tel: (02) 6792 4088

NARRABRI NSW 2390 Fax: (02) 6792 4400

eMail: [email protected]

Web: www. crdc.com.au

Cotton Australia.Level 2, 490 Crown Street Tel: (02) 9360 8500

SURRY HILLS NSW 2010 Fax: (02) 9360 8555

Web: www.cottonaustralia.com.au

Cotton Australia. - Regional OfficesSt George Qld Tel: (07) 4625 4038 Fax: (07) 4625 4053Dalby Qld Tel: (07) 4669 6288 Fax: (07) 4669 6299Emerald Qld Tel: (07) 4982 0611 Fax: (07) 4982 0511Goondiwindi Qld Tel: (07) 4671 5965 Fax: (07) 4671 5978Narrabri NSW Tel: (02) 6792 6041 Fax: (02) 6792 6042Warren NSW Tel: (02) 6847 3688 Fax: (02) 6847 3755Moree NSW Tel: (02) 6751 1852 Fax: (02) 6751 1854Gunnedah NSW Tel: (02) 6742 1800 Fax: (02) 6742 1900

Cotton CRCPO Box 59 Tel: (02) 6799 1500 Fax: (02) 6793 1186

NARRABRI NSW 2390 Web: www.cotton.crc.org.au

National Cotton Extension CoordinatorToowoomba Qld Tel: (07) 4688 1398 Fax: (07) 4688 1199

Mob: 0428 195 485

Senior Development Extension OfficerToowoomba Qld Tel: (07) 4688 1564 Fax: (07) 4688 1199

Mob: 0417 723 259

Cotton CRC - Industry Development Officers and District AgronomistsDistrict Town Telephone Fax MobileDarling Downs Dalby (07) 4669 0815 (07) 4669 4966 0427 035 793

Central Qld Emerald (07) 4983 7411 (07) 4983 7459 0409 499 691

Macintyre Goondiwindi (07) 4671 6711 (07) 4671 2782 0428 879 900

Balonne St. George (07) 4625 3299 (07) 4625 3892 0408 710 969

Darling/Lachlan Griffith (02) 6960 1353 (02) 6963 0255 0427 107 057

Upper Namoi Gunnedah (02) 6742 9279 (02) 6742 2940 0427 007 422

Gwydir Moree (02) 6752 5111 (02) 6752 4859

Macquarie Warren (02) 6847 4507 (02) 6847 3664 0408 447 483

Lower Namoi Narrabri (02) 6799 1500 (02) 6799 1582

Walgett (02) 6828 1288 (02) 6828 2274

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2. Planning spray applications

Planning is the first step in any spraying operation. This section outlines the main points to consider

(pre-season) so that a proper pesticide application management plan (PAMP) and operating

procedures can be established.

Effective planning prevents many of the problems that occur as a result of pesticide application,

including off target movement of droplets (i.e. spray drift).

Planning for spray application ranges from farm design (long term) to pesticide formulations andapplication methods (medium-short term). In some cases the general farm layout has been establishedand would be difficult to alter, but the crop rotations, variety selections and control of run-off canbe managed effectively. For example: Consideration should be given to surrounding areas and

crops when planning future farm crops so that off-target contamination is minimised.

2.1 Pesticide Application Management Plan (PAMP)

An effective pesticide application management plan (PAMP) will ensure that everyone involved in

pesticide use has a clear understanding of their responsibilities. A PAMP will also help to identify

the risks associated with pesticide handling and applications, so that risk controls can be put in

place.

A complete PAMP forms a key part of best practice in any agricultural operation, and should be

reviewed and improved as circumstances dictate.

An effective PAMP will ensure that:

• information exchange and communication are effective

• everyone involved has a clear understanding of their responsibilities

• risks associated with pesticide use are identified

• controls to minimise risks are implemented

• appropriate application techniques and procedures are used.

Key elements of an effective PAMP are:

Maps Accurate, up-to-date location maps showing details which mayinfluence pesticide application decisions.

Spray application planning

• Spray planning is an integral part of BMP

• Pesticide Application and Management Plan (PAMP)

• Communication

• Committment to responsible spraying practices

• Constant monitoring and improvement of plans and applications

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Planning

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Communication Effective communication procedures (including conflict

resolution procedures).

Information Relevant pesticide knowledge, application details and

procedures.

Risk management Identifying hazards and the associated risks and taking action

to minimise those risks.

2.1.1 Maps

An accurate farm map is essential for all aspects of good management. Maps should be developedbased on accurate ground based survey methods, accurate aerial photos, satellite imagery or acombination of these. Accurate maps are an essential part of BMP and the development of a properPAMP. The maps should be made available to consultants and applicators and details should bechecked prior to each season to ensure that all maps are consistent. It is very important to ensurethat all field names are consistent and up to date, and that all entry and exit points are marked.

The following sections outline what should be included on the maps.

Basic farm layout

A detailed, accurate base farm map is the basis for the PAMP. It is essential that all the relevant

features of the target farm are included on the base map. Field (paddock) names and areas should

be included on the base map and also listed in the PAMP under the farm details section.

The farm map should be updated annually, or more frequently if there are significant changes in the

area covered by the PAMP. All maps should include a true North indicator, scale bar, legend and

details of the property name, contacts, and UHF. The name and contact details of the map creator

should be included for future reference.

Unlike a regular farm map, a PAMP map must include surrounding areas. As a guide, include at

least a 3km zone around the boundaries and any sensitive areas to 5km.

Farm buildings

All buildings that are included in the PAMP zone should be included in the map. This includes

dwellings (houses), work or storage sheds, any urban buildings and buildings which may house

livestock.

Neighbouring properties

Plans of the neighbouring properties should be included in the PAMP map. Include as much detail

as possible (e.g. field, crops and grazing areas) and observe changes so maps can be updated. Talk

to your neighbours and obtain their input as part of the BMP process. Applicators should be made

aware of which neighbours have not responded to BMP communications or have particular

requirements under the PAMP process.

The distance to neighbouring properties and dwellings should be marked or be easily determined

from the scale bar. If there is a group of properties (e.g. a town or suburb) these may be shown as

a ‘block’ of similar risk assessment.

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Sensitive areas (e.g. water reserves) and locations (e.g. places where people live or work) must be

very clearly highlighted.

Ensure that there is sufficient separation between areas which are to receive chemical applications

and areas that may be affected by those chemicals.

Buffer zones

Buffers are established to reduce potential adverse impacts of pesticide application such as drift.

Buffers may be zones that separate the application area from sensitive areas, in-crop offsets or

barriers (such as tree lines) which reduce off target impacts of the pesticide application.

Existing buffers including areas planted to Ingard®, should be identified on the map, and specific

buffers (such as those required to apply endosulfan) should be clearly marked.

Note: The existence of a buffer does not guarantee that drift will not affect a sensitive area if the

wind direction is towards the sensitive area during spray application.

High risk sectors

High risk sectors identify areas that cannot be sprayed when certain conditions (e.g.wind speeds

and directions) prevail. For example: If the wind direction is anywhere in a sector between North

and East, and greater than 5 km/hr, no spraying is to be undertaken as it presents an unacceptable

risk to a neighbouring township.

Identify areas that are particularly hazardous and under what conditions unacceptable risk is likely

to occur. Identify potentially hazardous wind speeds and directions for each field.

Communicate this information to all personnel involved in spray operations and, if possible, mark

the hazards on the PAMP map.

Clearly mark an ‘awareness zone’ on the maps to indicate the area which is covered by the PAMP.

This zone indicates to employees and other personnel where PAMP considerations are relevant.

Roads and railways

Public and private roads and rail tracks should be included on the PAMP map. Use of aerial photos

will assist with the identification of private roads. Roads should be assessed in terms of volume

and type of traffic and risk hazard. Public roads near schools and kindergartens will present a

greater risk than a private road to a seldom-used quarry.

Rail lines will be readily identified in aerial photographs and details can be checked with local rail

authorities.

Stock routes should be marked, and observed for activity during daily operations.

Bus, train and stock routes

The routes for buses (e.g. school, tourist, and shift workers) and trains (e.g. freight, passenger,

tourist) should be identified. The times when there is activity on each of these routes should be

included the PAMP under the risk identification section.

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Planning

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Water

All water courses, storages and drains must be included on the PAMP map. Dams, ponds, weirs

and wildlife habitats should be clearly marked. The direction of water flow, both on-farm and in

the surrounding drainage areas, should be indicated (this includes irrigation drainage).

Other sensitive areas

Wildlife habitats, wetlands and alternative farming areas (e.g. organic production) must be clearly

identified and mapped.

Weather stations and windsocks

The location of weather monitoring stations and windsocks (or other wind direction indicators)

should be clearly marked on the PAMP map.

Applicator hazards

Features that pose a hazard to applicators should be included on the map. These include:

• power lines, poles and towers and the stay wires for these structures,

• other utilities (e.g. intersection lighting poles) or features (e.g. silos),

• hills, mountains, gullies or other landscape features which may pose a risk,

• tall trees and other vegetation,

• sensitive crop areas,

• no-fly (no-go) zones.

If available, identification of an ‘emergency’ area where an aircraft could attempt an emergencylanding and/or a ground applicator could implement emergency procedures would be helpful.Monitor, adapt and improve the PAMP as the season progresses to maintain BMP and minimiseincidents.

Source: 4T

Fig. 2.1. An accurate map is an essential part of BMP.

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2.2 Communication

Good communication is an essential part of a successful spray application and best practice farming.

Any person entering the farm or residing within the PAMP and/or buffer zones should be informed

of the farm practices and policies regarding pesticide management.

Accurate farm maps are essential during discussions so that key features of the farm and operations

can be explained to other personnel.

Communication should be an on-going process involving:

• employees

• neighbours

• consultants

• applicators

• contractors

• suppliers and sales personnel

• other persons who may enter your property (e.g. tractor mechanics).

2.2.1 What to communicate

Growers have a responsibility to communicate their plans to neighbours and personnel who may be

involved (or present) during pesticide application so that any concerns can be reasonably considered

in the PAMP. Action plans should be formulated following these discussions.

Discussions should include:

• Overall PAMP contents and procedures,

• Farm map(s),

• Sensitive areas and locations,

• Features and practices that pose a hazard during pesticide application,

• Conditions of entry to the farm during pesticide application and general BMP procedures(e.g. farm hygiene, ‘Come Clean - Go Clean’),

• Emergency procedures (e.g. in the event of a pesticide spill),

Communication

• Complete the PAMP and establish communication channels before the season starts.

• Awareness zone - identify who must be contacted within the zone.

• Communicate during all spray operations.

• Inform neighbours of important issues and any changes to the agreed PAMP.

• Encourage two-way communication.

• Discuss / summarise the season after picking is completed.

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Planning

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• Contact names and numbers (i.e. telephone, UHF) for the farm, neighbours andexternal personnel,

• Locations of cropping and grazing areas,

• In-season neighbour notification requirements,

• Stop-Go procedures to apply, delay or abort a pesticide application,

• Procedures for handling complaints,

• Information about pesticide types and MSDS should be an on-going process ofeducation with farm personnel,

• The weather conditions that are acceptable for spraying,

• End-of-season review of problems and inadequacies with the current PAMP, andimprovements for the following season.

Communication must be maintained throughout the season to constantly adapt and improve

procedures to meet BMP objectives. Refer to the ‘Application of Pesticides’ section in your BMP

manual.

All personnel entering the farm or involved in associated activities must follow reasonable

instructions from the grower (or authorised representative) to ensure that all pesticide applications

follow risk minimisation guidelines.

2.2.2 Who to communicate with

Employees

All employees must be familiar with the PAMP and understand the procedures for pesticide

applications.

It is important that employees understand the particular properties of the pesticides that they will be

handling, and the necessary safety precautions. In the absence of the farm owner, responsibility

must be delegated so that pesticide application procedures are followed.

Emergency procedures and responsibilities must be planned and understood.

Neighbours

Communicate PAMP details and seek collaboration with neighbours prior to the cotton season.

Agreed arrangements for neighbour notifications need to be followed during the season. A mid-

season check to ensure that procedures are appropriate should be made (even if the PAMP

arrangement is that notification need not be given).

In some cases, communication can be difficult, but in all cases it is essential and a genuine

commitment to BMP will often assist in the development of trust.

Consultants

Consultants play a key role in pesticide applications, and they need to have a clear understanding of

the farm PAMP. The grower and consultant both need to be aware of every application decision,

including the timing and method(s).

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People who are authorised to provide recommendations and information regarding pesticideapplications must be identified during the PAMP planning process.

In addition to the key PAMP components, the grower and consultant must liaise closely on the

following matters regarding pesticide application:

Who Makes the decision on chemical selection and applicationmethod.

Orders the application and arranges notification.

Makes the final decision on whether the application proceeds,is delayed or aborted.

How Is notification of the application made.

Complaints, delays and resprays are handled.

Post application details are followed up.

Neighbours and others are notified.

What Pest and damage thresholds are to be used.

Written format is the crop (pest) report to be submitted in bythe consultant prior to application.

Sensitive areas and buffer zones need to be considered.

Special restrictions apply for the pesticide or application method.

Procedures are followed in the event of a delayed or abortedspray application.

Applicators

Applicators must have a clear understanding of the farm PAMP and any special conditions in force

in the area to be sprayed. The grower and applicator need to discuss application procedures in

detail, and application requests should be provided in writing.

Discussions with aerial operators should include details about their participation in Operation Spray

Safe.

A PAMP map is essential for all applicators (including farm employees) and must include hazards,

sensitive areas, emergency areas (e.g. landings) and special conditions. The map features must be

discussed and identified pre-season.

In addition to the key PAMP components, the grower and applicators must liaise closely on the

following matters regarding pesticide application:

Who Makes the decision on chemical selection and application

method.

Are the contact personnel and what are the communication plans

for applications.

Makes the final decision on whether the application proceeds,

is delayed or aborted.

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Planning

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How Is notification of the application made.

Complaints, delays and resprays are handled.

Post application details are followed up.

Neighbours and others are notified.

Records are completed and handled.

What Formats are required for application requests, spray records and

follow up reports.

Sensitive areas and buffer zones need to be considered.

Hazards require additional care on or near the farm.

Special restrictions are in place for the pesticide application.

Procedures are followed in the event of a delayed or aborted

spray application.

Are the weather conditions and forecasts.

A three-way meeting between grower, applicator and consultant is the best way to ensure that all

key parties are fully aware of procedures and responsibilities. This would also save time and allowproblems to be discussed prior to the season.

Contractors

Contractors must have a clear understanding of the farm PAMP as part of the BMP process. The

contractors must agree to the farm BMP guidelines and any special conditions in force prior to

entering the property. Contractors (e.g. cotton chippers) should also implement their own procedures

to ensure that they and their employees are aware of relevant legislation and sections of the BMP

program.

Suppliers (including service providers)

Suppliers must have a clear understanding of the farm PAMP as part of the BMP program. The

suppliers must agree to the farm BMP guidelines and any special conditions in force prior to entering

the property. Chemical suppliers have an important role to ensure that details of pesticides and

MSDS are made available to growers and applicators on first supply or request.

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Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia. (AAAA)

AAAA has a certification program called Operation Spray Safe. It requires aircraft operators

to employ approved pilots, to use aircraft and equipment of an approved standard and adhere

to environmental and workplace health and safety regulations.

For more information, contact your aerial operator or:

The Executive Officer

Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia

PO Box 647

Dickson ACT 2390

Tel: 02 6262 8256 Fax: 02 6262 8257 eMail: [email protected]

Groundrig Operators Association Inc. (GOA)

GOA assists groundrig owners with information, support and training to ensure a high standard

of pesticide application.

For more information, contact your groundrig operator or:


Groundrig Operators Association Inc.

PO Box 845

Moree NSW 2400


Cotton Consultants Australia Inc. (CCA)

CCA has developed a certification program for members which includes training in relevant

elements of the BMP program.

For more information, contact your consultant or:


Cotton Consultants Australia Inc.

PO Box 508

Narrabri NSW 2390


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Planning

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2.3 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

An integral part of BMP and the PAMP process is the reduction of dependence on synthetic chemicals

through integration with other forms of control. Due consideration should be given to:

• Variety selection,

• Bt cotton,

• Sowing dates,

• Nutrition and irrigation programs,

• Use of plant growth regulators,

• Rotation crops and programs,

• Pupae busting and other cultivation methods,

• Field selection,

• Use of refuges and trap crops,

• Thresholds and pest damage tolerances,

• Use of biological pesticides to reduce the impact on beneficial insects and theenvironment,

• Involvement in area-wide management strategies.

Use of these strategies will affect spray application plans, and the BMP process on individual

properties. Refer to:

‘Cotton Pest Management Guide’ which is published annually by NSW Agricultureand Australian Cotton CRC, NSW, Australia.

‘IPM Guidelines for Cotton’ in ENTOpak, available from Cotton CRC’s TechnologyResource Cente, Cotton Research Institute, Australia.

2.3.1 Insecticide Resistance Management Strategy

Insect resistance management strategies have been developed by the Transgenic and Insect

Management Strategy (TIMS) Committee of the Australian Cotton Growers Research Association.

The strategies for individual cotton growing areas are reviewed and updated each year, and copies

of the current strategy plans are distributed to growers, consultants, researchers and other personnel

in the cotton industry. The plans are also included in the ‘Cotton Pest Management Guide’ produced

by the Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre.

The main objective is to promote strategic pesticide usage to minimise the development of insect

resistance. The recommendations contained in the TIMS reference cards should be incorporated

into any seasonal pesticide application management plans.

2.4 Agreements

During PAMP development, it is good practice to ask participants (e.g. neighbours, consultants,

applicators etc.) to sign a statement that the relevant sections have been discussed, adjusted to

accommodate special requirements and agreed.

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By signing, each participant acknowledges that they understand the PAMP, that they have been

given an opportunity to contribute, and that they agree to co-operate with the plan guidelines.

2.5 Equipment checks

Before the season begins, check all pesticide application, storage, handling and monitoring equipment

to ensure that it is in good working order and avoid expensive downtime.

Application equipment

Run the equipment at operating pressure using clean water, and repair or replace faulty parts. Repair

any leaks and check for worn parts that may fail during the season to ensure that spares can be

obtained. The booms, lines, valves and outlets should be given thorough inspections, and nozzle

output checks should be conducted.

GPS equipment should be checked, maintained and calibrated.

Controlled atmosphere equipment (CAE) such as carbon impregnated cab filters should be checked.

If in doubt - renew it prior to the main spraying season.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be checked and replaced if damaged or out-of-date.

Ensure that there are sufficient items for all personnel who will be exposed to contamination hazards.

Wash facilities should be checked, cleaned and clean water storages refilled. Check that there are

appropriate storage and decontamination facilities for PPE so that it can be safely used at any time.

Emergency equipment

Personal wash down bays, eye rinses and first aid kits should be checked. Emergency spill kits

should be unpacked, inspected, replenished and repacked. Fire control equipment should be checked.

Check that emergency contact lists and numbers are up to date. Check emergency landing areas (if

applicable).

Meteorological equipment

Weather stations and other meteorological equipment (e.g. handheld wind speed indicators) should

be checked against other calibrated equipment. Ensure that calibration and service schedules are

up-to-date.

Storage and handling equipment

Storage facilities should be checked for security and maintenance and repaired as necessary to

maintain BMP standards. Pumps, flow meters, lines and valves should all be tested at working

pressures using clean water. Spill containment bunds, gates and locks should all be intact and

sound.

Communication equipment

All equipment (such as UHF radios) to be used for communicating during applications should be

tested and maintained. Checks should be conducted with operators, consultants and contractors if

these have not been continuously in use since the last growing season.

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Planning

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Ensure that all equipment checks are recorded and, if possible, record the dates of inspection on the

equipment or facility. Check that all warning, hazard and emergency signs are in place and clear.

2.6 Recording systems check

Review the PAMP and ensure that all personnel are aware of record keeping requirements.

Spray order and monitoring forms may have to be updated to reflect changes in recording

requirements since the last season.

Weather recording systems should be consistent with BMP requirements and data should be accessible

to key personnel during spray applications.

Machine, pesticide storage/usage and personnel recording systems should be up-to-date. Refer to

Section 7 for more information on equipment set-up and maintenance.

2.7 Information sources for planning

Meetings

Cotton Australia and suppliers facilitate meetings to inform all industry personnel about the BMP

program. Area-wide management groups of neighbouring farmers hold meetings to discuss best

practices on their farms.

Information bulletins

The cotton industry is well serviced with publications and bulletins. Government agencies and

suppliers also provide detailed information on new pesticides and application methods. Many

industry websites also have useful information which is updated regularly. Refer to Appendix 2.

Government agencies

Government agencies provide information on their research programs and legislative changes. The

BMP manual has brief summaries of legislative responsibilities, and reference lists if more detailed

information is required.

Consultants

Consultants have accumulated knowledge and local experience. Cotton Consultants Australia (CCA)

has established an accreditation program to improve the knowledge of consultants and their personnel.

Maps

Basic maps, aerial photographs or satellite images can usually be purchased from relevant State or

Local Government offices.

Commercial operators

Commercial operators and contractors have extensive local knowledge and are an integral part of

any spray planning.

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2.8 Training

Obtaining suitable accreditation ensures that spray operators and personnel involved in spraying

operations are more aware of the hazards and are trained to minimise risks. Suitable training and

accreditation ensures that all personnel can contribute to safer, more effective spraying. Accreditation

is mandatory to obtain some chemicals.

Aerial operators, pilots and commercial ground applicators must be licensed according to Federal,

State and/or Territory regulatory requirements and be properly trained.

For more information regarding accreditation and training:

National Executive Manager

ChemCert Australia Inc.

PO Box E10

KINGSTON 2604

ACT

Tel: (02) 6933 2177 Fax: (02) 6933 2924

New South Wales Australian Centre for Agricultural Health and Safety

University of Sydney

PO Box 256

MOREE 2400

Tel: (02) 6752 8210 Fax: (02) 6752 6639

Executive Officer

ChemCert Training (NSW)

249 Bronte Road

WAVERLEY 2024

Tel: (02) 9387 4714 Fax: (02) 9387 4746

National Secretariat


C/- Farrer Centre

Charles Stuart University

Locked Bag 588

WAGGA WAGGA 2678

Tel: (02) 6933 2177 Fax: (02) 6933 2924

NSW Farmers Group Training Co.

GPO Box 1068

SYDNEY 2001

Tel: (02) 9251 1700 Fax: (02) 9231 5249

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Planning

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Queensland ChemCert Training Qld

PO Box 17

GRANGE 4051

Tel: (07) 3352 5033 Fax: (07) 3352 5042

Farmsafe Queensland

PO Box 785

THURINGOWA 4817

Tel: (07) 4774 0522 Fax: (07) 4774 0289

Freecall: 1 800 818 006

Northern Territory School of Horticulture and Landcare Studies

Building 40

Casuarina Campus

DARWIN 0909

Tel: (08) 8946 6328 Fax: (08) 8946 6690

Cotton Australia Limited

Level 2, 490 Crown StreetSURRY HILLS 2010NSW

Tel: (02) 6792 5459 Fax: (02) 6792 5461

Website: www.cottonaustralia.com.au

Cotton Australia - Regional Offices

Emerald Tel: (07) 4982 0611 Fax: (07) 4982 0511Dalby Tel: (07) 4669 6288 Fax: (07) 4669 6299Goondiwindi Tel: (07) 4671 5965 Fax: (07) 4671 5978Narrabri Tel: (02) 6792 6041 Fax: (02) 6792 6042Warren Tel: (02) 6847 3688 Fax: (02) 6847 3755

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3. Managing spray applications

This section covers aspects to be considered during spray applications, to ensure the safety of

personnel and the environment. It is an offence for a grower to let any pesticide (which is being

used on their property) contaminate another person, their property, or the environment.

If a pesticide cannot be applied safely then the application must be delayed, or an alternative product

used which can be applied safely.

3.1 Pesticide Application Management Plan (PAMP)

The PAMP is fundamental to the effective management of pesticide applications in cotton. It

should be completed well before the season starts so everyone involved in the application of pesticides

is aware of their responsibilities and responses if problems arise.

Ensure that everyone involved in pesticide application understands the PAMP and the communication

procedures so that the best decisions can be made and responses implemented.

Agreed procedures should be followed, or if adapted, the changes should be communicated

effectively. The risk analysis component of the PAMP will identify hazards so that effective

monitoring of spraying operations can be maintained.

3.2 Pesticide selection

Seek the advice of consultants and suppliers on the type of pesticide and formulation that is best

suited to the situation and prevailing conditions. If the pesticide is a new product and/or formulation,

ensure that all personnel involved with the preparation and application are familiar with the product

label and relevant material safety data sheets (MSDS). Follow the label directions for applying the

pesticide and observe any special restrictions or conditions.

Before selecting a chemical

• Does a pesticide need to be used or are there alternative control methods available?

• What are the risks associated with this product?

• Can a ‘safer’ product be used?

• Is band application an alternative to use less product and reduce risk?

• Assess risks associated with particular applications and select formulations andapplication methods that minimise those risks.

For example: When applying pesticides near dwellings, provided that conditions are suitable,the use of a ground rig with droppers and low drift nozzles, and a low odour formulationmay reduce the risk to residents.

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Managing Spray Applications

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Formulations

Cotton pesticides are available in many different formulations and the properties of these necessitate

different handling and application techniques. Refer to Section 6.1 for more information on pesticide

formulations.

Considerations such as cost, availability, compatibility with other pesticides, hazard (including

odour) and suitability to equipment will determine the formulation that is used.

The formulation which is used will affect the risk associated with the application. For example, use

of an EC formulation through low-drift nozzles instead of a ULV formulation through micronairs

may reduce the risk of drift. Where new pesticides or mixtures are being used, advice should be

sought from the product supplier and/or manufacturer.

3.3 Mixing pesticides

Refer to Section 6.7 for more details on mixing.

Read the label

The first step in every case is to read the label and follow the directions.

Personnel training

All personnel should be trained in proper handling, mixing and application methods. There are a

number of courses such as the Farmcare Chemical Users Course (ChemCert), FarmSafe, SMARTtrain

or AgSafe, all of which are designed for farmers and personnel who use pesticides. Refer to Section

2.8 for groups to contact for training and accreditation courses.

Personnel who are involved in spraying should be trained in:

• Health and environmental hazards associated with pesticide use,

• Understanding labels and MSDS,

• Following directions,

• Safe Work Practices for the storage, handling and application of pesticides,

• Emergency procedures,

Hazards - Mixing pesticides

Toxicity Read the label and MSDS information. Ask your supplier.

Poisoning Wear the appropriate PPE and follow safety directions.

Spillage Observe safe handling and disposal procedures.

Flammability Read the label and MSDS. No smoking or ignition sources.

Dosage Read the label and use proper measuring equipment.

Contamination Clean mixing equipment. Segregate pesticides properly.

Always apply pesticides according to label recommendations.

davidl

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• First Aid procedures,

• Clean up procedures,

• Pesticide waste disposal options.

Water quality

Water quality can affect the effectiveness of a pesticide. In some cases it can be of such poor

quality that it can affect the efficacy of the product whilst still in the spray tank. Testing of water

sources for pH and pesticide content is essential prior to using them for pesticide spraying. Refer to

Section 6 for more information on water quality.

Agitation

Whenever a solid active constituent is used (e.g. wettable powders, dispersable granules or

suspension concentrates), good spray tank agitation is required to keep the spray mixture consistent.

Failure to agitate will result in the active ingredient settling in the bottom of the spray tank during

the spraying operation. Refer to Sections 6 and 7 for more information about correct agitation

methods and equipment.

Use of adjuvants

An adjuvant is any substance added to a spray mixture to modify its performance. It is usuallyadded to enhance the performance of a pesticide or to overcome some inhibiting factor. Examplesinclude wetting agents and buffering agents. Refer to Section 6 for more information on adjuvants.

3.4 Application orders

Application orders (spray orders) should be completed in writing, in accordance with the PAMPguidelines that were established pre-season.

Application orders should be submitted to the applicator well in advance of the proposed spraydate, and should include the following information:

• Date, order number, name of the property and person making the order, and BMPreference number,

• Consultant and crop check reference (if applicable),

• Location of the area (field) to be treated. A farm PAMP map should be attached to theapplication order with the areas to be treated clearly marked. Refer to Section 2 fordetails that should be included on the map.,

• Hazards that are not shown on the PAMP map but may be present during the applicationsuch as school bus runs, chipping crews, curfews,

• Crop and pest(s) to be treated,

• Contact person(s) and details in the event of a problem,

• Product to be used, pesticide rate, application volume, method of application and anyspecific application details (e.g. large droplet placement). Product details such as batchnumber may have to be recorded under specific State legislation.

• Post application considerations such as odours or rainfall should be noted on the order.

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• Confirmation that the PAMP procedures have been followed, neighbours have beennotified and, where applicable, that waivers have been provided,

• Requirements for notification that the job has been completed,

• Specific instructions that are necessary to ensure that the application adheres to BMP.

3.5 Application method

Considerations when selecting an application method include:

• Suitability of the equipment and set-up to the situation,

• Type of pest,

• Cost,

• Availability,

• Risk (i.e. proximity to hazards),

• Accessibility (eg. whether the fields have recently been watered),

• Type of pesticide (eg. pre-emergent incorporated pesticides),

• Specific label recommendations and requirements.

The selection of application method and equipment varies considerably but should always be based

on the ‘best option’ for efficacy and efficiency whilst meeting BMP objectives. Refer to Section 7

for more details on equipment and application methods.

Hazards - Application method

Equipment Equipment should be well maintained and calibrated for each

application.

Spray outlets Use of incompatible or unsuitable outlets (nozzles) and equipment may

lead to increased off-target deposition, less effective pest control and/or

equipment failures.

Sensitive areas Application method and chemical type should be selected with due

consideration for surrounding areas.

PAMP If pesticides are applied using methods that are not consistent with the

PAMP, there may be increased risk of environmental or personal harm.

BMP Does the application method integrate with other BMP procedures to reduce

overall farm risk?

Meteorological Use of methods that are unsuited to the prevailing weather conditions and/

or application window increase the risk of incidents.

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21 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

3.6 Meteorological conditions

Weather conditions are not only a primary determinant of efficacy, they determine whether the

spraying operation should proceed, be delayed or aborted .

1. Determine weather conditions

• Use weather equipment that has been accurately calibrated and well maintained.

Automatic weather stations provide accurate records that can be used to examineconditions leading up to, during, and after spray application. Examination of longerterm records will often assist to determine optimal times to schedule sprays, and possiblereasons for less effective applications. Many automatic weather stations have data storagecapabilities, so that historical data can be downloaded or reviewed. This may be importantwhen making spray decisions and/or for analysis in the event of an investigation.

• Hand held equipment can be used to monitor key climate parameters (e.g. wind speedand direction, temperatures, relative humidity) at a location at a particular time.

• Readings from meteorological equipment must be taken as close as possible to theactual application site and at the time of application. That is, the recorded weather datamust be relevant to the conditions in the field where pesticides were applied. If theapplication is distant from the weather station, consideration should be given to the useof hand-held equipment near the application site as a cross-check. This will be importantif investigation of a spray application is required.

Use the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) information system

a) Weather by Fax

• Any person with access to a fax machine can call the Weather by Fax access lines toreceive up-to date satellite images, synoptic charts and forecasts. The telephone numbersto access this service are listed in local telephone directories under ‘Bureau ofMeteorology’ and on the Bureau of Meteorology website (www.bom.gov.au).

Hazards - Meteorological conditions

Rainfall Reduced efficacy or off-target movement of pesticides.

Wind speed How far will the pesticide travel due to wind?

Wind direction What direction will the droplets move after release?

Temperature High temperatures increase the risk of pesticide movement, reduced

efficacy, volatilisation and evaporation.

Relative humidity Lower relative humidity decreases droplet survival times.

Turbulence Determines the way that droplets disperse over a crop.

Droplet sizes Smaller droplets are carried further by wind, and evaporate faster than

larger droplets.

Specific conditions Surface temperature inversions, thermal activity, gusty winds.

Changes Changing weather conditions before, during or after spray applications.

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b) Outlook Meteograms

Outlook meteograms provide ‘best estimates’ (based on BOM computer models) forfuture temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed and wind direction in aparticular area. These should always be used in conjunction with weather forecastswhich include meteorologists’ experience and interpretation. Meteograms can be viewedas composite summaries as shown in Figure 3.1, to provide an overview or eachparameter (e.g. wind direction) can be examined in more detail. The service also providesfor varying time frames and precision. The 7 day predictions (Fig. 3.1) provide a goodgeneral picture of the weather over the next week, but the detailed meteograms (SeeAppendix 5), which extend to 3 days, should be used for specific spray decisions. Thisservice is not only valuable for spray decisions but may also be used during picking.The service is by subscription and more information can be obtained from the BOMweb site, under the SILO (Services for Agriculture) section.

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

Fig. 3.1. Example of an Outlook Meteogram.

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23 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

2. Assess likely changes in the weather

• What were the meteorological conditions leading up to the spray?

• Is significant rainfall likely in the 48 hours before and after a spray?

• What effects will rainfall after application have on effectiveness and potentialenvironmental impacts?

• Are the conditions likely to deteriorate or alter significantly during the application?

BOM Outlook Meteograms or similar services may be used to assess likely weather changes.

3. Monitor wind

• Monitor wind conditions before, during and after the application of agricultural pesticidesnear sensitive areas. The use of smoke will help identify the presence of a surfacetemperature inversion layer, thermal activity or instability.

• Aircraft applying pesticides to cotton should be fitted with smoke generators, so thatthe pilot can check changing conditions over the crop.

• Generating smoke from a ground source will assist all applicators to monitor windconditions. One method of generating smoke is to thoroughly wet a bale of hay, let itdrain, then use a small amount of diesel to set fire to it. The smoke is white whichmakes it highly visible under all conditions, and the smoke plume can be illuminatedby lights for night applications.

• Install windsocks that are sensitive to winds as low as 2-4 km/hr at strategic locations.These must be well clear of local obstructions that may influence wind direction, andmust be clearly visible to applicators during the spray operation. Local pesticide suppliersoften supply windsocks free of charge as part of their commitment to BMP.

• Use weather stations close to the application area and/or hand held equipment to monitorand record conditions prior to, during and after the application.

• Follow Stop-Go-Delay guidelines that were established as part of the PAMP for eachfield.

4. Communicate

• Keep operators and applicators informed of weather conditions before, during and afterthe application.

• The operator has difficulty detecting weather changes from the cab or cockpit, andrelies on the grower to inform him of changes that may affect efficacy or increase risk.The operator should also be warned of potential hazards that occur after spraying hasstarted (e.g. a chipping gang arrives unannounced).

• If conditions deteriorate so that risk of drift and/or off target contamination increases,then Stop-Go-Delay decisions must be made. Keep all personnel informed of decisionsat the time.

5. Be decisive

If the weather conditions become hazardous, implement PAMP procedures to delay or

abort the application.

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3.6.1 Air movement

Spraying should only be undertaken when the direction and strength of the airflow is assured. The

grower should be satisfied that pesticide will not be moved off target, or endanger the spray operator

(e.g. strong gusts or low / variable wind conditions).

Air movement and spraying

Wind speed, horizontal and vertical air movement around cotton paddocks can be used to understand

the droplet transport process. When droplets are large (e.g. > 250 µm) their passage towards the

ground from a sprayer is largely influenced by gravitational forces, but largely unaffected by air

currents, unless there are high wind speeds. (Refer to Section 7).

However, many droplets produced by aircraft, boom sprayers and air assisted sprayers are smaller

than 250 µm. As droplet size decreases, their movement becomes increasingly controlled by the

movement of air around them.

Consequently it is important to understand air movement in and around each field in order to sprayeffectively and manage spray drift.

Wind speed

• Spraying under calm (still) conditions, surface temperature inversions or strong thermal

activity can be hazardous. If the wind strength and direction are unknown, the movement

fate of a spray product cannot be determined with confidence.

• Avoid spraying under variable or low wind speed situations (<3 km/hr or 0.83 m/sec).

In these conditions, small wind gusts can change in wind direction and can carry fine

particles considerable distances, and it is impossible to predict where they will land. A

wind that is ‘on the change’ or swinging wildly can lead to striping and uncontrolled

off-target deposition of pesticide.

• Stop or delay spraying in strong and/or gusty winds greater than 15 km/hr (4.2 m/sec).

• Follow established PAMP procedures.

• Do not rely on buffers alone if the wind is blowing towards sensitive areas.

• Use windsocks and smoke generators as indicators of wind speed and direction.

Weather stations on the farm must be able to measure wind direction and speed accurately, and to

store data. It is preferable to have adequate data storage capacity in the station to store up to 60

days of data within the unit and/or via a direct link to an external storage (e.g. a computer) so that

longer term trends can be examined.

Hazards - Air movement:

• Wind speed - How far pesticides may be carried.

• Wind direction - Where pesticide droplets or residues may be deposited.

• Turbulence - Predictability of droplet movement.

• Droplet sizes - Smaller droplets are carried further by wind than larger heavier droplets.

• Evaporation - Dry wind increases evaporation rates which, in turn, affects droplet

survival.

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25 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

deepsdniW

trofuaeB

.oN .

rh/mK

HPK( )ces/m stonK noitpircseD setoN

0 1< 3.0< 45.0< mlaC yllacitrevsesirekomS

gniyarpsdiova( )

1 5ot1 4.1-3.0 7.2-5.0 riathgiL ybnwohsdniwfonoitceriD

s dniwybtontubekoms

v .senav

2 11ot6 1.3-7.1 9.5-2.3 thgilS

zeerb e

sevael;ecafnotlefdniW

devomenavyranidro;eltsur

3 02ot21 6.5-3.3 8.01-5.6 eltneG

zeerb e

sisgiwtllamsdnasevaeL

c dniw,noitomtnatsnoc

e .galfthgilasdnetxe

4 82ot12 8.7-8.5 1.51-3.11 etaredoM

zeerb e

esooldnatsudsesiardniW

p sehcnarbllams;repap

m .devom

.

Hand-held wind speed meters with acceptable accuracy are available from a number of distributors.

Cotton Australia can assist with the names of weather monitoring equipment and suppliers in your

area.

As a guide to estimating wind speed, Table 3.2 illustrates part of the Beaufort Scale of Wind Speeds.

Pesticide spraying should cease when at Beaufort No. 0 or greater than No. 3.

Horizontal wind speed and direction

Differential heating of the ground and sea by the sun causes air masses of varying temperature,

humidity and pressure to develop. Air pressure gradients are established which cause air to flow

from high to low pressure areas.

Except near the equator, forces due to the curvature and rotation of the earth cause the air in theSouthern Hemisphere to flow anticlockwise around high-pressure areas (anticyclones) and clockwisearound low-pressure areas. It is this flow of air (on the large synoptic scale) that we experience aswind.

The wind speed and direction above a crop control the direction of spray after release (and itsmovement towards or away from the target area), and the degree to which droplets are caught bythe foliage or pest and the uniformity of deposit.

Sensitive areas and potentially hazardous wind directions should be identified in the property PAMPon a field-by-field basis. Additional precautions need to be taken when the wind direction is towardssensitive areas. If the wind direction and strength are such that they pose a risk of contamination orunacceptable drift or odour, then the spraying should be delayed or alternatives investigated.

Table 3.2. Section of the Beaufort Scale of wind speed.

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Vertical air movement (stability)

As well as horizontal air movement, the vertical displacement of air has to be taken into accountwhilst spraying, because droplets can be transported vertically as well as horizontally.

A parcel of air displaced upwards from the ground (i.e. by convective thermal effects) will normallymove into a region of lower pressure and expand. This expansion is normally adiabatic (i.e. there isno exchange of heat with the surrounding air) and results in the cooling of the air parcel. The rate ofcooling is about 10°C per 1000m.

In summer during the late morning and afternoon, air parcels generated in this way tend to rise andremain hot and are thus lighter than the surrounding air. This air is unstable and is characterised(provided there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere) by the formation of large cumulus clouds.Thunderstorms usually develop in strongly unstable atmospheric conditions. Do not spray if strongupward thermal conditions exist.

Figure 3.3 shows an example diagram derived from actual data of the stability of conditions abovea cotton paddock over a 24 hr period. The graph shows clearly that stability varies considerablyaccording to the time of day. The red sections indicate where spraying is not recommended due tothe risk of off-target droplet movement. The neutral (green) line shows the optimal times forspraying and caution should be exercised at all other times (yellow).

Note: Figure 3.3 is an example only - conditions will vary and should be monitored locally.

Turbulence

Turbulence can develop over a crop as a result of the thermal (upward) movement of warm air orthe mechanical movement of wind across the ground. A wind or breeze travelling close to thesurface of the earth rarely has a smooth flow. The lower air layers move slower than the upperlayers because their energy is lost at the earth’s surface. Wind speed usually increases with height(close to the earth’s surface). Under these conditions, the atmosphere is characterised by the turbulentmotion of air produced in part by the movement of air layers against each other and by frictionallosses of energy at the earth’s surface. The extent of this turbulence is also determined by the‘roughness’ of the surface.

Source: C-PAS

Figure 3.3. Example diagram of daily stability of conditions over a cotton paddock

Very

stable

Stable

Neutral

Unstable

Very

unstable

Midnight 04.00 08.00 Midday 16.00 20.00 Midnight

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For example, a stand of trees or tall crop would generate greater turbulence for a given wind speedthan an area of mown grass.

Local wind effects

Although primary wind directions and wind speeds are caused by large-scale synoptic systems,

small-scale local winds can be generated which can have a significant impact on spraying.

Some examples are given below:

(a) Thermal movement of air: In large open areas under conditions of high radiation,

unequal heating of the ground can occur, resulting in the upward motion of large

air parcels. As these air parcels rise, air at ground level flows in to replace them.

Under such conditions, large-scale circulation currents may form, resulting in

local wind flows and turbulence. Residual heat in the ground may cause upward

air movement in the evenings or nights. On a small scale, differences in

temperature between cultivated and fallow (bare soil) areas can also give rise to

local air currents around and within a crop canopy.

(b) Thunderstorms: Thunderstorms can produce strong winds in all directions about a

storm cell. Although storms generally track West to East across the Eastern States

with the passage of frontal systems (in the south), local wind directions can be

highly variable.

(c) Katabatic winds: In hill country or on flat land close to slopes, farming areas can

be subject to evening katabatic winds. As land cools, air immediately above the

surface can be cooled resulting in that air becoming denser and thus heavier than

surrounding air. If cooling occurs on sloping ground, heavy air can flow under

gravity to lower levels, resulting in local wind flows.

Temperature inversions

Stable conditions usually occur at night when the land loses heat by radiation and cools more

rapidly than the air above it. As a result the air temperature increases with height (rather than

decreasing) and an inversion layer of air forms. This can inhibit vertical air movement and minimise

atmospheric turbulence, and is called a surface temperature inversion. ‘Blankets’ of fog or smoke

indicate such conditions, and fine droplets may become trapped above such layers, and this may

contribute to spray drift.

Surface temperature inversions most commonly occur during clear nights that follow hot, sunny

days. Surface temperature inversions are often associated with fog or early morning mist, and may

persist well after dawn until the ground warms up sufficiently and the air is mixed again.

Do not spray under surface temperature inversion conditions.

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3.6.2 Temperature

High temperatures can have a two-fold affect on drift - volatilisation and evaporation.

1. Higher temperatures may increase volatilisation and the resultant vapour may be subjectto drift. Higher ground temperatures may also establish air currents that move finespray droplet vapours.

2. The high temperatures can evaporate the water in the droplets, resulting in finer droplets,and/or particles of pesticide which may drift. The amount of evaporation is a functionof temperature and relative humidity so both must be monitored.

Hazards - Temperature

High temperature Droplet evaporation, volatilisation, upwards movement.

Temp. differences Inversion layers, instability, wind generation.

Pesticide Formulation efficacy, droplet survival.

Safety Flammability, operator exposure and fatigue.

Figure 3.4. General indicators for spray decisions.

Source: C-PAS

Smoke Condition Notes Spray ?

NEUTRAL Cool breeze (4 -15 km/hr). ✔(e.g. morning) Optimum spray conditions.

UNSTABLE Hot. ✘(e.g. afternoon) Low windspeed, thermal activity

Risk of upward movement

of fine droplets.

INVERSION Low windspeed. ✘(e.g. night) Hot during day.

Risk of significant off-target

deposition of fine droplets.

STABLE Low windspeed. ✘(e.g. dusk) Risk of off-target

spray deposition.

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29 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

In general, spray when temperatures are low (i.e. less than 28°C) and the relative humidity is high,(i.e. greater than 45%). Water (the most commonly used spray carrier) evaporates at normal working

temperatures. Therefore significant reductions in droplet size may occur after droplets have left a

spray nozzle. This problem is particularly acute for small droplets for the following reasons:

Droplet surface area to volume ratio.

As the size of a droplet decreases, there is a very rapid increase in the ratio between thesurface area of a droplet and its volume. In other words, a greater proportion of thesurface area of the droplet is exposed to the atmosphere as the droplet size decreases.Hence smaller droplets evaporate faster.

Droplet fall rate.

As a droplet becomes smaller through evaporation, its rate of fall towards the groundbecomes slower (Refer to Section 7). Hence the droplet remains airborne longer, and ismore susceptible to further evaporation as it becomes smaller.

The rate of evaporation of a droplet is related to its size.

In general, water droplets smaller than 150 µm evaporate 27% faster than dropletslarger than this size. This is due to a change in airflow around droplets smaller than150µm. Larger droplets cause the airflow to be separated from the base of a droplet andno evaporation occurs from this region. In smaller droplets, the airflow contacts mostof the droplet and evaporation occurs from the whole surface.

Research to determine the lifetime of droplets (and thus the theoretical distance they will fall underthe influence of gravity before all the water has evaporated) has shown that evaporation increasesas the temperature increases and the air becomes drier (relative humidity decreases).

When pesticide sprays are applied under typical Australian summer conditions (e.g. 28°C, RH<45%), calculations show that 100 µm droplets will survive less than 12 seconds and 50µm dropletsless than 3 seconds.

Figure 3.5 shows the number of droplets on leaves (per sq.cm) of a water based insecticideformulation deposited on a cotton canopy at different temperatures during a field trial. Fewer droplets

Source: C-PAS

Figure 3.5. Number of droplets per sq. cm depositied on leaves at different temperatures.

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Temperature (°C)

RH (%) 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Note: This is guide only. All weather parameters and spraying operations must be monitored during

spray operations, and BMP (PAMP) guidelines followed.

Application is not recommended due to the risk of rainfall and loss of pesticide.

were recovered at the higher temperatures, because droplets evaporated before reaching the target.

Many of the insecticides applied using aircraft are formulated in solvents that have a relatively lowvolatility. Applied neat without the addition of water, these ultra low volume (ULV) pesticidesattempt to overcome the impact of evaporation by using mineral and/or vegetable oil carriers.

3.6.3 Relative humidity (RH)

The term relative humidity is used to describe the ‘dryness’ of the atmosphere. It defines the ratioof the amount of water that is contained in a sample of air to that amount which could be containedin the same volume of air if saturated (with water) at that temperature.

It is preferable to spray under high humidity. This is particularly important when water is thecarrier, because low humidities are often associated with high temperatures and thus, high rates ofevaporation. In general, avoid spraying when relative humidities drop below about 45% at theapplication site. In irrigated crops, the relative humidity in and near the crop may be higher thanthe surrounding areas.

Because it is a relative measure dependent upon temperature, the RH increases as the temperaturedrops and decreases as the temperature increases. It is usual to find therefore, that over a cottoncanopy, maximum RH values are recorded at dawn.

Delta T (∆T) is the difference between wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures. Avoid sprayingat higher temperatures when ∆T is greater than 10°.

The relative humidity and/or Delta T (∆T) are easily measured in the field using handheld electronicRH meters or whirling psychrometers.

3.6.4 Rainfall

Rainfall should be monitored on a regular basis. It is preferable to have an automatic station thatcan measure intensity and timing of rainfall as well as the daily totals.

Figure 3.6 Guide to temperature and relative humidity ranges for pesticide application.

Source: QDPI

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Longer term rainfall trends and predictions should also be monitored by using the Bureau ofMeteorology or similar services.

Some pesticides (e.g. endosulfan) have specific label restrictions referring to weather conditionsduring application.

Rainfall in the 48 hours prior to pesticide applications should be monitored and recorded.

The following points should be considered (after rain) when planning an application:

• Will the rainfall enhance or reduce the efficacy of the pesticide?

• Are fields likely to be boggy and will crop/soil damage occur if a ground rig is used?

• Is the ground rig likely to become bogged, unstable or roll over in the conditions, andwhat risk is the pesticide load likely to pose?

• Has the rain affected the pest levels and is there a need to spray immediately (based onnew insect checks)?

• Are the tailwater catchment areas and dams full?

• Has there been significant runoff to neighbouring properties, and was there any soiltransportation?

If there is measurable rainfall during an application, efficacy of the pesticide may be reduced, or thepesticide may be carried off-target by runoff. In addition, if there are storms these may beaccompanied by strong, gusty or unpredictable winds. Spraying should stop if there is risk of off-target movement, reduced efficacy and/or danger to applicators.

Similarly, rainfall in the 48 hours after pesticide application should be monitored and recorded.The following points should be considered if rainfall occurs after an application:

• What was the amount and intensity of the rainfall, and is there likely to be more?

• What type of pesticide was used (e.g. rainfastness, formulation), and has the efficacybeen affected?

• What was the pesticide that was applied and what are the risks if the rainfall has washedit off-target? If the pesticide was a herbicide - has it been leached or moved in the soilprofile?

• If there was runoff, was this captured in tailwater and other storage? Was there anydischarge into waterways (e.g. rivers)?

Hazards - Rainfall

Rain wash Pesticides may be washed off the plants and into waterways.

Soil movement Soil containing pesticide may be moved off the field.

Contamination If there is water standing in the field it may be contaminated and carry the

pesticide into the soil or into waterways.

Indirect effects Are the fields boggy and likely to cause problems with groundrigs?

Efficacy Has the application been diluted or washed off the plant? Will a respray

affect re-entry periods?

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• What action is necessary to check the effects of the rainfall? Is remedial actionrequired?

3.7 Drift

Efficient pesticide application minimises the off-target movement of the pesticide whilst stillmaintaining an acceptable level of pest management. Significant off-target movement of pesticidesshould not occur if the correct application techniques are employed under favourable environmentalconditions.

Types of spray drift

Two types of drift may occur, namely droplet/particle drift and vapour drift. A combination of thetwo types may also occur.

Droplet (or particle) drift is the most common, with three types occurring:

• Direct wind drift

• Thermal drift

• Inversion drift

Small droplet size plays a role in all instances (See Section 7).

Vapour drift is the movement of volatile components of pesticide in air currents during and/orfollowing application . These are significant where the volatile component has biological activity(e.g. 2,4-D ester). This is why there are special restrictions on this pesticide in mixed-croppingareas, and in specialized regions within States (e.g. ‘hazardous areas’ as defined in the QueenslandAgricultural Chemicals Distribution Control Act).

Reducing spray drift

Growers and applicators need to be aware of the major factors that contribute to drift. These are:

• Droplet size. This is determined by the application method, equipment and adjuvants inthe pesticide mixture used. The use of drift reduction nozzle designs or larger orificenozzles at low pressure may reduce drift danger.

Hazards - Drift

Crop & other damage Damage to non-target crops or enterprises (e.g. fish farms).

Contamination Persons, places, waterways or environments.

Odour Unpleasant odour contamination of residential and non-target areas.

Reduced efficacy Pesticide that has drifted has not reached the intended target.

Litigation Off-target movement of pesticides may result in litigation.

Legislation Off-target movement of pesticides may result in restrictions being

placed on the use of specific pesticides.

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• Weather conditions during and immediately after application.

• Height and distance. The greater the height and distance from the target plant at whichpesticides are discharged, the greater is the risk of drift.

The nozzles that are selected, droplet size and equipment set-up should aim to minimise drift, butmust still apply the pesticide efficiently so that the target pest is controlled. The use of well designedspray shields on ground rigs will reduce drift. Refer to Section 7.7 for more information on shieldedsprayers.

3.8 Buffers

Buffer zones are used to collect spray droplets that may otherwise drift onto sensitive areas, but

they should only be considered as the last line of defence.

Use of buffer zones on farms is now a requirement for the use of some pesticides - Read thelabel before use.

There are three types of buffer zones that can be used alone or in combination:

Offset buffer A portion of the target crop is left untreated on the downwind

side. This untreated section is sprayed once the weather

conditions become more favourable, the application setup

can be adapted, or a less hazardous product can be used in

the offset buffer zone.

Vegetative buffer This is an area between the edge of the crop being treated

and a sensitive area. It may consist of non-sensitive fields,

natural vegetation, fallow areas or specially planted buffer

vegetation. Well-planned vegetative buffers provide barriers

for noise, wind and dust, are aesthetically pleasing, and

provide wildlife habitats.

The development of effective vegetative buffers is a long

term process that should be incorporated into the PAMP.

Refer to: “Growing Trees on Cotton Farms” published by

the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

(1999) and Section 1 of this handbook.

Crop buffer These are strategically planted crops that should require fewer

pesticide applications during the season. They may include

transgenic cotton, maize or other crops that attract the same

insects as cotton.

Factors to consider when planning buffer zones:

• Features of the sensitive area,

• Properties of the pesticide(s) being used,

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• Distances between the crop and sensitive areas,

• Efficiency of the buffer zone in capturing droplets,

• Methods of application,

• Weather conditions, critical wind directions and speeds.

Vegetative buffer zones should be established on the downwind side to intercept drift, but additionalvegetative barriers can be established strategically throughout the farm. These not only assist withdrift minimisation, but improve the property and provide additional windbreaks. When designing avegetative buffer, the main objective is to maximise the catching surface for spray droplets. Plantsthat have thin needle like foliage and many small branches such as River She-Oak (Casuarina spp.)are the most suitable. The species that is selected must be suited to the area to ensure survivability.The vegetative barrier should allow about 50% of the wind flow to pass through it. Several lines ofvegetation are better than one line of more dense vegetation. The buffer should be approximately8 metres high when mature, and consist of a complex of low shrubs and medium height trees whichform a vegetative barrier from the ground upwards.

When planting vegetative buffers, consideration should be given to aerial and groundrig operatorsso that the trees and vegetation do not pose a significant risk to the applicators. If possible, discussthe planting of vegetation buffer zones with your contract applicators. Also, planting buffers rightup to the boundaries of sensitive areas may increase the risk of off-target pesticide contamination.Consider crop buffers or other alternatives to provide an untreated zone.

3.9 Observing spray applications

It is a responsibility of the grower (or their appointed representative) to observe spray applications,ensure that PAMP guidelines are followed, that the pesticide is applied correctly and that theapplication details are recorded.

3.9.1 During the spray

When observing spray applications, remember:-

• The operator may not be able to accurately assess the prevailing conditions (and changes)from the machine cabin or aircraft cockpit.

• The operator may not be aware of new hazards (e.g. newly built power lines or house).

Hazards - Spraying

Meteorological Changes that may increase drift and/or operational hazards.

Equipment Malfunction may result in incorrect application or spillages.

Accidents Chemical exposure, physical injury, environmental damage.

Handling Chemical handling, mixing and loading increase risk of contamination.

Personnel Unauthorised entry into the spray zone.

Unforseen Changes in the awareness zone (e.g. a vehicle enters the area).

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• To assist in monitoring the surrounding areas (e.g. to observe whether cotton chippersarrive unannounced).

• To assist in monitoring the application equipment (e.g. malfunctioning nozzles, flattyres, leaks, loose aircraft booms).

• Communicate with the operator frequently with updates and exchanges of information.

• Don’t hesitate if there is a problem - take positive action!

Monitor weather conditions near the application site using hand held equipment and check thesereadings against automatic stations in the vicinity.

Ground spraying

• If a contractor is being used, he should demonstrate that he has an Operators Licence(Queensland only).

• The grower appointed representative should supervise all applications.

• Boom height should be as low as possible, consistent with nozzle specifications andcoverage requirements. Use of wide angle (110°) and low drift nozzles will assist inreducing drift in groundrig applications.

• Vertical movement of the spray boom should not exceed 0.5m.

• Observe any drift. Viewing the application with the sun behind the applicator willassist in highlighting drift.

• Nozzle selection, configuration and pressures should be optimised to produce the desireddroplet size and minimize drift.

• Ground spray units should dispose of unwanted pesticide in the correct manner. Theunit should be decontaminated before moving to another farm.

• Communicate with the operator and confirm completion.

Aerial spraying

• Pilots and operators should be accredited by the Aerial Agricultural Association ofAustralia (AAAA).

• The grower appointed representative should supervise the application.

• Insist on aircraft fitted with DGPS equipment. Use of human markers is discourageddue to the danger of personal contamination. Observers and their vehicles often assistto provide reference points for the pilot (eg. during night spraying).

• Aircraft should be fitted with smoker devices so that the pilot can release smoke atregular intervals, particularly when near sensitive boundaries and if a change is reported.

• Ensure that the aircraft is straight and level when over the crop.

• Aircraft wheel height should be 1 - 2m above the crop canopy during application.

• Observe any drift. Viewing the application with the sun behind the applicator willassist in highlighting drift. Large droplet placement (LDP) should be used if applicable.

• Wherever possible request that the pilot turns over nonsensitive areas.

• Monitor switch on and cut off points for each run, including clean-up runs.

• Communicate with the operator and confirm completion.

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pmeT

)C°( )C°( )C°( )C°( )C°(

dniW )%(ytidimuHevitaleR

rh/mk )s/m( 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 001

02-51

3< 38.0<

51-3 2.4-8.0

02-51 6.5-2.4

+02 +6.5

52-02

3< 38.0<

51-3 2.4-8.0

02-51 6.5-2.4

+02 +6.5

03-52

3< 38.0<

51-3 2.4-8.0

02-51 6.5-2.4

+02 +6.5

Monitor and record the weather conditions throughout the application. Even if you have an automaticstation, check the conditions at a position near the field being sprayed using handheld equipment.Ensure that windsocks are functioning properly and that smoke is used if required.

3.9.2 STOP / GO Guidelines

Each application must be observed with due consideration to PAMP procedures and circumstances

which may arise during the application. However, there are some key guidelines that apply to the

majority of pesticide applications.

Note: Table 3.7 is a guide only - Always monitor the conditions at the time of application.

Refer to the nozzle selection and equipment setup guidelines in Section 7 and manufacturershandbooks for specific operating guidelines.

3.9.3 Delayed sprays

If conditions change and the spray operation is stopped, decisions will have to be made as to whetherto delay or abort that particular spray.

Examples of why an application may be delayed or aborted are:

• Rain, storms, high temperatures or other adverse weather conditions,

• Forecasts indicate that adverse weather (e.g. severe thunderstorms are imminent),

• Operating problems such as leaking equipment,

Source: 4T

Table 3.7. General guide to suitable temperature, wind and relative

humidity conditions for spraying.

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• Complaints from neighbours,

• Accident (e.g. if the ground rig damages the spray boom on a fence post),

• Unauthorised persons and/or vehicles have entered the spray zone,

• A decision is made to change pesticide and/or equipment selection.

In all instances, personnel involved in the application (including the agronomist/consultant) shouldbe advised. Decisions must then be made with due consideration to:

• Whether the application is delayed or aborted,

• What effects a delay will have on the spray mixture - how long until it is unusable?

• What to do with any unused spray mix (according to PAMP),

• What is the provisional plan for the application - what pesticides, application methodand timing,

• Are field checks necessary before a revised strategy is established?

• If the delay is due to an accident, what remedial action (if any) is required?

3.9.4 Complaints

Ensure that complaint handling procedures are clearly outlined in the property PAMP, and that they

are followed in the event of a complaint being received.

During application

• Verify that it is a genuine complaint (i.e. not mischievous or malicious),

• Suspend operation,

• Discuss reason for concern,

• Resume operation if agreement is reached between growers, complainant and applicator,

• Cancel the application if no agreement can be reached,

• If agreement cannot be reached, an independent party should be contacted to mediateand assist in resolving issues/conflicts.

After application

• The grower should discuss the matter with the complainant and the operator.

• If the complaint is received by the operator, they should discuss the matter with thegrower.

• Complaints received by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NSW WorkCoverAuthority or Department of Education, Training and Industrial Relations (DETIR) -Workplace, Health and Safety (Qld).

These agencies will investigate complaints and may request additional information orrecords from the grower and/or applicator. Complaints will be referred to the growerand operator for resolution.

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Appropriate authorities to be notified of any unresolved complaints:

Cotton Australia.

Cotton Growers Association.

Local Chemical Liaison Committee.

Environmental Protection Agency (if environmental issues are involved).

Dept. of Education, Training and Industrial Relations (DETIR) - Workplace Health and

Safety (Qld) or NSW WorkCover Authority.

3.9.5 Accidents

Accident and emergency procedures should be included in the property PAMP plan. Be prepared

for the worst case scenario, and ensure that first aid and spill equipment are maintained properly.

In the event of an accident during spraying:

• Attend to personnel involved in the accident as highest priority.

• Assess the situation quickly and request assistance from all relevant personnel.

• Implement emergency procedures and contact Emergency Services (if required).

• Keep all non-essential personnel and onlookers away from the accident scene.

• Implement fire and spill control procedures if required.

• Secure the area and make equipment safe if possible.

• Assist Emergency Services personnel when they arrive.

Once the emergency has passed, make detailed notes of the accident with input from personnel who

were involved. These notes will help investigators and will assist in modifying PAMP procedures

in the future.

Review the accident reports and provide a summary (including revised procedures) to all relevant

personnel. Refer to Section 6 for more information on pesticide spills, clean-up and disposal

procedures.

3.10 Post spray

Confirm completion of the spray application with the operator and complete all application records.

If an automatic weather station is used, it is useful to print out the weather conditions during the

spray application and attach the printout to the spray record. Examples of spray records are shown

in Section 4.

Once a spray application has been completed, it is important that weather conditions are monitored

for at least 48 hours afterwards. Heavy rainfall may wash pesticide off foliage or into watercourses,

and high temperatures may volatilise pesticide residues causing off-target movement and odours.

Losses may also result in reduced pesticide efficacy.

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3.11 Cleaning equipment

After each spray application, equipment should be cleaned thoroughly. Any unused spray mix

should be disposed of correctly.

Refer to Section 6 for pesticide disposal methods, and Section 7 for cleaning and decontamination

procedures.

3.12 Community liaison

Community liaison plays an important role in the BMP process.

Active participation in this process often reduces misconceptions, misinformation and ultimately

misunderstandings. Genuine community concerns should be addressed via Cotton Australia and

the Cotton Growers Associations.

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Records

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4. Record keeping

Record keeping is an essential part of management, and records should be stored in such a way that

all related records can be retrieved efficiently. Computer software programs (e.g. CottonLogic®)

make recording and retrieval of the large number of records more manageable.

4.1 Spray records

Accurate records of pesticide applications are essential, not only as a management tool, but toprovide an historical record of spray activities.

Details of each pesticide application and the prevailing weather conditions (including before andafter application) should be recorded as soon as possible after completion of the operation. Anyadditional data and incidents should be recorded and attached to the spray record for reference andaction (if required).

Spray records should contain the following information:

• Date and times of application (including start, refilling and finish times),

• Persons authorising and supervising the application,

• Details of property owner, appointed representative and contact numbers,

• Property, field, crop and area (hectares) details,

• Pest details (or reference to a field check sheet),

• Chemical names, type, application rates, spray/water volumes, batch numbers,

• Applicators name and equipment operators name,

• Method of application, equipment, nozzle types and specific equipment set-up,

• Operating pressures and other relevant information, including any changes that weremade during the application,

• Meteorological conditions (including before and after the application),

• Operating conditions and any other observations,

• Compliance with PAMP/BMP guidelines and checks.

Points to remember about record keeping:

• Develop a system that suits your farm circumstances.

• Keep accurate records in a proper filing system.

• Add notes where specific records or data are not adequate.

• Make use of the records to examine spray efficiency and achievement of BMP.

• Retain records for 3 years.

• Records are essential to resolve disputes or settle litigation.

• Records may be required by some pesticide labels or as part of general legal

requirements under specific State Government legislation.

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4.1.1 Spray orders

A written spray order should be completed for each pesticide application request. This is essential

when ordering applications from contractors, but should also be done for all on-farm applications.

A proper spray order form can provide a lot of information for best managment practices, and in the

event that there is a spray failure or litigation. An example of a spray order form including notifi-

cation of completion details is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1. Sample Spray Order form.

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Records

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4.1.2 Spray records

Once a pesticide application order has been confirmed, a spray record should also be completed at

the time of application by the observer to provide a permanent record of the conditions before,

during and after spraying. Commercial operators are required by law to keep records of all spray-

ing operations and it is a recommended procedure for all users of agricultural chemicals. Complete

records can provide good evidence of such operations should a dispute arise. An example of this

record is shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2. Example of a Spray Application Record.

Sample Only

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4.2 BMP records

In addition to spray application details, written records should be kept of the following:

• Meetings conducted as part of the BMP/PAMP process.

• Personnel training, refresher courses and accreditation gained.

• Details of equipment checks and calibration.

• Agreed notification arrangements and records of notifications (spray advice notices)during the season.

• Details of delayed or postponed spray applications.

• Records of complaints, accidents, spills and operational errors, and what remedial ac-tion was taken.

• Corrections or updates made to the PAMP.

4.3 Chemical details

The grower and applicator should keep MSDS and label details of each chemical used or stored onthe farm. These can be obtained from the supplier at the time of purchase. MSDS contain impor-tant information about each chemical, and should be read and understood before the chemical istransported, stored, mixed or applied.

A register of all chemicals used and stored on the farm should be maintained and supported withmonthly stocktakes. Batch numbers and date of manufacture should be recorded for each applica-tion so that the chemical can be traced back to the manufacturing site.

Growers should check local statutory requirements regarding chemical registers and stores records.Refer to Section 6 for details of label and MSDS contents.

4.4 Using records

The purpose of keeping good records is so that they can be referenced in order to improve methodsor to investigate problems. Typical uses for application records include:

• In the event of a suspected spray failure, good spray records may assist in determiningwhy the pesticide was not as effective. Proper records will also help to define the bestresults and equipment set-up for specific pesticide applications on individual farms.

• These records form the basis for decision making and adherence to the TIMS resistancestrategy throughout the season.

• Spray records can be cross-referenced to financial accounts to obtain costs per applica-tion and total costs per season.

• Spray records are required as part of the BMP and Ingard® audit processes.

• In the event of a dispute or litigation, complete records are essential to demonstrate thatdue diligence has been observed.

• Records allow longer-term trends to be examined and compared to yields and pestlevels over different seasons.

• Meeting legislative requirements (State and National).

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5. The target

Target - the best place to deposit a pesticide to achieve adequate control.

The target may not be the actual pest (e.g. soil applied herbicides for weed control) or the site wherethe pest is causing damage (e.g. soil applied granular insecticides for thrips). Most insecticides donot rely on contact with the insect for control to be effective.

Weeds Weed control, including the use of herbicides, accounts for up to 10% of the total

variable costs of growing cotton (McMillan 1988). Of this, about 5% of total

operating costs are herbicides (Boyce 2000).

The strategies adopted for weed control are designed to reduce weed populations

below levels that will affect yield and quality, as well as minimising the seed store

for subsequent seasons. While thresholds for weeds are not as well defined as they

are for insects and mites, the strategies used for herbicidal control of weeds require a

thorough knowledge of weed identification, biology, susceptible growth stages,

herbicide activity and application methodology. Refer to Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2.

In the early stages of growth, cotton is a poor weed competitor and is vulnerable to a wide range ofinsect and mite pests at all growth stages. Effective pest management in cotton requires a clearunderstanding of pest thresholds and the action to be taken when these are reached.

Insects Insecticide usage accounts for about 25% to 35% of the total operating costs of

growing cotton (Boyce 2000). It is the largest single operating cost, has a significant

influence on final yield, but is a cost that can be controlled by good management.

Refer to Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2.

About thirty species of insects and mites cause economic damage to cotton in

Australia. However, the number of regular, serious economic pests is limited to

about five species: two Helicoverpa species, mites, aphids and mirids. In most cases,

the major pests and their most vulnerable stages for chemical control are well known

(Forrester and Wilson 1988). For Helicoverpa, aphid and mite control, the guidelines

of the Insecticide Resistance Management Strategy should be followed.

To correctly define a target the following factors should be considered:

• Correct pest identification,

• Biology, ecology and behaviour of the pest,

• Crop characteristics,

• Pest threshold levels,

• Pesticide characteristics.

Once the target has been identified, the correct application method can be selected to ensure effec-tive pest management with minimal impact on the environment.

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0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Herbicides Insecticides Defoliants Others Application

$/H

a.

2 8

aH/$ 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002

sedicibreH 631 121 511 741 151

sedicitcesnI 093 363 853 295 414

stnailofeD 49 98 38 88 68

srehtO 51 51 41 02 51

stsocnoitacilppA 911 621 021 171 221

sedicitsepllA 457 417 096 8101 887

stsocgnitarepO 96 052 1562 0292 4472

stsocgnitarepofo%

sedicibreH %5 %5 %4 %5 %6

sedicitcesnI %41 %41 %41 %02 %51

sedicitsepllA %82 %82 %62 %53 %92

7

Figure 5.2. Chart of relative pesticide costs in cotton, 1996-2000.

Source: Boyce, 2000

Table 5.1. Estimates of pesticide costs in cotton, 1996 - 2000.

Source: Boyce, 2000

Pesticide costs

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5.1 Target identification

Effective pest management can only be implemented after the pest has been correctly identified.Similar pest species may vary considerably in their sensitivity to particular chemicals. The bestexample of this in cotton is the difference in susceptibility to insecticides between Helicoverpaarmigera and Helicoverpa punctigera. H. punctigera is generally more susceptible to pesticidesthan H. armigera. H. punctigera often predominates early in the season, but as the season progressesand H. armigera becomes more dominant, different pesticides must be used. Cotton consultants,

agronomists and Government personnel can assist growers to correctly identify insect and weed

species.

5.2 Pest biology, ecology and behaviour

Biology The morphology, physiology, anatomy, behaviour, origin and distribution

of animals and plants.

Ecology Organisms’ relationships to one another and to their surroundings.

Understanding the biology and ecology of pests will often identify stages in their life cycle whenthey are most susceptible to pesticides (and other control measures). In general, pests are mostsusceptible during the early stages of their life cycle.

The biology of the pest usually determines the type of pesticide, growth stage timing and formula-tion (e.g. most synthetic pyrethroids are effective on Helicoverpa spp, but not on mite species).

The ecology of the pest often determines the application method, application timing and equipmentthat are used. A nozzle directly over the row may be required to provide a directed application.

Examples in cotton include:

• Sucking insects often congregate on the growing points of the plant so these must bethoroughly sprayed.

• Mites congregate on the underside of leaves. For a contact insecticide such as Kelthane®

to be effective, the spray would have to be directed upwards onto the underside ofleaves.

• Abamectin is also registered for use on mites. However, once applied properly, thisproduct is translaminar, so although coverage is still important, it is not as critical tospray the undersides of the leaves as Kelthane®.

Knowledge of the biology and ecology of predator and beneficial species is also an essential part ofintegrated pest management, and influence what pesticides are used.

5.3 Crop characteristics

Crop growth rate can affect pesticide timing, particularly for insecticides that are only active on theplant surface, by reducing the length of effective residual activity through ‘growth dilution’.

Crop growth habit such as height, leaf shape (e.g. okra vs normal leaf) and canopy size can affectthe set-up of application equipment. Crop growth stage can affect the choice and timing of pesti-cides, particularly herbicides.

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Many pesticides have specific requirements related to crop stage. For example, many herbicidescannot be used when the cotton crop is young or crop damage will occur. In addition, pesticidesmay have label restrictions so that they can only be used at specific stages of crop development.For example, endosulfan can only be applied on cotton that is higher than 20cm (aerial) or withinInsect Resistance Management Strategy Guidelines.

5.4 Pest and damage threshold levels

Pest threshold level The pest population density at which control measures need to

be implemented to prevent economic damage or delayed matu-

rity occurring.

Damage threshold level The amount of damage that can be tolerated by the crop after

which control measures need to be implemented to prevent eco-

nomic loss.

Pest and damage thresholds are fundamental components of IPM strategies. Pesticide application

is not justified until the target has been clearly defined, and it is determined that the pest threshold

level has been reached.

Use of thresholds requires accurate, objective sampling to provide reliable estimates of pest or

damage levels.

Threshold levels that are applied commercially are set at pest population or damage levels above

which economic loss or undesirable consequences, such as maturity delays, will occur if no action

is taken (Shaw, 1994). These levels are determined with due consideration to:

• Natural control and mortality of the pest,

• The crop stage and location,

• The capacity of the plant to tolerate damage and/or compensate,

• The role of beneficial insects and control agents,

• Cost - benefit ratio of the application.

Refer to: ENTOPak (published by the Australian Cotton CRC) for details of threshold levels and

sampling techniques for cotton.

‘Cotton Pest Management Guide’ which is published annually by NSW Agriculture

and the Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre (ed. K. J. Schulze and

A. R. Tomkins).

There are restrictions on the use of certain pesticides, and pesticide selection for a particular target

may be influenced by the insect resistance management strategy which is developed annually by

the Transgenic and Insect Management Strategy (TIMS) committee (see Figure 5.3).

Herbicides are usually classified into groups depending on when they are applied relative to thecrop cycle and the crop’s sensitivity, both of which influence their application requirements. Referto Section 6 for more information.

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Pesticides

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epytedicitseP esopruP

edicibreH egabrehro(sdeewslliK

tnacciseD metsdnasevaeltnalppuseirD

tnailofeD nalpehtgnilliktuohtiwsevaeltnalpsevomeR

rotalugerhtworG tworgtcesnirotnalplamronsegnahC

edicitcesnI tcesnislortnoC

edicitiM etimslortnoC

edicivraL avraltcesnislortnoC

edicivO ggetcesnislortnoC

edicignuF gnufslortnoC

ediciretcaB iretcabslortnoC

tsigrenyS edicitsepfoecnamrofrepehtsevorpmI

)

s

t

h

s

s

e

s

i

a

s

6. Pesticides

Pesticide A substance used to prevent, control, attract or repel pests or regulate plant

growth.

Using pesticides brings with it responsibilities towards

• People

• Environment

• Non-target areas, livestock and crops.

Pesticides are generally grouped to according to their purpose.

Pesticides range from common everyday products such as salt to complex chemical and biologicalagents. When handled incorrectly they can be dangerous to all living organisms including humans,birds, fish, bees, animals and plants.

Table 6.1. Common pesticide types.

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6.1 Formulations

Pesticides are manufactured in different forms. A pesticide has three main components that togethermake up the formulation namely:

Active ingredient Kills or controls the pest.

Carrier or solvent system Stabilises the diluted product and aids coverage andapplication of the pesticides.

Adjuvant Adjuvants are added to pesticide formulations to modifyperformance (usually to enhance it) or overcome someinhibiting factor.

All these components must be taken into account for the safe handling of the product.

Very few active ingredients are manufactured in Australia, but many companies formulate productshere. Products are expected to remain stable and true to label specification for at least two yearsunder reasonable storage conditions.

Cotton pesticides are available in many different formulations and the properties of these requiredifferent handling and application techniques.

Aqueous concentrates (AC) e.g. Gramoxone®

Water based concentrates that are stable, mix easily and need no agitation once a spraysolution has been made up.

Paraquat and diquat react with negatively charged soil particles and wetting agents, and canlose activity in muddy water. Only non-ionic wetting agents should be mixed with them.

Capsule suspension (CS) e.g. Promet® 365CS

Pesticides are formulated as very small ‘microcapsules’ that are 3 to 10µm diameter, withthe active ingredient contained within a polymer ‘capsule’. The encapsulation may slowthe release of active ingredient, but cost per unit of active ingredient may be greater.

Hazards - Pesticide formulations

Handling Certain formulations better suited to closed handling systems, storage and/

or recyclable packaging.

Spillage Liquid formulations more difficult to contain and clean up than solid

formulations (eg. dry flowables).

Contamination Liquid formulations more likely to be absorbed onto clothing, dusts more

likely to be inhaled.

Flammability Solid formulations reduce flammability.

Measurement Volume easier than weight so reduces risk of incorrect dosage.

Evaporation Solid formulations reduce risk of evaporation or volatilisation.

Drift The formulation and application equipment selected must consider the risk

of drift.

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Pesticides

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Water dispersable granule (WDG) e.g. Diuron 900 WDG®

When these granules are added to water each granule disperses - reducing the caking anduneven mixing associated with wettable powders. With low toxicity pesticides, the granulescan be concentrated with up to 90% active ingredient which improves transport and storageefficiency.

Microgranules have flow characteristics similar to liquid and can be poured and measuredvolumetrically.

Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) e.g. Thiodan EC®

These are true liquids but are formulated as emulsions that turn a ‘milky’ colour whenadded to water. The active ingredient is dissolved in a solvent or petroleum oil, and thenblended with a special surfactant or emulsifier.

When mixed with water, the product disperses to form an emulsion, with millions of minutedroplets of oil each containing a small amount of the active ingredient. Well-formulatedEC’s mix easily and stay evenly dispersed without agitation after the initial stirring of thespray. However, it is advisable to apply EC’s as soon after mixing as possible. If spraymixtures of ECs are left standing for several hours, it is possible for some separation of theoil and water fractions to occur. An oily scum forming on the surface of the milky colouredsolution will indicate separation.

Soluble liquid (SL) e.g. Folimat® 800 SL

As with ECs, soluble liquids are true liquids but unlike EC’s do not require an emulsifyingagent in the formulation to mix with water. The active ingredient in SL formulations dissolvesin water, and the resultant mixture does not turn a milky colour.

Granules (G) e.g. Temik®

Pesticides with high technical efficiency in pest control but with associated high levels ofmammalian toxicity require a special formulation to lower the risk to applicators and theenvironment.

Examples include Temik® (aldicarb) and Thimet® (phorate). In both cases the product is agranule with a low percentage of active ingredient (10%-20%). Approximately 80% to90% of the granule is composed of inert material. The active material is distributed throughthe inert mass to lessen the chances of contact in the event of accident.

Note: These products need special care in storage and handling and must be kept dry. Theproduct label and MSDS directions and precautions must be followed.

Dry flowables (DF) e.g. Diuron 900DF®

Consist of very small granules of a consistent size, that disperse readily when mixed withwater. Agitation is essential to maintain mixture consistency.

These products can be measured volumetrically and packaged in inexpensive containers(e.g. cardboard boxes with a plastic liner bag).

Liquid concentrates (LC) e.g. PIX® Plant Growth Regulator

Agitation is not required to maintain a spray liquid with the active component equally spreadthroughout its volume. Clean water is essential.

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Suspension concentrates (SC) e.g. Cotogard® 500SC

These formulations are sometimes known as ‘flowables’. They represent a significantformulation advance on powders because potentially hazardous dust was eliminated andthe liquid suspension could be poured and measured accurately by volume.

Flowables need vigorous shaking to ensure that the drum contents are properly mixed beforemeasuring out. Drums of flowables that have been undisturbed in storage for even quiteshort periods (weeks) tend to slowly settle out and must be shaken thoroughly before use.

Bio-formulations (Biologicals) e.g. BTK Biological®, CoSTAR OF®

Bio-insecticides are becoming more prevalent in the IPM programmes being adopted incotton, as part of the BMP objective to reduce the dependence on inorganic pesticides. Inaddition, the newer generation bio-insecticides are far more effective with low risk to operatorsand the environment.

Bio-formulations often consist of a suspension of the biological agent in water, inertingredients and/or nutrient medium, and are therefore similar to suspension concentrates.

Wettable powders (WP) e.g. Envirofeast®

Wettable powders are becoming less common but at one time were the main solid formulation.The active constituent is milled to a fine (5 µm to 10 µm) consistency and then blended withdispersants, surfactants and some inert carrier. Most mix with water easily and quickly ifagitated properly in the spray tank.

Ultra low volume (ULV) e.g. Decis Forte® ULV

ULV’s apply the active ingredient in a low evaporative carrier (oil) rather than water. InAustralia, much cotton insecticide spraying is carried out during hot weather, so using ULVformulations minimises the risks associated with droplet evaporation. Using applicationequipment such as Micronairs, it is possible to achieve coverage of pests with volumes aslow as 2 litres per hectare, which improves operator efficiency. These ULV formulationsare exclusive to the Australian cotton industry where low volume aerial application is stillused efficiently.

ULV formulations are loaded into application equipment (for application) directly from theoriginal delivery packaging. They do not require intermediate handling or mixing and aretherefore suited to closed handling systems that are safer for applicators. In general, groundrigs do not apply ULV formulations.

Petroleum spray oils e.g. white, mineral summer oil

The most common spray oils are the petroleum spray oils (PSOs), which are derived fromcrude oil. They belong to the lubricating range of refined products, and are similar to babyoil and medicinal paraffins. Some of the spray oils are safe to use on cotton, particularlythose blended with ultraviolet protection products to protect the product from ultraviolet(UV) light degradation.

Petroleum spray oils are used against a wide range of pests such as thrips, aphids, two-spotted mites, whiteflies, other sucking pests and Heliothis. The PSOs, particularly thosewith UV reduction properties, may improve the effectiveness of biological, synthetic

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Pesticides

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insecticides and bioherbicides. When PSOs are used as a stand alone product, they areslower to kill and have a lower kill percentage than synthetic insecticides. However, whenused prophylactically as high volume-low concentration sprays, PSOs can suppressinfestations of most cotton pests without disrupting beneficial insect activities. PSOs aretherefore products that can be used in IPM systems.

PSOs as Emulsifiable concentrates

When these spray oils are mixed with water, the product disperses as minute droplets of oiland forms an emulsion with the water. The emulsion appears as a “milky” colouring inwater and this is a characteristic of the formulation. It mixes easily and stays in solutionafter the initial stirring of the spray, but will require agitation if left standing for a few hoursto avoid a possible separation of the oil and water fractions. Once the oil is made up into aspray solution it is advisable to apply the solution soon after, or continue to agitate to avoida possible separation of the oil and water fractions. Agitation should continue during sprayingto ensure that the oil stays evenly dispersed. When the oils are used in combination withother products such as biological and synthetic insecticides, the mixture will requirecontinuous agitation.

In mixing the oil with either biological or synthetic pesticides, the oil should first be mixedin water before the pesticide is added. High volume/low concentration sprays arerecommended to allow multiple use of the oils and reduce the impact on beneficial insects.Good coverage is required for improved efficacy of PSOs.

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6.2 Pesticide labels

Stop and read the label - it is a legal document

All products must have a label that has been approved and registered by the National RegistrationAuthority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (NRA).

This in turn means that if label directions are followed:

(a) The crop will be protected efficiently from pest competition and attack.

(b) People will not be put at risk.

(c) Environmental impact will be minimal.

To allow flexibility and to enable quick action to counter shifts in pest pressure, a number of products

are occasionally permitted to be used outside normal label constraints. In each case, special

permission is given, provided the authorities in New South Wales and/or Queensland are convinced

such approval is in the interests of all concerned.

Part of the clearance procedure for each pesticide involves a review by experts in the NationalHealth and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). This review is to assess the likely risks to thehealth of users and consumers, so that suitable witholding period (WHP) and maximum residuelimit (MRL) guidelines can be established for the product.

All agricultural pesticides contain important information on the type of pesticide, formulation,directions for use, safety and emergency procedures. In addition to the label, which must be affixedto the pesticide container, each product has a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) which is availablefrom the supplier.

The first step when considering pesticide use is to read each section of the label carefully (asoutlined below). Each label layout is similar (according to NRA guidelines) and contains thefollowing sections:

Poisons schedule (Signal headings)

A poison warning on a pesticide label indicates the potential health hazard of a pesticide to the user.

These red-on-white background signal headings always appear at the top of the label’s centralpanel that bears the trade name. Additional warning statements may also be required by the NRAfor particular pesticides.

Poison warnings advise users of the level of protection needed when using particular pesticides.This includes requirements for special protective equipment, which are set out in detail on the labelunder ‘Safety Directions’.

The higher the schedule number, the greater the level of care (including amount of protective clothingand equipment) needed during handling, storage and use of pesticides.

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Pesticides

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KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN

CAUTION


READ SAFETY DIRECTIONS BEFORE

OPENING OR USING.

POISON



OPENING OR USING.

DANGEROUS POISON



OPENING OR USING.

Most herbicides and fungicides are either exempt or are in Schedule 5. A few are in Schedule 6.The herbicide paraquat is in Schedule 7 but this is exceptional for a herbicide. Most insecticidesare in Schedules 6 or 7, except for low-strength domestic fly sprays, which are exempt. Schedule7 pesticides also have much stricter controls placed on their supply and availability than S5 and S6pesticides.

All pesticides are classified into one of four Poison Schedule categories. The four categories andaccompanying special warnings are:

Always read the product label for specific safety instructions. As a guide the following PPE should

be worn as minimum protection:

Exempt

Wear rubber gloves and face shield when handling the pesticide.

S5

Wear rubber gloves and face shield when handling the pesticide.

S6

Wear waterproof clothing, rubber gloves and face shield when handling the

concentrates.

S7

Wear protective rubber gloves, eye protection, waterproof clothing, and an

agricultural respirator during all operations including spraying.

Pesticide products may appear in more than one poison schedule if the products contain differentactive ingredients or solvents. Cotton pesticides that need special attention to safety include thecarbamates, organophosphates and some of the more active synthetic pyrethroids.

Table 6.2. Poisons schedules and label warnings - pesticides.

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Pesticide label information. Example only

Poison schedule and any relevant Dangerous Goods information

See Sections 5.2 and 5.3.

Trade Name (Distinguishing Name)

The Trade Name is the proprietary name under which the product is marketed. Thename may be protected under Patent and Trademark legislation.

The Distinguishing Name must include words and/or phrases that distinguish theproduct from all others and identify its use,

Example: Thiodan® EC Insecticide

Active Constituents

The active constituent is the biologically active component of the product. Activeconstituents are listed on the label under the Trade Name and are usually expressedas grams per kilogram (g/kg) or grams per litre (g/L).

When the active ingredient is a scheduled poison, the chemical name must be incapital letters. If the active ingredient is a cholinesterase inhibitor the words ‘ananticholinesterase compound’ must appear after the active ingredient. It is also arequirement to declare certain solvents at prescribed levels, underneath the activeconstituent statement.

Example:

Active constituent: 350 g/L ENDOSULFAN

Solvent: 640 g/L LIQUID HYDROCARBON

Statement of Claims for Use

This section is a short statement of the purposes for which the product is registered

Example:

For the control of Heliothis (Helicoverpa spp.) and various other insect pests onCotton, Oilseeds, Vegetables and Other Crops.

Prohibition and Restriction Statements

Where specific restrictions or prohibitions are imposed by State Governmentauthorities, details will be presented in bold letters on the main panel of the label.

Example:

Restricted chemical product - only to be supplied to or used by an

authorised person.

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Pesticides

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Net Contents Example only

The net contents of the container expressed in metric units, e.g. 20 L, 5 Kg NET.

Directions for use

Due to space restrictions on the container label, many pesticides now have a bookletcontaining the directions for use (and other important information) attached to themain label. There is one booklet attached to each container. Read this booklet!

It is good practice to provide these booklets to personnel involved with the applica-tion of pesticides so that they have a ‘ready reference’ which can be carried in avehicle or in their pocket during application.

The directions for use are usually set out in a table that lists:

• Crops where the product can be used,

• Pest (insect, disease or weed) that is being targeted,

• States where the particular usage is registered,

• Rate of product to be applied (e.g. L/Ha, L/100L water),

• Witholding Period (WHP),

• Critical comments - Advice that relates to that specific use of the product or isimportant in the general performance of the product.

Included in the ‘Directions for Use’ are restraints statements which advise what NOTto do with the product during mixing and application.

Use limitation statements

The limitation statements appear immediately below the ‘Directions for Use’. Theseare general restrictions on the use of the product. For example:

NOT TO BE USED FOR ANY OTHER PURPOSE, OR IN ANY MANNER,

CONTRARY TO THIS LABEL UNLESS AUTHORISED UNDER

APPROPRIATE LEGISLATION.

Residue management statements are included in this section, including the detailedwithholding period if these have not been shown in the ‘Directions for Use’.

General instructions

This section of the label contains important information which is not contained in the‘Directions for Use’ or elsewhere on the label. Subjects which are often included inthis section are:

• Mode of action (including anti-resistance strategies).

• Equipment usage, maintenance and cleaning.

• Mixing instructions.

• Compatibility statements.

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Example onlyThe following general instructions may also be included:

Insecticide Resistance Warning A warning on the possibility of insects developingtolerance and/or resistance to the product.

Export of Treated Produce Advice on minimum residue levels for foodstuffswhich may have been treated with the product.

Compatibility Compatibility of the product with other pesticidesin tank mixes.

Application Advice on application methods and the best condi-tions. Specific mandatory restrictions are included.

Precautions Precautions to be taken when using the product andfor the protection of non-target species and areas.Specific advice on storage, handling and disposalof containers. This information should beconsidered in the BMP / PAMP process.

Special restrictions

Where particular restrictions have been placed on the use of the products, an additionalsection provides details of the restrictions.

Example: CONDITIONS OF USE ON COTTON

Precautions

The precautionary statements relate to:

• Protection of crops, native and other non-target plants, livestock, wildlife, fish and otheraquatic organisms and the environment,

• Special hazard warnings for fish, other aquatic species, bees, livestock and theenvironment,

• Precautions when entering treated areas or handling treated crops,

• Storage, handling and disposal procedures,

• Fire safety precautions.

Safety Directions and First Aid

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) specify these directionsas part of the product registration process.

All personnel involved with the transport, storage, mixing, application and/or disposalshould familiarize themselves with this section before opening the container orpackage.

NRA Approval No.

The NRA Approval number indicates that the product has attained clearance for thepurpose shown on the label.

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Pesticides

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6.3 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

MSDS stands for Material Safety Data Sheet. It contains more detail (than the label) regarding

the physical nature of the product, the dangers associated with accidental exposure to it and how to

proceed in the event of an accident.

There is an MSDS available for every pesticide and these will be supplied on request where

chemical supplies are obtained.

Cotton growers and applicators should ensure that all personnel who are handling and applying

pesticides read the label and have access to the relevant MSDS information at all times.

A MSDS consists of five main sections:

Statement of Hazardous Nature and Company Details.

Identification Details which identify the pesticide and ingredient

properties.

Health Hazard Information Health effects from exposure to the pesticide and first

aid guidelines.

Advice to Doctor: In the event of poisoning, ensure

that these details accompany the patient to hospital.

Precautions for Use Guidelines relating to equipment and procedures for

mixing, application and disposal. Details of personal

protective equipment to be worn while in contact with

the product are shown. All employees who are involved

in the application process should be aware of these

precautions.

Safe Handling Information Guidelines relating to equipment and procedures to be

used during handling, transport and storage of the

product. All employees who are involved in handling

the product should be aware of these precautions.

Emergency Contact Numbers for the product are shown at the front and at the end of each MSDS.

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6.4 Symbols on chemical containers

Dangerous goods symbols and signs are placed on containers and in MSDS sheets to provide aclear indication of particular hazards. These are referred to as Dangerous Goods Class Diamonds.Personnel should be aware of what each of these means so that pesticides can be handled properly.

Examples of Class Diamonds that refer to pesticides include:

Description Class Sign Example*

Poison gas 2 Methyl Bromide

Flammable liquids 3 Lannate®

Dangerous-when-wet solids 4.3 Fumitoxin® tablets

Oxidising agents 5 Ammonium Nitrate fertilizer.

Poison 6 Spray Seed®

Corrosive substances 8 Ethephon®

Miscellaneous dangerous goods 9 Karate®

* Note: These are examples only and each pesticide container and MSDS should be checked.

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Pesticides

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As well as Class Diamonds which indicate the hazardous nature of the pesticide, Packing Groupnumbers indicate the level of any danger.

In addition to the dangerous goods symbols, other signs may be posted on the containers, packagingand transport. Examples are shown below, but if there is any doubt, you should consult yourchemical supplier or the manufacturer, so that the hazard rating of the product can be establishedprior to use.

Other signs

Chemicals may have more than one dangerous goods label. For example, if a product is a poisonand is also flammable, it would have both Class 6 and Class 3 labels.

Manufacturers and suppliers can provide pesticide applicators and growers with more informationon safety symbols and signs.

6.5 Transport

Safe transport of pesticides is often overlooked when moving pesticides from stores to the farm,but proper planning and management of this aspect of pesticide usage are essential. It is advisableto request the chemical reseller to deliver pesticides to the farm or loading area, because they haveproperly equipped vehicles and trained personnel.

Following a few guidelines will reduce the risk of accidental exposure or spills:-

• The vehicle design must be suitable for farm chemicals. The cab must be separate fromthe load area. Never carry pesticides in the passenger compartment of a vehicle.

• Vehicles must be free of defects that may affect the safety of the load or occupants.

• The load area should be clear, dry and free of protrusions that may damage packages.

Hazards - Pesticide transport

Vehicle(s) Unsuitable or unroadworthy vehicles increase the risk of spillages and/or

accidents.

Personnel Untrained personnel increase the risk of accidents and may not respond

properly in the event of spillage or contamination.

Handling Pesticide containers must be handled, loaded and unloaded carefully to

avoid damage or leakage occurring.

Personal safety Pesticides must not be carried in the cabin with personnel; protective

equipment (including safety equipment) should be worn whilst handling

pesticide containers.

Security Pesticides must not be left in areas where unauthorized personnel may

have access to the containers, or weather may damage the packaging.

PESTICIDES

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• The load area should be fully enclosed. Pesticides should be protected from hightemperatures and moisture during transit.

• Vehicles containing pesticides should not be parked in residential areas, apart frompick-up or delivery.

• Transport routes should be selected to avoid residential and sensitive areas.

• Check that all containers and packages are complete (i.e. no leakage or potential leakpoints) before loading.

• Consult your supplier or the Australian Dangerous Goods Code before transportingmixed loads.

• Drivers should be properly trained.

Loading and unloading

• Observe safe work practices when lifting or moving pesticide containers.

• Wear appropriate safety and protective equipment.

• Do not exceed equipment safe working load (SWL) limits.

• Check all packs prior to loading. Damaged packs should be replaced.

• Distribute the weight evenly on the vehicle.

• Don’t stack drums and liquids on top of cartons.

• Secure the load.

• When unloading, do not drop pesticide containers!

• Have spillage safety equipment accessible during unloading operations.

• If the pesticides are not being used immediately, unload them into a proper storagearea.

6.6 Safe storage

This section focuses on the storage of chemicals on-farm. For guidelines on the handling andstorage of large quantities of pesticides, refer to Australian Standard AS 2507-1998.

Use of pesticides in cotton necessitates storage of limited quantities on or near the farm so that theyare available for immediate use. All personnel have a duty of care to lower the risk of exposure andaccident to other personnel and the environment.

Pesticides may be stored in:

• a room in a designated storage building, provided that the room is separated from otherparts of the building by floor-to-ceiling walls.

• a separate chemical store room.

• a secure open storage area.

• a locked cupboard (small quantities).

Pesticides should always be stored in their original labelled and registered containers. They shouldnever be stored in soft drink bottles or other food or drink containers, nor alongside seed or livestockfoodstuffs.

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The best choice of storage of pesticides is a secure, well-ventilated building that is used solely forpesticides (i.e. no animal feed is stored with the pesticides). Keep chemical groups apart (e.g.herbicides and insecticides) to prevent contamination and check product labels and MSDS forspecific storage requirements.

The following points, which apply to an on-farm store, will assist growers. If a large or commercialstorage is planned then relevant building codes should be used.

Site

The site should:

• be well above the highest recorded flood level, (or adequately protected from flooding)and pose no threat to waterways,

• be at least 10 metres from other buildings and at least 15 metres from the propertyboundary,

• have adequate airflow and be clear of obstructions or fire hazards,

• be positioned to allow adequate access for machinery and vehicles and easy loading/unloading,

• have access to a clean reliable water supply.

Note: Distances are absolute minimums and owners should assess their properties and site thestorage in the safest practical location on their property.

Building

• Make the store large enough for the farm requirements, whilst leaving enough space tomove containers around.

• Make the store large enough to separate pesticides according to their Dangerous Goodsclass and ensure that herbicides are well separated from other pesticides. Signage toindicate the herbicide area would assist workers and minimize the risk of contamination.

• Floors should be concrete, nonslip and self-draining to an evaporation pit or sump thatcan be pumped. Keep the floors clear and free of obstructions, by using shelves andpallets to store chemicals.

Hazards - Pesticide storage and mixing areas

Education Insufficent training may lead to accidents (e.g. chemical & handling safety).

Pesticide type Selection of incorrect pesticides may lead to personal injury, crop contami-

nation and other adverse consequences.

Construction Incorrect construction and location may increase the risk of accidents or

other adverse outcomes.

Spillage Stores should be constructed to contain and control spillages.

Contamination Measures must be taken to prevent personal contamination (e.g. lockable

stores, provision of PPE, warning signs).

Flammability Many pesticide solvents are flammable.

Combinations Products that are not segregated may combine and increase risks.

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• The store should be bunded to contain 25% of the total liquid in the store at any timeplus 100% of the largest container stored at any one time.

• Fire and chemical resistant building materials should be used.

• There should be adequate ventilation and the use of roof or wall vents is recommended.Ventilation openings should be meshed to prevent wildlife and/or children from entering.

• There should be access to fresh water, and emergency shower and eye wash facilitiesshould be installed.

• Ensure adequate lighting. Natural light is preferred (lower fire risk).

• Doors and windows must be strong and lockable.

• A separate lockable cabinet is recommended for highly toxic products.

Safety

• Personal protective equipment (PPE), and an adequate supply of clean water must beaccessible in case of personal contamination.

• A dry-powder fire extinguisher should be mounted just outside the store entrance, anda spillage kit located nearby.

• A well-ventilated site outside the enclosed storage is advisable for mixing pesticidesand storing used containers.

• If unused (mixed) pesticide is returned to the store, it should be stored in a dedicated‘short-term’ holding tank that has been labelled properly.

• Appropriate dangerous goods signs should be posted at the building entrance, with alarge sign (see example below) posted at the main site entrance.

Pesticide Storage Area

No Smoking. No Fires.

Authorised Personnel Only

Emergency phone numbers:

Poisons Information Centre: 131 126

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6.7 Mixing

Read the label and MSDS information.

Do not smoke or drink during the mixing process or

before personal decontamination has been completed.

6.7.1 Before mixing

• Considerations to reduce risks during mixing include using:

- less volatile formulations,

- less toxic pesticides,

- easy-to-handle formulations (e.g. dry flowables) and packages,

- personnel rotation schedules (i.e. rosters) to limit exposure.

• Where possible, eliminate or reduce the operator’s contact with the concentrate. Usingclosed loading systems, auto fillers and concentrate suction spears or hoses can do this.If personnel are handling concentrate, gloves and eye protection should always be worn,and additional PPE should be worn if advised on the label.

• Always mix in a well ventilated, secure area.

• Stay upwind when mixing concentrates. Do not eat, drink or smoke during mixing orrefilling. Cover (dress) all small wounds and protect using PPE.

• A plentiful supply of fresh water and washing facilities should be available near themixing area so that mixers can wash frequently, and operators can wash before enteringthe cab.

Hazards - Mixing pesticides

Handling Pesticide containers can be heavy. Use correct lifting techniques,

procedures and equipment to prevent injury or spillage.

Spillage Risk to personnel and the environment.

Overflow Overfilling of spray or mixing vats.

Poisoning Inhalation, absorption or ingestion of pesticides or mixtures.

Contamination Personal or environmental from spills or longer term exposure.

Waste Incorrect disposal of containers and/or excess pesticide resulting in

contamination of environment or personnel.

Combustion Volatile solvents or pesticides may be ignited.

Combinations Some chemical combinations are incompatible and mixing them may lead

to unpredictable results, personal injury and/or crop damage.

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• Calculate required volumes and prepare equipment before opening the concentratecontainers.

• Measuring equipment for both liquids and solids (e.g. powders or granules) should beavailable in the mixing area. Measuring jugs should have accurate measurementmarkings, be robust and chemical resistant. A premixing bucket may be required forwettable powder formulations. Automated measuring and dispensing systems shouldbe used where large volumes of concentrates are being mixed. These systems shouldbe ‘closed’ so that operators are never in contact with the pesticide.

• Do not use measuring equipment or chemical handling equipment for other purposes.If chemical combinations are being prepared, clean the measuring equipment betweendispensing concentrates to prevent incompatibility problems or reduced efficacy of thepesticides.

• Always half fill the tank or mixing vat with water (if required) before adding concentrates.Add the concentrate components slowly, with pauses for agitation. Pesticides such asULV’s should be added slowly (and preferably via a closed system) to the spray tank toavoid splash back. Do not leave the mixing area until the operation has been completedand equipment has been stored properly.

• Take care when opening drums as temperature changes may have caused a pressurebuild up. Always open drums while they are upright.

• Bags should always be opened by cutting the outer and liner with a sharp knife - do nottear the bag open.

• Cartons should be opened from the top as there is usually a plastic liner with a fastenerunder the top flaps.

• Avoid pouring concentrates from above waist height. Use a loading platform alongside,or attached to, the spray tank or vat.

• After emptying a container, store it upright with the lid on until proper rinsing and/ordisposal procedures can be followed.

• All handling and dispensing equipment should be thoroughly washed anddecontaminated after use.

Never allow unauthorised personnel into the mixing area.

Never stir chemicals with your hand or arm.

6.7.2 Agitation

The premixing vat or spray tank must have good agitation. Use the tank agitators to mix the

chemical before (or while) proceeding to the application area.

Whenever a solid active constituent is used (e.g. wettable powders, dispersable granules or suspensionconcentrates), good spray vat agitation will be needed to keep the spray output consistent. Failureto do this will result in varying degrees of settling towards the bottom of the vat during the sprayingoperation. Poorly mixed pesticides will be less effective and may damage or block equipment.

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6.7.3 Water quality

The quality of water available for making up spray solutions on farm is very variable. In somecases it is of such poor quality that it can seriously affect pesticide activity in the spray vat prior tospraying. Check the bottom of the spray tank and the filters for any signs of sedimentation or otherincompatibilities with the water being used.

As part of best farming practice, a water test should be done annually on each water source to checkthe quality and suitability for use in spray mixtures. There are a number of factors that must be

borne in mind when assessing water suitability and these are:

Water acidity/alkalinity (pH)

Two of the major insecticide chemical groups, the organophosphates and the carbamates, degrade

by hydrolysis (interaction with water) when they come into contact with water that is alkaline. On

the pH scale used to measure acidity/alkalinity the neutral point is pH 7.0. Many bores produce

alkaline water of pH 8.0 to 8.5. A number of acidifying buffering agents (e.g. Primabuff ®) have

appeared on the market to counter this destabilising effect, but an accurate idea of the pH needs to

be obtained to work out dose rates. Check that the buffering agents are compatible with the pesticides

and formulations being used.

Water clarity

The suspended solids, especially clay and silt fragments, that make some water supplies brown in

colour not only clog filters and wear nozzles by constant abrasion, but can interact with some

pesticides. For example, non-residual herbicides such as glyphosate, paraquat and diquat, binding

to the clay is such that the active chemical is no longer free to work on its target weed. It is

advisable to use only clear, settled water for sprays and if none is readily available, consider the

possibility of using alum (aluminium sulphate) to flocculate and sink the suspended solids present.

Calcium and magnesium salts

Alkalinity in spray water is often associated with a high level of so-called ‘hardness’ caused by

calcium and magnesium salts. Many pesticide formulations include components to overcome the

reaction of calcium and magnesium with the formulation. In extreme cases water could be treated

to give additional protection. The problem is minimised if spray solutions are applied shortly after

mixing.

6.7.4 Adjuvants

An adjuvant is any substance added to a spray mixture to modify its performance (usually to enhanceit) or overcome some inhibiting factor. Applicators should seek advice from the manufacturer andsupplier of the pesticide regarding how the addition of an adjuvant will affect pesticide performance.Always read the label to ensure that the adjuvant is compatible with the pesticide, formulation andapplication method being used.

Wetting agents e.g. BS1000®

Labels will always indicate whether a wetting agent or surfactant is required. This may be dependent

upon the volume applied. Non-ionic wetters are normally used, but check label recommendations

carefully.

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Wetting agents increase pesticide coverage by reducing surface tension on the leaf surface so that

the droplet spreads over a larger area.

Stickers e.g. Bond®

Labels will always indicate whether a sticker is required. Stickers increase adhesion of the spray

mixture on the target and reduce droplet bounce.

Thickeners e.g. Xanthanum gum

Thickening agents increase the viscosity of the mixture.

Buffering agents e.g. Primabuff®

Some chemical groups including the organophosphates and carbamate insecticides become

destabilised in alkaline spray water. Proprietary buffering (acidifying) compounds are available to

counter this effect if the available water has a pH greater than 7.

Other additives

Monsanto recommends the addition of 2 kg of Sulphate of Ammonia per 100 L spray volume toRoundup® sprays. This promotes consistent performance and assists in overcoming antagonism incertain mixed sprays. Formulations containing Sulphate of Ammonia (e.g. Liquid Ammo®) arealso available.

Check product labels for specific requirements.

6.7.5 After completion of mixing

• Store all concentrates and unused mix properly.

• Clean all measuring and mixing equipment thoroughly.

• Decontaminate (if required) after cleaning.

• Wash and/or clean all PPE ready for the next application.

• Update records for the chemical(s), stocks and application.

6.8 Chemical combinations (mixtures)

Before combining pesticides - Read the label.

Many pesticides have a compatibility statement included on the label.

It is common practice to combine two or more pesticides in a spray mixture to save time, labour and

machinery costs. However , because of the great variety of pesticides now available, the effects of

water quality and increased legal liability, most pesticide manufacturers are guarded in their claims

of compatibility between different pesticides. Specific information is available from chemical

companies and suppliers on request.

Combining different pesticides can result in problems of application or efficacy of pest control due

to incompatibility of the chemicals in the pesticide formulations.

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Wherever possible, mixtures should be avoided unless recommended by the manufacturers or unless

the chemicals have been shown to be compatible through extended use.

• Combinations (mixtures) should be avoided if at all possible.

• If mixtures are contemplated, the manufacturer’s instructions and label advice shouldbe followed carefully. Use mixtures which have been proven by extended previous usein a range of situations.

• Where information is unavailable, and mixtures unavoidable, use the following test asa rough guide for assessment of possible mixture problems.

If an untried mixture is going to precipitate, it is better for it to occur in a bottle than in the spraytank. However, the absence of any obvious physical change is not a foolproof indication of absolutecompatibility.

The order of adding different formulations to the tank should be:

First Wettable powder or water dispersable granule or soluble powder,

Second Suspension concentrate (flowable) or miscible liquids,

Third Adjuvants or wetters / spreaders / stickers,

Fourth Emulsifiable concentrates or crop oils.

Measuring equipment should be cleaned after the addition of each product to avoid interactionsbetween concentrates. Failure to clean the equipment may result in physical incompatibilities orreduced biological activity.

Test for compatibility.

(1) Use a clean clear glass jar such as a 1 litre container.

(2) Make up 500 mL of correctly diluted spray mixture. Use the same water that is normally

used as a carrier for sprays at the same temperature, i.e. ambient temperature.

(3) Add the products in the same sequence as given below. Agitate after each addition.

(4) Shake the jar vigorously and let stand for 15 minutes. If scum, clumps or any precipitate

forms, the mixture is not compatible. Similarly, a mix that generates heat should not be

used.

NOTE: This test is a guide only. Always refer to the pesticide label, manufac-

turer and supplier for the most up to date information.

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6.9 Protective equipment

6.9.1 Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Whilst every pesticide label should carry instructions on the minimum protective clothing to beworn, the following equipment and clothing should be used when handling all agricultural pesticides.General guidelines for PPE and hazard to the environment for common cotton pesticides are availablefrom Cotton Australia.

Clothing

Cover as much of the body as possible, especially the face, neck, chest and forearms. Personnel

involved in mixing large quantities of pesticide should wear washable fabric overalls and waterproof

boots. Wear trouser legs outside the boots.

A spare, clean set of PPE clothing should be available in case of an accident or contamination.

Gloves and boots

Never use leather or cloth materials because they absorb pesticide and provide a constant source ofcontamination. Gloves should be unlined for the same reason and worn inside the sleeves. Glovesmust be made of water proof and chemical resistant materials.

Face and eyes

Washable hats, protective glasses or goggles, spray helmets and face shields are important forhandling concentrates.

Respirators

Choose the correct type of respirator with the correct cartridge. Replace cartridges regularly andwrite the installation date on each cartridge. Ensure that the respirator fits well (especially aroundthe nose) and store safely in a cool, dry, dark place when not being used.

Respirator design and cartridge type should conform to Australian Standards 1715-1994 and 1716-1994 and be the correct type to protect the user from the pesticide being handled.

6.9.2 Controlled atmosphere equipment (CAE)

Air-conditioned cabs

An air-conditioned cab can reduce a spray operator’s exposure to the pesticide being sprayed. Thenormal paper elements fitted to an air conditioner’s intake will not prevent pesticides from enteringthe cab and these must be replaced with activated charcoal filters.

Care must be taken not to contaminate the cab, especially with concentrate. The best means of

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Pesticides

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avoiding this is to have separate personnel for mixing and loading. Alternatively, the operatorshould have separate protective clothing and equipment for filling and mixing and wash properlybefore re-entering the cab so that the cab interior is not contaminated.

Ensure that the cab is sealed during filling operations in case of spillage or odours.

Forced air hoods and helmets

Personal hoods and helmets that have forced air ventilation have limited applicability for fieldapplication of pesticides in cotton. They may be used where a small open vehicle or 4WD motorcycleis being used for spot spraying. PPE which allows greater mobility is the preferred option.

6.10 Protecting others

6.10.1 People management and safety

The overall enterprise manager has a responsibility to put in place a work environment in whichproperly trained employees, including himself, can use pesticides safely and effectively.

This entails provision of:

• Safe spray mixing facilities,

• Safe and secure storage of chemical stocks,

• Safe transport of pesticides when required,

• Adequate safety and first aid facilities.

Adequate training is essential for all personnel who are involved in pesticide application. Itemsunder this heading would include:

• Safe operational routines,

• Knowledge of both label and MSDS contents,

• Good personal hygiene routines,

• Awareness of chemical handling responsibilities,

• Knowledge of local emergency procedures.

6.10.2 Monitoring exposure

Anyone who is exposed to pesticides on a regular and continuous basis may wish to have blood orurine tests to determine the adequacy of their protection equipment and safety habits. The testusually determines any chronic effect of pesticides from organophosphates or carbamates. Bloodtests are of little value for non-accumulating pesticides such as organochlorines or pyrethroids asthe timing of the tests are critical and the pesticides are quickly expelled from the body.

Where individuals wish to be tested, monitoring must begin at least one month prior to exposure soa baseline or reference point for that individual can be determined. Every individual will have adifferent baseline. Testing should then be done early in the season (after 1– 2 sprays) and then laterin the season. Testing will need to be organised in conjunction with your doctor and samplesanalysed by any of the private pathology laboratories. All samples from the one individual need tobe analysed by the same laboratory.

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6.11 Poisoning

Poisoning accidents are usually the result of contamination with the pesticide concentrate.Contamination is most likely to occur during initial measuring out and preparation of the spraysolution. Accidental splashing, when loading, is probably the major source of exposure.

Due consideration should be given to continual exposure to spray drift and to entering sprayedpaddocks that are still loaded with active residues. Cotton chippers and insect scouts require advanceadvice if the fields have had recent pesticide applications, and minimum re-entry periods should beobserved.

Table 6.3. How pesticides enter the body.

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Pesticides

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Wash thoroughly before eating and drinking and change into clean clothes at the end of the job.

• Treat all contamination as a serious incident, and implement procedures accordingly.

• Persons attending a contamination incident should ensure personal protection to preventadditional poisoning occurring.

• Check the MSDS and label, and follow directions if possible.

• Call the Poisons Information Centre, a local doctor and the ambulance.

• Put the patient out of the sunlight, in a well-ventilated location which is away from thecontamination or other pesticides.

• Stay with the patient and direct other personnel to obtain medical attention and guidethem to the patient.

• Advise other personnel so that they can observe the person who has been contaminatedfor signs of poisoning.

First aid kit

A basic first aid kit should be kept at the storage and mixing facility and in any field vehicle that isused for pesticide application. Items that should be included in a first aid kit for pesticide poisoningare:

Clean water,

Soap, towel and small brush (e.g. nail brush),

Clean clothing and a clean blanket,

Atropine tablets (bottle of 20),

Ipecac syrup to induce vomiting,

Boric acid or other mild antiseptic; Methylated spirits,

Shaped plastic airway for artificial respiration,

Specific items as specified in MSDS for pesticides being used,

Instructions for use for the items in the first aid kit (see below).

Poisons Information Centre (PIC)

Australia Wide 131 126

24 hours

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First aid in the event of poisoning

If any person is exposed to a significant quantity of pesticide (e.g. in the event of an accident),always presume that poisoning has occurred and implement emergency first aid procedures.

If a person starts to feel ill or develop symptoms while working with pesticides or within 24 hoursafter exposure, they should stop work immediately and seek medical attention.

Symptoms may include one or more of the following:

• blurred vision

• headaches

• dizziness

• nausea or vomiting

• chest pain

• breathing difficulties

• skin rashes

• drowsiness

• unconsciousness.

Ring the Poisons Information Centre (131 126) and seek professional medical assistance. It isimportant to have the pesticide label and MSDS available for consultation during discussions withboth the PIC and medical professionals. First aid should be given as soon as possible after exposureto pesticides and whilst waiting for medical personnel to arrive.

Poison on the skin

1. Drench the affected area with water.

2. Remove all contaminated clothing.

3. Wash the affected area thoroughly with soap and water (Do not scrub the skin).

4. Clean under fingernails and toenails if necessary.

5. Wash the skin with methylated spirits.

6. Seek medical attention.

Poison in the eye

1. Hold eyelid open and wash with a gentle stream of clean water for at least 15 minutes.

2. Do not use soap, cleaners or other chemicals to wash the eye.


Inhaled poison

1. Move the patient to fresh air.

2. Assisting personnel should avoid being exposed to the pesticide.

3. Loosen the victim’s clothing.

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Pesticides

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4. Apply artificial respiration if the victim has stopped breathing.

5. Keep victim warm and calm: wrap them in a blanket or extra clothes if necessary.


Swallowed poison

1. Call a doctor, ambulance or the Poisons Information Centre (131126) immediately.

2. If the label or MSDS recommends giving an antidote by mouth, then do so; do notattempt to give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.

3. Seek medical advice as soon as possible.

Burns

1. Immerse the affected area in cold water for 10 to 15 minutes.

2. Bandage lightly with sterile dressing.


6.12 Pesticides in the environment

Pesticide labels and MSDS have information about protection of the environment and how to disposeof the product safely. This information is detailed under the “Protecting wildlife, fish, crustaceaand the environment” section of the label (see Section 6.2).

Many pesticides are toxic to aquatic organisms, bees and birds and all practical measures to avoidnon-target effects on these species should be taken. The following guidelines for the protection ofaquatic organisms, bees and birds are adapted from “Cotton Pest Management Guide -2002/2003”(2002) by K. J. Schulze and A. R. Tomkins.

Protecting aquatic organisms

• Prevent pesticide drift onto surface waters or seepage into ground water,

• Locate storage, mixing and loading facilities away from surface water bodies,

• Plan pesticide storage, mixing and loading facilities with bunding and sumps to preventcontamination of water bodies,

• Install equipment that prevents back-flow when filling spray tanks from surface watersor other water stores,

• Avoid applying pesticides onto fields that are under irrigation or have free-standingwater in the field,

• Build sufficient on-farm storage capacity (refer to Best Practices Manual) to containpesticide contaminated tail water from cotton fields,

• Spraying in an upstream direction, when it is necessary to spray near watercourses, toreduce the maximum concentration at any one point,

• Use only registered products to control aquatic weeds,

• Do not dispose of empty pesticide containers or unused pesticides in surface water, onflood plains or in catchments when they could contaminate water courses.

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Protecting bees

Many pesticides are toxic to bees and can damage productivity if the bees or hives arecontaminated. Some pesticides have specific warnings on the label such as:

Dangerous to bees

DO NOT spray any plants in flower while bees are foraging.

Pesticide risk to bees can be reduced by:

• Applying pesticides in the early morning or in the evening when bees are not foraging,

• Notify the apiarist when spraying is scheduled so that he can remove the hives,

• If possible, use EC or granular formulations in preference to wettable powders whichare particularly hazardous to bees,

• Use equipment that minimises drift, especially when crops and plants that are adjacentto the spray area are flowering,

• Avoid contamination of water where bees may drink.

Protecting birds

Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides can be particularly toxic to birds, especiallyin granular formulations. Risks to birds from granular products can be managed by:

• Ensuring complete incorporation of the product beneath the soil (particularly at rowends where spillage may occur),

• Cleaning up spillages immediately.

Bait formulations for the control of rodents or soil insects may also be hazardous. The riskto birds from baits can be managed by:

• Ensuring even bait distribution, with no local concentrations of material,

• Not baiting over bare ground or in open situations where birds may see the baits,

• Not baiting near bird habitats such as remnant vegetation,

• Use of bait stations that do not allow access by birds,

• Only baiting where pest pressure is high (as confirmed by field checks),

• Baiting late in the afternoon when birds have finished feeding,

• Prompt collection and burial of rodent carcases where these occur in open situations,

• Immediate clean-up of all spillages.

Insecticide sprays can also be hazardous to birds, either by direct contact or by feeding onthe contaminated crop or seeds. Risks to feeding and nesting birds can be managed by:

• Minimising drift into bird habitats,

• Actively discouraging birds from feeding in crops which are to be sprayed,

• Spraying late in the day when birds have finished feeding,

• Using low toxicity pesticides.

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Pesticide fate processes

When a pesticide is mixed and applied, it is immediately subjected to numerous environmentalforces that affect its fate. The behaviour and fate of pesticides in the environment should be aconsideration when developing a farm PAMP, so that correct risk assessments can be made andappropriate management procedures established for each pesticide. Refer to Appendix 4 for moredetails of pesticide fate processes.

6.13 Residues

Maximum Residue Limit (MRL)

The MRL is the highest concentration of a residue of a particular chemical that is legally permittedor accepted in a food or animal feed. The concentration is expressed in milligrams per kilogram(mg/kg) of the commodity. (Source: NRA website 2001)

Withholding period (WHP)

The withholding period is the minimum time that must elapse between the last application of apesticide to the crop, and the harvest, grazing and use of crop residues for consumption by humansor animals.

The withholding period is calculated from knowledge of the rate of degradation of the chemicalunder normal conditions, and assumes that the pesticide has been applied according to bestmanagement practices.

The WHP is an attempt to ensure that the pesticide residues do not exceed MRL.

The need to minimize residue levels is particularly important in export commodities (e.g. cottonand cotton seed), where an importing country may impose more stringent MRL limits than those inAustralia.

Remember: Pesticides that drift off-target may contribute to residues in livestock and ornative species that graze on the affected plants. As part of BMP, all growers must demonstratedue diligence to avoid off-target deposits of pesticides.

Re-entry period

The period of time that must pass before an area that has been treated with a pesticide can be re-entered by humans without wearing protective clothing or equipment. Crop consultants can provideinformation on re-entry periods for specific pesticides and situations.

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6.14 Disposal of containers and unused pesticides

6.14.1 How to properly rinse empty containers.

There are several methods of rinsing empty containers:

a) Probes and ‘sucker flusher’ transfer systems

Some chemical concentrate transfer systems include flushing facilities.

These systems typically involve connection of a probe to the container opening to extract the chemicalconcentrate. When the contents are removed a rinse cycle is activated. In all cases, the manufacturer’srecommendations should be followed. Generally speaking, the rinse cycle should last at least 30seconds.

Check the container thread and outside of the container and if contaminated, rinse with a hose intothe spray tank. Rinse the cap separately in a bucket of water and pour this into the spray tank.

Hazards - Disposal of pesticides and containers

Contamination Environment, soil, water, air, personnel.

Degradation Over time pesticides may degrade to form other compounds, packages mayrust or decompose and labels may become unreadable.

Combustion Disposal of containers and waste products in fires may produce toxic by-products or explosions that spread the contaminant over a wider area.

Misuse If containers are not disposed of properly, they may end up being used forother purposes, such as water containers.

Reducing your pesticide and container disposal problem.

• Purchase pesticides in returnable, recyclable or soluble packaging.

• Plan spray applications properly.

• Use suppliers that provide product and packaging recovery programs such asdrumMUSTER®, EnviroDrum® and Chemclear®. Discuss a return or exchange planfor chemicals that are not used immediately during the season.

• Use granules or dry flowable formulations in preference to liquids, and prepare thecorrect amount for each spray.

• Store the minimum quantities required.

• Minimise the amount of equipment used to handle and mix pesticides.

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These systems have the advantage of significantly reducing exposure to the concentrate whiletransferring it to the spray tank.

Rinsing attachments

Several spray equipment manufacturers supply a special rinsing attachment that enables drums andbags to be rinsed, by holding the container over a nozzle in the attachment and turning on the water.The rinsate is drained into the spray tank. The equipment manufacturer’s recommendations shouldbe followed. Generally speaking, the rinse cycle should last for at least 30 seconds.

b) Pressure rinsing (manual)

A special nozzle designed to pierce the container is attached to the end of a hose to force theremaining product from the container. Pressure rinsing, which is generally faster and easier tocarry out than manual triple rinsing, can be used with plastic and non-pressurised metal containers.

How to pressure rinse:

1. Remove the cap from the container. Empty the contents into the tank and allow drainingfor an extra 30 seconds after the flow reduces to drops.

2. Insert the pressure nozzle by puncturing through the lower side of the container.

3. Hold the container upside down over the sprayer tank so the rinsate will run into thesprayer tank.

4. Turn the water on and rinse for the length of time recommended by the manufacturer(at least 30 seconds) or until the rinsate is clear. Rotate the nozzle to rinse all insidesurfaces.

5. Rinse the container cap when there is a clear stream of water coming out of the containeror alternatively, rinse separately in a bucket of water and pour this into the spraytank.

6. Check the container thread and outside of the container and, if contaminated, rinse witha hose into the spray tank.

7. Let the container dry completely and replace the cap.

c) Triple rinsing (manual)

Triple rinsing is a three-stage process.

1. Remove the cap from the container.

2. Empty the contents into the spray tank and allow the container to drain for 30 secondsafter the flow reduces to drops.

3. Fill the container with water to between 20% and 25% of its capacity.

4. Replace the cap securely.

5. Shake, rotate, roll or invert the container vigorously for at least 30 seconds, so that therinse reaches all inside surfaces.

6. Remove the cap. Pour the rinsate from the container into the sprayer tank. Let it drainfor 30 seconds after the flow reduces to drops.

7. Repeat steps 2 to 6, two more times.

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8. Check the container thread and outside of the container and if contaminated rinse witha hose into the spray tank. Rinse the cap separately in a bucket of water and pour thisinto the spray tank.

9. Let the container dry completely and replace the cap.

Empty pesticide containers

Proper management of used pesticide containers:

• ensures you get full value from the purchase,

• avoids visual pollution,

• protects the environment and prevents chemical residues from harming people, animalsand wildlife,

• turns hazardous waste into acceptable landfill or a recyclable resource.

Before disposal, pesticide containers must be thoroughly rinsed. Rinsate can be disposed of byinclusion in a compatible registered spray mix or in a dedicated disposal pit.

6.14.2 Disposal of pesticide containers

Recycle

Refer to the pesticide label for specific recommendations on disposal methods.

Where possible, purchase pesticides in returnable or recyclable containers (e.g. EnviroDrum®).

Large drums may be recycled through approved systems and/or the supplier.

Bulk handling containers should be returned to the pesticide manufacturer for refilling. Refer tothe manufacturers recommendations.

Disposal

With metal, glass and moulded plastic containers, the following procedures should be adopted:

• After use, rinse the container properly, adding rinsate to the tank mix. Drums cancontain minute amounts of pesticide even after triple rinsing and therefore should notbe used for any other purpose.

• Then, pierce or crush the container. Drum crushers are available in some areas.

• Take crushed containers to an approved disposal facility.

Burning of paper containers is permissible only in places remote from people, livestock and publicareas that could be affected by the smoke. Extreme care must be taken. It is also preferable todispose of paper containers at designated local disposal areas (tips). Burning containers with residuesof volatile herbicides must be avoided. If recycling (or the use of services such as drumMUSTER®)is not an option, dispose of plastic containers by delivering them to an approved disposal facility.Look for the drumMUSTER® logo on containers which qualify for collection in the program.

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Pesticides

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6.14.3 Disposal of pesticides

Pesticides should not be disposed of on the property. The following guidelines provide options fordisposal of pesticide concentrates and mixtures.

Refer to the booklet Aerial Spraying Facilities - Environmental Guidelines (1998) produced byCotton Australia, AAAA and EPA (NSW) and published by the EPA (NSW). This booklet hasdetails regarding pesticide handling and disposal which are relevant to all applicators.

If pesticide applications are planned properly, and amounts are calculated correctly, then surplusconcentrates and mixtures will be minimised.

Concentrates

• Return any unopened packages to the supplier or reseller.

• Store the pesticide in a secure store. Remember - Pesticides are required to have a shelflife of only two years.

• Arrange for collection by a waste contractor (Refer to ‘Waste reduction and disposalservices’ in the Yellow Pages).

• Treat the pesticide so that it no longer poses a hazard to personnel or the environment.It may be possible to dispose of pesticides that rapidly biodegrade or hydrolyse in acorrectly located and constructed disposal pit. (See Section 6.14.4)

Surplus pesticide mixtures

• Store the pesticide for later use. Pesticides that are stable after being mixed and are tobe used in the next 12 hours could be left in the application tank with a warning signattached (e.g. Poison, Hazardous Pesticide, Avoid Contact). Pesticides that will not beused in the next 12 hours should be stored in a holding tank with a warning sign andcorrect pesticide label attached.

Refer to the product label and ask resellers about the stability of pesticides after theyhave been mixed. Water quality and the chemical combinations in the mixture mayaffect the stability.

• Treat the pesticide so that it no longer poses a hazard to personnel or the environment.It may be possible to dispose of pesticide mixtures that rapidly biodegrade or hydrolysein a correctly located and constructed disposal pit. (See Section 6.14.4)

ChemCollect®

A one-off government scheme for the collection of unwanted pesticides from properties.Once this scheme finishes, Chemclear® will commence collecting unwanted pesticide wastethat is generated through current usage. Chemclear® will be funded by the pesticide supplyindustry.

Chemclear® will not collect unregistered pesticide waste or pesticides that are part of amanufacturers return scheme, so ChemCollect® will be the last chance to clear properties ofunwanted pesticide concentrates.

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Contaminated pesticide waste

Pesticide wastes such as washings from cleaning application equipment, contaminated soilor rags, clothing or other personal protective equipment should be disposed of correctly.The following provides guidelines for the disposal of contaminated pesticide waste:

• Diluted liquid pesticide waste such as washings should be drained to a sump orevaporation pit.

• Solid waste such as contaminated soil or rags should be kept secure in a disposal drumwith a secure lid. This disposal drum should then be disposed of in an approved manner.

• Consult with State Environmental Protection Agencies and pesticide suppliers for adviceon correct disposal methods.

• Check with local landfill and disposal pit (tip) operators to see if they accept pesticidewaste. If they will accept pesticide waste, it should be secured in a disposal drums anddelivered to the disposal site. Correct safety precautions for pesticide transport shouldbe followed at all times (Refer to Section 6.9).

• As a last resort, the contents of the drum may be disposed of on-farm in a suitabledisposal site.

6.14.4 Establishing a disposal site on a property

On-farm disposal of pesticide waste is not recommended, and should only be undertaken as a lastresort.

In Queensland, pesticide disposal sites on properties must be disclosed to future owners if theproperty is sold.

The site must be well maintained, marked, fenced and managed.

In NSW, contractors are not able to dispose of pesticide waste on the farm where the pesticide wasused, nor on their own property. In Queensland, disposing of pesticide waste on-farm requires alicence. Contact the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency for more information.

Establishing a pesticide disposal site on a property may result in a contaminated site classificationbeing applied to that area. Statutory requirements for contaminated sites vary, and should be carefullyassessed prior to establishing a disposal area.

If an on-farm disposal site is necessary the minimum site specifications are:

• Level and above flood height,

• Of a suitable soil type to avoid excess ponding or leaching,

• Clear of water table high point,

• At least 50 m from roadways and the property boundary,

• At least 100 m from water courses, and not have drainage or seepage into water courses,

• The pit should be 1 to 1.5 metres deep and lined with clay or high density polyethylene(HDPE) sheeting,

• Add rocks and rubble to the pit to increase the surface area for bacteria to break downthe chemical naturally,

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Pesticides

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Hazards - Pesticide spills

Contamination Environment, (eg. soil, water, air, flora, fauna).

Personal or community contamination.

Flammability Pesticides may be flammable or explosive.

Evaporation Spilled pesticides may enter the atmosphere.

Corrosive action Pesticides may be corrosive.

• Adequately separated from houses, trees, livestock and crops,

• It should be fenced to exclude stock and unauthorised entry,

• The site should be clearly signposted with warning signs as a contaminated site. Itshould also be marked on farm maps.

• After adding residues, add lime and organic material if available to aid neutralizationand breakdown of chemicals. Microorganisms to break down the waste may be availablefor purchase from pesticide resellers.

6.15 Pesticide spills

6.15.1 Dealing with spills

Even minor spills of pesticide need prompt action to minimise environmental contamination.

In addition to the directions on the pesticide label and MSDS, and information provided by thesupplier, the following guidelines may assist:

• Wear suitable personal protective equipment (PPE).

• Control the spill by stopping the flow of pesticide. For example; stand a capsized drumin the upright position, place a broken container in a secure outer drum.

• Isolate the area and keep unauthorised people away, and marshal helpers (and otherpeople) on the upwind side of the spill.

• Do not allow any smoking or naked flames near the spill area.

• Do not eat, drink or smoke during the clean-up operation and until personaldecontamination is completed.

• Raise the alarm if necessary. Call the Fire Brigade and Police if the spill is in a publicarea and an Ambulance if personnel have been contaminated by the spill.

• Contain the spill to as small an area as possible by using sand or soil bunds. Do notallow the pesticide to drain into other areas or into waterways.

• Absorb liquid spills with soil, sand or another absorbent material.

• Prevent movement of solid pesticide spills by covering the area with tarpaulins or plastic.

• Decontaminate the affected area by applying hydrated lime, sweeping it thoroughly tocover all remaining pesticide residues and then shovelling the contaminated lime intodisposal drums. Repeat until the area is clean.

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• Clean up the spill by sweeping or shovelling the pesticide (and absorbent material) intodisposal drums.

• If the spill occurs on soil, shovel up the affected soil and transfer it to disposal drums.Cover the affected area with a 5cm layer of hydrated lime and then finish with a layerof uncontaminated soil.

• All equipment which has been used should be decontaminated:

- soak in a solution of bleach for 24 hours

- wash in water and detergent

- rinse and dry.

• Heavily contaminated equipment and clothing that cannot be cleaned should be placedin a disposal drum.

The Fire Brigade should handle major spills in a public place and after contacting them and thePolice, priority should be given to keeping others away from possible chemical exposure untilassistance arrives.

Refer to the pesticide supplier for disposal options once the clean up has been completed.

6.16 Spray failure

Good spray and crop records will assist to determine whether pesticide effectiveness has beenreduced, or whether other factors have contributed. In the event of a suspected spray failure, contactrelevant personnel (e.g. consultant, agronomist) and examine details of the application.

• Pest details - Pest levels before and after the spray, growth stages, resistance levels.

• Type of pesticide - Mode of action, formulation. Is it slower acting?

• Pesticide combinations and water quality.

• Crop factors (e.g. height, canopy density).

• Application conditions (e.g. wind, temperature, time of day).

Points to remember - Pesticide spills

CARE - care for any personnel that may have been injured and/or contaminated.

CLOTHING - ensure that all personnel involved in the clean up have PPE.

CONTROL - the cause of the spill (e.g. return container to upright position).

- access to the spill area by trained personnel.

CONTAIN - the spill by surrounding it with soil, sand to prevent spread.

CLEAN UP - with hydrated lime if available. This not only acts as a sponge but actively neutralises any organophosphates or carbamates present.

COLLECT - the material, package in disposal drums and remove.

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Pesticides

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• Application equipment. Is there ‘striping’ in effectiveness?

• Similar applications done on the same day.

• Post-spray conditions (e.g. rainfall, temperatures).

• Pesticide manufacture details - Batch number(s), date of manufacture, and identifyingmarks on the containers.

Make good notes of the findings and consult with the supplier. Don’t respray with or use higherrates of the same product - rotate to another class of pesticides if possible. Seek independentassessments and advice.

6.17 Legislation

All personnel involved in the purchase, transport, storage and use of pesticides must be aware oftheir obligations under the applicable legislation. Growers should also be aware of common lawprovisions (Refer to your BMP manual).

Amendments to specific legislation should also be consulted.

Refer to your BMP manual for brief explanations of the following legislative documents:

Commonwealth

Road Transport Reform (Dangerous Goods) Regulations (C’wealth) 1997.

New South Wales

Contaminated Land Management Act (NSW) 1997.Dangerous Goods Act (NSW) 1975.Dangerous Goods (General) Regulation (NSW) 1999.Occupational Health and Safety Act (NSW) 1983.Occupational Health and Safety (Hazardous Substances) Regulation (NSW) 1996.Pesticides Act (NSW) 1999.Protection of the Environment Operations Act (NSW) 1997.Road and Rail Transport (Dangerous Goods) Act (NSW) 1997.Waste Minimisation and Management Act (NSW) 1995.

Queensland

Chemical Usage (Agricultural and Veterinary) Control Act (Qld) 1988.Environmental Protection Act (Qld) 1994.Health Regulation (Qld) 1996.Health (Drugs and Poisons) Regulation (Qld) 1996.Workplace Health and Safety Act (Qld) 1995.Workplace Health and Safety Regulation (Qld) 1997.Workplace Health and Safety (Miscellaneous) Regulation (Qld) 1995.

Codes of Practice

Commonwealth Australian Dangerous Goods Code.

New South Wales Code of Practice for the Safe Use and Storage of Chemicals in Agriculture.

Queensland The Storage and Use of Chemicals at Rural Workplaces - Industry Code ofPractice.

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7. Spray equipment

7.1 Ground application

Types of ground rigs

• Three point linkage,

• Trailed,

• Self propelled.

Hazards - Application equipment

Drift Using incorrect techniques, poorly maintained or inappropraite equipment

or spraying in sub-optimal weather conditions may lead to spray drift and

off target contamination.

Equipment Use of incorrect equipment or configuration for spraying may increase the

risk of injury or damage.

Outlet type Incorrect spray outlets (nozzles) selection may lead to incorrect dosage,

sub-optimal coverage or increased drift potential.

Calibration Incorrect calibration may lead to incorrect application rates and/or reduced

pesticide efficacy, or extended residues in the crop.

Maintenance Poor maintenance may lead to equipment failure, pesticide spillage and

personal contamination.

Safety Failure to observe safety and BMP guidelines during loading, spraying,

unloading and decontamination may lead to accidents, personal injury or

death.

Photo: Spray Coupe

Photo: Hardi Spraying Equipment Pty. Ltd.

Photo: GoldAcres Sprayers

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Equipment

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There are four main types of ground application sprayers used in cotton:-

• Conventional hydraulic boom sprayer,

• Air-assisted boom sprayers,

• Controlled droplet applicator or ‘CDA’ sprayers,

• Air shear boom sprayers.

Hydraulic boom sprayers

Hydraulic pressure is the most common method of applying pesticides, and is used on a range ofequipment due to its simplicity and flexibility. To produce droplets, liquid is forced under pressurethrough a small specially designed hole (orifice). A thin sheet of liquid is formed which thenbecomes unstable and disintegrates into spray droplets (Refer to Section 7.4).

However, due to the uncontrolled nature of the disintegration, a range of droplet sizes is produced.The droplet sizes that are produced depend on the pressure, orifice size and orifice design. Flowrate depends on orifice size and pressure. Refer to Section 7.4 for more information on nozzles.

Advantages:

• Components are relatively simple.

• Equipment can be tailored to individual situation, i.e. row width.

• Requires simple changes in operating parameters (i.e. nozzle type, pressure) to changebetween herbicides and insecticides, or to change for varying conditions.

• Range of droplet sizes may give a ‘shotgun’ approach for a range of targets.

Disadvantages:

• Nozzles will wear, and so require regular replacement.

• The wide spectrum of droplet sizes may result in droplet wastage due to drift of smalldroplets and runoff of large droplets.

In general droplet size decreases when:

• orifice size decreases,

• pressure increases,

• fan angle increases.

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Air assisted boom sprayers

This system utilises a slower air stream to carry droplets generated by either hydraulic pressure orCDA towards a target, and then to replace the air surrounding the target with the chemically chargedvolume. Generally, large volumes of slow moving air are involved, but recent design has seen theuse of increased turbulence to improve canopy penetration and underleaf coverage.

Air-assist sprayers may reduce drift by up to 50% compared to a conventional boomsprayer operatingunder similar conditions. However, manufacturer recommendations should be followed, particularlywith reference to the flow rates and air speed set-up.

Controlled droplet application (CDA)

Most commercial CDA ground rig sprayers use centrifugal energy for droplet production.

Liquid is fed onto a spinning disc, cage or drum and the centrifugal energy spreads the liquid to theedge where it breaks up first into liquid ligaments, which in turn break into droplets (Refer toSection 7.4). The system is capable of producing a narrow range of droplet sizes providing theliquid flow rate and rotational speed of the disc are matched. Smaller droplet sizes are produced asdisc or cage rotation speed increases. If the flow rate is too high for the rotation speed, a wide rangeof droplet sizes is produced.

Advantages:

• Application volumes can be decreased due to the narrow droplet spectrum.

• Increased proportion of droplets of optimum size.

• A narrow range of droplets can be produced (compared to hydraulic nozzles).

Disadvantages:

• Increased expertise required to set up and operate.

• Possible mechanical failure due to more complex system ( i.e. hydraulic or electric

Photo: Hardi

Fig. 7.1. Hardi ‘Twin Stream®’ air assist boom.

Photo: Peter Hughes

Fig. 7.2. Micromaster® CDA applicator.

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Equipment

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motors, discs or cages).

• Not suited to banded applications unless fitted with additional hydraulic nozzles anddroppers.

In general, droplet size decreases when:

• flow rate decreases,

• rotation speed increases.

Air shear sprayers

Droplet production with these machines depends on the impact of a column of high velocity air (atleast 300 kph) on a stream of liquid. The liquid is shattered and the air stream is used to propel theresultant droplets towards the target. They are commonly used to apply insecticides and fungicides.They are not recommended for herbicide application, because of the very fine droplet spectrum.

Due to the high air velocity, care must be taken when setting up and operating the equipment. Airstream ‘bounce’ and plant damage can be a problem when plants are small. Droplet size can bemanipulated by altering the flow rate of the pesticide and the air flow rate.

Advantages:

• Produces fine and very fine droplet spectrum (for coverage).

• Increased proportion of droplets of optimum size.

• A narrow range of droplets can be produced (compared to hydraulic nozzles).

Disadvantages:

• Fine and very fine droplet spectrum may increase risk of off-target movement.

• Not suited for herbicide application.

• Not suited to banded applications unless fitted with additional hydraulic nozzles anddroppers.

To make droplets smaller

• increase air speed,

• lower pesticide flow rate.

To make droplets larger

• run blower engine at reduced throttle (Note: If the airspeed is reduced too much, a verypoor droplet spectrum results),

• increase liquid flow rate.

Photo: Paul Kleinmeulman

Fig. 7.3. Silvan ‘Magnum Airboom®’ air shear sprayer

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7.1.1 Groundrig nozzles

Refer to Section 7.4 for more detailed nozzle information.

Hydraulic nozzles

Hydraulic nozzles are the most frequently used nozzles for ground rig applications. Nozzles thatare used include flat fans, hollow cones and flood types. The number of nozzles and configurationsvary widely and depend on the stage of crop and target being sprayed. There are an increasingnumber of innovative nozzle designs available on the market which are specifically designed toreduce drift. These should be evaluated by ground rig operators (as part of the BMP process) andfitted if they are cost-effective and result in better spraying. New nozzle designs are constantlybeing released to the market, and spray equipment suppliers and manufacturers should be consultedon the latest developments.

Centrifugal Energy (CE) nozzles

CE units have been used on groundrigs but there are only a very small number in operation comparedto hydraulic boom sprays. The ground based CE sprayers utilise CE units similar to the aerial units,or spinning discs, but the units are powered by hydraulic or electric motors. These are generallycustom built spray boom configurations.

Guidelines for ground spraying

• Develop a PAMP before the season starts.

• Communicate with neighbours and all personnel involved.

• Ensure that personnel are properly trained to handle, mix and apply pesticides safely.

• Use nozzle tables to select pressures and droplet sizes (Refer to Sections 7.4. and 7.5).

• Check equipment and calibrate at regular intervals.

• Keep a sprayer maintenance kit for in-field maintenance.

• Boom height should be as low as possible to achieve optimum spray pattern.

• Consider the use of wide angle (e.g. 110°) for lower boom heights and less drift.

• Where applicable use droppers and/or specialised nozzles to improve coverage andreduce drift.

• Vertical boom movement should not exceed 0.5m whilst spraying.

• Monitor weather conditions and be prepared to delay or abort the operation if conditionsbecome unsuitable for safe spraying.

• Decontaminate and wash down equipment after each job.

• Maintain proper spray and PAMP (BMP) records.

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

90○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Equipment

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

7.1.2 Equipment set-up summaries - Ground rigs

Equipment manufacturer specifications and recommendations should be followed.

The following tables provide set-up details for various pesticides, application situations andequipment.

The lists are not comprehensive, and are intended only as a reference guide.

Table 7.4. Set-up guide for groundrig sprayers fitted with hydraulic nozzles.

moobciluardyH

porC

s egat

epyt.dorP elzzoN .sserP

( )aPK

mooB

C .gifno

reptL(.loV

s )aHdeyarp

setoN

tnalperP tcatnoC

edicibreh

10/510naftalF

tfirdoL

erusserpwoL

003

003

051

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

06-04

07-05

08-06

.palrevoelzzonkcehC

laudiseR

edicibreh

40/30naftalF

40/30tfirdwoL

erusserpwoL

003-052

003

051

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

052-08

052-08

052-08

.palrevoelzzonkcehC

tA

p gnitnal

rotcatnoC

laudiser

sedicibreh

30nafnevE

40nafnevE

003

003

dnaB

dniheb

retnalp

052-08

052-08

dnabtcerrocrofthgiehteS

.htdiw

.derreferpsemulovrehgiH

retaW

noitcejni

elbacilppatoN A/N gnitnalP

toob

0021-056 ebyamresilitrefroedicitcesnI

tlusersemulovhgiH.dedulcni

.ycneiciffedleifrewolni

porcnI detceriD

-yarps

sedicibreh

30/20naftalF

20erusserpwoL

30erusserpwoL

30/20tfirdwoL

nafnevE

003-052

051

003-052

003-052

003-051

detceriD

dnab

gnidrocca

sdeewot

porcdna

egats

07-05

08-06

07-55

07-55

07-05

noitisopdnathgiehelzzoN

siporctahterusneotlacitirc

.deyarpston

erehwselzzonnaftalfesU

.palrevosyarpsowt

dedleihS

-yarps

sedicibreh

30/20naftalF

20erusserpwoL

20tfirdwoL

30/20nafnevE

003-052

051

003-052

003-051

dnaB

gnidrocca

.sdeewot

07-05

08-06

08-06

07-05

sdoohelzzonetelpmoC

.tfirdtneverpotderreferp

otsemulovyarpsesaercnI

ecuderdnaegarevocniatniam

.elbissoperehwserusserp

sedicitcesnI

%03-0

dnab

,510,10naftalF

tfirdwol.lcni(20

)sepyt

003>

otrefeR

strahc

wor/1

wor/2-1

061-04 ,worrepselzzonelpitlumfI

spalrevonrettaperusekam

.porcstihyarpserofeb

sedicitcesnI

%05-%03

dnab

,510,10naftalF

tfirdwol.lcni(20

)sepyt

003>

otrefeR

strahc

wor/3

wor/3




sedicitcesnI

-dnab%05

.revoclluF

,510,10naftalF

tfirdwol.lcni(20

)sepyt

003>

otrefeR

strahc

wor/3

wor/5




tsevraH

p .per

stnailofeD 20-°011naftalF

8XTenocwolloH

005>

005>

wor/3

wor/5

002-001

002-001

spalrevonrettaperusekaM


91 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

moobtsissariA

porC

s egats


aPK( )

mooB

.gifnoC

repstL(.loV

aHdeyarps )

setoN

tnalperP tcatnoC

edicibreh

°011naftalF

10/510

003 ercadaorB 06-04 e.mulovriaesaerceD

seodmaertsriatahterusnE

dnuorgffoecnuobton

.ecafrus

laudiseR

edicibreh

°011naftalF

40/30

40/30tfirdwoL

erusserpwoL

003-052

003

051

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

ercadaorB

052-08

052-08

052-08

.gnitteswolyrevroriaoN

rialeeftonnacuoyerusekaM

.leveldnuorgtagnicnuob

tA

p gnitnal

rotcatnoC

laudiser

sedicibreh

A/N A/N A/N A/N A/N

porcnI sedicitcesnI

%03-0

dnab

20naftalF

8XTenocwolloH

005>

005>

wor/teltuo1 05-03 tanwoddnassorcateltuomiA

.woreht

sedicitcesnI

%05-%03

dnab

20naftalF

8XTenocwolloH

005>

005>

wor/teltuo1 05-03 e.mulovriaesaercnI

sedicitcesnI

-dnab%05

.revoclluF

20naftalF

8XTenocwolloH

005>

005>

wor/teltuo1 06-03 teltuomiA.emulovriahgiH

tanwoddnassorcaylthgils

otnrettapwollA.woreht

ehtgnittiherofebtuodaerps

.porc

tsevraH

p .per

stnailofeD 20-°011naftalF

8XTenocwolloH

005>

005>

muminiM

wor/teltuo1

041-07 taemulovtsehgihehtesU

.deepsriatsewol

reyarpsraehsriA

porC

s egat


aPK( )

mooB

gifnoC .

repstL(.loV

aHdeyarps )

setoN

tnalperP tcatnoC

edicibreh

A/N A/N A/N A/N dednemmocertoN

laudiseR

edicibreh

A/N A/N A/N A/N dednemmocertoN

tA

p gnitnal

rotcatnoC

laudiser

sedicibreh

A/N A/N A/N A/N A/N

porcnI sedicibreH A/N A/N A/N A/N dednemmocertoN

sedicitcesnI

%03-0

dnab

A/N A/N wor/teltuo1 08-04 .worehtot°54teltuotceriD

Requires hydraulic nozzles

to band

sedicitcesnI

%05-%03

dnab


sedicitcesnI

-dnab%05

.revoclluF


tsevraH

p .per

stnailofeD A/N A/N wor/teltuo1 041-07 .worrepteltuoenotsaeltA


to band


to band

Table 7.5. Set-up guide for groundrig air assist type sprayers.

Table 7.6. Set-up guide for groundrig airshear sprayers.

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

92○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Equipment

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

reyarpsADC

porC

s egat


( )aPK

mooB

C .gifno

repstL(.loV

s )aHdeyarp

setoN

tnalperP tcatnoC

edicibreh

ADC - ercadaorB 06-05 krowlliwstinuADCcificepS

.ercadaorbno

laudiseR

edicibreh

ADC - ercadaorB

egraL

.stelpord

001-08 krowlliwstinuADCcificepS

.ercadaorbno

tA

p gnitnal

rotcatnoC

laudiser

sedicibreh

A/N A/N A/N A/N A/N

porcnI sedicibreH A/N A/N A/N A/N dednemmocertoN

sedicitcesnI

%03-0

dnab

A/N A/N wor/teltuo1 02 .worehtot°54teltuotceriD

sedicitcesnI

%05-%03

dnab

A/N A/N wor/teltuo1 02 .worehtot°54teltuotceriD

sedicitcesnI

-dnab%05

.revoclluF

A/N A/N eromro1

wor/steltuo

02 .worehtot°54teltuotceriD

tsevraH

p .per

stnailofeD A/N A/N wor/teltuo1 08-04 tonsietarwolftahterusnE

.stinuADCroftaergoot


to band


to band


to band

Table 7.7. Set-up guide for groundrig sprayers fitted with CDA nozzles.

Pesticide labels may have specific recommendations with regard to ground application.

Example 1: The Thiodan EC® label (2002) included the following recommendations:

Mandatory

Do not apply endosulfan EC formulations unless a volume of carrier water greater

than 50 L/ha is used. For band spraying applications, use at least 50 L/ha of carrier

water for the actual area sprayed in the bands.

Use only flat fan nozzles with all ground-based boom sprayer equipment.

All nozzles must be operated such that a “medium” spray quality is produced as

indicated by manufacturers according to the BCPC and ASAE nozzle

classification system.

Do not use additional adjuvants in the spray mix unless approved (on label) by the

pesticide manufacturer.

Do not use ducted air or sleeve sprayers unless the air velocity is adjusted to ensure

that there is no reflection of air from the ground surface.

Advisory

Release height of the spray should be as low as possible, consistent with

nozzle specifications and coverage requirements. Boom sprayers should be rigged to

ensure that vertical boom movement does not exceed 0.5 metres at normal operating

speeds.

93 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Example 2: The Steward® label (2002) contains the following specific recommendations:

Application

Application equipment should be calibrated to apply at least sixty (60) droplets per

cm2 of target cotton foliage. Droplet VMD should be in the range of 150-250 microns.

Ground application

Apply either as a blanket spray or a banded spray over the cotton plants. Apply in a

minimum spray volume of 100L/ha. Ensure thorough spray coverage on the cotton

foliage. This can be maximised by using appropriate sized hollow cone nozzles to

deliver 100L spray volume per hectare. Increase the number of hollow cone nozzles

per cotton row as the plant size increases. A minimum spray pressure of 275 kPa

(40psi) should be used with hollow cone nozzles. Higher pressure reduces droplet

size, DOES NOT improve canopy penetration and may increase drift potential.

WHEN HIGHER FLOW RATES ARE NEEDED, USE A HIGHER-CAPACITY NOZZLE

INSTEAD OF INCREASING PRESSURE.

Photo: Groundrig Operators Association Inc.

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

94○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Equipment

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

7.2 Aerial application

The use of agricultural aircraft in cotton has developed largely as a result of the greater speed,better timing and flexibility of application.

Aircraft are able to apply agricultural products rapidly over large areas within narrow applicationwindows. When crop height and recently irrigated areas restrict the passage of ground based sprayrigs, aircraft are able to apply pesticides onto crops without contributing to soil compaction.

Fixed wing aircraft

Depending on location, different types of aircraft are used in the cotton industry.

Medium sized aircraft include the Cessna AgTruck (AgHuskey) and Piper Pawnee Brave. Theseaircraft are fitted with 400 HP air cooled engines, and can lift about 1000 kg of material.

Where high utilisation can be obtained over extensive cotton growing areas, larger 600 HP AirTractor and Ayres Thrush fitted with large radial piston engines can been used.

However, there has been a steady trend towards the turbine powered aircraft. Using essentially thesame airframe, Air Tractors and Thrushs fitted with small powerful turbines are now common placein most cotton growing areas. Turbine engines are lighter and more powerful than equivalent pistonengines, turn 3 and 5 bladed propellers and generally have lower direct operating costs. Capable oflifting in excess of 2 tonnes of product these aircraft are the ‘quiet achievers’ of the aerial agriculturalindustry.

Considerations when using fixed wing aircraft for spraying include:

• Total application volume and droplet size should be selected to suit the type of spraying(LDP, LV or ULV), target and pesticide.

• Similarly, equipment and nozzle selection should be optimised for the type of spraying,target and pesticide.

• Production of very small droplets should be avoided.

• The aircraft should be set-up to minimise the effect of wing tip vortices.

• Nozzles and/or outlets should be shut off within the target area and before climbing.

• The flight pattern should be planned to ensure an even distribution over the area beingsprayed.

• Aircraft should be flat and level during application.

Photo: Spray Drift Task Force (USA).

95 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

• Turning over residential and public areas should be avoided and noise minimised.

• Nozzle (outlet) height should be approximately 3 metres above the crop unless theaircraft set-up or product label has specific requirements.

• Spray in a crosswind under neutral atmospheric conditions. Avoid spraying in stronglyunstable conditions.

• The operator should monitor meteorological conditions during the application and delayor abort the job if conditions become unsuitable.

• The grower should maintain communication with the pilot to relay information onconditions on the ground and any unforseen changes.

• All applications should follow procedures that were established as part of the propertypesticide application management plan (PAMP) which was prepared pre-season.

For more information refer to “Operation Spray Safe - Pilots and Operators Manual” 2nd Edition(1997) produced by the Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia Ltd.

Helicopters

Helicopters are suited to a niche in the aerial application market, due to their manouverability andability to land without requiring an airstrip. However, they are generally slower than fixed wingaircraft, carry smaller loads and are more expensive per hectare to operate.

In addition to the general guidelines for the aerial application of pesticides (outlined in the previoussection), there are important considerations that are specific to helicopters.

Unlike the wings of fixed wing aircraft, rotor blades allow a helicopter to perform a wider range offunctions. Each of these functions requires different settings and speeds of the rotor blades so theair patterns around the helicopter vary considerably, and must be considered during pesticide spraying.

When a helicopter hovers, the maximum downwards air flows (downwash) occurs at a point about85% out from the centre of the rotors, with slower moving air near the centre. Heavier helicopterstend to produce significantly greater downwash velocities.

As the helicopter moves forward (as a result of tilting the rotor disc), the downwash beneath themachine decreases, and the rotor tips create downwash and a vortex which ‘rolls up’ behind theaircraft. At about 40 km/hr the air flow pattern produced resembles that of a fixed wing aircraft.Because most spraying is carried out at speeds greater than 40 km/hr, the pesticide applications willbe similar to fixed wing aircraft in similar operating environments.

Photo: 4T

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

96○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Equipment

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Helicopters may be able to operate at slower speeds to produce coarser (larger) droplets than fixedwing aircraft fitted with the same equipment.

General points that are relevant to helicopter application:

• Spray application should not be carried out while the helicopter is in the hover position.

• Spray booms should not extend beyond the diameter of the rotor disc.

• Spray penetration of the crop canopy can be achieved using the downwash from therotor, provided the boom set-up is correct and the forward speed does not exceed about40 km/hr.

• Placement spraying of pesticides using helicopters is usually achieved by using coarsedroplets (>250 µm) and moderate forward speeds.

• Rear and mid mounted booms will place spray into the high velocity part of the rotorwake.

• If helicopter spraying is planned, specific sections may need to be added to the PAMPplan, such as helipad and loading positions, and specific flight instructions.

Advantages of using aircraft for pesticide application

• Aircraft can be used over wet areas which may be impassable to a wheeled vehicle.

• Soil impaction and wheel marks are eliminated.

• Faster and more fuel efficient.

• Greater area treated during optimal application windows.

• Aircraft minimise the risk of transmitting soil borne diseases.

• Grower labour is reduced.

• Aircraft still operate when crop height restricts use of ground rigs.

Disadvantages of using aircraft for pesticide application

• Aeroplanes and helicopters are visible and audible - they attract attention and maycause noise pollution.

• In general, aircraft release pesticides higher above the crop than ground rigs - this mayincrease drift potential. It may also increase the evaporation losses of some waterbased products.

• Low flying and obstacles pose significant risks for agricultural pilots.

• May be more expensive than ground based spraying.

• Small cotton fields and those surrounded by hazards may not be able to be treatedeffectively.

• Application ‘windows’ for optimum spray (and flight) conditions may be shorter thanfor ground rigs.

97 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

7.2.1 Aircraft nozzles

Refer to Section 7.2 for more detailed nozzle information. Cotton insecticides, herbicides anddefoliants are applied to cotton using both hydraulic nozzles and centrifugal energy nozzles (CE).

Hydraulic nozzles

Hydraulic nozzles such as hollow cones, large orifice flat fans and the CP® variable flow rate solidcone nozzles are used on aircraft. An aerial operator will normally set up an aircraft with about 20to 50 hydraulic nozzles depending upon nozzle type, required flow rate and the need to balance thespray pattern underneath the aircraft to counteract the influence of the airflows about the airframe.Refer to section 7.3.3 for descriptions of these nozzles.

In general, larger droplets are capable of being generated by hydraulic nozzles (250 – 500 µm). Theactual droplet size produced is highly dependent upon the angle at which the nozzles are set relativeto the airstream and airspeed. When nozzles are angled down and then forward into the airstream,progressively smaller droplets are created as the relative velocity between the liquid and airflow isincreased, similar to the effect obtained with an air shear nozzle in a misting machine.

Centrifugal Energy (CE) nozzles

Unlike hydraulic nozzles, which rely on liquid pressure to break the pesticide stream into droplets,CE nozzles use centrifugal energy to pass liquid through a rotating gauze (or cage) which breaksthe liquid stream into droplets. There are a number of CE units available in Australia but the mostpopular is the Micronair AU5000®. The droplets are formed as the liquid flows firstly through adiffuser tube and then out through a rotating cylindrical gauze cage. The cage is driven by smallpropeller blades and rotates at 2,000 to 10,000 RPM. The liquid flow into each unit is controlledby a variable restrictor unit (VRU).

The Micronair AU5000® has been widely adopted in Australia due to the ability to change the sizeof the droplets it emits, and the ease with which it handles most agricultural formulations. Dropletsgenerated by the Micronair AU5000® are generally less than 250 µm (VMD), which makes the unitvery suited to both low volume (LV) and ultra low volume (ULV) insecticide application. Theseoutlets are commonly referred to as ‘micronairs’.

Aircraft are normally equipped with 8 to 12 units. Faster aircraft will need the higher number ofunits to apply rates greater than 30 L/ha. Each micronair unit should be fitted with tachometers sothat cage rotation speed can be monitored by the pilot.

Spreaders

Solid formulations of fertilisers can also be applied by air by means of gravity fed ram-air spreadersto distribute the material evenly over the ground. As with liquid spray application, it is importantthat the correct flight-lane separation is adopted to obtain the most even deposit across the paddockand generate the correct application rate in terms of litres or kilograms per hectare.

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Equipment

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7.2.2 Aircraft set-up

Individual operations require specific equipment and nozzle configurations. The main points toconsider are listed in this section, but for more detailed information refer to “Operation Spray Safe- Pilots and Operators Manual”, AAAA, manufacturers technical specifications and/or experiencedaerial operators in cotton growing areas.

Nozzles

The type of nozzles should be selected for compatibility with the aircraft configuration. Refer tonozzle performance charts and manufacturers recommendations for installing and setting nozzlesfor specific situations. Different types of nozzles and outlets are summarized in Section 7.4.

In all cases, flight speed will affect the droplet spectra by increasing or decreasing the air sheareffects and rotation speeds of centrifugal outlets. Flow rates and application rates must be accuratelycalibrated for each nozzle configuration. Hydraulic nozzles can be angled to the airstream to producedifferent air shear, which affects droplet size and spectra. Nozzles that are orientated at 180° to theairstream (facing backwards on the aircraft) will produce larger droplets than the same nozzlesangled at 45° (facing forwards) to the airstream. Different nozzle angles across the boom mayimprove deposition and reduce vortex effects. Similarly, the blade angle of Micronairs® can bealtered to change cage rotation speed which affects droplet size. Smaller droplets are produced ascage rotation speed increases.

Flow metering, loading and application equipment must be maintained properly so that applicationis optimised and downtime is minimised.

Adverse effects on spray patterns due to vortices can be minimised by:

• Designing boom width so that it does not exceed 65% of wingspan (fixed wing) orrotor wing (helicopters).

• Mounting the boom at least 25 cm below the trailing edge of the wing.

• Selecting larger droplet sizes on the outermost nozzles or outlets. This can be achievedby selecting larger nozzles, angling hydraulic nozzles at 180° to the airstream or alteringthe blade angle of Micronair® units.

• Ensuring that the aircraft is flat and level over the crop before spraying starts.

• Testing application patterns and altering configurations to ensure even coverage.

There are additional factors to be considered when using helicopters:

• Spray penetration can be achieved using the downwash of the rotor at airspeeds lessthan about 40 km/hr. If this technique is used, the boom and nozzle configurationshould be altered accordingly.

• As forward speed is increased the spray deposit becomes asymmetric under the influenceof the differential vortex pattern. This can be corrected by using an asymmetricconfiguration of nozzles on the spray boom, such as putting a greater number of nozzleson one side of the boom.

• Positioning of the boom can be critical to avoid undesirable downwash or wake patterns.

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Refer to product labels for specific aircraft set-up recommendations.

Example 1: The Thiodan EC® label (2002) contains the following specific recommendations:

Example 2: The Steward® label (2002) contains the following specific recommendations:

Application

Application equipment should be calibrated to apply at least sixty (60) droplets per

cm2 of target cotton foliage. Droplet VMD should be in the range of 150-250 microns.

Aerial application

Steward® must only be applied with aircraft fitted with accurately calibrated equip-

ment. Apply a minimum total spray volume of 30L/ha with either Micronair® rotary

atomisers or conventional hydraulic nozzles set to spray droplets with a VMD in the

range of 150-250 microns. A strategy as per the cotton industry’s Best Practice Manual

should be employed at all times to minimise spray drift during aerial application. DO

NOT apply Steward® using Ultra Low Volume (ULV) methods.

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Source: Bayer Thiodan®EC label.

Source: DuPont Steward® label.

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Equipment

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7.2.3 Aerial application methods

Table 7.8 shows a summary of the main aircraft application methods that are used in cotton inAustralia.

Ultra low volume (ULV) - insecticides in immature cotton- insecticides in mature cotton

Low volume (LV) - herbicides- insecticides (e.g. EC formulations)

Large droplet placement (LDP) - herbicides- insecticides (e.g. EC formulations)

High volume (HV) - seldom used due to ferrying and refilling costs- herbicides

The application method used for an application will depend on the pest type, pesticide formulationand operating conditions at the time of application. High volume spraying is now seldom used andis not discussed in detail in this handbook.

Definition: Volume Median Diameter (VMD) - Within the spray plume, 50% of thespray volume consists of droplets smaller than the value indicated. Referto Section 7.5.4 for a more detailed explanation of VMD.

Ultra low volume (ULV) spraying

Very fine droplets (<100µm VMD) applied at rates of less than 5 L/ha.

ULV insecticide sprays are often applied in cotton using the mechanical wind generated turbulenceabove the crop canopy to distribute the droplets about the target. Pesticides formulated in oil based(low volatile) carriers are applied undiluted at total application rates of 2–5 L/ha. This low rate ofcarrier is achieved by generating very fine droplets (about 50–100 µm VMD). Such droplet sizesallow large numbers of droplets to be generated thereby compensating for the low volume of carrier.ULV spraying can be highly efficient and lead to decreased application costs due to fewer takeoffsand landings and less ferrying time being required per litre volume applied.

ULV application can have a significantly greater drift potential than LV or LDP applications.

Table 7.8. Main aerial application methods.

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Since a prevailing wind moves mainly horizontally across the top of a crop, fine droplets with theirlow sedimentation velocity are transported towards the crop surface at low angles and thereforetend to impact on vertical surfaces such as cotton terminals.

It is often assumed that in a wind all the fine droplets contained in a spray cloud will be blown hugedistances downwind. However, if application is undertaken such that mechanical turbulence isbeing generated in a neutral atmosphere, the peak pesticide deposit in the crop is often locatedwithin 20 metres of the line of flight of an aircraft. This is because the droplet cloud is expanded bythe turbulence and brought quickly towards the ground.

However, although the peak deposit is often close to the release point, a ‘tail’ of fine droplets can becarried significant distances in some circumstances and such application technology should not beused where there are susceptible areas located downwind of the cotton paddock.

Figure 7.9 shows a ULV deposit pattern recovered by using fluorometry from the top canopy of amature cotton crop. A single application run of Larvin® LV was applied to the cotton in a 90° crosswind at 5 L/ha using an Ayres turbine Thrush aircraft fitted with 10 Micronair AU5000® units. Thedroplet spectra (size range) was measured in the laboratory prior to the experiment and found tohave a VMD of 90 µm. A small quantity of UV fluorescent tracer was added to the pesticidemixture and subsequently illuminated on the leaf surfaces after application to show the depositpattern. Although the wind speed was 2.6 m/s (9.4 km/hr) the peak insecticide deposit was locatedabout 10 metres from the flight line. The downwind tail of droplets is clearly shown. Such patternscan also be overlapped using computers to determine optimum flight lane separation and depositdata.

Low volume (LV) spraying

Fine droplets (100 - 250µm VMD) applied at rates of 5 to 30 L/ha.

Larger droplets have greater kinetic energy and fall towards the ground under the influence ofgravity at higher terminal or sedimentation velocities. Since larger droplets fall relatively fast towardsthe ground and are not greatly influenced by vertical air movement and turbulence, their trajectorycan be calculated with reasonable accuracy.

Fig. 7.9. Typical droplet deposition pattern - Aircraft fitted with AU5000® micronairs.

Source: C-PAS.

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Equipment

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Generally LV spraying is undertaken using EC or DF formulations using total application rates ofwater between 20 and 30 L/ha. Herbicides may be applied using LV techniques, but care must betaken if smaller droplets and lower volumes are being used. Optimal conditions for LV applicationof cotton insecticides, to minimise drift, are light winds with low temperatures (<28°C) and highrelative humidity (>65%). This type of application is used primarily to cover the upper canopies ofcrops, prostrate plants (weeds) and soil (pre-emergent herbicide application). This method is alsoused for the application of most defoliants.

When LV spraying is used, aerial operators sometimes attempt to generate slightly smaller dropletsin order to increase the number deposited per unit area and thus increase the chances of contactingsmall moving targets. However it is important in this situation that application is undertaken undercool, moist conditions and in a neutral atmosphere (see Section 3) to prevent excessive evaporation.

Figure 7.10 shows a typical placement deposit pattern generated by an agricultural aircraft fittedwith hydraulic (CP®) nozzles. Two patterns are drawn showing the number of droplets depositedon flat horizontal artificial targets using CP®nozzles with the deflector plates angled at 30° and then90°. The graph shows clearly that a larger number of droplets were deposited when the 90° deflectorplate was used. This is because the larger angle caused the spray to be diverted into the airstream,breaking the liquid into smaller droplets. The smaller droplet size has resulted in a greater numberof droplets being deposited.

Larger droplets may be deposited more evenly across the ground if a flight lane separation is adoptedthat allows the pattern to be overlapped across a paddock to give a uniform deposit. Specialists inaerial application (e.g. C-PAS) routinely conduct tests for aerial operators to establish optimumflight lane separation (FLS) values and deposit levels for specific aircraft and nozzle systems.

Fig. 7.10. Typical droplet deposition pattern - Aircraft fitted with CP® nozzles.

Source: C-PAS.

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Large droplet placement (LDP) spraying

Medium to coarse droplets (>250µm VMD) applied at rates greater than 30 L/ha.

If medium to coarse droplets are produced by the aircraft with the aim of laying down a uniformdeposit over the surface of a crop, this is termed ‘placement spraying’. For example, LDP sprayingmay be undertaken when the area to be treated is close to downwind sensitive areas. Medium tocoarse droplets (>250µm) have higher sedimentation velocities and are less affected by vertical airmovement and turbulence. LDP is usually undertaken using emulsifiable concentrate (EC), dryflowable (DF) or wettable powder (WP) formulations and water volumes greater than 30 L/ha.

The aircraft has to be swath tested and maintain accurate flight paths over the crop to ensure aneven spray coverage and to prevent ‘striping’. LDP spraying may reduce drift and is suitable forherbicide spraying.

Considerations for LDP spraying:

• During application, the aircraft should be positioned straight and level above the crop.

• Aircraft boom height should not be greater than 3 m above the top of the cotton canopy.

• Boom length should be 65% of wingspan or less and the boom should be at least 25 cmbelow the trailing edge of the wing.

• Orientate the nozzles parallel to the airstream (i.e. parallel to the undersurface of thewing).

• Optimum liquid supply pressures are 200 - 400 kPa (30 - 60 psi).

• Use nozzles that generate droplets of >250µm. Micronair AU5000® nozzles are designedfor ULV application and are not ideally suited to LDP spraying.

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Equipment

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7.3 Calibration

Note: SPRAYpak is a handbook for cotton growers, so calibration of aircraft is not detailed in thissection. For more information on the calibration of aircraft, contact the AAAA.

Spray nozzle wear results in increased output and variable distribution. Calibration improves sprayapplication efficiency by minimising the amount of pesticide required for an operation and byensuring that the sprayer produces the appropriate droplet spectrum. It is only through accuratecalibration that the grower can be sure the correct effective dose of pesticide is being applied.

Sprayers that have been fitted with spray controllers require calibration to check the speed measuringdevice and the flow meter for accuracy. The operator manuals provide details for specific equipment.To calibrate any sprayer, the following equipment should be available:-

• A calibrated jug or measuring cylinder (1 Litre)

• Tape measure (100 m), calculator, notebook and pencil

• Stopwatch or wrist watch (with a seconds indicator)

• Small brush to clean nozzles (soft bristles)

• Performance and output charts for the nozzles or outlets to be used.

Preliminary measurements

A. Nozzle output (L/min)

• Check the pressure drop between the nozzle and the pressure gauge on the controls.

• Clean all the nozzles and filters thoroughly.

• Fill the spray tank with clean water and operate the pump at the specified RPM, and thenozzles at the desired pressure according to the nozzle charts.

• Use a calibrated jug to collect the output from each nozzle for one minute and recordthe volume.

• Compare this to the manufacturers nozzle performance tables and replace any outletsthat vary by more than 10% from specifications.

• Note the number and type of nozzles per row of cotton (it may vary from 1 to 5, dependingon stage of season).

Total spray boom output(L/min) = Sum of all individual nozzle outputs (L/min).

B. Operating speed (kph)

• For tractors and groundrigs that are fitted with ground speed sensors, check equipmentcalibration under field conditions. Refer to the manufacturer’s operating manual.

• For tractors and groundrigs that are not fitted with ground sensors:Measure out 100m in the field to be sprayed. Select the gear and RPM for comfortableoperation and measure the time taken to cover the 100m that has been marked out. Doa couple of runs and average the times.

Operating speed (kph) = Distance travelled (m) ÷ Time taken (sec) x 3.6.

Note: 3.6 is the factor that converts m/sec to kph.

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C. Effective sprayer width (m)

Broadcast application: Nozzle spacing (m) x Number of nozzles.

Row application: Row width (m) x Number of rows being sprayed.

Band application: Band width (m) x Number of rows being sprayed.

Approximate band widths for different crop heights (1m rows):

Spray calculations

1. Application volume (L/ha sprayed):

Note: Label directions refer to the volume applied per sprayed area. This formula calculatesapplication volume per sprayed hectare.

Application volume (L/ha sprayed) = Total boom output (L/min) x 600 ÷ Tractor

speed (kph) ÷ Effective width (m)

Note: 600 is the factor that converts L/min to L/hr and kph x m to Ha/hr.

2. Flow rate for a known application volume (L/min):

Output (L/min) = Application volume (L/ha sprayed) ÷ 600 x Speed (kph) x

Effective width (m).

3. Amount of product to be added to the spray tank:

Amount (L or Kg) =Spray tank volume (L) ÷ Application volume (L/ha) x Product

label rate (L/ha or Kg/ha).

Crop height (cm) Band width (m)10 0.30

15 0.30

30 0.40

40 0.50

60 0.75

80 0.90

90 0.95

100 1.00

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Equipment

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4. Band / Paddock ratio:

Band / Paddock ratio = Band width (m) x No. of rows ÷ Sprayer swath width (m)

Solid planting (1m rows): Sprayer swath = Number of rows x 1.0 (m)Single skip planting (1m rows): Sprayer swath = Number of rows x 1.5 (m)Double skip planting (1m rows): Sprayer swath = Number of rows x 2.0 (m)

If using tramline or irregular row widths, measure the distance from the centre of onespray run to the centre of the next spray run.

5. Amount of product required for the paddock area:

Product (L or Kg) = Paddock size (Ha) x Product rate (L/ha or Kg/ha) x Band/

Paddock ratio.

6. Paddock area (Ha) that can be completed with each full spray tank:

Paddock hectares / tank = Tank size (L) ÷ Application rate (L/ha sprayed) ÷ Band /

Paddock ratio.

7. Sprayer output per paddock hectare:

Output (L/ha paddock) = Application rate (L/ha sprayed) x Band / paddock ratio.

Photo: TeeJet Australasia Pty. Ltd.

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7.4 Nozzles

Note: There are a number of nozzle and outlet suppliers in Australia. Examples are shown inthis section to illustrate the operation of a particular nozzle type, not as an endorsement ofthat particular brand. Operators should discuss their requirements with a qualified sprayequipment supplier.

All nozzles fitted to agricultural machinery should be fitted with diaphragm check valves (‘non-drip’ valves) to prevent dripping and stop the pesticide application as soon as the spray controlvalve is shut off by the operator. These should be maintained at the same time as nozzles arechecked. Chemical resistant diaphragms should always be used.

CP® nozzles

CP® nozzles are hydraulic and produce a fan shaped pattern by forcing the liquid through an orificeand then over the surface of a deflector. Unlike standard nozzles, CP® nozzles have an ‘orificedisc’ which has a number of differently sized orifices which can be rotated in the nozzle body tocontrol flow rate. Droplet sizes can be altered by changing the angle of the deflector plate. Thelarger the angle of deflection, the smaller the droplets. A faster airspeed also produces smallerdroplets by causing increased air shear.

CE units (Centrifugal energy nozzles)

The Micronair AU5000® has been widely adopted in Australia due to the ability to change the sizeof the droplets it emits, and the ease with which it handles most agricultural formulations. Dropletsgenerated by the Micronair AU5000® are generally less than 250 µm (VMD), which makes the unitvery suited to both low volume (LV) and ultra low volume (ULV) insecticide application. Theseoutlets are commonly referred to as ‘micronairs’. These are seldom used on groundrigs.

Droplet size can be altered by altering the blade angles change the cage rotation speed. Faster cagespeeds will produce smaller droplets, so each CE unit should be fitted with a transducer so thatrotation speed can be monitored during flight. Provided the manufacturer’s recommended operatingguidelines are followed, CE units will produce a relatively uniform spray droplet spectra.

Fig. 7.12. Micronair AU5000® rotary atomiser.

Source: Micronair AU5000 Operators Handbook

Fig. 7.11. CP®-03-s nozzle

Source: CP Spraying Equipment Inc.

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Equipment

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Cone nozzles

These nozzles produce a cone-shaped pattern of spray droplets, with a size range best suited to the

application of insecticides and fungicides. There are ‘hollow’ and ‘solid’ cone nozzles but only the

former are recommended because they produce an even range of droplet sizes. Hollow cone nozzles

tend to produce smaller sized droplets than fan nozzles at equivalent flow rates.

Hollow cone nozzles release droplets at a slower ‘exit’ velocity, so they may be subjected to

environmental conditions (e.g. evaporation) for longer periods before deposition on the target.

The cone nozzle functions as the result of spray liquid being forced through slots in a ‘swirl’ plate

into a swirl chamber that leads onto the outlet orifice. The design of the swirl plate slots and depth

of the swirl chamber influences the resulting spray

.

Fan nozzles

The patterns produced by these nozzles are fan-shaped, and spray application is like a paintbrushoperation. The pesticide is forced into a nozzle chamber then out through a rectangular or lensshaped orifice (hole). Orifice sizes vary considerably.

a) Even fan nozzles

Even fan nozzles have rectangular edged orifices and produce an even pattern of droplets across thefull swath covered by the spray. They are suited to band application of herbicides, and bandinginsecticides when using a single nozzle over the cotton row.

b) Flat or tapered fan nozzles

These nozzles have an orifice that ends in a point at either end of its width (lens shape). This resultsin reduced droplet distribution at the two edges of the spray swath.

Figure 7.14. Flat fan nozzles.

Even fan Tapered fan

Source: Spraying Systems Co.

Figure 7.13. Cone nozzles.


Hollow cone Solid cone

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Setting adjoining nozzles with an overlap attains even distribution across the sprayed area. Thecorrect overlap can be achieved by matching the fan angle designed into the nozzle and distancefrom the spray target.

In addition to overlap, the nozzles are offset at an angle 10–15° to the boom so that there is nointerference between the spray patterns generated by each nozzle. Most modern nozzle housingsare the ‘quick-fit’ type and these automatically angle the nozzles across the boom.

Flat fan nozzles are versatile and can be used in a range of spraying applications in cotton, andproduce less ‘fine’ droplets than hollow cone nozzles. They are the most commonly used nozzlesbecause of this versatility and their relatively low cost compared to many other types.

Drift reduction nozzles

These nozzles produce fewer small droplets that may drift off-target, by manipulating pressure andusing innovative designs. Generally the design incorporates a pre-orifice plate that reduces thespeed of liquid hitting the nozzle, increases droplet size, and reduces drift.

Twin fluid nozzles

a) Passive twin fluid nozzles (e.g. Air induction nozzles)

Venturi type nozzles, such as the air induction (AI) use a pre-orifice to create a high velocity liquid

stream, and then draw air into the stream through a side opening. This mixture of air and liquid is

then discharged at a low exit velocity which creates very coarse droplets with air inclusions.

Generally, these nozzles require pesticide mixtures containing the correct amount of surfactant to

allow the air-filled drops to form. Designs vary, but the air is usually sucked into the spray chamber

by a venturi on the nozzle body (see above). These nozzles produce large to coarse droplets which

reduces drift under suitable conditions.

Figure 7.15. Drift reduction nozzles L to R: Extended range,

Drift Guard®, Turbo® and Air induction (AI®) nozzles.


Figure 7.16. Air induction nozzles.Air induction even fan (left) and

air induction tapered fan (right) nozzles.


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b) Active twin fluid nozzles (e.g. Airtec®)

Twin fluid nozzles have twin independent supply lines providing air and liquid respectively. The

nozzles have a first stage chamber where primary atomisation takes place, and the air then forces

droplets through an orifice onto the deflector plate of an anvil jet nozzle. The impact on the deflector

plate produces secondary atomisation and a flat fan spray pattern.

Flood and anvil nozzles

In flood nozzles the spray liquid is forced through an orifice which regulates flow (and provides

primary atomisation) then onto a deflector plate that provides secondary atomisation and a fan

spray pattern. These nozzles produce large droplets which may reduce drift, and are suited to

application of systemic herbicides and some insecticides.

Twin jet nozzles

Twin jet nozzles produce two fan spray patterns from each nozzle. Twin jet nozzles can be used for

banding or to improve spray penetration into dense foliage or crop residues. These nozzles produce

smaller droplets for improved coverage and are generally used for ground application of insecticides.

Fig. 7.18. Flood nozzle.


Fig. 7.19. Twin jet nozzle.


Figure 7.17. Airtec® twin fluid nozzle.

Source: Airtec Australia

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Twin cap nozzles

Twin cap nozzles have a specially adapted bayonet cap that holds two nozzles. This may give

greater control over droplet size, crop penetration and coverage. The nozzle combination may

allow additional speed and application volume without compromising quality.

Fig. 7.20. Twincap® nozzle.

Source: Lurmark

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7.4.1 Nozzle performance

Information about the performance, type and construction material is printed on most hydraulic

nozzles. Personnel who are involved in equipment set-up should be trained to read the information

printed on nozzles and in the manufacturer’s nozzle charts.

Figure 7.21 shows typical information that is embossed onto nozzles. In this example the followinginformation is contained in the codes:

• XR Extended range (XR) type

• Teejet Made by TeeJet (Spraying Systems Co.)

• 11002VS 110° spray angle @ 40psi pressure (2.75Bar)0.2 USgal/min @ 40psi pressure (0.8l/[email protected])Visiflow (V) colour codingStainless steel (S) orifice.

In the past, each manufacturer had their own coding systems, but now nozzle coding and colours

are becoming more standardized under new ISO standards.

Nozzle output

Nozzle output should always be checked pre-season and regularly throughout the season to check

output. Nozzles that vary more than 10% from the manufacturers’ specifications should be replaced.

All nozzle manufacturers produce nozzle output tables that show the output from a nozzle at different

pressures. Many tables also have calculations showing application volume (broadcast application)

at different tractor speeds. Table 7.22 shows output volumes for a range of flat fan nozzles operating

at different presures.

Growers should always check application volumes using the calibration procedures described in

Section 7.3.

The nozzle performance should be matched to the required application volumes and droplet sizes

required for the pesticide being applied. For example, if greater application volumes are required,

select a larger capacity nozzle rather than increasing the working pressure outside the optimal

range.

Fig. 7.21. Nozzle information.


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Most nozzle manufacturers also have BCPC droplet size classification tables that are available

from suppliers.

Height of application

In all cases, height of application should be determined to give the best coverage. This informationis included in manufacturers nozzle information booklets.

For aerial applications a general recommendation is that the aircraft wheels should be about 1-2 mabove (application boom should be about 3 m) the crop canopy during application. If the aircraft istoo low, ‘striping’ may occur. If the aircraft is too high, the risks of droplet evaporation and driftincrease.

Boom height for ground rig applications will be determined by the nozzle type and configuration.

Refer to Section 7.3 for considerations when band spraying. For broadcast spraying the nozzle

patterns should overlap to give even coverage. Refer to nozzle manufacturers’ guidelines for optimum

heights for different nozzle types. Where multiple nozzle configurations and/or droppers are used,

consult the nozzle supplier for optimal boom heights and nozzle configurations, and check these

regularly during field operation.

Figure 7.22. Nozzle output table (Fan nozzles).


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Check the spray coverage

Even when correct setup procedures have been followed, the spray coverage should be checked inthe field under the prevailing conditions.

• Start the spray boom,

• Check that all nozzles (outlets) are operating properly,

• Stand with the sun behind the spray pattern and view the coverage,

• Check the pattern, overlap and band width (as applicable),

• View the spray as normal field operations continue,

• Check frequently during the job.

More detailed coverage studies can be done using sensitive paper and/or dyes in the spray mix andthese are summarised in Section 7.6.

Change worn or faulty nozzles

Nozzles should be changed if they are malfunctioning or if output varies more than 10% from the

manufacturers specifications. Nozzle specification and output tables can be obtained from your

nozzle supplier. Ensure that proper safety procedures are followed and appropriate personal

protective equipment is worn while changing nozzles. Never change nozzles while the boom is

operating or pressurised.

Cleaning nozzles and outlets

Effective filtration is essential to prevent nozzle blockages or impaired performance as a result ofpartially blocked nozzles. Nozzles should be cleaned with a soft brush (e.g. a used toothbrush) or

a jet of compressed air. Do not clean the nozzle by putting it in your mouth to blow through it. Do

not use wire or any other hard material to ‘poke’ into the orifice. It is useful to carry a small

‘nozzle’ kit including a soft brush, spare nozzles, caps and filters, a supply of clean water and soap

and an old towel.

CE cages and other application equipment should be cleaned using soapy water and a soft brush.

All equipment should be rinsed in cold water and dried thoroughly.

Photo: Hardi

Fig. 7.23. Inspect nozzles using the sun to highlight the spray patterns.

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7.5 Droplets

The cotton grower faces a difficult problem. How can a small quantity of a biologically active

chemical be distributed evenly to control a pest species?

Traditionally the problem has been overcome by formulating a pesticide as a liquid, thus enabling

the applicator to transport the material to the crop and apply the solution to the target site as a spray.

7.5.1 Droplet size

Unfortunately, no spray nozzle produces droplets which are all the same size, and all nozzles generatea range of droplet sizes. Droplets that are 10µm and even 100µm in diameter may not be visible tothe naked eye. As an example, the full stop at the end of this sentence is approximately 600µm indiameter. It would be considered a coarse droplet in spray application technology.

Volume Median Diameter (VMD) is the most commonly used descriptor of droplet size. The VMDdivides the droplet spectrum into two equal parts. One half of the total volume is made up ofdroplets larger than the VMD, and the other half made up of droplets that are smaller than theVMD. Two different nozzles may produce the same VMD but may actually produce quite differentdroplet spectrum. Similarly, the Number Mean Diameter (NMD) divides the droplet sample in halfby number of droplets as shown in Figure 7.24.

VMD may not be an easy measure for many operators to understand, so the British Crop Protection

Council (BCPC) and the manufacturers have developed a droplet size classification table. Droplet

size classifications are now based on these British Crop Protection Council (BCPC) specifications,

and in accordance with ASAE Standard S-572. The droplet size classifications for a nozzle are

determined by comparing it to six standard reference nozzle types. Nozzles are tested at different

pressures and the droplet cloud produced is classified as very fine, fine, medium, coarse, very

coarse or extremely coarse.

Figure 7.24 Diagrammatic representation of VMD and NMD.

Source: C-PAS

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The droplet size classifications are:

Code Classification Droplet size (VMD)

VF Very fine <135µmF Fine 135 - 245µmM Medium 245 - 330µmC Coarse 330 - 475µmVC Very coarse 475 - 540µmXC Extremely coarse >540 µm

These classifications are published in manufacturers’ nozzle catalogues which are available from

spray equipment suppliers. The droplet size classifications are a guide to assist growers in selecting

nozzles that are suitable for a particular spray job.

7.5.2 BCPC (ASAE S-572) Spray Quality Classifications

Nozzle manufacturers provide information on the spray quality produced by their nozzles at variouspressures according to the British Crop Protection Council (BCPC) and American Society ofAgricultural Engineers (ASAE S-572) standards.

Note: It is possible for one type of nozzle to produce a range of spray qualities depending on theoperating pressure. The higher the pressure, the smaller the droplets will be, hence the finer thespray quality that is assigned in the nozzle performance charts.

Figures 7.26 and 7.27 show the difference in droplet size classifications between standard flat fannozzles (XR) and drift guard (DG) flat fan nozzles, at various pressures. Although the nozzlesproduce similar spray patterns, the DG type produces larger droplets at the same operating pressure,which may assist in reducing drift. Effectiveness on the target pest must be considered if dropletsizes are significantly larger as there may be some reduction in coverage, and the fan pattern maynot be as wide. When using hydraulic fan nozzles for insecticide application, they should be operatedat the highest pressure to produce the desired droplet spectrum.

What are the BCPC (ASAE S-572) classifications?

The BCPC classifications represent spray quality (the range of droplet sizes produced by a nozzle).This spray quality is determined by comparing a nozzle’s output (droplet spectrum) at a givenpressure against a set of standard reference nozzles. This is done using a laser based instrument,which means that the spray quality given to a particular nozzle when it has been compared to thereference nozzles will be the same classification regardless of where, when or how it was measured.

There are three (3) key measurements in determining the spray quality classification, the DV(0.1),DV(0.5) = VMD and the DV(0.9) which are taken from the cumulative volume fraction.

DV(0.1) 10 % of the spray volume exists in droplets smaller than this size (by diameter).

DV(0.5) 50 % of the spray volume exists in droplets smaller (VMD) than this size (bydiameter) in microns. 50% of the spray volume is in droplets larger than this size.

DV(0.9) 90 % of the spray volume exists in droplets smaller than this size.

These three measurements are plotted on a graph to produce boundaries for each spray qualityclassification. An example of a reference curve from a Malvern laser instrument used for thispurpose is shown in Figure 7.27.

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Fig. 7.26. Droplet size classifications -

Drift Guard™ fan nozzles.


Fig. 7.25. Droplet size classifications -

Flat fan nozzles.


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Cumulative volume fraction is the proportion of the spray volume that exists in droplets smallerthan a particular size (microns). For example 0.1 is the DV(0.1), 0.5 is the DV(0.5) also known asthe VMD and 0.9 is the DV(0.9).

How the reference curves are used to determine BCPC classifications.

Figure 7.27 (above) shows the outputs of a set of reference nozzles. Each line on the chart is theoutput of a single reference nozzle, and the lines are the boundaries between different sprayclassifications.

When commercially produced nozzles are tested against the reference nozzles, output is comparedto the reference curves. If any one (or more) of the three (3) critical measures, the DV(0.1), DV(0.5)or DV(0.9) determined for the test nozzle is less than those of a reference nozzle it is assigned thefinest spray quality classification that the DV(0.1), DV(0.5) or DV(0.9) falls within.

Using the Reference Curves to Understand Nozzle Outputs.

Understanding the reference curves will assist operators to better understand the manufacturersnozzle spray quality classifications.

Figure 7.28 shows that a nozzle classified as FINE will have a DV(0.1) between 60 microns and100 microns. This means that that 10 % of the spray volume is smaller than these sizes. A finenozzle will also have a DV(0.5) or VMD between 130 microns and 240 microns.

Where a particular nozzle can produce a fine spray quality at a range of spray pressures, the dropletsizes produced will be largest when operated at the lowest pressure required to stay within theFINE classification (towards 240 microns). In the example above, if the nozzle is operated at thehighest possible pressure to stay within a FINE spray quality the droplet sizes produced will besmaller. It is possible that the VMD could be as small as 130 microns.

When due consideration of how droplets of various sizes behave in differing conditions, and thereference charts is undertaken, the kinds of droplet sizes that can be expected when operating thosecan be estimated. This is an important part of planning for pesticide applications.

Source: C-PAS.

Figure 7.27. Example of BCPC reference curves used to determine spray quality.

Reference curves C-PAS wind tunnel

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Cumulative Volume Fraction

Very Coarse

Coarse

Medium

Very Fine

Fine

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Spray equipment can be adjusted to produce droplets within a desired range suited to varying

targets. Table 7.30 shows some characteristics of very fine, fine-medium and coarse droplets and

indicates most common uses for each of the size groups.

The influence of size on droplet physical behaviour can significantly affect the efficacy of a pesticide.

Some examples are summarised in Table 7.29.

Canopy penetration Coverage throughout the canopy and underneath leaves is

best achieved by small droplets. Large droplets move

downwards due to gravity and will generally be deposited

on horizontal surfaces and the uppermost parts of the plant

canopy. If the crop has an open canopy, larger droplets will

penetrate into the foliage without the assistance of turbulence.

Evaporation risk Small droplets of water based pesticides will evaporate more

rapidly under hot dry conditions leading to a rapid reduction

in the diameter of the initial droplet and possible movement

off target.

Drift potential Small droplets pose the highest risk of spray drift. Generally,

under normal spray conditions, large droplets will only be

moved sideways by the prevailing wind.

Coverage As droplet size decreases, more droplets are produced from

the same volume of spray. Large droplets require a spray

volume increase to maintain comparative coverage.

Gravity effects As a droplet diameter increases towards the desirable range

for herbicides (>200 µm), it becomes increasingly subject

to gravitational influence. As droplet size increases, the

effects of any local wind turbulence lessen and deposition

on flat and horizontal surfaces is likely. The opposite is true

for small droplets.

Figure 7.28. How the reference curves are used for nozzle droplet classification tables.

A nozzle that has been assigned a FINE (F) spray qualitywill produce droplet sizes within a particular range.

Reference curves C-PAS wind tunnel

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Cumulative Volume Fraction

Very Coarse

Coarse

Medium

Very Fine

Fine

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Equipment

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Canopy penetration

Evaporation risk

Drift potential

Coverage / volume

Inertia / gravity effect

Size

Uses Insecticides.

Fungicides.

Insecticides.

Contact

herbicides.

Insecticides.

Soil applied

pesticides.

<150 µm 150 - 350 µm >350 µm

V. fine Fine - Med. Course+

High Medium Low

High Medium Low

High Medium Low

High Medium Low

Low Medium High

Droplet size groups (BCPC)

Figure 7.30 shows water sensitive dye after exposure to water droplets. Figure 7.31 compares

deposits on water sensitive paper at three application rates (20, 30, 40 l/ha) for two droplet sizes

(VMD 200µm and 400µm). The difference in coverage between the two droplet sizes (at all three

application rates) is clear.

Source: QDPI.

Table 7.29. Influence of size on droplet behaviour.

Source: Novartis.

Figure 7.30. Actual water sensitive paper samples showing droplets produced

from a spinning disc sprayer (left) and a hydraulic nozzle (right).

Fig. 7.31. Comparison of droplet sizes and distribution on sensitive paper.

Source: Novartis.

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7.5.3 Droplet application

Spray application involves three main phases:

Droplet generation - creating a large number of droplets from a body of liquid.

Droplet transmission - movement of the droplets from the nozzle to the target.

Droplet capture - droplets depositing on the target.

Droplets are generated in three main ways:

Hydraulic pressure The spray liquid is forced under pressure through a smallspecially designed orifice. The most common types ofhydraulic nozzles used for cotton spraying are hollow coneand flat fan nozzles. CP® nozzles are also hydraulic (SeeSection 7.3).

Centrifugal force By subjecting the liquid to centrifugal energy, and bymetering liquid onto a spinning disc, droplets are generatedat the edge of the disc as liquid is spun off into space. Dropletsize is influenced by the rotational speed of the disc, thenozzle design and liquid flow rate. Spinning cages as usedin “Micronair®” units are an extension of this principle.

These are normally referred to as centrifugal energy nozzles(CE) and they generally produce a narrower range of dropletsizes than hydraulic nozzles.

Air shear Metering liquid into a high velocity jet of air generatesdroplets as the liquid is torn into small particles by the impactof the moving airstreams. Systems employing this principleare normally referred to as air shear nozzles. The sameprinciple applies to aerial applications when airspeed andangle of the nozzle are manipulated to produce air shear ofthe liquid into droplets.

As forces (described above) are applied to a spray solution, they change the physical shape of the

liquid. Whether liquids are water or oil based, they do not compress easily so they tend to change

shape when subjected to a force. Generally, there are several phases of droplet formation:

Sheet formation Sheets of liquid appear immediately through a hydraulic nozzleor sometimes just beyond the edge of a spinning disc.

Ligament formation The formation of ligaments or “strings” of liquid and sometimesliquid cylinders at the edge of sheets.

Droplet formation The final stage is when the ligaments or sheets of pesticidedisintegrate into droplets. The sheets and ligaments disintegrateeither at the edge of a sheet (Rim disintegration), it’s centre(Perforation) or through a wave motion breaking up the liquidbody. These modes of disintegration are shown in Figure 7.32.

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Equipment

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Centrifugal energy nozzles may produce droplets directly from the edge of the spinning disc (Figure7.33). This typically occurs at low flow rates, and as flow rate increases, ligaments form whichthen break into droplets. At very high flow rates, flooding of the spinning disc may occur producinga sheet of liquid which disintegrates into droplets in the same mode of disintegration as hydraulicnozzles.

Liquid properties also influence droplet generation. Increasing the viscosity (thicker liquids) willresult in larger droplets being produced or incomplete droplet formation.

Figure 7.32. Hydraulic nozzle - droplet formation.

(1) Wavy sheet disintegration, (2) Perforated sheet

disintegration, (3) Rim disintegration.

Source: QDPI.

(1) (2)

(3)

Source: QDPI.

Figure 7.33. Centrifugal energy nozzle.

(1) CDA - Normal operation, (2) CDA - Ligament

formation, (3) Sheet formation - breakdown of CDA.

(2)

(3)

(1)

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)C°(T

)C°(T

Distance fallen before a droplet disappears (cm)

Droplet

diameter

(µm)

Difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures

10 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02

20 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3

50 20 15 12 10

100 313 234 188 156

200 5,000 3,750 3,000 3,500

500 80,000 60,000 48,000 40,000

6 8 10 12

)C°(T

Droplet survival times (seconds)

Droplet

diameter

(µm)

Difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures

10 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1

20 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4

50 5.2 3.9 3 3

100 21 16 13 10

200 83 63 50 42

500 333 250 200 167

6 8 10 12

7.5.4 Droplet transmission

Once the droplet is generated it must be transferred to the target for the pesticide to be effective.

The movement of a droplet through the air is influenced by the sprayer type, droplet size, the

droplet’s initial speed of travel, gravity and prevailing weather conditions.

Gravity causes droplets to fall towards the earth’s surface. This is referred to as sedimentation.

The speed reached by a falling droplet when there is a balance between air resistance to its fall and

the pull of gravity, is known as its terminal or sedimentation velocity. Sedimentation velocity

varies with the diameter of the droplet, being low for small droplets and significantly higher for

large droplets.

Table 7.34. Estimated survival times of water droplets under

differing relative humidity conditions.

Source: QDPI.

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Equipment

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The longer a droplet takes to fall to earth, the more time it is exposed to drift and evaporation. Low

humidity and high temperatures can cause droplets, particularly water-based droplets, to reduce in

diameter by evaporation, and remain exposed to possible sideways movement for even longer time

periods.

The main weather conditions that influence droplet transmission are

• Temperature

• Relative humidity

• Local wind speed and direction.

Table 7.34 shows estimated survival times for water droplets under a range of conditions. Undermost spraying conditions in Australian cotton, smaller water based droplets (<100µm) are lesslikely to survive long enough to reach the target.

Temperature and relative humidity influence the evaporation of the droplets, and local wind

conditions affect the direction of movement of the droplets. Even after the water component of a

droplet has evaporated, the active ingredient and/or oil components may remain intact and may be

carried long distances. The importance of meteorological factors in relation to droplet behaviour

and spray management is discussed in Section 3.

Initial energy imparted by a nozzle and the use of high speed air streams can also influence the

transmission of droplets. However, once this force is removed, droplets (particularly small droplets)

fall entirely under the influence of gravity and wind.

7.5.5 Droplet capture

For pesticide spraying to be effective, droplets must be deposited on the target. Target size, shape

and orientation, droplet velocity and diameter and weather conditions all influence droplet deposition

on the target.

Large droplets will deposit on horizontal surfaces such as the ground or broadleaf weeds due to

sedimentation. Deposition on vertical surfaces or the lower surface of a leaf is increased by using

smaller droplets which are subject to horizontal wind movement and turbulence.

If the movement of small droplets is considered in a horizontal wind flow, objects such as branches

and leaves on crops cause air to be accelerated and deflected around them. Small droplets in the air

will also be deflected around the objects unless they have sufficient mass and energy to leave the

accelerating air and impact on the target surface. Figure 7.35 shows schematic diagrams of the

flow of air around flat (e.g. leaf) and cylindrical objects (e.g. branch).

The ratio of the number of droplets striking the object to the number which would strike if the air

was not deflected is called the catch efficiency. The greater the catch efficiency, the greater the

deposition on the target. In general the catch efficiency increases as:

• Diameter or width of the target decreases.

• Droplet velocity between the nozzle and the target increases.

• Droplet size increases.

Consequently, if small droplets are applied over a crop, the catching efficiency of the canopy wouldincrease if wind speeds were elevated (greater) and the crop consisted of numerous small branchesand hairy surfaces.

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The use of elevated winds to increase catch efficiency can also increase the drift potential of aspray. Caution is required.

Most natural surfaces are not smooth. Plant leaves may have a complex rough surface comprisingsmall protruding spikes, hairs and/or veins. All these factors help to increase the catch efficiency ofthe plant. Movement of the leaves due to airflow also increases the catch efficiency.

Not all droplets that reach a target will be retained on the target. Droplets which strike the targettend to flatten on the surface. If insufficient kinetic energy or momentum is lost on contact with theleaf surface, the droplet can contract and bounce away. Small droplets may have insufficient kineticenergy and roll off the target surface. Large droplets can have excess kinetic energy and shatter onimpact. Droplet retention is therefore a function of droplet kinetic energy, pesticide formulation,surface tension, droplet size and leaf morphology. The waxy surface coating on many leaves mayreduce the catching efficiency of aqueous sprays.

Adjuvants that reduce surface tension aim to decrease surface tension so that the droplet ‘flattens’(without rolling off the leaf), increasing pesticide contact with the leaf. The grower should notethat where a surfactant (wetting agent) is recommended to reduce surface tension and increaseretention, the addition of too much agent (or an incorrect product) can decrease the surface tensionexcessively and cause droplets to run off leaf surfaces.

Fig. 7.35. Air flow around a flat plate and a cylinder.

Source: C-PAS

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7.6.3 Advanced analytical techniques

Droplet sizing can be performed by a variety of fully automated, semi-automated or manual methods.

• Laser droplet sizing instrumentation enables droplet size to be estimated while thedroplets are airborne. There are three main methods of laser analysis, being (a) LaserDiffraction (b) Laser Shadowing and (c) Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA).

• Manual methods can be used to determine droplet size when the spray cloud has reachedthe target and is deposited either on an artificial surface or a natural surface such asleaves.

• A number of in-flight methods can be used to measure droplet spectra. These includephotographic methods, holographic techniques, light attenuation, light scattering, laserdoppler droplet sizing and optical array spectrometers.

• Other methods of droplet measurement require the capture of droplets on or in a suitablemedium so that droplets are made visible for sizing. To make the droplets more visiblea flourescent dye is added to the spray mixture and the spray deposition is examinedunder UV lights.

A number of specialists in advanced spray application research (e.g. C-PAS) can perform controlledinvestigations using specialised equipment. C-PAS uses Malvern 2600 laser diffraction equipmentwhich allows different spray equipment to be tested under comparable and repeatable conditions.These results can then tested in the field under operating conditions.

Useful contacts:

Water and oil sensitive papers: TeeJet Australasia Pty. Ltd.PO Box 7138GEELONG WEST 3218Victoria

Tel: (03) 5223 3020 Fax: (03) 5223 3015eMail: [email protected]

Flourescent yellow dye G. FurnessSARDI Research CentrePO Box 411LOXTON 5333

Tel: (08) 959 100 Fax: (08) 959 199

Ultra violet (blacklight blue) flourescent light bulbs:Lawrence and Hanson Electrical Distributors Pty. Ltd.Branches in most cities in Australia.

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Equipment

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7.6 Analysing spray applications in the field

7.6.1 Water and oil sensitive paper

Water sensitive paper (WSP) has a yellow surface on one side which is specially coated so thatwhen water based droplets contact this surface it is stained dark blue. Oil sensitive paper, in contrast,stains black when in contact with certain oil based formulations. Deposits on such cards can beused to determine the coverage as droplet deposition (droplets/sq.cm) or percent area cover. Watersensitive paper is not recommended for accurate drop sizing due to the variability of spread factoras a result of initial drop size and relative humidity. Droplets less than 100 µm do not stain the cardif the relative humidity is less than 50%. Under very humid conditions or in a recently wateredcrop, the paper may turn blue as it absorbs moisture from the surrounding air.

The best way to use these cards is to cut them into strips and staple the strips to the cotton canopyat differing levels. Estimates of droplet recovery can be made (and replicated) by determining theaverage droplet numbers deposited per unit area on the cards over a significant sampling area.

Refer to “Groundrig Spray Application in Cotton and Grain Industries” published by ChemCertAustralia Incorporated; J.H. Kent (Editor).

As a rough guide droplet numbers on the upper canopy should ideally exceed 40 droplets per sq.cm for most pesticide applications. Where accurate determination of droplet numbers and thepercentage area covered is required, cards can be sent to specialists (e.g. C-PAS) for computerbased image analysis.

Water and oil sensitive paper can be purchased in Australia from all TeeJet Australasia Pty. Ltd.distributors.

7.6.2 Flourescent markers

The spray application equipment is set-up and checked in the field that is to be tested. Flourescentdyes are mixed with clean water in the spray tank. The spray is then applied, and perhaps a fewvariations of nozzles and set-up configurations are tested.

Once the dye has dried, some of the cotton leaves are picked and taken to a dark room and examinedunder a UV light. If the trials are being carried out at night, the leaves can be examined in the fieldusing portable UV lights. Examination of the sprayed leaves under UV light will cause the dye to‘flouresce’ brightly so the droplet sizes and coverage can be examined.

Care: Direct viewing of UV light can be harmful to eyes. Shields should be fitted to the lights, eyeprotection should be worn and exposure should be kept to a minimum.

Flourescent dyes may persist on the crop and affect marketing. Check this before using the dyes.

This technique is a practical method of estimating coverage, but if accurate droplet size or depositionfigures are required, then advanced analytical techniques will be required.

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Equipment

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7.7 Pumps, pressure gauges and ancillary equipment

Pumps

There are several types of pumps for spray equipment (Fig. 7.36) and selection depends on:

• Maximum flow rate required

• Required pressure at the nozzles (or outlets)

• Characteristics of the pesticides being used.

Table 7.37 shows why centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used type of pump in spray

application equipment, due to their high durability and relative cost effectiveness.

Source: QDPI.

Figure 7.36. Typical pump types used for pesticide application.

Top left: Centrifugal pump, Top right: Roller pump,Centre: Gear pump, Bottom left: Piston pump,Bottom right: Diaphragm pump.

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Required pump capacity

Pump capacity is calculated to meet the boom requirements when it is operating at full capacity at

the correct pressure.

Pump flow rate required = Number of nozzles x Flow rate per nozzle (L/min)* x 1.15**

*Flow rate per nozzle value should be based on the largest nozzles to be used on the spray boom.

** As a rule of thumb, allow 15% extra capacity over maximum requirement to ensure that there is sufficient bypass

for tank agitation.

Pressure gauges

A pressure gauge should:

• Have a scale that is suitable for the range of applications that the equipment is likely tobe used for. A range of 200 kPa to 700 kPa (2.0 - 7.0 bar) (15 - 50 psi) is usuallyadequate.

• Be easy to read from the operators seat.

• Be damped with glycerine to cut out vibration (or be an electronic type that is isolatedby electrical wires).

It is recommended that hydraulic spray units carry at least two pressure gauges positioned to measureany pressure drop between the main gauge and the furtherest outlet point. Ease of visibility fromthe driving position enables these to be used to spot problems caused by filter or other blockages.Pressure gauges should not be mounted inside the cab unless they are isolated from the pesticide(e.g. diaphragm or electronic types).

Pressure regulators

Where a positive displacement pump is used, a bypass pressure regulator must be used. A bypassregulator has an adjustable spring loaded valve which opens to bypass spray mix back to the tank,once the working pressure has been reached. It is essential that the valve has the capacity to bypassthe whole pump flow to the tank when the nozzles are turned off (e.g. when turning at the edge ofa field).

The pressure regulators should be checked frequently, and be monitored during spraying via thepressure gauges.

Table 7.37. Comparison of different pumps.

Source: QDPI.

Piston

Diaphragm

Centrifugal

Roller vane

Gear

30

30

7

15

15

435

435

100

220

220

low

high

high

low

low

high

high

medium

low

low

Pump typeMax.

pressure

(bar)

Max.

pressure

(psi)

Relative

durability

Relative

cost

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Equipment

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Agitators

Proper agitation of the spray mix is important for all pesticides. Agitation can be done in severalways (or a combination) depending on the pesticide and formulation being used:

Bypass agitation is sufficient for most pesticides used in cotton. The bypass agitation line shouldbe in the bottom of the tank to minimize foaming.

Jet or ‘venturi’ agitation should be used for low concentrations of wettable powder and suspensionconcentrates. The agitator should be fitted to a separate high pressure line from the tank to ensurethat the agitator pressures are maintained.

Mechanical agitation consisting of paddles or propellers on a rotating shaft may be necessary forlarge tanks and/or high concentrations of wettable powder pesticides.

Filters

A good filter system that is regularly cleaned will ensure fewer stoppages due to blocked nozzles.Fan and some low drift nozzles are particularly sensitive to blockages. Filters can be fitted in linewhere they should have enough capacity to operate properly for at least 3-4 hours, and carry a finermesh (e.g. 100 -120 mesh) than the nozzle filters that may be fitted. Effective filters ensure moreefficient spray operations and reduced wear and tear (caused by abrasion) in the spray system.

Tank inlet filters The tank inlet filter is located under the lid for top filling and in

line where a closed system is used. Inlet filters are the first

filters in the system and are to prevent any larger objects or

potential blockages entering the tank. Inlet filters are usually

50 mesh and should be cleaned daily or if contamination occurs

(e.g. a dirty load of water).

Suction filters Suction filters are fitted to the pump intake line in the bottom

of the spray tank to filter the pesticide mixture before it enters

the pump. These filters are generally constructed of brass to

prevent collapsing due to the suction created by the pump.

Piston pumps require better intake filtration than diaphragm

pumps.

Line filters Line filters are incorporated into the main spray lines which

supply pesticide to the nozzles. They filter out solid

contaminants before the mixture reaches the nozzles. Line filters

are usually a finer mesh rating than the nozzle filters and should

be cleaned daily.

Nozzle filters Refer to the manufacturers recommendations for suitable filters

to match the nozzles that you are using. Check and clean

frequently, especially if the formulation is not a liquid.

Check valves

Non-drip nozzle assemblies are readily available and are recommended for use on all spray booms. Itis difficult to decontaminate the rubber diaphragms incorporated into the units after exposure to someherbicides such as 2,4-D and other ‘phenoxy’ herbicides. Under these circumstances, replace alldiaphragms before spraying cotton, and request chemical resistant (e.g. neoprene) replacement parts.

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Because it is extremely difficult to completely decontaminate a sprayer after it has been used tospray phenoxy herbicides, it is common practice on cotton farms not to use phenoxy herbicides atall, or to have a completely separate sprayer to apply phenoxy and other herbicides.

Boom section shut-off valves

It is common for spray units to have three operational spray lengths—either side arm and a centresection—which can be operated together or individually. Control of the spray supply to eachsection is manually applied using a lever stopcock or electronically by a switch activating a solenoid.

Droppers

Droppers are an ‘extension’ inserted between the nozzle body and the tip. Droppers are used toensure good coverage of the lower leaves of the cotton crop. Thick walled nylon or polythenetubing is often used because it is cheap, lightweight, easy to assemble and does not corrode. However,nylon is flexible and this may result in inaccurate pesticide placement in the crop. Spring loadedsteel or copper droppers which can only swing backwards (if they strike an obstacle) will providemore accurate application.

Droppers may have multiple nozzles to improve coverage, and the nozzle holders should be strongenough to withstand constant contact with the cotton branches. Avoid configurations which arelikely to ‘strip’ squares or bolls from the branches during operation.

Shielded sprayers

Groundrig sprayers may be fitted with spray ‘hoods’ or shields that cover the application areaduring spraying. The shields may also protect the spray from wind, and reduce upward movementif the shields are properly designed and fully enclose the nozzles. Partial shields may be used toprotect the crop from herbicides whilst spraying inter-row weeds. There are many designs ofsprayer shields for inter-row spraying, row / band spraying and overall spraying, and details can beobtained from all major spray equipment suppliers.

Photo: Custom Ag. Products Inc.

Figure 7.38 Spray shields fitted to apply pesticide to individual rows.

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Equipment

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In-field positioning and guidance systems

Markers

In dryland areas and prior to ‘hilling-up’ in irrigated cotton, a marking system is essential if‘overlapping’ and/or ‘stripping’ are to be minimised. They are also helpful for maintenance sprayingduring the fallow period. The type of marker needed depends on the boom spray design andenvironmental requirements. The following types of markers are available:

Foam markers Foam (blob dobber) markers are widely used by both growersand contractors. The white colour is suitable for in-crop andbare-fallow spray operations, but visibility problems may beencountered in crop stubble. For efficient operation of foammarkers, use clean water and follow the manufacturer’srecommendations closely. Foam life varies from less than 30minutes to three hours, depending on quantity, bubble size,humidity and temperature.

Paint markers Water-based paint has been used as a replacement for thetraditional silver streak (diesel based) in spray markers. It costsless and a range of colours can be used depending on theconditions; a sky blue colour has shown promise for wintercereal stubble and in stressed or dead sorghum.

Disc markers Disc markers mounted on the boom are very effective. Theygive a positive mark in both a fallow and young crop situationbut have limitations in dry soil conditions, and where cottonrows have been carefully prepared. Make sure the disc throwssoil away from the swath being sprayed.

Electronic guidance systems

In furrow irrigated crops the row hills provide accurate guidance for most ground rig operations,but global positioning systems (GPS) guidance systems may be necessary in conditions where it isdifficult for the operator to count rows or in dryland situations where there are no rows for guidance.For aerial application and for more accurate guidance for groundrigs, GPS provides the most accuratemethod of in-field guidance.

GPS and DGPS Global Positioning System (GPS) and Differential GlobalPositioning System (DGPS) tracking. This system uses aconstellation of 24 satellites in orbit approximately 20km abovethe earth. When the system was originally made available forcivilian use, the US military introduced an intentional error‘called ‘selective availability’ (SA) to prevent use by hostileforces to pinpoint US targets. To overcome this error, earthstations were set up at known locations to provide signals, andthese were compared to the satellite signals to provide a rangecorrection and improve positional accuracy. This technique isknown as differential GPS. Selective availability has nowceased and GPS guidance using satellite signals alone providesufficient accuracy for most spraying operations.

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GPS is now used extensively in application equipment forapplying pesticides to cotton. The advantages are accuracy,constant monitoring of the job, and reduced reliance on humanor visual markers.

GPS is now standard for aerial application in cotton to avoidexposure of human markers, and to provide accurate flight paths.

GPS is not essential in ground rig application, as the operatorcan calculate spray lanes using the cotton rows. However, it isstill preferred so that a record of the application can be storedelectronically and the ground rig can be used on flat (i.e. nofurrows) country.

Many GPS systems have the added advantage of on-boardmemory that allows the application path patterns to be examinedand printed after the job has been completed.

Photo: Hardi

Figure 7.39 In-cab GPS guidance and electronic spray management system.

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Equipment

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7.8 Cleaning and decontamination of equipment

No spraying operation is completed until the equipment used has been properly cleaned out anddecontaminated from pesticide residues. Failure to clean the equipment may result in the risk offuture contamination and possible crop damage, as well as accelerated equipment deterioration.Growers should check applicator and contractor records and equipment to ensure that reasonabledecontamination procedures are being followed. This becomes particularly important in IPM pro-grams to ensure that soft option pesticides or attractants are not contaminated by other chemicals.

The spraying system should be thoroughtly flushed and decontaminated at the end of each day andwhenever the pesticide mixture is changed.

Nozzles should be cleaned with a soft brush (e.g. a used toothbrush) or a jet of compressed air. Do

not clean the nozzle by putting it in your mouth to blow through it. Do not use wire or any other

hard material to ‘poke’ into the orifice.

Spray application equiment should also be cleaned thoroughly before moving to other fields toprevent the spread of weeds and diseases such as Fusarium spp.

The vehicle or aircraft should be cleaned both internally and externally. All cab filters should bechecked and maintained, and the cab should be left open to ‘air’ before the vehicle is stored.

Oily residues may be slippery and endanger personnel who are loading or working on the machin-ery.

During operation, aircraft and groundrigs are very visible and clean machinery projects a publicimage of professional attention to detail.

Always check the pesticide label for any specific cleaning and decontamination procedures.

Fig. 7.40. Correct techniques for cleaning nozzles.

Source: Lurmark

135

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Table 7.41. Cleaning procedures for various pesticides.

Chemical group Cleaning agent(s) Instructions

per 100 L water

General cleaning 250g powdered Flush sprayer with fresh water. Drain

Atrazine, Simazine. detergent and capture washing water. Flush

cleaning mixture through the sprayer

and leave overnight. Flush next day

with two washings of clean water.

Organophosphates 125g powdered Thoroughly agitate.

eg. Predator® detergent + 1 Litre Flush a small amount through the

household ammonia sprayer and leave overnight.

Carbamates Flush next day with at least two

eg. Lannate® washings of clean water.

Organochlorides 500g washing soda + Rinse inside of tank and flush a

eg. Thiodan® 125g powdered small amount through the system.

detergent Fill and let stand for 2 hours. Flush

twice with clean water.

Glyphosate Clean water Rinse thoroughly several times with

(e.g. Roundup®) clean water.

Broadstrike®, Lontrel® 500ml liquid washing Flush the system, then quarter fill

Verdict® Fusilade® detergent the tank with water and add the

(e.g.OMO®) detergent. Start pump and

recirculate for at least 15 mins. Drain

and flush with fresh water.

Hormone type herbicides 500g washing soda Half fill spray tank. Start agitation

a) Water soluble and add washing soda and fill.

formulations Flush a small amount through the

eg. 2,4-D amine, MCPA system. Let stand for a minimum of

2 hours. Drain then flush system

b) Oil soluble 4 L kerosene + with two lots of clean water.

formulations 500g washing soda

eg. 2,4-D ester + 125g powdered

detergent

Sulfonylureas 350mls household Flush with cold water. Half fill spray

eg. Ally chlorine bleach (35g/l tank. Start agitation and add bleach

available chlorine) and fill. Flush a small amount

Never mix bleach through the system. Let stand for a

and ammonia. minimum of 2 hours. Drain then

flush system with two lots of clean

water.

Nozzles and filters should be

cleaned separately.

After cleaning and decontamination the main system, remember to check all filters,

screens and nozzles. Maintain any faulty parts after decontamination is completed.

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Appendix 1

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Appendix 1. Useful unit conversions

trevnocoT ybylpitluM niatbooT

niatbooT ybediviD trevnocoT

erAc 47040. reatceH

sertemitnCe esrtemilliM

sertemitnCe 010. esrteM

teefcibCu 32820.0 esrtemcibuC

sehcnicibCu 873.16 esrtemitneccibuC

sertemcibCu 0001, esrtiL

)SU(nollGa 0544. esrtiL

)KU(snollGa 8573. esrtiL

smaGr 0010 msargilliM

smaGr 0100. msargoliK

seratcHe 7142. esrcA

rewopesrHo 57470. tstawoliK

sehcIn 542. esrtemitneC

smargolKi 0522. dsnuoP

smargolKi 0010 msarG

.mc.qs/smargolKi 07890. rsaB

.mc.qs/smargolKi 14.22 n.i.qs/sdnuoP

sertemolKi 14260. esliM

rh/sertemolKi 96350. tsonK

sttawolKi 4131. erwopesroH

sertLi 979120. K)U(snollaG

sertLi 174620. S)U(snollaG

sertMe 37.39 eshcnI

ces/sertMe 3.6 hr/sertemoliK

rh/selMi 84680. tsonK

)F°(tiehnerFa .81÷)23-F(° C)°(suisleC

)C°(suislCe 32+)8.1xC(° F)°(tiehneraF

10

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Appendix 2. Information sources.

Contacts

Cotton Research and Development Corporation

2 Lloyd Street Telephone: 02 6792 4088

NARRABRI 2390 Fax: 02 6792 4400

NSW Website: www.crdc.org.au

Cotton Australia

Level 2, 490 Crown Street Telephone: 02 9360 8500

SURRY HILLS 2010 Fax: 02 9360 8555

NSW Website: www.cottonaustralia.com.au

Cotton Australia. - Regional Offices

St George Qld Tel: (07) 4625 4038 Fax: (07) 4625 4053Dalby Qld Tel: (07) 4669 6288 Fax: (07) 4669 6299Emerald Qld Tel: (07) 4982 0611 Fax: (07) 4982 0511Goondiwindi Qld Tel: (07) 4671 5965 Fax: (07) 4671 5978Narrabri NSW Tel: (02) 6792 6041 Fax: (02) 6792 6042Warren NSW Tel: (02) 6847 3688 Fax: (02) 6847 3755Moree NSW Tel: (02) 6751 1852 Fax: (02) 6751 1854Gunnedah NSW Tel: (02) 6742 1800 Fax: (02) 6742 1900

Cotton CRC

PO Box 59 Telephone: (02) 6799 1500

NARRABRI NSW 2390 Fax: (02) 6793 1186Website: www.cotton.crc.org.au

National Cotton Extension CoordinatorToowoomba Qld Tel: (07) 4688 1398 Fax: (07) 4688 1199

Mob: 0428 195 485

Senior Development Extension Officer - Pesticide ApplicationToowoomba Qld Tel: (07) 4688 1564 Fax: (07) 4688 1199

Mob: 0417 723 259

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Appendix 2

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Cotton CRC - Industry Development Officers and District Agronomists

District Town Telephone Fax Mobile

Darling Downs Dalby (07) 4669 0815 (07) 4669 4966 0427 035 793

Central Qld Emerald (07) 4983 7411 (07) 4983 7459 0409 499 691

Macintyre Goondiwindi (07) 4671 6711 (07) 4671 2782 0428 879 900

Balonne St. George (07) 4625 3299 (07) 4625 3892 0408 710 969

Darling/Lachlan Griffith (02) 6960 1353 (02) 6963 0255 0427 107 057

Upper Namoi Gunnedah (02) 6742 9279 (02) 6742 2940 0427 007 422

Gwydir Moree (02) 6752 5111 (02) 6752 4859

Macquarie Warren (02) 6847 4507 (02) 6847 3664 0408 447 483

Lower Namoi Narrabri (02) 6799 1500 (02) 6799 1582

Walgett (02) 6828 1288 (02) 6828 2274

Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia (AAAA)

The Executive Officer Telephone: 02 6262 8256AAAA Fax: 02 6262 8257PO Box 647DICKSON 2390ACT

Centre for Pesticide Application and Safety (C-PAS)

The Director Telephone: 07 5460 1293The University of Queensland, Fax: 07 5460 1283Gatton 4343 Email: [email protected].


The Executive Manager Telephone: 02 6933 2177Chem Cert Australia Inc. Fax: 02 6933 2924PO Box E10KINGSTON 2604ACT.

Cotton Consultants Australia Inc. (CCA)

The Executive Officer Telephone: 02 6792 5459CCA Fax: 02 6792 5461PO Box 508 eMail: [email protected] 2390

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Groundrig Operators Association Inc. (GOA)

The Executive Officer Telephone: 02 6752 9167Groundrig Operators Association Inc. Fax: 02 6752 9070PO Box 845MOREE 2400NSW

Emergency Services

Fire, Ambulance, Police Telephone: 000

Poisons Information Centre Telephone: 131 126 (All areas, 24 hours)

Pesticide manufacturers Refer to the product label or MSDS.

Websites

National

Cotton Research and Development Corporation www.crdc.com.au

Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre www.cotton.crc.org.au

Bureau of Meteorology www.bom.gov.au

Department of Transport www.dot.gov.au

National Registration Authority www.nra.gov.au

Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

New South Wales

Deptartment of Agriculture www.agric.nsw.gov.au

Department of Land & Water Conservation www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au

Environment Protection Authority www.epa.nsw.gov.au

WorkCover www.workcover.nsw.gov.au

Queensland

Deptartment of Primary Industries www.dpi.qld.gov.au

Department of Natural Resources and Mines www.nrm.qld.gov.au

Department of Emergency Services www.emergency.qld.gov.au

Department of Employment Training www.detir.qld.gov.auand Industrial Relations

Environmental Protection Agency www.epa.qld.gov.au

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Appendix 2

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Further reading.

Agsafe (1996). Accreditation Training Manual (7th edition). Published by Agsafe Limited,NSW.

Agsafe (1998). Farm Chemicals Manual, A guide to safe use and handling. Published byAgsafe Limited, NSW.

Agsafe (1998). Chemical Handling, Storage and Transport, Training Manual. Published byAgsafe Limited, NSW.

Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia (1997). Operation Spray Safe - Pilots’ and OperatorsManual.

Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre (2000). Insect Management in Cotton PocketGuide.

Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre (2001). NUTRIpak - A Practical Guide to CottonNutrition. Ian Rochester (Editor).

Australian Cotton Industry (2000). Best Management Practices Manual (2nd edition).

Boyce Chartered Accountants (2000). Cotton Comparative Analysis - 2000 Crop. Moree.

Broadley, R. et. al. (1993). Pesticide Application Manual (2nd edition). Queensland Depart-ment of Primary Industries Information Series Q189003.

Ciba-Geigy. Correct and Safe Aerial Application of Pesticides. Application Support Group,Plant Protection, Ciba-Geigy Ltd., Basle, Switzerland.

Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Cotton Production. ENTOpak - A Compendiumof Information on Insects in Cotton. (Collected papers).

Cotton Research and Development Corporation (2000) Insect Resistance Management Strategy.

Cotton Research and Development Corporation (2000). Spray Application Guide - GroundrigOperators.

Harden, J. and Whitehead, J.(1995). Pesticide Application and Safety - Workshop Manual (2ndedition). Published by The University of Queensland Gatton College.

New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority (1988) Environmental Guidelines - AerialSpraying Facilities.

Pyke, B.A. and Brown,E. H. (1996) The Cotton Pest and Beneficial Guide. Published jointlyby the Cotton Research and Development Corporation and the CooperativeResearch Centre for Tropical Pest Management (Qld).

Queensland Department of Training and Industrial Relations (2000). Code of Practice for theStorage and Use of Chemicals at Rural Workplace.

Queensland Farmers Federation. The Environmental Code of Practice for Agriculture.

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (1999). Growing Trees on Cotton Farms.

Shaw, A.J. and Watson, C.R., (2001). Cotton Pest Management Guide 2001/2002.

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Standards Australia (1998). The storage and handling of agricultural and vetinary chemicals.Australian Standard 2507-1998.

Standards Australia (1997). The storage and handling of toxic substances. Australian Standard4452-1997.

Standards Australia (1998). The storage and handling of mixed classes of dangerous goods inpackages and intermediate bulk containers. Australian Standard 3833-1998.

Whitehead, J. and Pyke, B. (Eds) (1994). SPRAYpak - The Cotton Growers Spray ApplicationHandbook. Published by The University of Queensland Gatton College.

Whitehead, J. and Coleman, E. (1999). Farm Chemical Storage Guide. Information SeriesQ199064. Published by Queensland Department of Primary Industries.

Legislation

Amendments to specific legislation should also be consulted.

Refer to your BMP manual for brief explanations of the following legislative documents:

Commonwealth

Road Transport Reform (Dangerous Goods) Regulations (C’wealth) 1997

New South Wales

Contaminated Land Management Act (NSW) 1997Dangerous Goods Act (NSW) 1975Dangerous Goods (General) Regulation (NSW) 1999Occupational Health and Safety Act (NSW) 1983Occupational Health and Safety (Hazardous Substances) Regulation (NSW) 1996Pesticides Act (NSW) 1999Protection of the Environment Operations Act (NSW) 1997Road and Rail Transport (Dangerous Goods) Act (NSW) 1997Waste Minimisation and Management Act (NSW) 1995

Queensland

Chemical Usage (Agricultural and Veterinary) Control Act (Qld) 1988.Environmental Protection Act (Qld) 1994.Health Regulation (Qld) 1996.Health (Drugs and Poisons) Regulation (Qld) 1996.Workplace Health and Safety Act (Qld) 1995.Workplace Health and Safety Regulation (Qld) 1997.Workplace Health and Safety (Miscellaneous) Regulation (Qld) 1995.

Codes of Practice

Commonwealth Australian Dangerous Goods Code.

New South Wales Code of Practice for the Safe Use and Storage of Chemicals in Agriculture.

Queensland The Storage and Use of Chemicals at Rural Workplaces - Industry Code ofPractice.

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Appendix 3

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Appendix 3. Risk Management

All applicators and farmers have a common law responsibility (or Duty of Care) to minimise risks

associated with the transport, storage, handling, mixing and application of pesticides.

Hazard A potential source of harm, injury or difficulty.

Risk Exposure to the chance (probability) of injury or loss.

Transporting, storing, mixing and applying pesticides all create hazards to human health and the

environment. The level of risk associated with these activities depends on the probability that an

activity will cause harm and the seriousness (consequences) of that harm.

Damages caused as a result of pesticide use are considered foreseeable and preventable, and not

unexpected or accidental.

Adverse environmental impacts or harm to human health caused by pesticide use can have legal

and/or financial implications for the parties involved.

Reducing risk makes good sense.

Risk management

A process of identifying hazards, assessing the risk and managing that risk.

Step 1: Identify hazards

Identify the hazards which may be encountered on your cotton farm during pesticide application.

Start by classifying the pesticide hazards into groups such as:

Transport - from supplier,

- on-farm.

Storage - on-farm,

- depots.

Handling - movement (lifting etc).

Mixing - on-farm,

- at depots or mobile support units,

- disposal of waste,

- spills.

Application - equipment,

- pesticide characteristics (eg. toxicity),

- off target residues,

- clean up.

Once a PAMP has been completed on the broader categories of hazards, and the associated risks are

being managed, more detailed categorisation of each pesticide application activity can be undertaken.

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Step 2: Assess risk

Assessing risk means measuring it.

The risk associated with a particular hazardous activity may be high, medium or low, depending

on the probability of harm occurring, and the consequences of that harm should it occur.

Ask the following questions when assessing risk:

• Law Is the activity controlled by legislation?

• Methods Have controls been put in place to reduce risk? (Due diligence)

• Training Are the personnel involved in the activity adequately trained?

• Location Are there sensitive areas nearby?

• Timing Is the application being done at an appropriate time to reduce risk?

• Harm What harm could the activity cause, and how likely is it to occur?

• Consequences How serious are the consequences if harm occurs?

Step 3: Control risk

Controlling (or managing) risk means reducing it.

Action plans provide a means of listing priorities for action. High level risks should be given

priority.

• Identify Identify the target pest, disease or weed(s) correctly.

• Select Select the most effective and least toxic option.

• Assess Conduct a risk assessment.

• Control Implement risk controls.

a. Eliminate the risk by using another method.

b. Replace the hazard with a less significant one.

c. Isolate hazardous activities from other activities.

d. Use engineering/mechanical devices to minimise risk.

e. Ensure safe work practices and train operators.

f. Use well maintained protective equipment.

• Record Maintain accurate records.

• Team Involve all personnel in the process of risk reduction.

• Monitor Monitor progress and repeat risk assessments when work practices

change.

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Appendix 4

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Appendix 4. Pesticide fate processes

When a pesticide is mixed and applied it is immediately subjected to numerous environmentalforces that affect its fate. Generally, these can be grouped into physical and biochemical influences.

Physical or ‘transfer’ influences

These may include the following:

(a) Volatilisation: If the active constituent or parts of the formulation have a high vapour

pressure, these will tend to vaporise after deposition and move away from the target area

with ambient air movement.

(b) Wind: Wind can have a significant effect on the fate of pesticides. Many small droplets

may be transferred from the target area by wind.

(c) Run-off and erosion: Significant rainfall events shortly after spraying can lead to residue

wash off-target, and pesticide movement along with water flow. Similarly any earth that

has been sprayed that is moved through erosion will carry residues with it. The amount

will be dependent many factors including slope and ground cover.

(d) Leaching: The significance of downward movement of chemical through the soil profile

towards the water table varies with the nature of the chemical and the soil type. Sandy

soils and highly water soluble compounds not subject to soil adsorption represent the

worst scenario (e.g. phenoxy herbicides).

At the other end of the scale some pesticides with very low solubility like Trifluralin

through sheer persistence may survive long enough without breakdown to contaminate

groundwater. Most pesticides do not pose a threat.

(e) Groundwater movement: If the ground water is contaminated it may be part of a system

that supplies water elsewhere.

(f) Crop absorption and harvest: Under some circumstances chemical residues may be

moved out of the paddock of use along with the harvested crop.

Degradation influences

These breakdown systems result in the actual molecule being modified and possibly totally destroyedwith its components (eg. carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen) beingreabsorbed into other compounds such as water, carbon dioxide or chloride salts.

These reactions are caused in two ways:

(a) Chemical: There are two major influences. The first is ultra-violet radiation as the

residue sits on the target exposed to sunlight. Pesticides vary quite a lot in their sensitivity

to UV. The other chemical change is brought about by acid or alkaline soil conditions.

Pesticides that are adsorbed to clay can be destabilised by a change in pH. Usually the

pH triggers the process known as hydrolysis (decomposition by reaction with water).

(b) Bio-degradation: The great majority of pesticides can be utilised by some soil micro-

flora or fauna as an energy source. They attack the molecule and accumulate the energy

released by its break-up. The crop itself may absorb the chemical and then assimilate it

or de-activate it through enzyme activity.

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Pesticide degradation influences.

Appendix 5○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

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Appendix 5. Bureau of meteorology meteograms

The Bureau of Meteorology has worked with growers in cotton areas to provide services that willprovide more reliable weather indications.

Meteograms provide weather outlooks for any location in Australia up to 7 days ahead. They areavailable by subscription and provide a very cost effective way to look at the future weather foryour area. This subscription service is available via the Bureau’s ‘SILO web site at http://www.bom.gov.au/silo/ . If you need more information, send an email to: [email protected]

Weather variables that are monitored and modelled include temperature, relative humidity, rainfall,wind speed and wind direction in the coming days. The website is very flexible and allows users toview general trends or detailed models for their area.

To access the service, users should log on to the BOM SILO website (address above) and thenrequest the level of detail and type of information that is required. An example of how to use thewebsite is as follows:

• Using the ‘customised’ meteogram setting, select the ‘GASP’ model for the general 7day outlook,

• Then check the ‘MESOLAPS’ model for the maximum inclusion of local effects (buthence also shortest time period).

Of all the weather forecast variables, wind is the most location-dependent e.g. where are the localhills/valleys/trees/any other obstructions sited near the spray location will have the most effect.Therefore, meteograms will be better on ‘strong wind’ days and light wind days will be moredependent on local effects.

Meteograms should only to be used to look at the expected trends in weather. Meteogramoutlooks come straight from the computer model and are ‘untouched’ by human hands. They areseparate to the official Bureau forecasts and warnings, (see below) which are developed from arange of guidance material combined with local forecasters’ expertise.

Refer to the Bureau’s web site at http://www.bom.gov.au/ for the latest official forecasts and warnings,or the ‘Weather by Fax’ service on pollfax 1902 93 5200 (‘quick reference’ guide). The informationpages on this site provide a complete description of all the Bureau’s agricultural services.

For help with forecasts and warnings, aviation briefings (24 hrs), or climate data and information(9-4pm), try the Bureau’s Regional Office in your capital city (see contact details below). SomeBureau of Meteorology field offices can also provide information – check telephone directory foryour nearest BOM office. Most of these offices operate weather-watch radars which provide up todate images of areas of rainfall. These are updated every ten minutes and the last four images fromeach radar are freely available on the Bureau’s web site. Also available are the current observationsfrom the Bureau’s network of automatic weather stations. These are updated hourly and can beused in conjunction with the radar images to assess how the forecast conditions are affecting yourarea.

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Bureau Regional Offices

New South WalesPO Box 413 Tel: (02) 9296 1555Darlinghurst 2010 Fax: (02) 9296 1567NSW

Queensland

GPO Box 413 Tel: (07) 3239 8700

Brisbane 4001 Fax: (07) 3220 0221

QLD

Northern Territory

PO Box 40050 Tel: (08) 8920 3800

Casuarina 0801 Fax: (08) 8902 3802

NT

Western Australia

PO Box 1370 Tel: (08) 9263 2222

West Perth 6872 Fax: (08) 9263 2233

WA

A5-1. Composite meteogram - Wind speed.

Appendix 5○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

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A5-2. Composite meteogram - Wind direction.

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A5-3. Composite meteogram - Temperature.

A5-4. Composite meteogram - Relative humidity.

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