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SPORT AND HEALTH
SCIENTIFIC-JOURNAL FIELD OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT
Vol IX, No 1. 2014. ISSN 1840-152X
www.sportizdravlje.rs.ba
2
SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENTIFIC-JOURNAL FIELD OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION AND SPORT Publshed by
University of East Sarajevu
Fakulty Physical Education and Sports
Editor –in-chief PhD Danko Pržulj
Editorial Board Advisory Board
1. Dragoslav Jakonić (Novi Sad, Serbia) 2. Slobodan Stojiljković (Nis, Serbia) 3. Nenad Suzić (Banja Luka, Bosnia) 4. Milovan Bratić (Niš, Serbia)
5. Radivoj Radosav (Novi Sad, Serbia)
6. Milivoje Karalejić (Beograd, Serbia) 7. Raviojla Pavlić-Mandić (Sarajevo, Bosnia) 8. Radivoje Krsmanović (I.Sarajevo, Bosnia) 9. Martin Pupiš (Banska Bystrica, Slovakia) 10. Radoslav Bubanj (Niš, Serbia)
11. Milentije Branković (Niš, Serbia) 12. Vladimir Koprivica (Beograd, Serbia) 13. Aleksandar Naumovski (Skoplje, Macedonia)
14. Cvijeta Krsmanović (E.Sarajevo, Bosnia) 15. Branimir Mikić (Tuzla, Bosnia)
16. Jordan Donev (Sofija, Bulgaria) 17. Radovan Čokorilo (Novi Sad, Serbia) 18. Milena Mikalački (Novi Sad, Serbia) 19. Rajko Kuljić (Novi Sad, Serbia) 20. Veselin Jovović (Nikšić, Montenegro) 21. Dragan Popović (Leposavić, Serbia)
22. Izet Rađo (Sarajevo, Bosnia) 23. Simo Vuković (Banja Luka, Bosnia) 24. Slaviša Đurđević (Beograd, Serbia) 25. Darko Kalajdžić (Novi Sad, Serbia)
26. Nenad Lalić (E.Sarajevo, Bosnia)
27. Danko Pržulj (E.Sarajevo, Bosnia)
Editorial Offis:
Faculty Physical Education and Sports
University of East Sarajevu
Stambulčić bb, 71420 Pale, Bosnia and
Herzegovina
tel/fax: 00387 (0)57 226 836 e-mail:
Editor in Editorial Staff: PhD Milomir Trivun,
Associate Professor
Secretary offices: Borislav Cicovič PhD
Tehnical editor: Ljubica Nikolić
English translation Vesna Lazarevic Oslo,
Norway (pp.23:28 and 85:91) Copies: 300
Printed by: "Grafosemberija" a.d. Bijeljina
UDC 796.011/797(05)
1. Dragoslav Jakonić (NoviSad, Serbia)
2. Danko Pržulj (E. Sarajevo, Bosnia) 3. Dobrica Živković (Nis, Serbia) 4. Đorđe Nićin (Beograd, Serbia)
5. Izet Rađo (Sarajevo, Bosnia) 6. Jordan Donev (Sofija, Bulgaria)
7. Veselin Jovović (Nikšić, Monenegro) 8. Vladimir Koprivica (Beograd, Serbia) 9. Branimir Mikić(Tuzla, Bosnia) 10. Muriz Hadžikadunić (Sarajevo, Bosnia) 11. Darko Kalajdžić (Novi Sad, Serbia) 12. Martin Pupiš (Banska Bystrica, Slovakia)
13. Slobodan Stojiljković (Nis, Serbia) 14. Milentije Branković (Nis, Serbia)
15. Milovan Bratić (Nis, Serbia) 16. Radivoje Krsmanović(E.Sarajevo,Bosnia) 17. Nenad Suzić (Banja Luka, Bosnia)
18. Dragan Popović (Leposavic, Serbia) 19. Simo Vuković (Banja Luka, Bosnia) 20. Ratko Stanković (Nis, Serbia)
21. Cvijeta Krsmanović (E.Sarajevo, Bosnia) 22. Radoslav Bubanj (Nis, Serbia) 23. Milivoje Karalejić (Beograd, Serbia)
24. Slaviša Đurđević (Beograd, Serbia) 25. Radomir Kostić (Nis, Serbia)
26. Toplica Stojanović (Nis, Serbia)
27. Tomislav Okičić (Nis, Serbia)
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S P O R T A N D H E A L T H
ISSN 1840-152X Pale, 2014. vol 9 № 1: pp. 5-92 UDC 796
CONTENTS 2014/1
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Srdjan Baralic
DOI:. 10.7251/SHTEN1401005B
SELF-CONFIDENCE AS A FACTOR OF THE GENERAL ATTITUDE TO THE
DOCTOR’S AND PSYCHOLOGIST’S PROFESSIONS ................................................................ 5
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Ranko Bojanic, Jelena Pejicic, Sreten Markovic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401016B
THE EFFECT OF THE TRANING PROCESS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES OF YOUNG ATHLETES................................................................... 16
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Borislav Cicovic, Dejan Kulundzic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401023C
DEVELOPMENT OF REPETITIVE FORCE UNDER THE
INFLUENCE OF SCHEDULED MULTIFACETED PREPARATION AMONG YOUNG
JUDO PRACTITIONERS ................................................................................................................... 23
PROFESSIONAL ARTICLE
Dejan Cokorilo
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401029C
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUCCESSFUL LEADER IN A FOOTBALL CLUB
................................................................................................................................................................ 29
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Senad Cokovic, Milan Stamenkovic, Ranko Bojanic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401035C
METHODS FOR SPORTSMEN’S TECHNICAL AND TACTYICAL
KNOWLEDGE IMPROVEMENT .................................................................................................... 35
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Ida Kabok, Cvijeta Krsmanovic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401039K
THE EFFICIENCY OF ADOPTION OF BASKETBALL ELEMENTS IN STUDENTS
WITH SPECIAL NEEDS .................................................................................................................... 39
3
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Sreten Markovic, Milos Mitov, Senad Cokovic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401052M
INDIVIDUALIZATION OF PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
OF TRAINING WORK WITH SPORTSMEN ................................................................................. 52
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Vladan Markovic, Goran Pasic, Dejan Kulundzic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401057M
ANALYSIS OF A SWIMMING STROKE IN THE 100M BREASTSTROKE SWIMMING
EVENT IN ATHENS IN 2004 ............................................................................................................. 57
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Mico Micic, Nanad Lalic, Milan Lazic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401064M
PROJECT MANAGMENT-A MODERN AND COMPLEX PROCESS OF
EVAPORATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT, RECREATION AND PLAY IN
THE CITY OF BIJELJINA ................................................................................................................ 64
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Goran Pasic, Milomir Trivun, Gorana Tesanovic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401074P
THE ASYMMETRY OF THE AND BACK PADDLER IN CANADIAN DOUBLE
SLALOM ............................................................................................................................................... 74
ORGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Danko Przulj, Dejan Kulundzic
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401085P
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOTH BOYS AND GIRLS SIXTH GRADERS OF
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SOME MOTOR SKILLS AND MORPHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................................................................... 85
Manual for Autors ................................................................................................................................ 92
4
Scientific Work Review SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 5-15
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Srdjan R. Baralic
Centre for Social Work, East New Sarajevo
UDK 159.9.072
DOI:. 10.7251/SHTEN1401005B
SELF-CONFIDENCE AS A FACTOR OF THE GENERAL ATTITUDE TO THE
DOCTOR’S AND PSYCHOLOGIST’S PROFESSIONS
Summary
A part of the findings of the empirical research by which we tried to establish the sources that
influence the formation of the general attitude to the doctor’s and psychologist’s professions
is shown in this paper. We were interested in investigating if self-confidence and socio-
empirical characteristics are statistically significant determinants of the formation of these
attitudes. We also thought that it would be interesting to see at which profession positive
attitudes are more directed.
In the qualitative analysis of the gathered attitudes it was ascertained that the
respondents more often have a negative attitude towards the doctor’s and psychologist’s
professions. It was also ascertained that the attitude towards the doctor’s profession is much
more positive than towards the psychologist’s profession. Regarding the differences in the
general attitudes towards the doctor’s and psychologist’s professions, and considering self-
confidence, it was ascertained that there is a statistically important difference in the obtained
results (Chi-square=193,885; df=4; p<0,01; C coeff.=0,704) and (Chi-square=162,573;
df=4; p<0,01; C coeff.=0,672), which means that self-confidence is an important factor of the
formation of the general attitude towards both the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions.
Key words: self-confidence, self-efficacy, attitude, prejudices.
INTRODUCTION
It seems that the aspirations of the individual's life require a certain level of self-
confidence, self-evaluation, something that he can and should do in order to reach a certain
goal.
To take some activities, doubtless, what is needed is motivation, which in certain
terms, runs the aspiration and makes it possible. Self-confidence, comparing to other factors,
is not quintessence1, because life does not essentially depend on it. However, we can
recognize its importance when we speak about quality of life itself. During lifetime, mature
individual confronts with different problems, starting with school education, employment,
getting married, making family and so on. Right here, importance of researching self-
confidence and its influence, above else on some attitudes, can be seen.
Through Adler's concept of feeling of inferiority, every individual, since birth, has
need to take over living space of others in his surroundings (in terms of giving and receiving
love, attracting attention of other people and similar examples), fighting others for supremacy.
In this context, one about primal circle of socialisation, individuals will have positive or
negative experience, which will be reflected through their self-confidence. Relying on the
socially oriented psychoanalytical theory and Bandura’s social cognitive theory, emphasis
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will be on the first years of childhood, not excluding importance of future life experiences.
Due to motivation and suppression by parents or other relatives, children in their early age
develop or suppress motivation, aspiration and self-confidence through their successes and
failures.
In an effort to define the meaning of term self-confidence, we face the problem of its
determination, which many authors recognize. Self-confidence is best expressed by phrase „I
Can“. That is why it is often connected with term of self-efficacy. Experience of competence
in behaviour directed toward a specific goal is the basic mechanism of human activity that
Bandura (1991) defines as self-efficacy. Speaking about self-regulatory mechanism, the
author lists several basic sub-functions: behavioural self-perception and its evaluation
regarding to personal standards, affective self-correction. Using his experimental research,
Bandura (1982) shows that the higher level of induced self-efficacy is connected to higher
level of achievements and lower level of emotional motives.
Self-confidence is relatively important component of person's integrity. It consists of
cognitive and affective contents, and basically „I“ (Ego) has cognitive and affective balance
directed towards goal that has to be achieved. The level of trust in self is dependent on
success of resolving basic life issues such as education, love, marriage, profession, social
status and so on. Success in these intensions, and approval of other people, has big influence
on building of self-confidence. In lots of theoretical views, eventual loss of self-confidence is
marked as beginning of personality conflicts.
Rijavec and Miljkovic (1999) quote that self-confidence allows us to use existing
abilities and personality traits in best possible ways. Further on, they quote that self-
confidence generally refers to the feeling that we have about ourselves and our values, and a
sense of competent to deal with all of life's challenges. According to Barjaktarević (2004)
selfconfidence includes everything, the way individual thinks, feels and acts.
Psychotherapist Nathaniel Branden (1969) who has made a significant contribution to
the understanding of the concepts of self-esteem and self-confidence says that a man is ruled
by fear as much as he lacks self-esteem. It is the fear of the reality in which individual feels
inadequate, fear of fact about himself which he avoids or suppresses.
He considers that self-confidence consists of two basic elements: self-consciousness
(believing in own abilities) and self-respect (feeling of personal value). According to him,
self-confidence is developing trough process of executing different actions and evaluation of
their results which we receive from the environment. We continuously compare received with
our expected results, results which others expected and results that others achieved.
In considerations of benefits of self-confidence, Barjaktarevic (2004) quotes that it can help
individual to: form positive emotions, keep concentration, set goals, overcome efforts and
creating of strategy in decisive psychological moments. Further on, even if self-confidence is
crucial element of effect, it implies pre-existence of other important elements, such as skills,
abilities, etc.
Bandura's social-cognitive theory defines behaviour as triadic, reciprocal interaction
between personality factors, behaviour and social environment context. These factors don’t
have equal strength, or impact on behaviour. Influence of certain factors depends on person
itself, as on specific situation in which behaviour takes place. Speaking of self-efficacy,
Bandura (1986) defines it as capacity for organisation and activities that are needed for
overcoming actual situation. It is more likely to successfully accomplish action when faith in
success is present, when we have a high self-efficacy or confidence. In his study of self-
efficacy, which is considered to be the main interface between behaviour and changes in
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behaviour, Bandura believes that an individual can control their thoughts, feelings and
actions, but it's not an easy task and that it can help human knowledge and skills. Heslin and
Klehe (2006) argue that low self-esteem can produce that particular tasks or activities perform
with difficulties, while people with high self-esteem try to see obstacles as an opportunity to
show what they are able to do, which will give them the enthusiasm that they could do it.
Since we searched for sources of general attitude toward professions of psychologists and
doctors, we consider that is important to explain the term of attitude, in this study. When it
comes to attitudes, Rot (1977) argues that the nature of the attitude that affects almost all our
mental functions: perception, judgment and reasoning, and emotional reactions to our action.
A large part of our attitudes become part of our personality. Research shows that information
that is consistent with our attitudes is learned better and faster and those that are in conflict
with them are harder to learn and remember.
Dunđerović (2004) speaks about prejudice as attitudes which are not based on facts or
justified reasons. Those attitudes regularly exaggerate emotional component and it is very
difficult to change them. Prejudices are very rigid and resistant to data that are contrary to the
generalizations which they contain. Like other attitudes, prejudices are acquired through
social learning, usually by learning model.
The subject of this empirical study is to examine and determine the nature of students'
attitudes towards the profession of psychologists and doctors, through the prism of self-
esteem as a personality trait in a narrow sense and socially experienced signatures. In other
words, the research seeks to determine how students assess their self-esteem and how it is
reflected in the formation of the general attitude of the profession of psychologists and
doctors. We are interested in whether and how much self-confidence, as a personality factor,
affects positive attitudes towards the profession of psychologists and doctors. Also, we
thought it was interesting to see which professions have positive attitudes more focused, and
their sources.
The aim of the research is to examine and analyze the psychological and socio-empirical
characteristics as the factors which determine the attitudes towards the psychologist’s and
doctor’s professions, and at the same time to observe the regularity of the distribution of data
among variables, ie. to ascertain the direction and intensity of their association.
THE METHOD OF WORK
The sample of respondents
The research includes the sample of 202 students of the first, second, third and fourth
years of study at the Faculty of Philosophy and the Faculty of Law in Pale. Out of the total
number of received questionnaires, five questionarres were excluded from the further
processing because of the obviously frivolous filling, so the complete sample has 197
respondents. It is an appropriate sample, and the faculties were selected on the basis of their
accessibility. The structure of the sample concerning the gender, the year of study, the faculty
and the place where childhood and early youth were spent is shown in the Table 1. The
questionnares were given to the group of students who willingly agreed to take part in the
research.
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Table 1. The structure of the sample
f %
Gender
Male
Female
Year of the study
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Faculty
Law
Philosophy
Place where childhood and early youth were spent
Village
Small town
City
51
146
69
61
41
26
74
123
14
80
103
25,88
74,11
35,02
30,97
20,81
13,20
37,57
62,43
7,11
40,61
52,28
Research techniques and instruments
In accordance with the nature of the problem and with the aim of the research we
decided to apply the method of the theoretical analysis of the primary and secondary sources
and the method of systematic non-experimental research or the survey method. The technique
used in this research is the survey, that is, the questionnare.
The questionnare consists of three parts: the first part is general and it consists of four
socio-empirical questions. The second part consists of two five-degree Likert-type scales, and
they consist of a total of 36 items incorporated in one scale, for which the respondents
expressed the degree of the positive/negative attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s
professions. This scale was constructed by the students at the Department of Psychology (the
generation of 2002/2003) at the Faculty of Philosophy in Pale under the mentorship of
Professor Ratko Dunđerović, PhD. The third integral part of this questionnare is the scale for
the examining the degree of self-confidence (according to Dunđerović, 2004).
The scale for the examining the attitude towards the psychologist’s profession was
reduced from the original 18 items to 11 because of the ascertained low reliability of a certain
number of items. The internal homogeneity of the scale, expressed by Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient, is 0.800, which is a satisfactory level of scale reliability. The scale for the
examining the attitude towards the doctor’s profession was reduced from the original 18 to 11
items, also because of the ascertained low reliability of a certain number of items. The internal
homogeneity of the scale for the attitude towards the doctor’s profession is 0.715, which
indicates a satisfactory level of scale reliability. The scale for self-confidence consists of 30
items. The internal homogeneity of the scale is 0.996, which indicates a satisfactory level of
scale reliability.
Data processing was performed using the computer and the SPSS pack for statistical data
processing, and various statistical procedures were applied: measuring mean values and the
8
deviations from them, testing the differences amog the segments of intersected variables using
a χ² test and C coefficient – the coefficient of contingency or the measure of the association
among variables.
THE RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH
In this part of the research paper we will present the survey of obtained results, that is, the
attitudes towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions. First of all, we will discuss the
distribution of the attitudes towards these professions and then the nature of the connection
between the observed personality trait in a narrow sense (self-confidence) and discovered
attitudes. Also, we will discuss the nature of the connection between obtained attitudes and
socio-empirical characteristics.
By the analysis of the assertions that constitute the scale of the attitudes towards the
psychologist’s profession an extent is ascertained that ranges from 1.37 to 3.52, with the first
two assertions having somewhat higher scale value in relation to the others, which is shown in
Table 2.
Tabela 2. General opinion about psychologist's profession
Assertions SV
Degree of agreement
I co
mp
lete
ly
ag
ree
I m
ost
ly
ag
ree
I a
m
ind
ecis
ive
I m
ost
ly
dis
ag
ree
I co
mp
lete
ly
dis
ag
ree
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Most psychologists has lost touch with everyday life. 3,52 12
6,1
17
8,6
68
34,5
56
28,4
44
22,3
It is much more useful to talk to a preist, then to a
psychologist. 3,45
8
4,1
16
8,1
95
48,2
36
18,3
42
21,3
We can not speak openly and with so much confidence with
anyone else but psychologist. 2,79
23
11,7
41
20,8
44
22,3
50
25,4
39
19,8
In life, the psychology is much more needed than it is
considered. 2,19
5
2,5
15
7,6
48
24,4
73
37,1
56
28,4
Psychological books and magazines are useful and should be
read regularly. 2,15
3
1,5
20
10,2
35
17,8
84
42,6
55
27,9
Knowledge of psychology helps more complete
understanding of each other's actions. 2,05
6
3,0
13
6,6
27
13,7
89
45,2
62
31,5
Psychology as a subject, should be introduced in all
secondary schools. 1,95
12
6,1
12
6,1
27
13,7
50
25,4
96
48,7
Psychologist, with his questions, can make people realize
their own problems and find their solution. 1,90
0
0
9
4,6
30
15,2
90
45,7
68
34,5
Psychological counseling could help to solve the problems
of many people. 1,85
2
1,0
7
3,6
21
10,7
96
48,7
71
36,0
Every school, hospital and factory should have a
psychologist. 1,77
6
3,0
11
5,6
19
9,6
57
28,9
104
52,8
People feel better when they know that someone
understands them and can help in overcoming the problem. 1,37
1
0,5
3
1,5
7
3,6
45
22,8
141
71,6
High scale value of the first assertion shows that every other respondent „completely“ and
„tend to agree“, that prejudice „Most psychologists have lost touch with everyday life“, is not
standing. That is expressed by only every seventh respondent. The following assertion is „It is
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much more useful to talk to a priest then the to a psychologist“ and it is answered
„completely“ and „tend to agree“ by only 12% of respondents. It is indicative that almost
every second respondent shows undecided attitude about this. It is rejected „completely“ and
„tend to agree“ by nearly 40% of respondents. The least accepted attitude in the scale relates
to affirmative attitude that „People feel better when they know that someone understands
them and when they can help in overcoming the problems“. This claim has been completely
rejected by 71.6% of respondents, while only 0.5% completely agree with the statement.
By the analysis of the assertions that constitute the scale of attitudes towards the doctor’s
profession an extent is ascertained that ranges from 1.80 to 4.22, the first two assertions
having somewhat higher scale value in relation to the others, which is shown in Table 3.
Tabela 3. The general attitude towards the doctor’s profession
Assertions SV
Degree of agreement
I co
mp
lete
ly
ag
ree
I m
ost
ly
ag
ree
I a
m
ind
ecis
ive
I m
ost
ly
dis
ag
ree
I co
mp
lete
ly
dis
ag
ree
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
It is better to visit herbalists than doctors. 4,22 3
1,5
2
1,0
34
17,3
67
34,0
91
46,2
Only idle people often visit doctors. 3,72 9
4,6
22
11,2
52
26,4
47
23,9
67
34,0
The doctor’s profession is overestimated today. 3,32 19
9,6
22
11,2
66
33,5
57
28,9
33
16,8
A huge percentage of people solve their problems
successfully without a doctor’s advice. 3,12
23
11,7
38
19,3
47
23,9
70
35,5
19
9,6
Doctors don’t see a human in people, but just another
patient. 3,12
32
16,2
26
13,2
56
28,4
53
26,9
30
15,2
One should have more confidence in oneself than in doctors. 3,02 25
12,7
39
19,8
47
23,9
57
28,9
29
14,7
Nowadays even the most harmless operation carries great
risk. 2,59
55
27,9
48
24,4
33
16,8
45
22,8
16
8,1
Our doctors very often formulate a wrong diagnosis. 2,47 46
23,4
62
31,5
49
24,9
31
15,7
9
4,6
Doctors inspire great trust. 2,45 9
4,6
19
9,6
58
29,4
77
39,1
34
17,3
The basis of medicine should be introduced as a subject in
all secondary schools. 2,04
10
5,1
11
5,6
43
21,8
46
23,4
87
44,2
Medical books are full of useful advice. 1,80 6
3,0
3
1,5
14
7,1
96
48,7
78
39,6
The obtained results suggest that more than 80% of the respondents mostly and
completely disagree with the statement that it is better to visit herbalists than doctors, whereas
about 2% of them agree with this assertion. Also, the statement that only idle people often
visit doctors is significantly rejected (50% and more). What is also indicative is the opinion
that our doctors very often formulate a wrong diagnosis, with which every second respondent
mostly and completely agree, whereas this kind of statement is completely rejected by less
than 5% of the respondents. Almost 45% of the respondents completely disagree with the
statement that the basis of medicine should be introduced as a subject in all secondary
schools.
10
The least accepted assertion is that medical books are full of useful advice, with which
more than 85% of the respondents mostly and completely disagree, whereas little more than
4% of the respondents completely agree.
On the basis of the results a conclusion can be drawn that the prejudices about both the
psychologist’s and doctor’s professions are expressed to a small extent since the respondents
have the main insights into psychologists not having lost the connection to everyday life, as
well as into it being better to visit doctors than herbalists. It is noticeable that the respondents
lack the confidence in competences, especially doctors’, which is expressed by every second
respondent’s opinion that our doctors very often formulate a wrong diagnosis and that
nowadays even the most harmless operation carries great risk. What is also present is the
respondents’ low motivation for informing themselves about and acquainting themselves with
the complexity of these professions as well as with the fields of work in which they are very
needed. This is expressed by the situation where only every tenth respondent says that he or
she completely and mostly agrees with the opinion that every school, hospital and factory
should have a psychologist, as well as with the opinion that medical books are full of useful
advice, which has been accepted by little less than 5% of the respondents.
The obtained results shown in Charts 1 and 2 show that a large number of the respondents
(70%) prominently and mostly has a negative attitude towards the psychologist’s profession.
On the other hand, a positive attitude has been expressed by only 5% of the respondents.
Contrary to this, the general attitude towards the doctor’s profession has been expressed
relatively uniformly, with the insignificant prevalence of a positive attitude. A positive
attitude towards the doctor’s profession (every third respondent) has been expressed six times
more frequently in relation to the attitude towards the psychologist’s proffesion (almost every
eighteenth respondent).
Chart 1. Categories of the general attitude towards the Chart 2. Categories of the general attitude towards the doctor’s profession
psychologist’s profession
The answer to the question of why the respondents define the doctor’s profession more
positively can be sought in accessibility, that is, in the everyday reliance on this profession.
On the other hand, psychology as a science and practice is relatively young, and insufficiently
affirmed and accessible. The reasons for the negative attitude towards the doctor’s profession,
which has also been expressed, can be sought, among other things, in the health care system.
Besides “doctors often formulating a wrong diagnosis,” with which every second respondent
agrees, the system requests the individual to financially participate on the every occasion of
examination and intervention, which can create a more negative picture about this profession.
By the analysis of the obtained results and the ascertained differences between the intensity of
self-confidence and the general attitude towards the psychologist’s profession, we can state
that the results have shown a certain regularity of distribution, which is also confirmed by the
11
statistical procedures which suggest the connectedness of the variables (Chi-square=193.885;
df=4; p<0.01; C coeff.=0.704), which is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Self-confidence and the general attitude towards the psychologist’s profession
Intensity of self-confidence
General attitude towards the psychologist’s profession
Total Promimently and mostly a negative
attitude
A neutral attitude Promimently and mostly a positive
attitude
Prominently strong and strong self-confidence
Count 0 17 11 61
% 0.0 60.7 39.3 100.0
Moderate self-confidence Count 13 28 0 41
% 31.7 68.3 0.0 100.0
Prominently weak and weak
self-confidence
Count 128 0 0 128
% 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Total Count 141 45 11 197
% 71.6 22.8 5.6 100.0
By the analysis of the obtained results and the ascertained differences between the intensity of
self-confidence and the general attitude towards the doctor’s profession, statistical procedures
say that the data has shown a statistically significant connectedness of the variables (Chi-
square=162.573; df=4; p<0.01; C coeff.=0.672), which is shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Self-confidence and the general attitude towards the doctor’s profession
Intensity of self-confidence
General attitude towards the doctor’s profession
Total Promimently and mostly a negative
attitude
A neutral attitude Promimently and mostly a positive
attitude
Prominently strong and strong self-confidence
Count 28 0 0 28
% 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Moderate self-confidence Count 30 11 0 41
% 73.2 26.8 0.0 100.0
Prominently weak and weak
self-confidence
Count 0 67 61 128
% 0.0 52.3 47.7 100.0
Total Count 58 78 61 197
% 29.4 39.6 31.0 100.0
By the analysis of the obtained results by intersecting socio-empirical variables and the
general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions, it is ascertained that
there are no statistically significant values that suggest a connection, that is, the influence of
these variables on the general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions.
DISCUSSION
The subject of the research is observing and ascertaining the nature of students’ attitudes
towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions through the prism of self-confidence as a
personality factor, and of social status symbols. We deemed it interesting to see towards
which profession positive attitudes are more inclined and which are the sources of that. In the
scope of psychological determinants we tried to ascertain if and how much self-confidence, as
a personality factor, influences what attitude an individual will have towards the
psychologist’s and doctor’s professions. We defined self-confidence as one’s confidence in
oneself and one’s abilities. It is composed of cognitive and affective contents, and in the basis
lies I (Ego) that has a cognitive and affective balance directed towards the aim which is to be
12
achieved. How much confidence in oneself one will have will depend on the success in
solving the basic life problems such as love, marriage, profession, social position and the like
The success in these intentions, and acknowledgement by other people will strongly
affect self-confidence and its strengthening.
In the qualitative analysis of the attitudes towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions
it is ascertained that the respondents more often have a negative attitude towards these
professions. The positive attitude towards the psychologist’s profession has been expressed by
only 5% of the respondents, whereas concerning the doctor’s profession such attitude has
been expressed by more than 30% of the respondents. The results concerning the
psychologist’s profession have shown a certain regularity of distribution, which means that
the stronger self-confidence is, the more positive the attitude is, as well as the weaker self-
confidence is, the more prominent the negative attitude is. This distribution of data has shown
that there is a statistically significant difference between the ones with strong and the ones
with weak self-confidence (Chi-square=193.885; df=4; p<0.01; C coeff.=0.704). Contrary to
this, by comparing the data concerning the doctor’s profession and self-confidence an
opposite distribution has been ascertained, that is, the respondents with stronger self-
confidence more often had a more negative attitude towards the doctor’s profession and the
respondents with weaker self-confidence more often had a more positive attitude towards this
profession. This statistically significant difference in the distribution of data is shown by
statistical procedures (Chi-square=162.573; df=4; p<0.01; C coeff.=0.672). We remark that
in both cases there has not been the adequate cell saturation, which could affect the obtained
results, so they can be accepted as such only relatively.
The data that we have analyzed suggests that the self-confidence as a factor that
influences a more positive general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s
professions can also be discussed in the sense of statistical significance. Furthermore, the data
that we have obtained can help with the better observation of the nature of the connection
between the general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions and other
important factors such as the elementary family, the quality of the relationship with peers and
social environment in general, the social character that consists of the traits that are common
to the majority of the members of a society, and the like.
On the basis of the observation of the mutual connection between psychological determinants
and the intensity of the general attitude towards the psychologist’s profession and the doctor’s
profession we can conclude that the null hypothesis is rejected. On the other hand, socio-
empirical determinants have not shown a statistically significant difference. From the
distribution of data it follows that inner factors influence the positivity of the attitude towards
the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions, whereas the influence of psychosocial factors on
the positivity of the general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions can
only be discussed, but its presence cannot be confirmed.
Only a snapshot of the problem is given with this research, so we think that it is necessary to
research more extensively the influence of self-confidence on some aspects of life and also on
the forming of the attitudes towards some subjects. Furthermore, a question is raised of why
the respondents grade the psychologist’s profession more negatively and why the trust in the
doctor’s profession is missing, whether those reasons can be found in the malfunctioning of
the health care system, that is, of institutional solutions, or whether they should be looked for
in competences and the educational system. The individual’s need for a coordinate system,
that is, for an orientational frame, for that which is embedded in human nature, for a stable
way of perceiving and comprehending the world, leads to the situation where the individual
takes different patterns of action checking them empirically. Consequently, almost every third
13
respondent expresses the affirmative opinion that “a huge percentage of people solve their
problems successfully without a doctor’s advice,” which could contribute to a more negative
attitude towards the doctor’s profession.
A more negative attitude towards the psychologist’s profession could result from the
insufficient presence of this profession in everyday life and “reservedness” towards it, which
is expressed through the opinion that “psychological books and magazines are useful and
should be read regularly,” which has been rejected by 70% of the respondents. What
nevertheless leaves a positive impression in the perception of the psychologist’s profession is
a hint of the trust in the psychologist’s work, which is recognized in the opinion that “one
cannot talk openly and with such confidence with anyone as one can with a psychologist,”
which has been graded positively by every third respondent. Also, this statement has been
graded most positively in relation to the other statements.
CONCLUSION
In an effort to come to the determinants which influence what attitude an individual
will assume towards certain subjects, in this case towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s
professions, we come to the conclusions that these differences manifested themselves, that the
null hypothesis is rejected, i.e. that self-confidence as a personality factor has shown a
statistically significant difference in the presented data. Furthermore, socio-empirical
characteristics, in relation to the attitudes towards the doctor’s and psychologist’s professions,
have not shown statistically significant differences.
The data that we have analyzed suggests that the self-confidence as a factor that influences the
forming of the general attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions can be
discussed in the sense of statistical significance. We think that by a wider research, which
would include the elementary family, the quality of the relationship with peers and social
environment in general, the social character which consists of the traits that are common to
the majority of the members of a society, and the like, higher-quality data would be obtained
which can help with the better observation of the nature of the connection in the general
attitude towards the psychologist’s and doctor’s professions and with the better statement
saturation in some cells
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3. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency, Stanford University: The
American Psychologist, 37 (2), 122-147.
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5. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation, Organizational Behavior &
Human Decision Processes 50, 248-287.
6. Bandura, A. (19979. Self-efficasy: The exercise of control, New York: Freeman.
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7. Bukvić, A. (2007). Načela izrade psiholoških testova, Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike i
nastavna sredstva.
8. Dunđerović, R. (2004). Psihologija menadžmenta, Novi Sad: Fakultet za menadžment.
9. Krneta, D. (1998). Konstrukcija i primjena skala u ispitivanju stavova, Banja Luka:
Banjaluka Company.
10. Nathaniel, B. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem, Los Angeles: Nash Publishing
Corporation.
11. Rijavec, M., Miljković, D. (1999). Je li to za mene?: priručnik za buduće poduzetnike,
Zagreb: Hrvatski zavod za zapošljavanje;
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psihologiju Društva psihologa Srbije;
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psihologa Srbije.
15. From, E. (1986). Zdravo društvo, Zagreb: Nolit.
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of Industrial /Organizational Psychology, Thousand Oaks: Sage, (2), 705-708.
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15
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 16-23
Orginal scientific paper
Ranko Bojanić1, Jelena Pejčić
2, Sreten Marković
3
1Ministry of Internal Affairs, Republic of Serbia
2Children's summer camp Divljana, Serbia
3Vocational Trade school in Nis, Serbia
UDK 796.015.2.012:373.3
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401016B
THE EFFECT OF THE TRANING PROCESS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES OF YOUNG ATHLETES
ABSTRACT
The research study has been conducted with the aim of determining the differences in
functional abilities in experimental period on young athletes, under the influence of
training process during additional classes of physical education. Sample of the
examinees consists of 32 young athletes, primary school pupils from Istočno Sarajevo,
aged 14 (± 6 months). Measuring means for the assessment of functional abilities were
comprising of tests: vital lung capacity (FVKPL), pulse frequency after cardiac stress
(FPPOP) and Margaria test (FMARG). Obtained results of canonical discriminative
analysis have shown that young athletes are statistically significantly different with
statistically significant level of functional abilities (P-Level= .002) in final, as opossed
to the initial measuring.
Keywords: young athletes, functional abilities, central and dispersive parameters,
canonical discriminative analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to achieve an optimal development of functional abilities of young
athletes, in accordance with the sports training principles, in certain periods of the
training process it is required to change the extent of exertion taking into account the
fitness level of the athletes.
During the particular periods of training (for example, preparatory), exertion for
the development of result-efficiency of functional abilities should not be linearly
increased, because in order for the organism to adapt on new exertions a certain
amount of time (sometimes longer period) is required, therefore, every uncontrolled
increase of exertion could have negative impact on the traning.
16
Optimal plannning of the training process for the development of functional
abilities requires variable application of the forms of the training, where is necessary
to take care of the physiological and biochemical changes that are happening in the
athlete's organism during the particular training sessions.
The subject matter of the research was to investigate if there are statistically
significant differences under the influence of the transformational processes model for
the development of functional capacities (aerobic and anaerobic), on the final
measuring in relation to the initial state.
The aim of the research is to determine the impact of the training process on the
development of functional abilities on young athletes during the additional classes of
physical education.
2. METHODS
The examinees sample consists of 32 primary school pupils from East Sarajevo,
aged 14 (± 6 months), included in the regular and additional classes of physical
education. Measuring means for the assessment of functional abilities were comprising
of vital lung capacity (FVKPL), pulse frequency after cardiac stress (FPPOP) and
Margaria test (FMARG). Functional tests were taken from the research of Heimar and
Medved, 1997. Central dispersive parameters and canonical discriminative analysis
were calculated.
2.1 Experimental Procedures
In this paper, the research of the impact of the training process on the
development of functional abilities of young athletes has been achieved by the
additional classes of physical education.
Establishing of the means of physical exercises for the development of
functional abilities was in the function of previous diagnosis of the extent of
antropological features of each examinee, in order to form three homogenous groups
in the training process, and thus achieve certain individualisation of work based on the
abilities and characteristics of the examinees.
Methodological approach to the development of fuctional abilities consisted of
simultaneous impact on cardio-vascular and neuro-muscular system. On the one side,
it was an energetic stamina, on the other, a neuro-muscular component of stamina.
Such methodological approach in the training process is supported by numerous
researchers (Kurelić and co., 1975; Pržulj, 2006; Malacko and Doder, 2008;
Đurašković 2009; Cicović, 2010).
In the experimental period, the following means were applied (modified
according to Pržulj, 2007; Milanović, 2007):
17
1. For the development of anaerobic capacity: sprint with acceleration,
repetition of sprints with maximal speed with complete recovery between repetitions,
more sprints with periods of relaxation intervals by light running of walking.
2. For the development of aerobic capacity: alternate fast and slow running on
natural ground, running on long sections with moderate pace, interval training with
longer periods of exercise and rest with 60-80% intensity in the heart frequency rate of
150-180 beats per minute.
Applied motoric exercises for the development of functional abilities in the
additional classes have increased the athletes' capability of quicker and more complete
activation of motoric units by higher level of exertion, which enabled the increased
activity of agonistic muscles and an increase in general strength of an entire organism.
Furthermore, to the adaptive changes of functional abilities of athletes also contributed
the usage of selected physical exercise means for increase of functional abilities of
phosphocreatine energy mechanism, perfecting of the glycolytic energy mechanism,
and increasing of neural structures efficiency in specific conditions of the oxygen debt.
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
Research results of functional abilities are processed based on the statistics
programme „Statistica“ 8.0 for Windows, for the calculation of the following
parameters: central dispersive parameters and canonical discriminative analysis.
Table 1. Basic statistic parameters for the assessment of functional abilities on the
initial measuring
Variables N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
FVKPL 53 2450.00 2300.00 2800.00 6.51 0.380 2.22
FPPOP 53 158.00 150.00 167.00 17.59 0.300 2.24
FMARG 53 4.25 3.40 4.80 13.83 0.415 2.61 Legend: the arithmetic mean (Mean), minimum (Min), maximum (Max), standard deviation (Std. dev.),
Skewness (Skewn.), Kurtosis (Kurtos.)
Table 2. Basic statistic parameters for assessment of functional abilities on the final
measuring
Variables N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
FVKPL 53 2600.00 2390.00 2900.00 1.31 -0.936 2.03
FPPOP 53 150.00 148.00 165.00 1.27 -0.328 2.06
FMARG 53 3.65 3.32 4.60 1.13 -0.777 2.12 Legend: the mean (Mean), minimum (Min), maximum (Max), standard deviation (Std. dev.), Skewness
(Skewn.), Kurtosis (Kurtos.)
Displayed results in the tables 1 and 2 on the young athletes examinees in the
field of functional abilities, indicate that there is no significant deviation of results
from normal distribution. It has been confirmed by the asymmetric distribution results
18
(Skewness) that they exceed 1.00,which means that tests are neither difficult (up to
+1.00) nor easy (up to -1.00), but correspond to the research population and are under
one. Homogenity of results (Kurtosis) indicates that good sensitivity is present
(discrimination of tests), since the obtained values are under the coeficient 2.75.
Table 3. Significance of the isolated discriminative function of functional abilities of
experimental group
Disc
Func. Eugenvalue Cannonical R
Wilks'
Lambda Chi-Sqr. df P-Level
1 3.400 .75 .214 127.11 3 .002 Legend: discrimination coeficient square (Eugenvalue), canonical correlation coeficient (Cannonical R),
Bartlett test value (Wilks' Lambda), value of Chi-square test (Chi-Sqr), degree of freedom (df) and
significance of determination coeficient level (P-Level)
A significant discriminative function of high intensity of canonical correlation
was obtained (CR=75%), that indicates in what correlation is the data base, on the
basis of which the discriminative analysis of the obtained results is performed (Table
3). Results of discrimintative intensity of variables of functional abilities are shown by
the Wilks' Lambda test (.214), that indicates that the differences between the initial
and final measuring in the area of functional abilities of experimental group are
significant (P= .002), since the value of Chi-square test has a high result (Chi-Sqr =
127.11).
Table 4. Factor structure of isolated discriminative function of experimental group
Variables Root 1
FVKPL 0.510
FPPOP 0.402
FMARG 0.302
In the table 4. was given a structure of discriminative function of variables
involvement of functional abilities in forming of significant discriminative functions.
Displayed centroids of the groups represent the mean of the initial and final measuring
results. Due to checking of the efficiency of experimental model in the karate club, for
development of antropological features, three tests of functional abilities have been
measured, for which is assumed that they are good predictors of an examined field.
Displayed results indicate that the biggest contribution to the discriminative function
has a vital lung capacity (FVKPL 0.510).
Table 5. Centroids of measuring of experimental group
Measuring Root 1
Initial -3.175
Final 3.175
19
The results in the table 5 represent the discriminative function of centroids
based on all the tests of functional abilities which is -3.175 and 3.175. The
significance of the presented centroids of measuring that is tested through the
significance of discriminative function, indicates that their distance (discrimination) is
significant.
Table 6. Clasification matrix of the experimental group
MEASURING Initial Final Total
Initial 52 1 53
Final 2 51 53
Initial 98.11% 1.89% 100%
Final 3.78% 96.22% 100%
Clasification of groups that is displayed in the table 6 via percentiles, indicates
that the performed separation (discrimination) of the measuring results is clarified with
97.16% accuracy (the mean percentage of the very groups) of the coeficient of
canonical correlation that is CR = 75%.
Obtained results of discriminative analysis in final as opposed to initial
measuring indicate that, under the influence of the training process, the significant
changes of functional abilities of young athletes occurred.
4. DISCUSSION
The results of canonical discriminative analysis in this research (Tables 3.-6.)
are showing that on the final, as oppose to the initial state, under the influence of the
training process there occurred statistically significant changes of functional abilities
of the examinees on the multivariate level (P-Level=.002).
In the published papers of some researchers (Heimar, 1980; Heimar, 1989;
Rakovac and Heimar,2003; Malacko, 2009; Cicović, 2012.) it has been confirmed that
an increase of the functional abilities level is the most appropriate if the exertion in the
training process matches biological and psychic features of an athletes' organism.
According to them, it is a gradual increase of the training process exertion close to the
limit of motoric-functional capabilities, so as to enable supercompensation processes
with each of the subjects, as one of basic functional reactions of the organism, on
which the adaptational processes of the organism, effects and development of abilities
and features are based upon.
Results from scientific research and practical experiences (Stojanović and co.,
1980; Bala, 1981; Gajić and co., 1986; Stoiljković, 2003) have confirmed that, on the
sample of young athletes, primary school pupils, gradual increase of progressive
exertion in the training process for the development of functional abilities is
particularly significant to make basis on which complex motoric abilities will be
comprehensively developed.
20
Similar approach for the development of motor and functional abilities with
gradual increasing of progressive exertion was achieved with the examinees in this
research in the additional classes of physical education.
Adaptive changes of the examinees’ functional abilities occurred by applying
the selected means of physical exercises of increasing of functional abilities of
phosphocreatine energy mechanism, perfecting of the glycolytic energy mechanism,
and increasing of neural structures efficiency in specific conditions of the oxygen debt.
The development of anaerobic capacity is realized predominantly through motoric
exercises with 60-70% intensity, in the heart frequency rate of 160-170 beats per
minute and complete recovery between repetitions. Such work is realized by applying
of intensive exercising with the change of rhytm, but also with applying of the
methods of interval work.
5. CONCLUSION
The researsch of the effects of training process model on the development of
functional abilities at athletes during the additional classes of physical education was
conducted on the sample of 32 pupils of primary scholls, aged 14, from East Sarajevo.
Differences in functional abilities between the initial and final measuring in the
experimental period were calculated by applying of the discriminative analysis based
on the results of the three functional tests.
It can be assumed that positive changes of functional abilities happened as
results of proper methodical designing of regular physical education curriculum of the
process of planning and programming, dispensing, distributing and control of the
applied exertions, as well as increase of intensity of the training process in accordance
with the authentic requirements of the examinees. With such work, it was, in the
process of realization of the regular physical education curriculum with the examinees,
contributed to the optimal mode of work of particular organic systems and organisms
as whole, which enabled rational and efficient process of their adaptation to the
applied exertions.
Obtained results of discriminative analysis in final as opposed to initial
measuring on athletes indicate that, under the influence of the training process for the
development of functional abilities, the significant changes in the functional abilities
have occurred.
6. REFERENCES
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(1992). Fizičko vaspitanje, Teorijsko-metodičke osnove stručnog rada. Niš: »Sirius«.
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21
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Elementary school "8. Oktobar", Vlasotince
Elementary school "Grbavica 1", Sarajevo
Instructor for physical education, Bela Palanka, Srbija
Ministry of Internal Affairs, Republic of Serbia
22
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 23-29
Orginal scientific paper
Borislav Cicovic¹, Dejan Kulundzic²
¹Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, East Sarajevo,
²PS "Brotherhood" Novi Pazar – Serbia
UDK 796.853.23.012.11
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401023C
DEVELOPMENT OF REPETITIVE FORCE UNDER THE
INFLUENCE OF SCHEDULED MULTIFACETED PREPARATION
AMONG YOUNG JUDO PRACTITIONERS
Summary
The main objective of this study is to determine the impact of programmed physical exercises
of multilateral preparations for the development of repetitive strength of judokas. It is done in
order to check compliance of their development and create the possibility of rational
procedures for optimal planning, programming and control of the training process of
multifaceted preparation for the development of repetitive strength. The subject of research is
the study of repetitive forces to the realization of specially designed multilateral
arrangements. The sample consisted of 40 subjects taken from a population of Primary School
students, aged 12 years (± 6 months) included in regular Physical Education and training
process in judo clubs of East Sarajevo. Three tests of repetitive power were applied: mixed
chin-ups on the shaft (MMZG); raising troops for 30sec. (MD30) and push-ups on parallel
bars (MSKLE.)
The program "Statistica" 8.0 was used for Windows to calculate the following parameters:
basic statistical parameters of repetitive tests of strength, T-test, discriminative analysis. The
research results of the canonical discriminative analysis showed that under the influence of
the specially designed multi-faced preparation appeared a statistically significant
transformation of repetitive strength on the final measurement in relation to the initial state.
Key words: young judo, multifaceted preparation, initial and final state of repetitive strength,
discriminative analysis and variance.
1 INTRODUCTION
Judo requires from the contestants nicely developed and strong body in all its aspects
designed for the strong influence of the opponents movements pushing, attracting, lifting,
rotating, etc.., with the help of a concerted action of agonist and antagonist muscles and
contractionary ability of judokas.
Multi-preparation is a process directed to balanced and harmonious development of motor and
functional capabilities and different knowledge, skill and habit in order to form a strong and
driven locomotive system with muscle mass characteristic of judokas.
The subject of research is the study of repetitive forces to the realization of multilateral
arrangements. Anthropological research of those parameters is significant for the following
reasons:
23
•Repetitive force appears as an important factor of success in the fight. It is the ability of long-
term dynamic work loaded with 75-80% of the maximum capabilities.
• It significantly contributes to quality of implementation of judo training with the volume of
high-intensity, for example endurance training in strength as the basis for the development of
maximal strength of ran dory and exercises Buts-Kari (exercise techniques with lifting) and
Kakari-Geiko (exercise techniques in motion with resistance) (Cirkovic, 1996; Malacko and
Popovic 2001; Kules, Bunić, Viljusic 2003; Bratic, Radovanovic, Nurkic, 2008).
The main objective of this study was to determine the impact of resources of programmed
physical exercises of multilateral preparations for the development of repetitive strength of
judokas in order to check compliance of their development and create the possibility of
rational procedures for optimal planning, programming and control of the training process is
multifaceted preparation for the development of repetitive strength.
2 METHOD
The sample consisted of 40 respondents of Primary School, aged 12 years (± 6 months)
included in regular Physical Education and training process in judo clubs in East Sarajevo.
Three tests of repetitive power were applied: mixed chins (MMZG), raising troops for 30sec.
(MD30) and push-ups on parallel bars (MSKLE.). Measuring instruments for assessing
repetitive forces were taken on the basis of Kurelicꞌs research (1975).
Data were analyzed on the basis of the statistical SPSS 12
2.1. Characteristics of exercising in programmed multilateral preparation
Exploring the impact of multilateral preparations for the adaptive processes of repetitive
strength among judokas was achieved after 16 hours in judo clubs in East Sarajevo in 2014,
according to the curriculum. Two measurements were performed: initially, before starting
work, and finally, after the end of treatment. Motor exercises were selected, dosage of training
load was established and schedule of training content was aligned with the goals and
objectives of programs multilateral preparation.
Realization of the program tasks of multilateral preparation was suitable to the skills and
characteristics of respondents and it was conducted within the homogenized groups.
Multi-preparation began with general exercises that have the greatest impact on the quality of
the preparation of judo athletes. These exercises are implemented with longer moderate labor
activities (prolonged walking, acrobatics, swimming, sports games, cross, etc..) with a heart
rate of 150 beats per minute, and the increased intensity of the use of shorter intervals of
motor activity (running at 600, 800 and 1000 meters).
The main condition for performing of these exercises was to strengthen voluntary
characteristics, optimal growth of hearth efficiency, and stroke volume (the amount of blood
that the heart pumps a contraction).
3 RESULTS
3.1 Basic statistical parameters
Table 1: Basic statistical parameters of the repetitive tests forces on the initial measurement
Tests or repetitive forces N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
24
MMZG 32 11.43 7.00 16.00 10.45 0.277 -2.479
MD30 32 16.74 10.00 23.00 12.85 0.522 1.528
MSKL 32 5.52 2.00 11.00 17.35 0.822 -0.083
Explanation: mean (Mean, minimum (Min), maximum (Max), standard deviation (Std. dev.),
skjunis (Skewn.), kurtozis (Kürtösi.)
Analysis of Table 1 in the area of tests of repetitive forces on the initial measurement among
judokas indicates that there is no statistically significant difference between the results of the
normal distribution. The test results indicate that the distribution is positive, as evidenced by
the results of asymmetry of distribution (skjunis) that does not exceed 1:00. This means that
the tests are not heavy (up to +1.00) or light (up to -1.00) but appropriate to respondents and
below the unit. Homogeneity results (kurtozis) indicates that there is a good sensitivity
(discrimination tests), since the obtained value is below 2.75.
Table 2: Basic statistical parameters of the tests of repetitive forces on the final measurement
Tests of repetitive forces N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
MMZG 32 16.42 9.00 20.00 13.31 0.350 2.225
MD30 32 21.75 13.00 26.00 13.55 0.300 0.322
MSKL 32 10.43 5.00 13.00 0.45 0.046 1.755
Explanation: mean (Mean, minimum (Min), maximum (Max), standard deviation (Std. dev.),
skjunis (Skewn.), kurtozis (Kürtösi.)
Results presented in Table 2 in the area of tests of repetitive forces on the final measurement
judokas indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between the results of the
normal distribution. The test results indicate that the distribution is positive and that is
confirmed with the results of the asymmetry of distribution (skjunis) that does not exceed
1:00. This means that the tests are not heavy (up to +1.00) or light (up to -1.00) but
appropriate to the respondents and they are below the unit. Homogeneity results (kurtozis)
indicate that there is a good sensitivity (discrimination tests), since the vault obtained is below
2.75.
3.2. The differences between the initial and final condition repetitive forces
Table 3: Significance of differences between means of repetitive force examined by T-test
Tests Mean(i) Mean(f) T-value p
MMZG 11.43 16.42 5.55 .000
MD30 16.74 21.75 6.54 .000
MSKL 5.52 10.43 4.61 .000 Explanation: the mean initial (Mean (i)), the mean final (Mean (f)), the vault of T-test (T-value) and the level of
significance (p)
Table 4: Significance of isolated discriminative functions of repetitive force examined by
discriminative analysis
Disc
Func.
Eigenvalue Cannonical R Wilks'
Lambda
Chi-Sqr. df P-Level
1 4.402 .82 .149 112.31 3 .000 Explanation: The squares of the coefficient of discrimination (Eugenvalue), canonical correlation coefficients
(Cannonical R), the vault is Bertletovꞌs test (Wilks' Lambda), the size of Hi-square test (Chi-Sqr), degrees of
freedom (df) and significance level of the coefficient of determination (P-Level )
Significant discriminative function of high intensity was obtained (CR = 82%) which
indicates the correlation of data set. According to that correlation discriminative analysis of
the results was performed (Table 4). The results of discriminative strength of repetitive power
variables were given by Wilks-Lambda tests (.149). They suggest that the differences between
25
the initial and the final measurement in the area of repetitive strength among judokas is
significant (p = .000) since the size of chi-square test has a high value (Chi- sQR = 112.31).
Table 5: Factor structure of the isolated discriminant functions of repetitive forces
Varijables Root 1
MMZG 0.570
MD30 0.545
MSKL 0.516
Table 5 shows the structure of the discriminant function of repeptitivne force variables and its
participation in the formation of significant discriminant functions. Shown centroids represent
the arithmetic mean of the initial and of the final measurement. In order to verify the
effectiveness of the training process, three tests of repetitive forces were measured that are
supposed to be good predictors of the study area. The present results indicate that the largest
contribution to the discriminant function have mixed chins (MMZGB 0570), raising troops for
30 seconds (MD30 0545), and push-ups on parallel bars (MSKLE 0516).
Table 6 Centroids of measurement
Measurement Root 1
Inicial -3.257
Final 3.257
The results in Table 6 presemts the discriminant function of centroid based on all tests of
repetitive force that is 3257 and -3257. Significance shown centroid measurement which has
been tested through the significance of the discriminant function indicates that their distance
(discrimination) is significant.
Table 7: Classification matrix
MEASUREMENT Initial Final In total
Initial 30 2 32
Final 3 29 32
Initial 93.75% 6.25% 100%
Final 9.38% 90.62% 100%
Displayed results in Table 7 as percentiles, indicating that separation (discrimination) of
results clarifies the precision of 92.18% (mean percentage of the groups themselves) from the
canonical correlation coefficient, which is CR = 82%.
4 DISCUSSION
The results of discriminant analysis in the final compared to the initial measurements indicate
that under the influence of multilateral preparation of judokas occured significant changes of
repetitive strength (P-Level = .000). Although repetitive force has no leading significance in
judo fight, her training is required. That is why there is no workout without a relatively large
volume of these exercises, a general or specific character, in the opening and in the final part
of the training. Without their participation it is difficult to speak about rational performing of
judo techniques. Rational and economical performance of techniques for example. ura nage, o
uchi gari, soda tsuri komi goshi, kata guruma etc.., depends on repetitive strength in large
extend. (Obadov 2005; Kules 2008; Bratic, 2008).
26
Overall performance together with repetitive force plays an important role to achive high
competitive results. It is directly connected with this dimension because it allows execution of
long-term motor activity in large-scale judo fight (30 minutes or more) of moderate pace
(small or medium intensity) with the use of large muscle groups. General endurance training
develops functional skills, especially aerobic capacity and it has the impact on its economical
use, improves mental and physical ability of competitors for better endurance of increased
workloads.
Overall performance is particularly significant according to the methodological point of view
and development of skills and traits among judo athletes. It is the basis for the development of
specific resistance, which is determined by the ability of enduring the pressure levels over
time in which it takes a specific athletic activity and competition.
Proper selection of work intensity, duration of work and rest provides a targeted impact on the
anthropological status of young judokas. Different intensities of work in combination with the
duration of the breaks, causing various adjustments of the organism, which can be very
precisely controlled in each sport treatment.
5 Conclusion
Judo athletes with good repetitive force can accomplish exercises or performances in
competitions stronger, faster and more expressive. Repetitive strength, speed and endurance
are the characteristics of each sport. This dimension in endurance sports and strength is
essential for increased efficiency of motor systems, and also it contributes to the development
of sports form and coordination. Athletes who have optimal levels of repetitive force
accomplish showing of force to a greater extent of motion, which increases their speed.
The development of repetitive force would influence the increasing of the efficiency of the
result in a judo fight. In addition, the results of repetitive force can contribute to the
individualization of training process. Planning, programming, implementation and control of
the training process should be suitable to individual capabilities of judo athletes.
6 REFERENCES
1.Bratic, M., Radovanovic, D. and Nurkic, M. (2008). Effects of the preparation of period
training program on muscle strength among judo athletes. Acta Medica Medianae 1.
2.Bratic, M., Radovanovic, D., Nurkic, M. (2008). Effects of the preparation period training
program on muscle strength among judo athletes. Acta medika Medianae,1
3 Cicovic, B. (2008). Changes in motoric, situational motor and functional abilities of
selected judo athletes under the influence of training activities. Doctoral dissertation. East
Sarajevo: Faculty of Physical Education.
4 Cirkovic, M. (1996). Fitness and conditioning training in judo. Belgrade: SM Desing.
5 Drabik, J. (1996). Children & Sports Training. (Children and sports training). Island Pond,
Vermont Stadium Publichig Company, Inc.
6 Kules, B., Bunic, B. and Viljusic, D. (2003). Strength of judokas in a multi-year training
process. Proceeding of the I International Scientific Conference Conditioning of athletes, p.
240-243. Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.
7 Kules, B., Bunic, B. and Viljusic, D. (2003). Strength of judokas in a multi-year training
process. Proceedings of the I International Scientific Conference Conditioning of athletes, p.
240-243. Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.
8 Kurelic, N., Momirovic, K., Stojanovic, M. Radojevic, Z. and ViskiC-Stalec, N. (1975). The
structure and development of morphological and motor dimensions of youth, Belgrade:
Institute for Scientific Research, Faculty of Physical Education.
9 Lohman, TG, Roch, AF & Martorell, R. (1988). Anthropometric standardization reference
manual. Chicago: Human Kinetics Books.
27
10 Malacko, J. and Rađo, I. (2004). The technology of sports and sports training. Sarajevo:
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo.
11 Malacko, J. (1982). Fundamentals of sports training - a cybernetic approach. Belgrade:
IGRO "Sports Book".
12 Metvejev, LP (2000). Basis of the modern sistem of sports trainning. Moscow: FIS.
13 Milanovic, L. (2007). Methodology of the training of speed and explosive properties of
children and youth, fitness and conditioning training of athletes. Zagreb: Faculty of
Kinesiology, University of Zagreb.
14 Obadov, S. (2005). Judo. Novi Sad Edition.
28
Professional article SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 29-35
Professional Article
Dejan Čokorilo,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Novi Sad)
UDK 796.071.4.332
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401029C
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUCCESSFUL LEADER IN A FOOTBALL CLUB
Abstract
Leadership is one of the most important factors for success of every organised group.
It is usually defined and studied as an interactive process, which influences an individual and
the whole group in reaching the stated goals. The leadership in a football club influences
guiding the group, providing information, decision making, developing interpersonal
relations, motivating players, etc. A leader is not to be confused with a manager, who is in
charge of the budget, the assistant pesonnel, planning, organising, etc. Although leaders
sometimes have these same obligations, the leadership does not entail just a specific pattern
of behaviour, but also the skill of fulfilling the vision. In the present paper, different
approaches to leadership are analysed, and then the characteristics of a successful leader in
a football club are considered. Special emphasis is placed on the impact which every leader
has on his or her followers. Our analysis showed that the following are the most important
characteristics of a successfu leader in a football club: intelligence, self-confidence,
decisiveness, passion, sociability and morality.
Key words: leader, coach, football, traits, group.
INTRODUCTION
In Serbian language, there are different terms related to leader and leadership, such as
rukovodilac and rukovođenje, and the terms lider and liderstvo are used more and more often.
Not so long ago, the terms rukovodilac, instead of vođa, and rukovođenje, instead of vođstvo,
were well-established. Foreign terms are often used instead of the Serbian ones: lider (from
English ’leader’) instead of rukovodilac (vođa) and liderstvo (from English ’leadership’)
instead of rukovođenje (vođstvo). The distinction between these terms has been clarified in
our literature on psychology (Rot, Krstić, Bojanović et al.).
If we do not go further into details about the distinction among the aforementioned
terms, it seems that using the terms rukovodilac, vođa, lider i menadžer synonymously is not
a major mistake. The terms rukovođenje, vođstvo, liderstvo and menadžment can also be used
synonymously. In accordance with the spirit of the Serbian language and leadership in sport
management, the terms rukovodilac and rukovođenje are more adequate, but the growing
number of foreign papers where the terms lider and liderstvo are preferred show otherwise
(cf. Čokorilo and Milošević, 2013: 29).
29
Leadership is most often defined as a process where an individual influences the
group for the purpose of achieving the common goal. The key terms of this definition are:
process, influence, group, goal.
Being a process leadership is not just a feature of the leader, but a transactional event,
happening between the leader and his or her followers – the leader influences the followers
and is influenced by them.
As an influence, leadership is related to the way in which the leader effects the
followers. Without influence there is no leadership in a fundamental sense.
Group is the place where leadership takes place. Therefore, leadership involves
influence on a group of individuals who have a common goal (a small working group or a big
working group which comprises the whole organisation).
As goal-directedness, leadership entails directing a group of individuals towards
achieving a goal or purpose. So, leaders direct their energy towards individuals, who strive to
accomplish a goal together (cf. Northouse, 2010: 341).
The definition shows that the leadership phenomenon is first and foremost an
interpersonal process of interaction, and that it has a multidimensional nature, which is how
the majority of contemporary theorists understands and studies it.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Descriptive, analytic-synthetic method was used in this paper. Using this method, we analysed
the leadership phenomenon in different groups, as well as different approaches to the study of
it. In the light of this, we regarded leadership in a football club as an important factor for sport
group interactivity. Besides the analysis of the representative scientific and expert literature in
this field, our own practical experience related to leadership in school, family and football
club has been very useful.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Different approaches to the study of leadership
Leadership is an important factor for the structure and dynamics of every sport group.
In the broadest sense, it can be regarded as an activity process, which influences individuals
and groups in achieving the stated goals. Leadership defined in this way contains several
important elements, such as directing a group, providing information, decision making,
developing interpersonal relations, motivating, etc.
So, a leader is a person who knows the direction which the group is taking. He or she
establishes the strategies for achieving the goal. It is not just about the vision of the goal, but
also the everyday conceptualisation and motivation to bring this vision to reality, to achieve
success of the whole team through individual success.
As already stated, leader is not to be confused with a manager, who is mostly in charge
of planning, organising, the budget, the assistant pesonnel, etc. Despite the fact that leaders
sometimes have these same obligations and that many coaches become excellent managers,
leadership entails skill necessary for the development of players and progression of team.
There are very different understandings of what leadership is, and they emerged in
numerous scientific fields with very different starting population. Dealing with this issue,
Stogdill (1974) divided all leadership theories into six big groups: theories about leader’s
characteristics, situational theories, theories which place emphasis on leader’s personality and
situational factors, interaction theories (expectations), exchange theories and humanistic
theories.
30
Franceško (2003) singles out two types of leadership (rukovođenje) theories and talks
about them in more detail. First, there are theories where leadership is regarded as social
interaction, and then there are those containing the idea about the importance of cognitive
factors in leading people. Based on this criterion, she dealt with the following theories:
theories about leader’s characteristics, situational theories, contingency models,
transactional theory, theory of human nature and attribution theory.
Weinberg and Gould (1999) dealt with four modalities of research on sport leadership:
character-related, behavioural, interactional and multidimensional.
Northouse (2010) analysed a range of different approaches to studying leadership in
general: the approach based on traits (intelligence, self-confidence, decisiveness, honesty,
sociability, the five-factor model of personality, emotional intelligence), the approach based
on skills (technical skills, interpersonal skills, abstract thinking skills), the approach based on
style (leadership based on authority and obedience, friendly leadership, indifferent leadership,
balanced leadership, team leadership), situational approach (leadership styles, developmental
stages), coordinated leadership theory (leadership styles, situation features), theory of path to
success (directive leadership, supportive leadership, cooperative leadership, achievement-
directed leadership), theory of exchange between the leader and a member, transformational
leadership, team leadership, psychodynamic approach (transactional analysis, Sigmund Freud
and types of personality, Carl Gustav Jung and types of personality, sixteen types and
leadership), women and leadership (gender and leadership styles, gender and successfulness
in leadership), culture and leadership and leadership ethics.
Maxwell (Maksvel) (2007) lists 21 qualities of a true leader. We will name a few:
character, charisma, competence, courage, passion, responsibility, self-discipline,
teachability, vision.
3.2. Empirical research on leadership in a sport group
As the previous analysis showed, the approach based on traits (intelligence, self-
confidence, decisiveness, honesty, sociability, dominance, emotional intelligence, etc.) is
mentioned in each of the aforementioned classifications of leadership. Personality, its traits
and capabilities are also put into focus or included implicitly in all other modalities of study
of leadership in every group, including a sport group. This was a good enough reason for us to
search for those qualities, which are assumed to make a successful leader of a football club.
At first, the approach based on personality traits established the characteristics of great
leaders, then it was modified for the purpose of acknowledging the impact of situation on
leadership, and today it is again a topical issue so that the key role of traits in successful
leadership can be emphasised.
In two of his papers (1948 and 1974), Stogdill gave an overview of research papers
which deal with the role of personality traits in leadership.
In his first paper, he analysed more than 124 research about traits of a leader,
conducted between 1904 and 1947. He found that what distinguishes an average individual in
the role of the leader from an average member of a group are the following traits: intelligence,
readiness, insight, responsibility, initiative, perseverance, self-confidence and sociability. The
results of the analysis showed that an individual does not become a leader just because he or
she has certain characteristics, but because the charactersitcs he or she has must be important
in the situation in which the leader acts.
In his second paper, Stogdill analysed 163 research, conducted between 1948 and
1970. In comparison to the first paper, this one is more balanced when it comes to the
description of the role of traits in leadership. Although the first paper implies that leadership
31
is mostly determined by situational, and not personality factors, the conclusion drawn in the
second paper is that personality and situational factors are decisive for leadership.
Mann (1959) conducted similar research, in which he examined more than 1,400 data
about personality and leadership in small groups. He placed less emphasis on the impact of
situational factors on leadership. He concluded that personality traits can be applied in order
to distinguish leaders form the persons that are not leaders. These traits are: intelligence,
masculinity, adaptability, dominance, extroversion, conservativism.
Ogilvie and Tutko (1966 and 1970) concluded, though without sufficient documentary
proof, that a profile of a typical coach contains the following traits: decisive, authoritative,
capable of handling the pressure from fans and the media, emotionally mature, realistic when
it comes to the future and independent thought.
Based on an overview of 27 studies, Lord, De Vader and Alliger (1986) concluded that
the leadership phenomenon is closely related to three central traits: intelligence, typical
masculinity (agressiveness, decisiveness) and dominance. They obtained these results by
using more advanced methods (meta-analysis) and they strongly advocated the view that
personality traits can be systematically used in different situations in order to disinguish a
leader form a person who is not one.
Based on the qualitative synthesis of previous research, Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991)
concluded that leaders are not like other people and that what makes them different are these
six traits: initiative, motivation, honesty, self-confidence, cognitive abilities, knowledge about
the task.
Table 1 shows traits and features of a leader, found in major research in this field.
Table 1: Research about traits and features of a leader (according to Northouse, 2010: 18)
Stogdill
(1948)
Mann
(1959)
Stogdill
(1974) Lord, De Vader,
Alliger (1986)
Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991)
Intelligence
Readiness
Insight
Responsibility
Initiative
Perseverance
Self-confidence
Sociability
Intelligence
Masculinity
Adaptability
Dominance
Extroversion
Conservativism
Achievement
Perseverance
Insight
Initiative
Self-confidence
Responsibility
Tendency to
cooperate
Tolerance
Influence
Sociability
Intelligence
Masculinity
Dominance
Initiative
Motivation
Honesty
Self-confidence
Cognitive
abilities
Knowledge
about the task
3.3. Dominant traits of a successful football coach
For the purpose of better understanding the traits of a leader, we systematised most
important traits and features which every great leader and every successful coach of a
football club should have. These traits are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Dominant traits (features) of a successful football coach
32
Intelligence
Self-confidence
Decisiveness
Passion
Sociability
Morality
Being a general mental ability to learn new things, solve problems, deal with new situations,
intelligence positively correlates with successful leadership. Outstanding verbal and
perceptive abilities, as well as the abilities to make conclusions are what makes an individual
a better leader. Although being a smart coach is a good thing, research show that his or her
intelligence should not differ too much from that of the players he or she is coaching. Coaches
with more advanced abilities may have difficulties in communication with players, because
their ideas are too advanced for the players to understand and accept them. In recent years
there has been a growing interest in emotional, spiritual, social, creative and sport
intelligence. It seems that emotional intelligence has special importance for football coaches,
since they have to be able to recognise their own emotions, as well as those of the people that
they are coaching, so that they could control both.
Self-confidence can be described both as a personality trait of a coach (the degree of
belief in success) and as a state (the faith that coaches have in themselves at the given
moment). Self-confidence is usually reflected in readiness, decisiveness, self-assurance, etc.
Self-confident coaches are not afraid of different situations, so they can often produce a
positive effect or turn a negative score into a positive one in the decisive moments of victory.
The situations where things turn against them, they see as a challenge and react even more
decisively. In these situations, they are “cool”, it is hard to upset them, they are resistant to
stressful and frustrating situations, always have positive attitude about themselves and they
believe in the victory. Despite the fact that even the coaches with great self-confidence
sometimes lose matches, and therefore their self-confidence, they do not allow this to
“suppress” their faith in themselves and thier own values (cf. Čokorilo, 2009: 77).
Decisiveness is a desire to carry out the task and it comprises features such as
initiative, perseverance, dominance and desire. Decisive coaches have strong willingness to
impose themselves, they are proactive and persevering when it comes to facing obstacles.
Decisiveness includes displaying dominance in the situations where there is a need for
directing the followers (cf. Northouse, 2010: 20).
Passion is the first step towards success and nothing can replace the impact that this
factor has on the life of a leader, especially a sport leader, because sport is, unlike many other
things – a passion. No sport leader can be great unless he or she likes and is passionate about
what he or she is doing. Passion is fuel that boosts and strengthens our will and makes
impossible things possible. The zeal in the heart and soul brings everything in a human life
alive. This is why passionate football coaches with less professional expertise are more
successful than those who have expertise, but lack passion. In the end, passion can be
“practised”: Ask yourself how strong your desires are. Think of your first love. Be around
passionate people – passion is contagious (cf. Maxwell, 2007: 83-86).
Sociability refers to seeking desirable social relations, which the leader establishes
with the members of a sport club. Marked sociability is a characteristic of leaders who are
friendly, open, courteous, tactful and diplomatic. Such leaders are sensitive to other people’s
needs and show concern for their well-being. They have well developed interpersonal skills
and they establish cooperative relations with their followers.
33
Morality of a leader primarily refers to characteristics of honesty and trust. Moral
coaches stick to their principles and take responsibility for their actions. This makes other
people trust them, because they can be trusted to fulfil their promises. They are loyal, reliable
and they do not cheat. They have a range of positive virtues: fairness, sincerity, courage and
lack of vices: cowardice, egoism, dishonour, etc. (cf. Northouse, 2010: 20-21).
CONCLUSION The characteristics of a leader that have been considered in this paper lead to
conclusion that there are some dominant personal characteristics which make a leader
successful no matter the situation. To put it simply, José Mourinho would not be such a great
leader just in football, but also in other sports, as well as in business, politics, etc. Based on
the systematisation and analysis of different points of view in numerous papers regarding
characteristics of a successful leader, we assume that the personality traits (features) most
important for a leader and a football coach are the following: intelligence, self-confidence,
decisiveness, passion, sociability and morality. The characteristics mentioned and discussed
do not dispute the importance of other characteristics mentioned in this paper. They too can
be related to successful leadership. We think that the six traits that we presented in more detail
significantly contribute to leader’s (coach’s) successfulness. There are different views and
approaches to study of skilfulness in sport leadership besides those about dominant personal
characteristics. However, the majority of these approaches acknowledge certain personality
traits (they can be helpful to leaders if they possess them), but they need not be absolute
guarantee for successful leadership. In the modern development of sport leadership, it is
indisputable that other models are also important, first and foremost those which besides
leader’s characteristics acknowledge situational factors, leader’s behaviour and traits of the
sport group members (cf. Čokorilo, 2009: 200-202). it is an empirical fact that football
coaches who are experts and who exhibit democratic behaviour, support players and give
positive information, are successful in creating teams which are more attached and united,
which makes it possible for them to obtain better results. Every team, and especially that
which loses, needs more social support, whose immediate purpose is increasing and
maintaining players’ motivation. Generous support from the coach, rewards for certain kinds
of behaviour and democratic way of making decisions generally correlate with pleasure and
success of sportsmen.
REFERENCES
1. Bojanović, R. (1998). Psihologija međuljudskih odnosa. Beograd: Centar za primenjenu
psihologiju Društva psihologa Srbije.
2. Čokorilo, R. (2009). Psihologija sporta. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga.
3. Čokorilo, R., Milošević, Z. (2013). Etika vođstva u sportskom menadžmentu. U časopisu Sport
Mont (37, 38, 39/XI), Podgorica: Crnogorska sportska akademija.
4. Franceško, M. (2003). Kako unaprediti menadžment u preduzeću. Novi Sad: Prometej.
5. Kirkpatrick, S.A., Locke, E.A. (1991). Leadership: Do traitsmatter? The Executive, 5 (48-
60).
6. Krstić, D. 81988). Psihološki rečnik. Beograd: Vuk Karadžić.
7. Lord, R.G., De Vader, C.L., Alliger, G.M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between
personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization
procedures. Journal of applied Psychology, 71, (402-410).
8. Maksvel, Dž. (2007). Osobine pravog vođe. Beograd: Finesa.
9. Mann, R.D. (1959). A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small
groups. Psychological Bulltin, 50 (241-270). 10. Northouse, G.P. (2010). Vodstvo (Teorija i praksa). Zagreb: Mate.
34
11. Ogilvie, B.C., & Tutko, T.A (1966). Problem athletes and how to handle them. London:
Palham Books.
12. Ogilvie, B.C., & Tutko, T.A (1970). Self-perceptions as compared with measured personality
of selected male physical educators. In G.S. Kenyon (Ed.). Contemporary psychology of sport
(73-78), Chicago: The Athletic Institute.
13. Rot, N. (1989). Osnovi socijalne psihologije. Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna
sredstva.
14. Stogdill, R.M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature.
Journal of Psychology, 25, (35-71).
15. Stogdill, R.M. (1974). Handbook of leadership – A survey of theory and research. New York:
Free Press. 16. Weinberg, S. R. & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. New
York: Human Kinetics.
35
Sscientific Work Review SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 35-39
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Senad Čoković1, Milan Stamenković
2, Ranko Bojanić
3
1Elementary school Grbovica 1, Sarajevo
2Tourist organization in Babusnica, Serbia
3Ministry of Internal Affairs, Republic of Serbia
UDK 796.015.133
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401035C
METHODS FOR SPORTSMEN’S TECHNICAL AND TACTYICAL
KNOWLEDGE IMPROVEMENT
ABSTRACT
Authors point out that it is possible to apply various methods of training to technical and
tactical training of sportsmen. The choice depends on the characteristics of the sports activity
and on the level of the anthropological characteristics of the sportsmen. Accordingly, the aim
of the paper is to present a program of learning and modern methods for the improvement of
technical and tactical knowledge, the application of which can considerably rationalise the
training process of sportsmen.
Key words: methods for learning, sportsmen, technical and tactical knowledge,
1. INTRODUCTION
In order for sportsmen to achieve top sports results, their physical fitness has to be
accompanied by a high level of technical and tactical abilities. Particular groups of sportsmen
engage in sports with some specific characteristics, so special requirements in their technical
and tactical training have to be met. Accordingly, the procedure of improving technical and
tactical skills primarily depends on individual characteristics of the sportsman and on certain
deficiencies observed in the movement technique. There are two basic cases in the training
practice (Bowerman et al, 1998; Pržulj 2012). The first is that the individual technique is
basically in accordance with modern effective movement structure and, at the same time, with
the individual characteristics of the sportsman’s physical fitness. The second case appears
when the movement technique does not completely match the individual characteristics of the
sportsman’s physical fitness, and contains a number of more or less serious deviations from
the effective movement structure. These are sufficient reasons to approach differently the
process of improving movement habits of sportsmen with different predispositions and
knowledge. In the former case, the improvement of technique is based on further acquisition
of correct movements and increase in their dynamics, which should bring about quantitative
changes: increase in speed and amplitude, increase in strength impulses and determining their
direction, and improvement of the general movement rhythm. In the letter case, technique
36
improvement requires only partial rearrangement of movement habits and replacement of
insufficiently efficient technical elements by more efficient movement structure elements.
2. BASIS FOR TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
ACQUISITION
In the course of learning and acquiring technical and tactical knowledge, the specific
goal of the training process should always be kept in mind – to acquire motor habits which
enable the performance of various motor tasks within a single sport, i.e. effective participation
in a sports competition.
Firstly, the demonstration of technical and tactical tasks performed by the trainer has
to be complete in order for the sportsmen to create an appropriate picture of what the
movement should ideally look like. It is important that the trainer should establish good
communication with the sportsman in the course of solving a motor problem. The information
necessary for making a clear picture of a motor task is given through oral presentation (verbal
method), through pictures, cinemascope or film (visual method) or through motor
demonstration (demonstration method). In later work, the demonstration of technical and
tactical tasks is carried out in stages and is repeated several times, if needed.
Before technical and tactical task demonstration, the trainer has to announce to the
sportsmen which task they will be dealing with, point to the importance and special
characteristics of the elements, explain the structural and other characteristics of the motor
task (Pržulj, 2007)
Picture 1. Stages in the process of motor learning (Matvejev, 2000; Milanović, 2007)
There are four stages in the process of motor task learning (Matvejev, 2000; Pržulj,
2007):
Movement model formation (1) is, at the beginning, based on the acquisition of
‘rough’ movement coordination, accompanied by full conscious control of the
performance.
At the stage consisting of a greater number of movement performances (2) motor
knowledge becomes of higher quality due to the appearance of ‘fine’ movement
coordination. At this stage of technical and tactical knowledge acquisition, the trainer
MOVEMENT
DEMONSTRATION
MOVEMENT
MODEL
FORMATION
PERFORMANCE OF
MOVEMENT
AND TRAINER’S INSTRUCTIONS
TRENRA
MAKING
MOVEMENT
AUTOMATIC
MOVEMENT
STABILISATION
1 2
3
4
37
keeps giving additional information which helps the sportsman become aware of,
understand and correct motor mistakes.
During the stage of movement stabilisation (3), variable conditions for technical and
tactical knowledge acquisition are used. Motor knowledge is more firmly established,
individual approach is allowed, which contributes to the formation of specific styles of
movement performance. Situational improvement of motor knowledge begins, and
technical and tactical exercises are connected with training load which suits the tempo
and rhythm of competitive activities.
The stage of making movement automatic (4) involves a large number of correct
repetitions of technical and tactical elements, which makes coordination structure
automatic, so motor knowledge gradually becomes a habit (automatism). The method
of competitive improvement is still applied, but only when motor, i.e. technical and
tactical habits are highly stable and resistant to high physical demands of a
competition. In this phase, the so-called motor program is already almost perfected, as
a record in motor memory, which determines the order of movement performance
within a motor task.
3. METHODS IN THE FIELD OF MOTOR LEARNING
The following methods applied during the training process are of great significance for
technical and tactical knowledge improvement (Bala, 1981; Malacko 2002):
1. Analytical method, important for movement simplification, makes the process of
concetualization easier, helps the sportsman better perceive the correct structure of
every element of the complete coordination.
2. Pre-exercise method, used to acquire complex technical elements (e.g. polevault)
more easily. Imitation and special exercises are used, with special attention given
to their difficulty, always starting from easier and moving towards more difficult
ones.
3. Synthetic method, used to form a complete motor habit in a competition.
4. Complex method, used to correct technical deficiencies in certain parts of the
complete movement, and then to further improve the technique by performing the
motor task in its entirety, on the basis of what is left after the completion of the
exercises.
5. Related influence method, based on the interaction of the process of motor task
improvement and the possibility to regulate the task consciously. In practice, this
method takes into account not only the system of muscles involved in motor
movement, but also the level of their activation present in the entire movement
(maximum load, load reduction etc.)
6. Ideomotor training, which represents a thought process whereby motor movement
is carried out in accordance with the sportsman’s vision. This method helps master
the qualities which enable error correction and motor task improvement. It is most
38
frequently used as the immediate preparation for the current training tasks, which
also creates a psychological basis for future achievements.
4. CONCLUSION
Technical and tactical training of sportsmen need not and must not be aimed
only at technique acquisition, but also at the improvement of some movement effects which
should enable a higher level of motor abilities, which will contribute to a more efficient
acquisition of motor knowledge.
During the process of acquisition of technical and tactical tasks, motor
mistakes occur when task performance deviates from ideal performance. Therefore, trainers
have to be well acquainted with reasons which bring about incorrect task performance in
order to be able to direct additional corrective training correctly.
The process of technical and tactical knowledge acquisition and improvement
must be carried out on an appropriate emotional level with younger categories. If emotional
influence in the training of young sportsmen is insufficient, learning technique and tactics
becomes boring and demotivating.
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bala, G. (1981). Struktura i razvoj morfoloških dimenzija dece SAP Vojvodine.
Novi Sad: Fakultet fizičke kulture Univerziteta u Novom Sadu (OOUR Institut
fizičke kulture.
2. Bowerman, W., Freeman, W. & Gambeta, V. (1998). Athletics (Basics of
Sports Training and Skill Development – chapter 2), Zagreb: GOPAL Ltd.
3. Hajmer, S. & Šentlija, D. (1997): Neke spiroergometrijske vrijednosti sportaša
u ocjeni njihove kondicije, Zbornik radova, Zagreb: Zagrebački sajam sporta.
4. Malacko, J. (2002). Sportski trening. Novi Sad: Fakultet fizičke kulture.
5. Matvejev, L. P. (2000). Basics of Modern Sports Training System, FIS,
Moscow
6. Milanović, D. (2007): Teorija treninga, Priručnik za studente sveučilišnog
studija. Zagreb: Kineziološki fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
7. Momirović, K., Visnjić, N., Horga. S., Bujanović, R. & Mejovšek, M. (1970):
Osnovni parametri pouzdanosti merenja nekih testova motorike, Beograd:
Fizička kultura, br. 1-3.
8. Nikitjuk, B.A. (1988). Adaptacija, konstitucija i motorika, Zagreb:
Kineziologija, Vol. 20, br. 1.
9. Pržulj, D. (2007): Kondiciona priprema sportista, Uđbenik. Pale: Fakultet
fizičke kulture.
10. Pržulj, D. (2012) Dijagnostika antropoloških obeležja i treniranosti sportista,
Udžbenik. Pale: Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta.
11. Željaskov, S. (2003): Teorija i metodika treninga izdržljivosti, Kondiciona
priprema, Zbornik radova, Zagreb: Kineziološki fakultet sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
39
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 39-52
Orginal scientific paper
Ida Kabok1, Cvijeta Krsmanović
2
1Primary and Secondary Special Education Boarding School “Milan Petrović” Novi Sad
2Faculty of Physical Education and Sport of the University of East Sarajevo
UDK 796.323.2:159.922.76 DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401039K
THE EFFICIENCY OF ADOPTION OF BASKETBALL ELEMENTS IN
STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Abstract
The subject of this research is studying of morphological characteristics, motor skills
and situational basketball motor skills in children with special needs, and with the purpose of
establishing possible correlation with the result efficiency of situational motor basketball
abilities of the said group. The sample of subjects consisted of 120 students with special
needs, between 11 and 16 years of age, who regularly attended Primary and Secondary
Special Education Boarding School “Milan Petrović”, Novi Sad. The study applied statistical
methods of data processing. Obtained results indicate that in children of this age, specific
basketball movement structures can positively stimulate cognitive processes, which is of
particular significance when it comes to people with intellectual disabilities. The applied
physical training, which is improving basketball technical elements, like specific
coordination, can have positive effects on sensory integration and better functioning of
cognitive processes, thus mitigating or reducing intellectual disability in development of these
students. The results can also be used in solving theoretical and practical problems in
physical education of students with special needs.
Key words: basketball, result efficiency, students with special needs
INTRODUCTION
Physical education of students with special needs is organized and conducted within
three equal and functionally encircled fields: basic physical education, vocational physical
education and applied (functional) physical education. Basic physical education comprises of
basic physical education functions which should contribute to development of necessary
abilities and characteristics of students with special needs. Vocational physical education
should fulfil individual needs and interests for specific sport activities and physical exercising.
Realization of vocational physical education should take place as in the school, so in the
nearby schools and sport facilities. One of the possible forms of vocational physical education
is training basketball, especially because it is known that the said population is good at
enduring physical strains, particularly if they are not related with mental strains which are
quite exhausting for them. Applied (functional) physical education is characterized by
mastering special motor abilities and skills. The elements of activities are defined by the
40
needs and the interests of students and the social environment in which the school is
functioning (Kristen et al., 2002).
The subject of the research refers to studying of morphological characteristics, motor
abilities and situational basketball motor abilities in children with special needs. Also, the said
research refers to comparing of the obtained results in two different age groups of students, in
the context of assessment of abilities for adoption of basketball elements.
The objective of the research was to establish correlation between morphological
characteristics and motor abilities (as set of predictor variables), with the result efficiency in
situational basketball motor abilities (as set of criterion variables) in students with special
needs, and the possibility of mitigating or reducing their intellectual disability.
Morphological characteristics are used in assessment of physical condition and
development in children, youth and adults, and in determining their constitution. During the
period of development, it is necessary to observe and differ chronological and biological ages,
that is, growth and development of children and youth. Implementation of anthropometry
measures on larger samples of subjects can establish appropriate standards for comparison of
growth and development in children (Kurelić et al, 1975), and which should, primarily,
interest educational medicine experts. Besides, the information about morphological
characteristics may, to a great extent, contribute to better observing of efficiency in realization
of various motor tasks, that is, contribute to more successful interpretation of motor abilities
of man. Motor ability manifestation also depends on effectors (musculature, bone lever,
joints), so the research in the field of motor characteristics is very significant for analysis of
motor abilities in students with special needs (Bala, 1981; Kabok, 2013). Motor abilities are the part of psychosomatic status which manifests the efficiency of
motor reactions, that is, human motor ability. It is considered that motor abilities represent the
field of education of students with special needs and which can be most influenced, thus
preparing them for personal, working and defensive fitting into “social life”, making their
socialization (Fejgin et al., 2005), and self-actualization as efficient as possible.
American experts Francis and Rarick (Francis and Rarick, 1960) were studying motor
abilities of persons with mental disabilities and came to conclusion that falling behind in
motor behaviour in children with intellectual disabilities is 2 – 4 years, as compared with
children of normal intellectual abilities of the same chronological age. According to the
obtained results (Bala, 1981) it can be concluded that the motor abilities in children with
special needs are poorly developed. It is observed that motor abilities in children with special
needs are so much weaker, if their intellectual level is lower, which can indicate to the fact
that the correlation between motor and intellectual abilities is much higher than in standard
population.
Specific motor abilities are very significant in basketball, regardless the fact whether
such specific motor abilities are achieved through exercising or are genetically determined.
Such specific abilities relevant for successful basketball playing are also called situation and
motor abilities from the reason that they mainly include certain combinations of basic motor
abilities, functional abilities, cognitive abilities and characteristics (Krsmanovic, 2011).
Generally accepted fact among researchers and practitioners (Blašković 1982; Jakovljević
2002; Ángyán et al., 2003; Krsmanović, 2008; Krsmanovic, 2010; Radovanović et al., 2013) is
that the motor abilities tasks, such as repetitive strength, explosive strength, velocity and
agility are most often classified into simpler situational-motor structures, and the tasks
including accuracy, balance, flexibility and coordination are classified as complex basketball
situational motor structures. In basketball, situational motor accuracy is the most important
one. Motor abilities, to a certain extent, represent good predictor system for situational motor
abilities in basketball.
41
In this study, after introduction and presentation of some of the relevant studies realized
in this field, the second section explains methodology, while the third section will present the
obtained results. Discussion and conclusions give particular indication that this study provides
useful information in practice, particularly in the field of work of physical education teachers
in primary and secondary schools for children with development disabilities.
1. METHODS
2.1. The sample of subjects
The subjects belong to population of students with special needs, regularly attending the
school for special education and upbringing. The age of subjects was between 11 and 16. For
the purpose of analysis of segments, the sample was divided into two groups, according to the
age. The first group comprised of boys of 11 - 13 years of age, and the second were boys 14
- 16 years of age. All students from the sample are attending classes in the Primary and
Secondary Special Education Boarding School “Milan Petrović”, Novi Sad, as follows:
Group of 60 students (boys) of 11 - 13 years of age,
Group of 60 students (boys) of 14 - 16 years of age.
Selection of children was made according to criteria implying:
Regular attending of physical education classes,
Records of complete results in assessment list.
1.2. The sample of variables
Table 1. Tabulated review of sample of variables
Variables for assessment of anthropometric
dimensions
Variables for assessment of motor abilities
For assessment of skeleton dimensionality: For assessment of movement frequency:
Body height – AVIS, Arm plate tapping (MTAP),
Leg length – ADNO, Foot tapping (TAPN).
Hand length – ADRU.
For assessment of body mass and weight: For assessment of agility:
Body mass – AMAS, Sit and reach on bench (MDP).
Maximal forearm girth – AOPL, For assessment of explosive strength:
Upper leg girth – AONK, Standing broad jump (MDM),
Chest girth – AOGK Dash 60 m (MTR2),
Situational basketball tests Medicine ball throws (MBAM).
For establishment of correlation between
predictor and criterion variables:
For assessment of static strength of arms and
shoulder girdle:
Slalom and double step with shot (SSLK), Bent arm hang (MVIS).
Throw and catch the ball against the wall cross
hand (SDHZ),
For assessment of repetitive strength:
Leading jump shot (SVSŠ), and 30 sec sit ups (MDTZ),
Free throws (SSLB). 30 sec push ups (SKLE).
Selection of tests was influenced by curriculum for students with special needs. Namely,
by the end of the 8th
grade, the students should master simple elements of basketball.
1.3. Assessment technique
The following equipment was used for establishment of selected anthropological
measures in experimental procedure:
42
Medical decimal (transportable) scales with 100 grams measurement
accuracy. The scales was calibrated each day before use and after each tenth weighing;
The Martin Anthropometer with 1 mm measurement accuracy;
Measuring plastic band, 1 meter long, which enables 5 mm measurement
accuracy (the result is rounded to nearer value);
Electronic scales Tanita for measuring of total tissue fats, with result
measuring accuracy expresses in percentages (%);
Anthropometric dimensions were measured by means of methods of the
International Biological Programs.
1.4. Measuring instruments
The selection of tests was made so to represent several primary motor factors. One part
of the aforesaid measuring instruments was applied in a way identical to methodology
described in the study. Kurelić, N. et al.: “Structure and development of morphological and
motor dimensions in youth”. The second part, which is identical to methodology described in
work of Karalejić, M. and Jakovljević, S.: “Testing and control of training process”.
1.5. Data processing methods
The possibility of resolving the problem defined by research model in optimal way
depends on methods of collection of primary information and selection of mathematical and
statistical procedures for data condensation and transformation. With the purpose of
formulating correct conclusions, we used statistical program Basic Statistics Version 6.0, for
testing of hypothesis with the following programs:
Data Management, for creation of the database;
Basic Statistic, for determining of basic variable distribution parameters;
Factor Analysis, for determining of the space structure;
Multiple Regression, for determining of the influence of predictor system of
variables on criteria;
Anova/Manova, for establishment of differences in arithmetic means.
The first step implied calculation of central tendency measures for all applied variables,
as well as measures of variability:
AM- arithmetic mean;
SD- standard deviation;
CV – variation coefficient;
MED – median;
MIN- min. result;
MAX - max. result;
R – span.
Regularity of distribution of variables was tested on the basis of two values: skew-skewness
(represents the symmetry of the curve, so the curve is normally distributed, that is, distribution of
normal skewness is “0”. Negative sign refers to higher number of weak results (hypocurtic up to
-3), and positive sign refers to higher number of good results (epicurtic up to +3). All results
exceeding the value of 1.00 refer to tasks which are either too difficult or to easy. Kurt – kurtosis
(establishment of significance of differences in results, as compared to normal distribution, is
performed by means of Kurtosis, when deviations from regular values are not statistically
significant (mezzokurtic 2.75). If the result is much higher than 2.75 that means that the results are
very close (leptokurtic > 2.75 distribution) thus resulting in flatness and enlogation of the
curve. If the results are much lower than 2.75, that will mean that the results are rather diffused
43
(platikurtic 2.75 < distribution). The differences between the students of various ages will be
established by means of analysis of variance (ANOVA).
2. THE RESULTS AND THE DISCUSSION
The results of the study are presented as comparison and differences in mean values of
parameters of morphological characteristics, motor and situational basketball abilities in
students with special needs of 11 - 13 years of age and 14 to 16 years of age in the following
table 2:
Table 2: Mean values of all parameters of morphological characteristics, motor and
situational basketball abilities in the group of students with special needs of 11 - 13 years of
age and the group of 14 - 16 years of age
DESCRIPTIVE
N Mean
Std.
Deviat.
Std.
Error
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Min. Max.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Body height 11-13 60 151.703
3
12.7440
1
1.6452
4
148.411
2
154.995
5
123.50 176.60
14-16 60 167.964
3
10.2790
1
1.3270
1
165.309
0
170.619
7
145.50 185.00
Total 120 159.833
8
14.1268
6
1.2896
0
157.280
3
162.387
4
123.50 185.00
Leg length 11-13 60 85.3172 10.0397
0
1.2961
2
82.7236 87.9107 64.00 103.10
14-16 60 91.8583 9.17307 1.1842
4
89.4887 94.2280 75.10 105.20
Total 120 88.5878 10.1232
4
0.9241
2
86.7579 90.4176 64.00 105.20
Arm length 11-13 60 70.8733 7.32263 0.9453
5
68.9817 72.7650 57.20 85.30
14-16 60 74.8900 7.84843 1.0132
3
72.8625 76.9175 61.10 87.50
Total 120 72.8817 7.82257 0.7141
0
71.4677 74.2957 57.20 87.50
Body mass 11-13 60 45.9083 9.50380 1.2269
3
43.4532 48.3634 26.50 62.00
14-16 60 55.1150 8.80385 1.1365
7
52.8407 57.3893 38.00 68.90
Total 120 50.5117 10.2263
6
0.9335
4
48.6632 52.3602 26.50 68.90
Maximal
forearm girth
11-13 60 18.9650 1.75700 0.2268
3
18.5111 19.4189 16.50 22.60
44
14-16 60 19.1767 1.76974 0.2284
7
18.7195 19.6338 16.50 23.10
Total 120 19.0708 1.75917 0.1605
9
18.7528 19.3888 16.50 23.10
Upper leg girth 11-13 60 21.2450 2.51048 0.3241
0
20.5965 21.8935 18.00 30.50
14-16 60 22.1450 2.84435 0.3672
0
21.4102 22.8798 19.00 31.50
Total 120 21.6950 2.70927 0.2473
2
21.2053 22.1847 18.00 31.50
Chest girth 11-13 60 87.3018 9.09034 1.1735
6
84.9535 89.6501 61.20 100.00
14-16 60 87.9005 8.82233 1.1389
6
85.6215 90.1795 64.00 100.00
Total 120 87.6012 8.92469 0.8147
1
85.9880 89.2144 61.20 100.00
Arm plate
tapping
11-13 60 16.6333 4.47580 0.5778
2
15.4771 17.7896 7.00 25.00
14-16 60 22.7000 5.00948 0.6467
2
21.4059 23.9941 10.00 32.00
Total 120 19.6667 5.62607 0.5135
9
18.6497 20.6836 7.00 32.00
Foot tapping 11-13 60 8.5667 2.43816 0.3147
7
7.9368 9.1965 4.00 15.00
14-16 60 11.8000 2.57629 0.3326
0
11.1345 12.4655 8.00 16.00
Total 120 10.1833 2.97887 0.2719
3
9.6449 10.7218 4.00 16.00
Sit and reach on
bench
11-13 60 35.5500 9.64176 1.2447
5
33.0593 38.0407 17.00 51.00
14-16 60 34.7000 10.0630
2
1.2991
3
32.1004 37.2996 17.00 51.00
Total 120 35.1250 9.82243 0.8966
6
33.3495 36.9005 17.00 51.00
Standing broad
jump
11-13 60 148.966
7
40.8900
8
5.2788
9
138.403
6
159.529
7
35.00 201.00
14-16 60 149.666
7
39.9769
7
5.1610
0
139.339
5
159.993
8
35.00 201.00
Total 120 149.316
7
40.2673
8
3.6758
9
142.038
0
156.595
3
35.00 201.00
60 meter dash 11-13 60 12.4250 3.60393 0.4652
7
11.4940 13.3560 6.90 19.60
14-16 60 13.9783 3.64385 0.4704
2
13.0370 14.9196 8.20 19.30
45
Total 120 13.2017 3.69201 0.3370
3
12.5343 13.8690 6.90 19.60
Medicine ball
throw
11-13 60 3.6083 1.38421 0.1787
0
3.2508 3.9659 1.00 6.00
14-16 60 4.5417 0.98416 0.1270
5
4.2874 4.7959 2.50 6.50
Total 120 4.0750 1.28444 0.1172
5
3.8428 4.3072 1.00 6.50
Bent arm hang 11-13 60 30.6863 14.8317
7
1.9147
7
26.8549 34.5178 3.00 65.30
14-16 60 31.8033 17.9373
7
2.3157
0
27.1696 36.4370 5.60 69.00
Total 120 31.2448 16.3982
8
1.4969
5
28.2807 34.2089 3.00 69.00
30 sec sit ups 11-13 60 14.0667 4.41441 0.5699
0
12.9263 15.2070 5.00 25.00
14-16 60 13.6667 4.58689 0.5921
6
12.4817 14.8516 5.00 25.00
Total 120 13.8667 4.48702 0.4096
1
13.0556 14.6777 5.00 25.00
30 sec push ups 11-13 60 10.8833 5.53905 0.7150
9
9.4524 12.3142 1.00 26.00
14-16 60 10.9333 6.10325 0.7879
3
9.3567 12.5100 1.00 26.00
Total 120 10.9083 5.80350 0.5297
8
9.8593 11.9574 1.00 26.00
Slalom and
double step
with shot
11-13 60 1.9833 1.64153 .21192 1.5593 2.4074 0.00 5.00
14-16 60 1.9833 1.64153 0.2119
2
1.5593 2.4074 0.00 5.00
Total 120 1.9833 1.63462 0.1492
2
1.6879 2.2788 0.00 5.00
Throw and
catch the ball
against the wall
cross hand
11-13 60 1.1000 1.17459 0.1516
4
0.7966 1.4034 0.00 3.00
14-16 60 .9000 1.11538 0.1439
9
0.6119 1.1881 0.00 3.00
Total 120 1.0000 1.14496 0.1045
2
0.7930 1.2070 0.00 3.00
Leading jump
shot
11-13 60 2.0667 1.63507 0.2110
9
1.6443 2.4890 0.00 5.00
14-16 60 2.1833 1.58907 0.2051
5
1.7728 2.5938 0.00 5.00
Total 120 2.1250 1.60651 0.1466
5
1.8346 2.4154 0.00 5.00
Free throws 11-13 60 1.2500 1.15897 0.1496
2
0.9506 1.5494 0.00 3.00
46
14-16 60 1.2833 1.16578 0.1505
0
0.9822 1.5845 0.00 3.00
Total 120 1.2667 1.15761 0.1056
7
1.0574 1.4759 0.00 3.00
Table 2 gives parallel presentation of mean values by groups as well as maximal and
minimal values and standard deviations. When comparing all the values, particularly mean
ones, we can see that the most turbulent changes occur in morphological measurements,
which certainly represents logical biological development in these periods of ontogenetic
development. Morphological changes come as a result of normal biological development, so
no deviations were observed in that part. As for motor abilities, the only significant
differences in arithmetic means are observed in arm plate tapping, and which is used in
assessment of the velocity of alternating movements. In other motor, but also situational and
basketball motor abilities, the difference in mean values between the formed groups is much
less significant. In some positions, the mean value was even lower, like, for example, in 60 m
dash and sit-and-reach, and some values are almost the same, like, for example, in 30 sec push
ups, as well as in all specific basketball motor abilities. Insignificant differences were
established in other applied motor abilities. Generally speaking, the results in all motor
abilities fall behind as compared to population of normal boys (standard population boys) of
the same age, particularly in coordination and accuracy tests, and which were the most related
to cognitive factor in which the boys with special needs demonstrated lower degree of
functioning.
When observing distribution of results in group of boys of 11 - 13 and 14 - 16 years of
age, significant overlapping in distribution of results in motor ability tests in those two groups
of boys can be observed. That means that some boys from the first group achieved results
similar to those from the second group and vice versa. Also, a number of boys from both
groups achieved the same results like boys from standard population, which can be
particularly seen from maximal achieved values of results. This particularly referred to the
velocity of running, repetitive and static strength.
Also, it was observed that the differences in mean values and the distribution of results
in general, are the consequence of differences in anthropometric characteristic more than
being the consequence of intellectual abilities, which is also confirmed by pour results in
situational basketball motor abilities which required much higher level of coordination, that
is, cognitive functioning.
The following Table 3 presents univarite significance of differences in arithmetic means
of each variable in morphological, motor and situational basketball motor space between the
boys with special needs of 11 to 13 and 14 to 16 years of age:
Table 3: Univariate significance of differences in arithmetic means of parameters of
morphological characteristics, motor and situational basketball motor abilities between the
boys with special needs of 11 to 13 and 14 to 16 years of age
ANOVA
N Mean
Std.
Deviat. F Sig.
Body height Between Groups 60 151.7033 12.74401 59.184 .000
Within Groups 60 167.9643 10.27901
Total 120 159.8338 14.12686
47
Leg length Between Groups 60 85.3172 10.03970 13.881 .000
Within Groups 60 91.8583 9.17307
Total 120 88.5878 10.12324
Arm length Between Groups 60 70.8733 7.32263 8.402 .004
Within Groups 60 74.8900 7.84843
Total 120 72.8817 7.82257
Body mass Between Groups 60 45.9083 9.50380 30.303 .000
Within Groups 60 55.1150 8.80385
Total 120 50.5117 10.22636
Maximal forearm
girth
Between Groups 60 18.9650 1.75700 .432 .512
Within Groups 60 19.1767 1.76974
Total 120 19.0708 1.75917
Upper leg girth Between Groups 60 21.2450 2.51048 3.377 .069
Within Groups 60 22.1450 2.84435
Total 120 21.6950 2.70927
Chest girth Between Groups 60 87.3018 9.09034 .134 .715
Within Groups 60 87.9005 8.82233
Total 120 87.6012 8.92469
Arm plate
tapping
Between Groups 60 16.6333 4.47580 48.934 .000
Within Groups 60 22.7000 5.00948
Total 120 19.6667 5.62607
Foot tapping Between Groups 60 8.5667 2.43816 49.855 .000
Within Groups 60 11.8000 2.57629
Total 120 10.1833 2.97887
Sit and reach on
bench
Between Groups 60 35.5500 9.64176 .223 .637
Within Groups 60 34.7000 10.06302
Total 120 35.1250 9.82243
Standing broad
jump
Between Groups 60 148.9667 40.89008 .009 .925
Within Groups 60 149.6667 39.97697
Total
120 149.3167 40.26738
60 meters dash Between Groups 60 12.4250 3.60393 5.512 .021
Within Groups 60 13.9783 3.64385
Total 120 13.2017 3.69201
Medicine ball
throw
Between Groups 60 3.6083 1.38421 18.119 .000
Within Groups 60 4.5417 .98416
Total 120 4.0750 1.28444
Bent arm hang Between Groups 60 30.6863 14.83177 .138 .711
Within Groups 60 31.8033 17.93737
Total 120 31.2448 16.39828
30 sec sit ups Between Groups 60 14.0667 4.41441 .237 .627
48
Within Groups 60 13.6667 4.58689
Total 120 13.8667 4.48702
30 sec push ups Between Groups 60 10.8833 5.53905 .002 .963
Within Groups 60 10.9333 6.10325
Total 120 10.9083 5.80350
Slalom and
double step with
shot
Between Groups 60 1.9833 1.64153 .000 1.000
Within Groups 60 1.9833 1.64153
Total 120 1.9833 1.63462
Throw and catch
the ball against
the wall cross
hand
Between Groups 60 1.1000 1.17459 .915 .341
Within Groups 60 .9000 1.11538
Total 120 1.0000 1.14496
Leading jump
shot
Between Groups 60 2.0667 1.63507 .157 .693
Within Groups 60 2.1833 1.58907
Total 120 2.1250 1.60651
Free throw Between Groups 60 1.2500 1.15897 .025 .875
Within Groups 60 1.2833 1.16578
Total 120 1.2667 1.15761
When observing the significance of F-test in each variable, we can see that out of total
20 applied variables only 8 have statistically significant difference between two groups
formed in this way. Out of the said number of variables with statistically significant
difference, five variables are from morphological space, and only three from motor space. The
differences in morphological space are expressed in the longitudinal dimensionality and the
body mass, and in motor space, they are expressed in the velocity of alternating movements,
running velocity and explosive strength of arms and shoulder girdle. Thus, this confirms
previous conclusion and which says that the groups of boys with special needs, in many – and
in particular motor abilities, had very similar results, that is, that the visible development was
expressed by the age of 14, from which moment it was replaced with stagnation or very poor
development. The said reasons indicate that the adaptation abilities, particularly consolidation
of the neuromuscular process, are significantly reduced in puberty and later stages of puberty.
Insignificant differences in specific coordination and accuracy assessment tests confirm poor
adaptability of neuromuscular processes which are closely related to cognitive factors.
Comparing all values, particularly the mean ones, in groups of boys of 11 - 13 years of age
and groups of 14 - 16 years of age, we established that the most turbulent changes were
manifested in morphological measures, which certainly represents normal biological
development in these periods of ontogenetic development. Morphological changes came as a
result of normal biological development and no deviations were observed in that segment. As
for the motor abilities, the only significant difference in arithmetic means can be seen in arm
plate tapping which assesses the velocity of alternating movements. In other motor and
basketball situational motor abilities, the difference was by far less minor in mean values
between the formed groups. In some activities, mean values were even lower, such as in 60 m
dash and sit-and-reach, in some activities the results were almost the same, like in 30 sec push
ups, as in all specific basketball motor abilities. Minor differences were established in other
applied motor abilities. Generally speaking, the results in all motor abilities fall behind as
compared to population of normal boys (boys of standard population) of the same age,
49
particularly in coordination and accuracy tests, which are most related to cognitive factor in
which the boys with light mental disability had lower degree of functioning.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The results of the study indicate that in boys of this age, particularly after the age of
13, mechanisms connected with cognitive processing are increasingly being involved. This, at
the same time, could mean that specific moving basketball structures could positively
stimulate cognitive processes, which is certainly of a great importance for this kind of
stimulation of persons with mental disabilities. It seems that this period is very significant for
this kind of stimulation of boys with special needs. Basketball situational moving structures,
that is, technical elements, like specific coordination, may have positive effects on sensory
integrations and better functioning of cognitive processes, and in that way mitigate or reduce
the difference between the boys with special needs and the students of standard population
without mental, that is, intellectual disability.
Taking the subject and objectives of the study as the starting point, and which refer to
population of boys with special needs aged between 11 and 16 years of age, the obtained
results may be used in solving of theoretical and practical problems which will make the work
of physical education teachers in special schools much easier, particularly from the aspect of
realization of curriculum of vocational physical education. One of the possible forms of
vocational physical education is engagement in basketball, especially when it is known that
the students with special needs attending special schools are very good at enduring physical
strain, particularly if it is not related to mental strain which is exhausting for them.
The study is also significant for wider scientific and professional public, and particular
significance of this research reflects in the fact that the obtained results provide exact
information on relations and differences in morphological, motor and basketball situational
motor space in students with special needs of various age, and that the said information can be
used for practical pedagogical work with students.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ángyán, L., Téczely, T., Zalay, Z., & Karsai, I. (2003). Relationship of
anthropometrical, physiological and motor attributes to sport-specific skills.
Acta Physiologica Hungarica, 90(3), 225-231
2. Bala, G. (1981). Struktura i razvoj morfoloških i motoričkih dimenzija dece
SAP Vojvodine, Novi Sad: Institut fizičke kulture Fakulteta fizičke kulture
[Structure and development of motor dimensions in children of SAP
Vojvodina, Novi Sad: The Institute for Physical Education of the Faculty of
Physical Education]
3. Blašković, M., Milanović, D., Matković, B. (1982). Analiza pouzdanosti i
faktorske valjanosti situaciono - motoričkih testova u košarci. Kineziologija,
14(5), 131-147 [Analysis of reliability and factor validity in situational motor
basketball tests. Kinesiology, 14(5), 131-147]
4. Francis, R., & Rarick G. (1960). Motor Characteristics of the Mentally
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osnovnoškolskog uzrasta, Beograd: Republički zavod za sport [Physical
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Republic Institute for Sports].
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6. Krsmanović, C. (2008). Procijena posturalnog statusa djevojčica polaznica
škole košarke, Sport i zdravlje, 1, 21-24 [Assessment of postural status in girls
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motoričkih sposobnosti sa situaciono motoričkim sposobnostima košarkaša,
Sport i zdravlje, 2, 27-30 [Canonical relations of morphological characteristics
with situational and motor abilities of basketball players, Sport and health, 2,
27-30].
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Jugoslavije i komparativna analiza u odnosu na uzrast. Godišnjak Fakulteta
sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, 11, 97-108 [Cognitive abilities of the best young
basketball players of Yugoslavia and comparative analysis with regard to age.
The Yearbook of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, 11, 97-108].
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motoričke sposobnosti djece sa posebnim potrebama (neobjavljena doktorska
disertacija). Istočno Sarajevo: Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Univerzitet
u Istočnom Sarajevu [The efficiency of adoption of basketball elements with
regard to motor abilities in children with special needs (unpublished Doctoral
Dissertation). East Sarajevo: The Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, the
University of East Sarajevo].
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51
Scientific Work Review SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 52-57
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Sreten Marković1, Miloš Mitov
2, Senad Čoković
3
1Vocational Trade school in Nis, Serbia
2Elementary School 8th October, Vlasotince, Serbia
3Elementary school Grbavica 1, Sarajevo
UDK 796.015.2
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401052M
INDIVIDUALIZATION OF PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
OF TRAINING WORK WITH SPORTSMEN
SUMMARY
Efficiency of sportsmen is determined by the level and structure of large number of
characteristics and knowledge. Reliable and valid measuring instruments (tests) for the
assessment of functional and motor abilities are used in practice. Dijagnosing the status of
the preparedness sportsmen planers is one of the prereguisites of a successful management of
their process. It is necessary to compare the model values of the top sportsmen and the test
values of sportsmen who are likely to make the team. On the basis of the obtained values it is
possible to design programmes for the development of those abilities in wich the potential
sportsmen have achived significanty lower value than those comprised in the characteristics
model of top sportsmen.
Key words: diagnosis, planning, programming, sportsmen, individualization
INTRODUCTION
Radi što objektivnijeg planiranja i programiranja, a time i sprovodjenja
individualizacije u trenažnom procesu na razvoj fizičkih sposobnosti, neophodna je dijagnoza
antropoloških obeležja sportista, posebno morfoloških karakteristika, motoričkih,
funkcionalnih i situaciono motoričkih sposobnosti, kao i usvojenost tehničko taktičkih znanja.
Ovakvim pristupom stiče se uvid u aktuelno stanje, da bi se izvršio izbor optimalnih sredstava
telesnih vežbi, metodičkih formi i oblika rada i utvrdio obim i intenzitet opterećenja.
Važno je da da se u procesu trenažnog rada na razvoj fizićkih sposobnosti sa mladim
sportistima primenjuju odgovarajući naučni postupci za utvrđivanje strukture dimenzija,
njihovih relacija i razvojnih zakonitosti koje omogućuju efikasnu kontrolu rada za praćenje
stanja i promena antropoloških obeležja primenom sredstva telesnih vežbi (Pržulj, 2007).
High sports results, at the present level of development of sports preparation, come as
a consequence of programmed training, competition and recovery based on scientific findings.
52
Different scientific disciplines (biomechanics, physiology, and kinesiology) are
attempting to determine the mechanisms and abilities which are of utmost importance for
sports activity in general as well as for each individual sport and sport discipline. One of the
ways in which scientists in the field of physical culture can participate in the creation of top
results is, surely, individualization of planning and programming of training work with
sportsmen. For the training process individualization it is of special importance to diagnose
the training-ness that enables the measurement of basic and specific abilities that are assumed
to be of importance for success in a particular sport (Pržulj, 2012).
Accordingly, the aim of the paper is to make trainers, sportsmen and other subjects
from the field of physical culture acquainted with the current knowledge about the methods
and principles of work individualization in the training process. This knowledge should be
considered in the context of assisting the trainers in creating the process of exercises for
enhancing the training quality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALIZED PLANNING AND
TRAINING WORK PROGRAMMING
The level and dynamics of planned sports results can be achieved only by planned and
programmed training.
The training planning is a complex managing action used to define objectives and
tasks of the training process, time cycles for their achievement and the needed technical,
material and staff conditions. The planning must be based on the real and feasible
assumptions and it must be adapted to the individual abilities of sportsmen and teams.
The training programming is a complex managing action in which, on the bases of the
defined plan elements, the procedures comprising information about means, loads and
methods of the training work and competition are determined. The programming is used for
making distribution of the chosen means of physical exercises suitable to be applied in
particular cycles of the sports activity compatible with individual abilities and characteristics
of sportsmen and the conditions in which the sports preparation is carried out.
For individualized planning and programming of the training work it is essential to
know good and bad sides of each individual sportsman’s preparation. These data are obtained
by comparing individual characteristics of the examined sportsmen with the model
characteristics of the top sportsmen. The successful training process can only be the one in
which the sportsman achieves the level of sports preparation identical or close to the model
characteristics of the best sportsmen.
53
Table 1. Forms of Planning and Programming of the Training Work with Respect to the
Duration of the Sports Preparation Cycle (Milanović, 2007).
A long-term planning of the training work process refers to the time of the overall
sports career and to the two-Olympic cycles’ interval (period of eight years).
A middle-term planning and programming of the training process refers to the
Olympic cycle. The principles of the training structure in the Olympic cycle are:
1. in the first two years the extended preparation cycles are carried out while the
training is used for keeping up the basic functional-motoric preparation of sportsmen as well
as to perfect the technical and tactic knowledge,
2. in the third year the most dominant training structure and competition system
is that of the Olympic year while the model of trainings and competitions is also tested, and,
3. the fourth year is devoted to the model’s checking with possible corrections;
this provides for the highest level of sports achievements at the Olympic competition.
A short-term planning and training programming refers to a year or half-year training
cycle.
The current planning and programming provide for functional management of the
cumulative training effects while ensuring, at the same time, the desired rhythm of
development of sports form and adaptation process that can both guarantee a high level of
sports results in the competition period.
The operational planning and programming (microcycle, training day and individual
training) ensure the making of the detailed plan of the training work, namely:
1.in the microcycle, what has to be determined is the number of training days, of
individual trainings and of hours of training work as well as contents, load and methods of
trainings on particular days and trainings,
LONG- TERM
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
(PERSPECTIVELY)
SPORTS CAREER
TWO-OLYMPICS CYCLE
MIDDLE-TERM
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
OLYMPIC CYCLE
TWO-YEAR CYCLE
SHORT-TERM
PLANNING ABND PROGRAMMING
A YEAR MACROCYCLE
HALF-YEAR MACROCYCLE
CURRENT
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
MID-CYCLE PERIOD
MID-CYCLE PHASE
OPERATIONAL
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
MICROCYCLE
INDIDžVIUL TRAINING
TRAINING DAY
54
2.the training day may include many individual trainings of different target orientation
and different load, and,
3.individual training as the basic training unit realizes immediate, that is, instant
effects in its inner work structure (introductory, preparation, main and final parts).
DIAGNOSTIS OF SPORTSMEN’S ABILITIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE TRAINING WORK
Training process with sportsmen represents organized influence on anthropological
marks and level increasing of adoption and improving of motorical knowledge under direct
trainers leading and sportsmen cooperation.
One of the main conditions for increasing of training work process is that planning,
programming, leading and working control is based on scientific research results. In the aim
of work optimization in training process, they should know about actual state of capabilities
and characteristics and motorical knowledge of sportsmen1. For that purpose, we use
diagnosis acts for establishing the sportsmen beginning state, valorization of achieved effects
in some working cycles and for planning and programming of further training process course.
Diagnosis in a training process includes methods which are used for establishing of
individual sportsmen characteristics through testing and measuring of anthropological marks
dimensions.
In the area of anthropological marks we have to have the cooperation of a trainer and
psychologist in analysis of cognitive abilities and conative characteristics. For those two
segments there are different measure instruments with which we could successfully estimate
important functions and modes of behaving. Information about that area is important for a
trainer and others who take care of education, especially if it is all about younger sportsmen.
However, what a trainer should measure, tests and analyze refers to anthropological,
motorical and functional marks of sportsmen. The bigger part of anthropological measures
and tests from those areas can also be established by sportsmen themselves and in that way
we can save our time. It is especially useful if sportsmen can constantly control the state of
some of their marks and analyze the changes. To make this true, sportsmen should know
which anthropological marks define some measures and tests, to know about norms and
criterion for each mark, to make this possible have to know how work on a computer like
bringing in data and counting the individual position compared to some wanted final state
(Željaskov, 2003; Malacko, 2002).
During the one year training work there is a dynamic process of body exercise
influence on anthropological marks changes of sportsmen and motorical knowledge. Most
authors emphasis (Bala, 1991) that right establishing of training work effects is needed so that
a trainer can have reliable information about capability state and characteristics and motorical
knowledge of sportsmen. According to that, it is needed to follow lecture’s effects constantly
by using diagnostically methods through the realizations of a training process. The most
convenient thing is that 4 kinds of sportsmen state are established in physical education
lectures by diagnoses (Mrkovic, 1997):
55
1. Initial state refers to sportsmen state directly before a training work. This state
should be established in area of measure and variables with which the wanted final state is
described and represents programming basics of further work.
2.Transitional or control state of sportsmen is important for establishing the work
efficiency and correction of further exercises process. The connection of training work can be
done by increasing the intensity, step by step, by connection of chosen methods and chosen
training means. In fact, it is needed to change the means and methods which can’t disturb
homeostasis of those functions we want to develop.
3. Final state of sportsmen represents the measure of parameters between initial state
and the same parameters at the end of final teaching treatment. In the range of final state, the
first shape is so called ideal final state which is hard to achieve, especially in activities in
which results are close to the border of human abilities. The second shape is wanted final state
that represents the estimate between the some marks of initial and final state so that changes
of some characteristics capabilities and motorical knowledge can be established.
4. Real final state is the one achieved at the end of training treatment and represent the
basic thing for analysis of work effects and programming of further training work.
One of the main conditions for achieving success in training work is diagnoses of
capabilities and characteristics and motorical knowledge, respectively currently state in which
sportsmen are at the beginning of training work. Diagnosis, respectively establishing the state
of anthropological marks, represents the first step in creating, leading and control of training
process.
According to diagnostic size of sportsmen, we can make a plan and working program
and establish means, loads and methods which correspond to individual characteristics of
sportsmen and goals which we want to fulfill in each phase of training work.
CONCLUSION
For effective individual planning and programming of the training work with sportsmen,
the following conditions have to be realized first:
1. Professional aptitude of the trainer and other experts involved in the work with
sportsmen,
2. Reliable determination of the initial state of abilities, characteristics and technical
knowledge of sportsmen or sports team,
3. Precise determination of the desired final state in accordance with the requirements of
the sports activity and real possibilities to achieve it in the defined time period, and,
4. Permanent analysis of the programs and their correction regarding the feed-back
information about the achieved transitional states.
REFERENCES
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Fakultet fizičke kulture Univerziteta u Novom Sadu (OOUR Institut fizičke kulture.
56
2. Hajmer, S. & Sentlija, D. (1997). Some of spyroergometrics values of sportsmen in
their condition estimate, Works collection, Zagreb: Zagreb’s fair of sports.
3. Malacko, J. (2002). Sportski trening. Novi Sad: Fakultet fizičke kulture.
4. Metvejev. L.P. (2000). Osnovni suvremenog sistema sportivnoj trenirovki. Moskva: FIS.
5. Milanović, D. (2007): Teorija treninga, Priručnik za studente sveučilišnog studija. Zagreb:
Kineziološki fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
6. Momirovic, K., Višnjic, N., Horga. S., Bujanovic, R. & Mejovsek, M. (1970). Basic
parameters of reliability of some motorical tests measuring, Belgrade: Physical
culture, No.1-3.
7. Pržulj, D. (2007): Kondiciona priprema sportista, Uđbenik. Pale: Fakultet fizičke kulture.
8. Pržulj, D. (2012) Dijagnostika antropoloških obeležja i treniranosti sportista, Udžbenik. Pale:
Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta.
9. Zeljaskov, S. (2003). Theory and methodology of durability training, Condition
preparation, Works collection, Zagreb: Faculty of kinesiology education in Zagreb.
57
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 57-64
Orginal scientific paper
Vladan Marković1, Goran Pasic
2 Dejan Kulundzic3
1College of Sports and Health, Belgrade
2Faculty of Physical Education and Sports , University of Banja Luka
3PS”Bratstvo” Novi Pazar – Srbija
UDK 797.212.2
796.032.2(38 Atina)
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401057M
ANALYSIS OF A SWIMMING STROKE IN THE 100M BREASTSTROKE
SWIMMING EVENT IN ATHENS IN 2004
Summary
In comparison with other swimming techniques, the breaststroke is one of the most demanding
techniques to train concerning the coordination of movement. In order to be successful while
competing, swimmers work on and specialize their skills early on in the pioneer category. During the
training and developing of the breaststroke technique, focus is directed towards legwork, stroke
propulsion, flexibility, as well as the coordinating of leg and arms movements. The breaststroke is the
slowest swimming technique, as during the carrying out of the arms and legs movements, the
swimmer’s body creates the greatest resistance. This paper analyzes the results achieved at the
Olympic Games in 2004 in Athens. The analysis of the 100m breaststroke event encompasses the
following parameters: final results time, time of start reaction, time for 15 and 50 meters, flip turn
time (15 meters), and the time for the last 5 meters. Along with this, the following was also analyzed:
the 25m breaststroke frequency, a further 25m breaststroke frequency, as well as the breaststroke
frequency of the first and last 25 meters after the flip turn. Except for the frequency, the following
were also assessed: breaststroke length of the first 25 meters, as well as the 25 meters to the flip turn,
25 meters after the flip turn and 25 meters to the finish line.
Key words: swimming, breaststroke, frequency, amplitude, Olympic Games
INTRODUCTION
It is considered that the progressing of the body through water by a synchronized,
symmetrical movement of the arms and legs is the oldest method of swimming. Most theorists
consider that all the other swimming techniques have developed from the breaststroke, so it is
not unusual to say that the breaststroke technique is the “mother” of all swimming techniques.
From its very introduction into swim competitions, the breaststroke technique experienced
various technical changes in the aim of improving swimming speed. FINA (the International
Swimming Federation) in 1908 brought strict technical regulations for breaststroke
swimming: both hands are moved at the same time and extended forward underwater; the
swimmer leans on the chest; the legs are bent in the knees so that the knees are spread apart,
58
then the water is pushed forward by the feet in eversion and the calves make an arc while the
feet come together. Today there are a great number of variants or styles of the breaststroke technique but they can
be classified as the following: the flat (linear breaststroke) technique and the wave-style (with
emphasized body movements) which occurred as an imitation of the body oscillations during
the dolphin kick.
If viewed hydro-dynamically (in other words, streamline), the breaststroke technique
is different from the other techniques, as moving has no continuity of arm work propulsion
coordinated with simultaneous leg work. Frontal resistance is additionally increased due to a
greater incursion angle - during breath intake and after a propulsive stroke. Thereby, the
breaststroke technique is considered more complex in the sense of coordination, and thereby
the slowest swimming method. The proportion of expedient effort and energy expenditure
(swimming efficiency) with swimmers using the breaststroke technique amounts to 4-6%, and
double that with the crawl technique.
METHOD
Swimming with a proper breaststroke technique is determined by the basic position of
the chest, arm and leg propulsion, gliding and breathing. The movements of the arms and legs
must be synchronized and simultaneous (the left and right arm) and carried out on a horizontal
plane with no alternative movements. One cycle contains the following: one breaststroke with
the arms and one movement with the legs, alternatively.
By lifting the FINA ban on underwater pull-down, there occurs a pulling down of the
swimmer in the water during the stage of gliding in a streamlined position, and the pivot of
the body starts to undulate and uses a wave motion on the water surface, which largely
reduces resistance during movement.
The hands carry out the arms propulsion and push forward the water to below the
chest in the active part of the breaststroke, and in the passive part, they reinstate the starting
position above or underwater. The elbows are underwater in the passive part of the
breaststroke.
As a consequence of the diverse anthropological build of the swimmers and the
method of overcoming the resistance of the water and carrying out propulsion, there have
appeared various styles of the breaststroke technique which are within the framework of the
valid regulations, all having the aim to improve results.
The basic position of the body is almost streamlined in regards to the water surface.
The hips and the legs are slightly bent in order to create conditions for an efficient propulsion
of legwork. The cranial part of the body lies supine on the surface of the water, while the
shoulders and head are the highest parts of the body. The angle of the body and the water
surface changes, depending on the stage of movement and a constant oscillating of the body
can be noticed.
A well-timed immersion of the head and a stretching of the arms contributes to a
frontal resistance during the moving of the swimmer carrying out the breaststroke.
Leg work In the breaststroke technique, the legwork propulsion is more dominant than the arm
movements, while the legwork can be divided into three stages: pulling up the feet towards
the posterior, eversion of the feet and the thrust.
The stage of pulling up the feet towards the posterior: the initial position is the
streamlined position, and the feet are pulled up towards the posterior by bending the knees
and thighs towards the back in the endeavor to diminish the occurring of the largest frontal
resistance during the retropulsive stage of the legwork.
59
The preparatory stage (eversion of the feet): the second stage is the preparation for
the thrust, in such a way that after flexing the knees, the feet are turned sideways (eversion).
The knees are then turned inwards and separated by 15-35 cm, and the feet are entirely turned
aside. It is very important for the feet to plunge into still water, in order to secure a more
efficient thrust in the next stage.
The thrust stage: the third stage is the propulsive stage and is made up of a strong
movement (a thrust) with the feet. During this movement, the calves are in a half-circle and
the feet come together while propulsion is ended with a backward and downward movement
which extends the propulsive effect of the legwork.
The arm movements The arm movements in the breaststroke technique can be divided into two basic
stages: propulsive stage (active stage) and the retropulsive stage (preparatory stage).
The propulsive stage is the stage of the active part of the breaststroke. The position
of the body after the beginning and the turn endeavors to be as streamlined as possible (“like a
torpedo”). The initial position – the beginning of the arm stroke; the arms are in an outsweep
in the shape of a letter V, lying horizontally with the shoulders. This is followed by an
insweep, and at the end the hands come together with facing palms in front of the chest. The
entire arm stroke starts slowly, increases speed to the peak arm movement speed in the
insweep phase, and slows down again during recovery. The goal is to produce maximum
thrust during the insweep phase, and minimum drag during the recovery phase.
It is very important that the hands (the palms) are the first to “attack” the water, when
the hands point down and push the water backwards. The elbows stay in the horizontal plane
and the hands push back until they lie roughly vertical with the shoulders. At the end of the
insweep, the hands come together with facing palms in front of the chest and the elbows are at
the side at the body.
In the stage of arms propulsion, there is a retropulsive leg movement, a flexing of the
knee joint and a preparation for a strong kick, while the body moves forward (slides) due to
an innerving of the propulsive arms stage.
The retropulsive stage (preparatory) is the response stage of the stroke. It starts after
the elbows reach the plane of the shoulders, as the arms and hands return to the initial position
towards the water surface. The head and the shoulders “narrow down” and entry into the
water is shallower. This is very important due to the lessening of the frontal resistance and
waves in order to maintain body movement, as then the legs are found in the propulsive stage.
During the outsweep, the head is underwater which contributes to reducing the frontal
resistance during movement, a more efficient gliding and a better preparation for a new
breaststroke.
Coordination of legwork and arm movements
The main principle of swimming is that without good coordination there is no efficient
swimming technique. This is especially valid for the breaststroke technique, as without good
coordination of the arms and legs and proper breathing, there is no efficient breaststroke, and
thus also no good results.
The first condition of good coordination is synchronizing the work of the arms and
legs with breathing. The first stage starts with pulled up heels towards the posterior, which at
the same time brings up the head with the aim of taking in air. In the second stage, the arms
with the ending of propulsion are below the chest and are returned to the initial position near
the water surface with the head being lowered and the body streamlined, which is when the
legs thrust at the water and help the body in the stage of gliding.
60
The gliding position of the body creates conditions for a better water flow around
the body of the swimmer. Gliding is of a huge relevance for the proper carrying out
(coordination) of the breaststroke technique, in the sense of learning and improving the
technique as well as learning the elements (the start, turn, underwater swimming). Along with
coordination, there should also be a focus on the best possible hydrodynamic body position
during swimming. The stage of sliding-gliding cannot be overlong and too deep in order not
to lose the speed of the body obtained with propulsion during swimming.
Underwater breaststroke are the movements with which the swimmer starts a race
after a start jump or turn.
Due to complexity, we can classify this into three stages:
Stage 1: It starts with the body entering the water. The body takes on a hydro-dynamic
position (streamline) and enters the stage of sliding-gliding. The speed of the body moving is
the highest in this stage (after the start or pushing off after the turn) but is gradually reduced,
which is caused by an increase of the frontal resistance.
Stage 2: In order for the body not to halt due to water resistance, there are
asymmetrical, synchronous arm movements from the streamline position thrown back. The
arms are bent in the elbows in order for the thrust to be stronger and quicker, and for the
hands to be closer to the hips. The body in that position carries out the second stage of sliding-
gliding while the speed gradually decreases.
Stage 3: At the most optimal moment (until the speed is not overly reduced) the
classical breaststroke starts by stretching out the arms and pulling up the feet towards the
posterior and by bending the knees. The thrust of the body underwater is reduced and after a
strong kick, the arms are extended straight forward and come out to the surface in the aim of
breathing which marks the beginning of the first overwater breaststroke.
RESULTS WITH DISCUSSION
Analysis of competition parameters in the 100 m breaststroke event at the Olympic
Games in Athens in 2004.
Table 1. Analysis of competition parameters in the 100m breaststroke time event at the
Olympic Games in Athens in 2004.
100m BREASTSTROKE MEN
Last Name, First Name Kosuke Brendan Hugues Mark Vladislav James Daren Oleg Mladen
Kitajima Hansen Duboscq Gandloff Polyakov Gipson Mew Lisogor Tepavčević
JPN USA FRA USA RUS GBR GBR UKR SCG
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Final time (sec.) 60.08 60.01 60.88 61.17 61.34 61.07 60.83 61.07 63.34 Start reaction time .72 .70 .73 .72 .80 .77 .79 .80 .86
Time for 15m 6.56 6.92 6.80 6.80 6.84 6.96 7.00 6.88 7.26 Time for first 50m 28.26 28.27 28.25 29.14 28.87 28.34 28.48 28.61 29.45
Turn time (15m) 8.44 8.32 8.68 8.68 8.40 8.04 8.32 8.12 9.38
Time for the last 5m 3.09 3.14 3.20 3.07 3.16 3.32 3.14 3.11 3.21
Tabela 2, Analysis of competition parameters in the 100 m breaststroke frequency event
at the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004.
100m BREASTSTROKE MEN
Last Name, First Name Kosuke Brendan Hugues Mark Vladislav James Daren Oleg Mladen
Kitajima Hansen Duboscq Gandloff Polyakov Gipson Mew Lisogor Tepavčevic
JPN USA FRA USA RUS GBR GBR UKR SCG
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
61
Breast stroke frequency for 25m 50.92 53.57 34.88 49.18 46.51 48.70 49.59 49.83 - Breaststroke frequency
of the second 25m 47.11 51.63 53.29 43.64 47.04 46.47 45.04 47.06 -
Breaststroke frequency
of the third 25m 49.84 50.90 52.69 51.23 50.72 48.22 49.90 45.11 - Breaststroke frequency
of the fourth 25m 52.09 47.48 52.55 50.13 53.13 49.28 53.41 50.83 -
Total breaststroke frequency 49.90 50.89 53.35 46.05 49.35 48.16 49.48 48.21
46.50
Tabela 3, Analysis of competition parameters in the 100 m breaststroke length event at
the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004.
100m BREASTSTROKE MEN
Last Name, First Name Kosuke Brendan Hugues Mark Vladislav James Daren Oleg Mladen
Kitajima Hansen Duboscq Gandloff Polyakov Gipson Mew Lisogor
Tepavčević
JPN USA FRA USA RUS GBR GBR UKR SCG
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
__ Breaststroke length of the first 25m 1.89 1.84 1.75 1.98 2.04 2.01 2.00 1.94 _- Breaststroke length of the second 25m 2.06 1.83 1.83 2.13 1.99 2.06 2.10 1.99 -
Breaststroke length of the third 25m 1.82 1.75 1.70 1.72 1.73 1.80 1,74 1.93 - Breaststroke length of the fourth 25m 1.71 1.92 1.68 1.82 1.67 1.79 1.71 1.73 -
The total breaststroke length 1.87 1.83 1.74 2.00 1.85 1.91 1.88 1.89 1.99
The results analyses in Table 1-3 are the following: from swimming with the 100m
breaststroke technique at the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004 it can be concluded that the
results of the medalists and finalists are significantly equal and that the time difference is
small. There are many surprises which occur when it comes to medalists and thereby this
event is interesting for the public. Some of the greatest names come from the Hungarian
school (N. Rozsa and K. Guttler), American (N. Dibel, J. Linn, E. Moses and B. Hensen) and
the undisputed Japanese and double Olympic champion in Athens in 2004 and Peking in 2008
- K. Kitajima. Along with the evenly balanced results of the medalists, other analyzed
parameters have fairly standardized values; only an increased dispersion can be noticed with
the variables: start time (ST), reaction start time (RST), breaststroke frequency (BF),
breaststroke length (BL), swimming efficiency (SE), time for carrying out turn (TCOT), time
for carrying out finish (TCOF), anthropometric height (AH), anthropometric weight (AW). It
can be seen from this analysis that swimmers swim with an evenly balanced speed, and tactics
differ the most in carrying out the technical elements: time for carrying out the start (TCOS),
time for carrying out turn (TCOT) and finish time (FT). The difference in technique is
reflected in the dispersion of parameters: breaststroke frequency (BF), breaststroke length
(BL) and swimming efficiency (SE).
62
Table 4. Results regression analysis for 100m breaststroke swimming in 2004 in Athens
_____________________________________________________________
VARIABLES Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sign.
ß Std. Error Beta
____________ _____________________________________________________________________
Constaunt 82. 613 10. 756 7. 681 .000
__________________________________________________________________________________
TSS -30.009 2.772 -.789 -10.825 .000
__________________________________________________________________________________ SPD 2.635 1.425 .069 1.849 .070
____________________________________________________________________________________________ ST .027 1.09 .008 .251 .803
____________________________________________________________________________________________
TPD .311 .081 .245 3.847 .000 ____________________________________________________________________________________________
ST50 .108 .045 .061 2.376 .021
____________________________________________________________________________________________ BF .054 .031 .244 1.745 .087
____________________________________________________________________________________________
BL 1.548 1.385 .241 1.118 .269 ____________________________________________________________________________________________
SE -.125 .537 -.033 -.234 .816
____________________________________________________________________________________________ TCOT .169 .063 .080 2.702 .000
_______________________________________________________________________ _____________________
TCOF .101 .092 .027 1.099 .276
____________________________________________________________________________________________
A regression analysis of all the analyzed Olympic Game finalists of the 100m breaststroke
concluded the following: free swimming time (FST), 50m lap time (LP50), time of carrying
out turn (TCOT), while the following has a smaller significance on the result: the speed of
pure swimming (SPD), the time of start reaction (TSR), breaststroke frequency (BF) and
breaststroke length (BL). The parameters of swimming efficiency (SE), start time (ST) and
finish time (FT), the anthropometric height (AH) and weight (AW), have no significant
impact on the improving of the final result (Image 1). It can be concluded that with the 100m
breaststroke swimming technique, the finalists have the following: a shorter time of pure
swimming (with no impact from the start and turn), the reaction speed at the start and
swimming to 50 m, the speed of carrying out a turn, as well as more efficient swimming
techniques.
CONCLUSION
The breaststroke swimming technique is the technically most demanding skill, due to
the coordination of the propulsive movements of the arms, legs, the position of the head and
the body itself during movement.
Due to the complexity of this swim stroke technique, training and improving can last a
long time, even during an entire career. One should be patient, tolerant, persistent and wait for
the swimmer to form himself or herself psychologically and physically in order to give real
results. An overstated desire for quick success (by the parents of the coach) and chasing
results at any price can lead to errors during the proper forming of the breaststroke swimming
technique which later on makes it difficult to correct due to movement automatizing.
With a proper selection and a choice of swimmer based on anthropological traits,
genetic predispositions, talent, the desire to improve, and through proper training, it is
possible to achieve significant results with which young swimmers in the earliest pioneer
63
period, if they are motivated, and acquire self-confidence and a desire for better results and
success in their career.
The analyzed time segments in the breaststroke swimming technique at the Olympic
Games in 2004 in Athens of the finalists and medalists can serve for similar research, as well
as for comparing the same parameters in the training process and the work of future
competitors.
REFERENCES:
1. Ahmetović, Z., Matković, I. (1995). Teorija plivanja, Plivački savez Jugoslavije, Novi
Sad.
2. Counsilman, J. (1978). Nauka o plivanju. Sportska knjiga, Beograd.
3. Costill, D., Maglischo, E., Richerdson, A. (1992). Swimming, Blackwell Scientific
Publications LCD, Oxford.
4. Chatard. J., Maglischo E., Maglischo C., Collomp E. (1990): Swimming skill and
stroking characteristics of front crawl swimmers, Int J. Sports Med, 11(2): 156-161.
5. Jarić S. (1993). Biomehanika humane lokomocije sa osnovama biomehanike sporta,
FFK, Beograd.
6. Maglischo E., (1993): Swimming even faster, Mayfield publishing Company,
Mountain View, California, USA.
7. Marković, V. (2007): Analiza tehnike kraul stila. Nova sporta praksa 1-2, VSŠ,
Beograd.
8. Meškovska, N., Popovski, D., Tufekdžijevski, A. (1999): Struktura na nekoi
biomehanički parametri i relacija na uspešnosta vo disciplini 100 delfin-ženski na SP
vo Pert 1998 godina. Kongres na sportski pedagozi, Ohrid.
9. Zahorijević, А. (1991). Osnovi biomehanike plivanja, FFK, Novi Sad.
10. Toussant H., Knops W.,de Groot G.,Hollander P.(1990): The mechanical efficiency of
breastroke swimming, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22(3): 402-408.
64
Scientific Work Review SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 64-72
SCIENTIFIC WORK REVIEW
Master Mićo Mićić, Professor of Physical Education1
Prof. Nenad Lalić, PhD2
Мilan Lazić, Professor of Physical Education3
UDK 005.95/.96:796(497.6 Bijeljina)
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401064M
PROJECT MANAGMENT-A MODERN AND COMPLEX PROCESS OF
EVAPORATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT, RECREATION AND PLAY
IN THE CITY OF BIJELJINA
Abstract
Complex processing of the themes of this work and research contributes to understanding the
importance of supporting local government, through various projects, the development of
sports, games and recreation. In this context, the main objective of this paper is to present a
model of project management, as well as sophisticated and contemporary process of
managing the development of sports, games and recreation as an Example of Bijeljina and his
contribution to the development of the city, rural areas, gender equality, equality between
religious and national orientation and improving the quality of life of individuals in them.
We can say that the sport as a specific form of human activity, is also civilizing achievement,
and even the discovery around the world. Development of sport as an activity is based on
human needs and abilities, ethical and moral principles and social activity declared of special
interest, which is of great importance to the field of development of the city and in the field of
life of individuals in it.
Keywords: management, human resources, sports, sports management, project management,
organization, quality.
Introduction
Sport is anthropological socio - historical phenomenon and as such represents an important
link in improving the quality of life of children and youth in the city of Bijeljina, in addition
to investing in the development of professional sport including the development of sport for
all sports persons with disabilities, sports, military, police and sport rural sport. Sport for All
1 Mayor of Bijeljina.
2 Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, East Sarajevo.
3 Department of Social Services of the City of Bijeljina.
65
('is a competitive and recreational sport) is a special category of sporting activities and
includes sports for leisure, recreation and health promotion.
Following the intention of approaching the EU regulations, it is the sport of people with
disabilities given the importance it deserves. Given the fact that the unfortunate war a number
of citizens came out as invalid, and this population deserves adequate treatment, not only at
the level of the city administration, but also at higher levels of government.
Unequivocally demonstrated, based on research and past experience, we should, whenever
possible, to strive for a kind of connecting major sporting military, police and civilian events.
The army and police are extremely important for the environment in which to develop a sports
system. The physical activities of the military and police are implemented through physical
training, physical education, sport and recreation.
Economic development of the City of Bijeljina is unthinkable without the continuous
development of rural areas, and thus improve the quality of life of their inhabitants. Also, it is
undeniable that there is a great need for their children and young people to play, playing
sports and proving. All sporting activities that are carried out in rural areas of terminology are
called "rural sports".
Sport, recreation and play, children and the youth, to provide a fair and proper reason, and
develop thinking in creating solutions to problems. Through sport they develop friendship,
solidarity, teamwork, self-discipline, confidence and coping skills. Also, these activities help
children and youths to be faster and better develop into healthy adults.
1. Hypothesis, methodology and empirical data
The subject of the research is to create a model to improve the quality of life of children and
youth, and social status of citizens of the second and the third age of age, the venture of the
City Administration in the development projects of sports and recreational activities, sports
for persons with disabilities, military and police sports and rural sports.
The primary problem of the research is to examine the significance and contribution funding
recreational sports, sports for persons with disabilities, military and police sports and rural
sports by the City Administration. Also, to validate the basic hypothesis of this paper, through
this problem is of interest to examine the extent to which the development of this type of
sports activity contributes to improving the quality of life for children, youth and social status
of citizens of the second and the third age of age.
Based on the case studies and problems treated the problem in this paper, set the starting
hypothesis is that:
H1: The development of sport, recreation and play through the project contributes
management growing increase in the number of active recreational conditions for a
massive participation of people with disabilities in sport organizations, thus improving their
health and social status.
66
The main motive of the analysis of the problem: that the basic application of managerial
methods, examine a systematic approach to the improvement of sports, games and recreation,
also present, primarily, a model of its efficient and proper, legally regulated, organization and
leadership.
2. Project Management - a complex and modern process control certain business ventures
Each state, regions, cities, municipalities, local communities, institutions or organizations,
with the improvement of their activities, solve a variety of problems and tasks, both current
and long-term. The local government may be the introduction of new technologies, such as
information technology, construction of a new school building or playground, the introduction
of special programs to improve the quality of life for youth, improving conditions for massive
participation of people with disabilities in everyday activities, and the like. In the modern
working technologies such duties and tasks referred to projects being tackled on the basis of
organizational control concept is appointed as project management. He is, in fact, the
missing piece of the puzzle in order to create the right image and successfully completed the
project.
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project
activities in order to meet stakeholder (people who care about the success of the project
implementation) needs and expectations of the project. It can also be defined as a complex
and unique project that has been undertaken in the future in order to achieve the objectives
within the stipulated time and the projected costs.
The complexity of the project is expressed through:
1. Large volume,
2. Broad structure of the enterprise,
3. Long duration,
4. Huge budget,
5. Large numbers of participants in the organization,
6. Other parameters.
67
Figure 1: Project process
Discussion on project management means that, at the outset, to determine what is to project
because you cannot call every business project. The project is a venture that has the following
four characteristics4:
1. Content (coverage of a large number of tasks and activities);
2. Uniqueness (that are not routine activities rather than a set of tasks that cannot be repeated
and have a characteristic uniqueness of the organization or institution);
3. Complexity (the project was very complex undertaking whose preparation and
implementation, there are a number of elements that require special organization,
resources, and personnel);
4. Support (requires a complete focus and dedication of all people involved in the project).
4 Nenad Lalić, Menadžersko odlučivanje, Pedagoški fakultet Bijeljina, Bijeljina, 2010. godina
PROJECT
WISH,
NEEDS,
IDEAS
MECHANISMS:
1. People
2. Knowledge and
expertise,
3. Capital
4. Tools and techniques,
5. Technology ,
6. Organizations.
RESTRICTIONS:
financial, legal, moral and ethical,
ecological, sociological, political,
cultural, logical, temporal,
qualitative.
DESIRED
STATE:
Satisfaction of
desires, needs, and
ideas
68
In order to set goals successfully implemented, the project should be managed, and this relates
to the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities. Effectively
be managed if the project: clearly defined, achievable tasks, if the balance between the
conflicting requirements for achieving quality, cost and time required, if the plans are tailored
to interested participants and beneficiaries.
3. Developing a clear vision, and its transformation into a mission
Vision
Before any planning cycle, it is necessary to determine where and in what direction they need
to go in the future, to identify all the reasons why there is a sports organization, which is
engaged in the business, who needs them and for whom it is provided in its social, economic
and political environment.
Vision is what the sport dream even if at first glance it seems unattainable. The vision of the
sport is the product of all managers, coaches usually as a creative producer of ideas for future
developments.
Improve the quality of life of children and youth and the social status of citizens of second
and third age, persons with disabilities, members of the military and police, and to increase
the level of trust in their institutions, both in urban and in rural areas by investing the City
Administration, through project management in sport, play and recreation.
Mission
Vision cannot exist unless it reflects the purpose of the sport and sports organizations or
mission.
Mission refers to the very essence of being a sports organization or implementation of sports
and recreational activities, as their testimony, and a formal explanation of the nature of the
activities of the organization. Accuracy, validity and the essence of the mission should be to
control the spirit of sport.
Sport, play and recreation, the basis for reducing stress, improving health outcomes and
quality of life!
Aims and objectives of research
Based on the set of objects and a research problem set is basic and auxiliary objectives.
The main objective of the research was to determine the importance of recreation
development projects and games, sports persons with disabilities, military and police sports
and rural sports by the city administration on the one hand, and the extent to which the
implementation of these projects will contribute to improving the quality of life of children
and youth and social status population of the second and third age who live in the city and
rural areas on the other hand, the analysis of the current situation and in subjects, quality of
athletes and sports officials as well as representatives of sports organizations.
69
Research tasks:
1. Determine the level of funding the budget allocation for sports activities in the past five
years,
2. Determine the number of established sports school (football, basketball, etc.)
3. Determine the number of registered members of the youth facility,
4. Determine the number of organized sports tournaments, shows and events
5. Identify the level of investment in the reconstruction and construction of sports facilities,
6. Identify the creation of regulations in the field of sports and related regulations,
7. Identify measures for the implementation of the health care system and the anti-doping
athletes
8. To determine the level of equality of religious and national orientation,
9. To determine the treatment and attitude towards vocational training, sports officials and
obtaining the title of the institutions of higher education,
10. Identify all forms and levels of violence in sport
11. To determine the sex and gender,
12. To determine the level of representation of public media in sports.
Internal analysis
Power
Internal forces for the development of sport, recreation and play in the city of Bijeljina are:
• Human resources,
• General requirements for training and amateur competitions,
• Constantly growing number of members,
• Marketing and advertising campaign to promote healthy living
• Support the City Administration through financing activities of this type,
• Support the City Administration in developing and organizing the rural amateur sports clubs,
• Support the development of modern forms of recreation in the city,
• Wide variety of recreational activities,
• Improvement of social position,
• Habits of citizens to be active.
Weaknesses
70
Internal weaknesses in the development of sport, recreation and play in the city of Bijeljina
are:
• Lack of quality sports instructors
• Accelerated lifestyles with little free time.
External review
Opportunities
Opportunities for the development of sport, recreation and play in the city of Bijeljina are:
• The possibility of activation of all citizens, from children of the citizens of the third age of age,
• Equality of religious and national orientation,
• Strengthening the social status of citizens.
Threats
Threat to the development of sport, recreation and play in the City of Bijeljina are:
• The global economic crisis,
• Reducing market donors and sponsors
• Social networks
• Fast food causes obesity citizens
• Increased presence of narcotics.
4. Methods and results of research
A sample of 162 respondents (recreation, military personnel, police, rural sports and group of
people with disabilities), in the City of Bijeljina.
To validate the basic hypothesis defined in this paper, the results of the claim from the
questionnaire, presented by pie shape.
Presentation of the results of the above-mentioned method, the result of the fact that the
territory of the city of Bijeljina, there is no base of recreation, and therefore no representative
set. Because of all this, to confirm the above hypothesis, they could calculate the statistical
parameters.
71
Table 2: Claims of a questionnaire on the project management of the treatment of the
development of sport, recreation and play in the city of Bijeljina
CLAIM
YES
NO
COMMENT
Development of sport, recreation and play through
the project contributes management growing
increase in the number of active recreational
conditions for a massive participation of people with
disabilities in sport organizations and thus improving
their health and social status.
150 3 9
Graph 1. Development of sport, recreation and play through the project contributes
management growing increase in the number of active recreational conditions for
a massive participation of people with disabilities in sport organizations and thus
improving their health and social status.
Conclusion
Quality of life for everyone is very important, regardless of culture and country of origin. An
error that has taken root in our country is the identification of the quality of life with standard
of living. However, there are clear boundaries and differences between these two concepts, or
even not always connected.
Quality of life is a subjective feeling and evaluation, says more about how a person feels,
where and how you live. By contrast, living standards are "mathematical and statistical
nature" because they tend to be measurable various economic and social indicators, and are
therefore more related to consumption and income levels. Based on the foregoing, we
conclude that one can have high environmental standards, but have a poor quality of life, and
of course vice versa. This means that two people can have the same standard of living, but in
a different quality of life.
The results of this research are understood as the first step towards a comprehensive and
systematic study inclusion treatment issues.
References
1. Milan Tomić, Sportski menadžment, data status, Beograd, 2007. godina
2. Nenad Lalić, Menadžersko odlučivanje, Pedagoški fakultet Bijeljina, Bijeljina, 2010. godina
YES
NO
COMMENT
72
3. Nenad Lalić, Mladen Vilotijević, Danimir Mandić, Menadžment u obrazovanju, Pedagoški
fakultet Bijeljina, Bijeljina, 2011. godina
4. Džejms A.F. Stoner, R. Edvard Friman, Daniel R. Gilbert, Jr., Menadžment, Beograd, 1997.
godina
5. Ralph D. Stacej, Strateški menadžment i organizacijska dinamika, Mate d.o.o., Zagreb, 1997.
godina
6. Rajkov, M. (1996): Ljudska strana menadžmenta, Fakultet organizacionih nauka, Beograd.
7. Internet sajtovi:
a. www.sobijeljina.org
b. www.sh.wikipedia.org/projektni menadžer
c. www.savremenisport.com/menadžent-index.html
73
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 74-84
Orginal scientific paper
Goran Pasic 1, Milomir Trivun
2, Gorana Tesanovic
1
1Faculty of Physical Education and Sports , University of Banja Luka
2Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, University of East Sarajevo
UDK 797.122.3
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401074P
THE ASYMMETRY OF THE AND BACK PADDLER IN CANADIAN DOUBLE
SLALOM
Abstract
There is an apparent difference in the activation of muscle groups for front and back paddlers,
and since the upper limbs are the most active during a stroke, there is a need to establish the possible
asymmetry as a result of the diversity of morphological characteristics of the paddlers. The study was
conducted in order to determine the asymmetry as a consequence of the difference and the relation of
morphological characteristics of the Canadian doublepaddlers between the front and back paddlers
for optimal positioning. The study was conducted on 16 canoeists, participants of the European
Championship in kayak canoe slalom. Based on the variables of the morphological characteristics of
voluminosity, the index of relative asymmetry and the asymmetry coefficient for each variable of the
dominant and non-dominant hands was calculated. In this study it was shown that the asymmetry is
statistically significant in a number of variables in the front paddlers, but the student's t-test for
independent samples showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the index of
relative asymmetry and the asymmetry coefficient of the observed variables between front and back
paddlers. It is noted that in this sample, during positioning when paddling in the Canadian double
slalom discipline at the front or back position, there is almost no difference when talking about the
asymmetry of the upper extremities of the paddlers, and that in determining the position of the paddler
data may be used that is indicative of the level of functional and motor skills rather than the
morphological characteristics of the upper extremities.
Keywords: asymmetry, paddler positions, canoe slalom
INTRODUCTION
Every sporting discipline should, through movement technique structures and the
process of training technology (the scope and intensity of load), lead to the transformation of
the morphological characteristics of athletes. On the other hand, some morphological
characteristics are largely caused by genetics. For example, the dimensions of the skeleton
and muscle fiber types are substantially genetically determined, while the percentage of body
fat and muscle mass can be influenced to a greater extent. Laterality, which is the phenomena
of one of the body’s paired organs (arms, legs, ears, eyes, etc) functions being superior to the
other, is also genetic. (Touwen, 1972, according to: Valdez, 2003). The notion of laterality is
associated with the concepts of dominance and symmetry or asymmetry. The dominance of
74
the use of one limb has led to the fact that the majority of objects are now being designed for
right-handed people. Touwen (1972) explained the concept of dominance as a phenomenon of
the central nervous system, or CNS, where one side of the brain plays an important role in
specific functions, whereas he used the term lateral dominance to signify preferred use and
superior ability of one side of the body as compared to the other. (Valdez, 2003). The
dominance of one side in sport is also expressed and significant, and it presents itself in
various ways: athletes can be more precise with one hand; they may be able to throw further,
to pull, strike or push harder, to jump higher or further with one foot than with the other, etc.
The importance of dominance in sports is best seen in team sports where the athletes are
assigned to team positions based on dominance of a certain side (left wing, right-back, etc.),
special tactics for right and left hand dominance are taught and developed. (Carey et al., 2001;
Schorer et al., 2009; Bryson et al., 2013). According to the regulations of kayak canoe sports,
there is a mandatory rule for there to be an equal number of right and left upstream gates and
that the placement of other gates must be of equal difficulty for both dominant left and right
sides(ICF, 2013). In some sports, the dominance of one side is more prominent while in
others it does not have any significance. Comparative analyses have been performed of highly
unilateral sports such as tennis or cricket, as well as higly bilateral sports like swimming
(Grobbelaar, 2003; Shaw and Stock, 2009). Sports rules are made with reference to the
dominance of one side in an effort to provide equality of conditions for both sides, not just for
right-handed athletes. It would be interesting to see whether the absence of certain elements of
technique at the position of the back paddler leads to different morphological characteristics
than with the front paddler. The most interesting question is whether there are differences in
body composition, asymmetry of the left and right and to what extent they are present as a
result of many years of practicing this sport. Krstic (1996) defines laterality as a configuration
of function on one side of the body, dextrality(Right-handedness), sinistrality (left-
handedness), usually with the same dominant side of eyes, ears and legs. According to the
same source, on the basis of previous studies it is assumed that that 70% of the world
population is right-handed, 5% are left-handed and 25% are ambivalent. Miller and Brackman
Keane (1987) define the asymmetry as a "lack or absence of symmetry" and "difference in the
respective body parts or organs on opposite sides of the body that are usually equal."
According to Wolański (1955) there are three types of asymmetry: 1. morphological -
differences in the size and shape of the organs or body parts on the left or right side of the
body, 2.Functional - associated with the dominance of one hemisphere of the brain (usually
the left), 3. Dynamic - the difference between left and right limbs in terms of strength and
muscle elasticity and potency. The problem of asymmetry due to many years of practicing
certain sports fields is encountered in numerous studies: (BÍlý, Baláš, Martin, Cochrane,
Coufalová and Süss, 2012; Krawczyk, Sklad, Majle, and Jackiewicz, 1998; Lovell and Lauder
2001; Ducher, Jaffré, Arlettaz, Benhamou and Courteix 2005; Ducher, Courteix and Meme,
2005; Lucki and Nicolay 2007; Rogowski, Ducher, Brosseau and Hautier 2008; Sanchis-
Moysi et al. 2010).
Elite kayakers on average make up to 120 strokes per minute, with no significant
differences in the left and right side stroke. Canoeists make up to 80 strokes per minute, of
which up to 30 are cross-strokes. It is evident that the total time of the propulsion phase is
longer in canoes than in the kayak. (Hunter et al. 2008). To maintain direction,the canoeist
must use some of the techniques for directional stability. The difference in the techniques of
the front and rear paddler in Canadian double is that the front paddler has the same technique
as in the single canoe, which is, manoeuvring in the opposite direction of the paddling side by
using the cross-stroke and pulling with the paddle on opposite side, while the backpaddleris
paddling solely on hisside.
75
According to the data collected in the research of Hunter, Cochrane and Sachlikidis
(2008) in the slalom competition a canoeist’s highest percentage of stroke is devoted to the
basic stroke (67-71%), and if we add the forward directing stroke (9-14%), it can be seen that
the basic stroke technique needs the most attention. Since during cross-strokes, which account
for 30% of the total paddling, in front paddlers the front and side abdominal muscles and hip
flexors of the non-dominant side and the hand and shoulder and arm muscles of the dominant
side are activated, while in the backpaddlers anterior abdominal muscles, back muscles of the
dominant side, forearm flexors of the dominant hand, pectoral muscles and the forearm
extensor muscles of the non-dominant side are activated.Thus, differences in the activation of
muscle groups are evident between front and back paddlers, and since upper limbs are the
most active during a stroke, there is a need to establish the possible asymmetry as a result of
the diversity of morphological characteristics of the canoeists. This research was conducted in
order to determine the asymmetry as a result of the differences and relationships of the
morphological characteristics of the Canadian double canoe canoeists between the front and
back paddler for the purpose of optimal positioning of paddlers.
METHOD
Research Participants
The research participantsconsisted of canoeists, the participants of the European
Championship in kayak canoe slalom, held on the river Vrbas, in July 2011 in Banja Luka.
The study included 16 canoeists who underwent the training process during more than eight
years and who were paddling as eight crews. For the study they were classified into two
groups of eight senior paddlers (U23-aged to 23 years of age), participants in the European
Championship in 2011 in Banja Luka, a front paddler group and a back paddler group.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the participants
Group Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Age Front 20.0000 1.69031 .59761
Back 20.8750 1.55265 .54894
Height Front 176.1250 4.38952 1.55193
Back 177.5000 5.63154 1.99105
Weight Front 75.2375 8.71861 3.08249
Back 74.3000 6.34350 2.24277
Front paddlers were aged 20 ± 1.69 years, 176.13 ± 4:39 cm tall and weighed 75.23 ±
8.72kg, while the back paddlers were aged 20.86 ± 1.55 years, 177.50 ± 5.63 cm tall and
weighed 74.30 ± 6.34kg. The participants were national team members: Germany, Poland,
Slovakia and Slovenia. All were of normal health status, which was controlled through regular
medical check-ups, and with no injuries of the locomotorsystem. Seeing as how the
participants were professional athletes who secured a spot in their respective national
selections through test races, and that the selections in question are the most competitive
teams,this is a highly specific sample. Their information was gathered through questionnaire:
name, team, age, when did they start, disciplines (canoe / kayak), the dominant side (with
canoeists the dominant side is the draw arm side,and with the kayakers the hand rotating the
paddle).
Variables
To estimate the asymmetry / symmetry of the dominant and non-dominant hands of
athletes used the following variables:
76
– Body height
– Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand
– Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the non-dominant hand
– Circumference of contracted upper arm of the dominant hand
– Circumference of contracted upper arm of the non-dominant hand
– Percentage of body fat in dominant hand
– Percentage of body fat in non-dominant hand
– Predicted muscle mass of dominant hand
– Predicted muscle mass of non-dominant hand
– Index of relative asymmetry of the body (RIA)
– Coefficient of asymmetry (CA).
Description of measuring instruments and their use
The study was conducted in the morning, in the Office of Anthropomotoricsat the
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Banja Luka. The instruments were of standard
make and were calibrated. Because of the type of this data acquisition, subjects were dressed
in underwear with no socks, and were prepared according to the protocols of the method of
bioelectrical impedance.The measurements were done by a single measurer. Firstly, according
to the protocol and methods of measurement of anthropometric dimensions of the IBP, using
retractable metal strips with a gradation of 1mm, body height and girthwere measured, and
then the structure of the upper extremities was determined through the use of a body
composition analyzer, Tanita brand model BC-418 MA III.Before conducting measurements,
all participants were familiarized with the procedure. After the measurements, the data was
sorted, and in order to better estimate the possible differences between the front and back
paddlers, an index of relative asymmetry and asymmetry coefficient for each variable of the
the dominant and non-dominant hands was calculated.
For each pair of characteristics for the dominant and non-dominant sides an
Wolanski(acc. to Grobbelaar, 2003) index of relative asymmetry of the body (RIA) was
calculated by using the following formula:
RIA = 2 (XD - XND) / (XD + XND) x 100
where XD - variable on the dominant side, XND - variable on the non-dominant side.
If RIA+ then XD >XND , and if RIA - then XD < XND
The coefficient of asymmetry was also established by using the following formula
(Jastrjembskaia & Titov, 1999):
CA = (D – ND)/ D x 100
Where: CA = coefficient of asymmetry; D = dominant side of the body; ND = non-
dominant side of the body
Data Processing Methods
To show quantitative data, indicators of descriptive statistics were used, and to compare
the mean values of the observed characteristics of the dominant and non-dominant hands in
the front and back paddlers, respectively, the Student's t-test was used for paired samples. o
compare the difference in mean values of the asymmetry between the front and back paddlers
used the Student's t test for independent samples. In the Student's t-test for independent
samples, significant differences in the variances of the observed characteristics were tested
with the F test. For statistical analysis, and tabular and graphical presentation of results the
following software was used: SPSS 20.0 for Windows; MS Office Word 2010 and Microsoft
Office Excel 2010.
77
Results
From Table 1 it can be seen that the front paddlers were on average younger (20.00 g.,
20.88 g.), and shorter than the back paddlers (176.13 cm, 177.50 cm). Also the front paddlers
were heavier than the back paddlers (75.24 kg, 74.30 kg).
Table 2 Descriptive statistics of pairs of variables in dominant and non-dominant hands of
front paddlers Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair
1
Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the
dominant hand
33.7125 1.69152 .59804
Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the
non-dominant hand
33.1250 1.78786 .63210
Pair
2
Circumference of contracted upper arm of the
dominant hand
36.6000 1.99857 .70660
Circumference of contracted upper arm of the
non-dominant hand
35.1750 2.07140 .73235
Pair
3
%body fat in dominant hand 8.4750 4.10566 1.45157
%body fat in non-dominant hand 9.3250 4.31269 1.52477
Pair
4
Predicted muscle mass of dominant hand 4.1625 .44701 .15804
Predicted muscle mass of non-dominant hand 4.0375 .39256 .13879
Table 3: Student's t-test for front paddlers
Paired Differences t
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
95%
Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pair
1
Circumference of outstretched
upper arm of the dominant hand-
Circumference of outstretched
upper arm of the non-dominant
hand
.58750 .46733 .16522 .19681 .97819 3.556 7 .009
Pair
2
Circumference of contracted upper
arm of the dominant hand-
Circumference of contracted upper
arm of the non-dominant hand
1.42500 .66279 .23433 .87090 1.97910 6.081 7 .001
Pair
3
%body fat in dominant hand -
%body fat in non-dominant hand -.85000 .89443 .31623 -1.5977 -.10224 -2.688 7 .031
Pair
4
Predicted muscle mass of dominant
hand -Predicted muscle mass of
non-dominant hand
.12500 .16690 .05901 -.01454 .26454 2.118 7 .072
The circumference of the outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand in front paddlers
was on average 33.71 cm, which is 0.69 cm on average over the volume of the non-dominant
outstretched upper arm, 33.12 cm. Student's t-test for paired samples showed that the volume
of an outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand of the front paddlers was statistically
significantly higher than the aforementioned volume of the non-dominant hand (p = 0.009).
The circumference of the contracted upper arm of the dominant hand in front paddlers
averaged 36.60 cm, which is 1:43 cm on average more than the circumference of the
78
contracted upper arm of the non-dominant hand (35.17cm).The Student’s t-test for paired
samples showed that the upper arm circumference of the contracted dominant hand of the
front paddlers was, on average, significantly higher than the above mentioned volume of the
non-dominant hand (p = 0.001). The percentage of body fat present in the dominant hand in
front paddlers was on average 8:48%, which is 0.85% less than the average percentage of
body fat present in the non-dominant hand, which is an average of 9:33%. The percentage of
body fat in the dominant hand in front paddlers is on average statistically significantly lower
than the percentage of body fat in the non-dominant hand (p = 0.031). The predicted muscle
mass in the dominant hand in front paddlers has an average value of 16.4 kg, which is 0.12
kg on average more than the predicted muscle mass in the non-dominant hand (4.04 kg).
Student's t-test for paired samples did not show a statistically significant difference in the
predicted muscle mass between dominant and non-dominant hands in front paddlers (p =
0.072) (Table 3).
Table 4 Descriptive statistics of pairs of variables in dominant and non-dominant hands of
backpaddlers Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair
1
Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the
dominant hand 33.6375 2.30709 .81568
Circumference of outstretched upper arm of the
non-dominant hand 32.8750 2.46852 .87275
Pair
2
Circumference of contracted upper arm of the
dominant hand 35.6125 2.03921 .72097
Circumference of contracted upper arm of the
non-dominant hand 34.5000 2.05843 .72777
Pair
3
%body fat in dominant hand 8.4250 3.29317 1.16431
%body fat in non-dominant hand 8.7125 4.34032 1.53454
Pair
4
Predicted muscle mass of dominant hand 4.0375 .42067 .14873
Predicted muscle mass of non-dominant hand 3.9750 .40970 .14485
Table 5: Student's t-test for backpaddlers
Paired Differences t
df
Sig.
(2-
tailed)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pair
1
Circumference of outstretched
upper arm of the dominant hand-
Circumference of outstretched
upper arm of the non-dominant
hand
.76250 .57802 .20436 .27926 1.24574 3.731 7 .007
Pair
2
Circumference of contracted upper
arm of the dominant hand-
Circumference of contracted upper
arm of the non-dominant hand
1.11250 1.32497 .46845 .00480 2.22020 2.375 7 .049
Pair
3
%body fat in dominant hand -
%body fat in non-dominant hand -.28750 1.58334 .55980 -1.61121 1.03621 -.514 7 .623
Pair
4
Predicted muscle mass of dominant
hand -Predicted muscle mass of
non-dominant hand
.06250 .13025 .04605 -.04639 .17139 1.357 7 .217
79
The circumference of an outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand in back
paddlers was on average 33.64cm, which is, on average, 0.76 cm over the circumference of an
outstretched upper arm of the non-dominant hand - 32.88 cm. Student's t-test for paired
samples showed that the circumference of an outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand in
back paddlers was on average statistically significantly higher than the above mentioned
volume of the non-dominant hand (p = 0.007). The circumference of a contracted upper arm
in the dominant hand in back paddlers was on average 35.61 cm, which is 1:11 cm, on
average, more than the upper arm circumference of the contracted non-dominant arm (34.50
cm). Student's t-test for paired samples showed that the upper arm circumference of the
contracted dominant hand in back paddlers was on average, statistically significantly higher
than the above mentioned volume of the non-dominant hand (p = 0.049). The percentage of
body fat in the dominant hand of back paddlers was on average 8.43%, which is 0:28%, on
average, less than the percentage of body fat in the non-dominant hand, which is an average
of 8.71%, not a statistically significant difference (p = 0.623). The predicted muscle mass in
the dominant hand of the back paddlers has an average value of 4:04 kg, up by 0.06 kg on
average than the predicted muscle mass in the non-dominant hand (3.98 kg). Student's t-test
for paired samples did not show a statistically significant difference in the predicted muscle
mass in the dominant and non-dominant hands of the front paddlers (p = 0.217) (Table 5).
Table 6:Descriptive statistics of asymmetry measuring
Group Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean RIA of circumference of outstretched upper
arm
Front 1.7738 1.45140 .51315
Back 2.3300 1.70945 .60438
CA of circumference of outstretched upper
arm
Front 1.7513 1.41957 .50189
Back 2.2900 1.67529 .59230
RIA of circumference of contracted upper arm Front 3.9900 1.86550 .65955
Back 3.1838 3.67580 1.29959
CA of circumference of contracted upper arm Front 3.8988 1.79675 .63525
Back 3.0738 3.63419 1.28488
RIA%body fat of hand Front -11.2250 16.80791 5.94249
Back 5.7838 36.50541 12.90661
CA%body fat of hand Front -13.5425 21.33489 7.54302
Back 1.4362 27.16337 9.60370
RIA predicted muscle mass of hand Front 2.9563 3.91366 1.38369
Back 1.5575 3.33949 1.18069
CA predicted muscle mass of hand Front 2.8463 3.86574 1.36674
Back 1.4962 3.34428 1.18238
Table 7:Student's t-test for independent samples Levene's
Test for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
RIA of
circumference
of outstretched
upper arm
Equal
variances
assumed
.524 .481 -.702 14 .494 -.55625 .79284 -2.25673 1.14423
Equal
variances
not
assumed
-.702 13.641 .495 -.55625 .79284 -2.26094 1.14844
80
CA of
circumference
of outstretched
upper arm
Equal
variances
assumed
.512 .486 -.694 14 .499 -.53875 .77635 -2.20386 1.12636
Equal
variances
not
assumed
-.694 13.633 .499 -.53875 .77635 -2.20808 1.13058
RIA of
circumference
of contracted
upper arm
Equal
variances
assumed
1.669 .217 .553 14 .589 .80625 1.45738 -2.31952 3.93202
Equal
variances
not
assumed
.553 10.382 .592 .80625 1.45738 -2.42489 4.03739
CA of
circumference
of contracted
upper arm
Equal
variances
assumed
1.794 .202 .576 14 .574 .82500 1.43334 -2.24920 3.89920
Equal
variances
not
assumed
.576 10.229 .577 .82500 1.43334 -2.35900 4.00900
RIA%body fat
of hand
Equal
variances
assumed
1.604 .226 -1.197 14 .251 -17.00875 14.20893 -
47.48388 13.46638
Equal
variances
not
assumed
-1.197 9.840 .259 -17.00875 14.20893 -
48.73805 14.72055
CA%body fat
of hand
Equal
variances
assumed
.350 .563 -1.227 14 .240 -14.97875 12.21181 -
41.17048 11.21298
Equal
variances
not
assumed
-1.227 13.256 .241 -14.97875 12.21181 -
41.30910 11.35160
RIA predicted
muscle mass of
hand
Equal
variances
assumed
.112 .743 .769 14 .455 1.39875 1.81896 -2.50253 5.30003
Equal
variances
not
assumed
.769 13.662 .455 1.39875 1.81896 -2.51161 5.30911
CA predicted
muscle mass of
hand
Equal
variances
assumed
.081 .780 .747 14 .467 1.35000 1.80721 -2.52608 5.22608
Equal
variances
not
assumed
.747 13.716 .468 1.35000 1.80721 -2.53363 5.23363
A review of Table 6 shows that the index of relative asymmetry of anoutstretched upper
arm circumference in front paddlers is on average 1.77, which is 0:56 on average less than the
index of relative asymmetry of anoutstretched upper arm circumference of the back paddlers
who averaged 2:33. The differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.494). Asymmetry
coefficient for the same variable with a front paddler has a mean value of 1.75, while the
average value of the back paddler has a higher value; it is 2:29 which is a 0:54 increase. This
difference in asymmetry coefficient of the outstretched upper arm circumference was not
81
statistically significant (p = 0.499). The index of relative asymmetry of a contracted upper
arm circumference in front paddlers is on average 3.99, which is 0.81 on average over the
relative index of asymmetry of a contracted upper arm circumference in the back paddlers
which averaged 3.18.The difference in question is not statistically significant (p = 0.589). The
asymmetry coefficient of the contracted upper arm circumference has a mean value of 3.90 in
the front paddlers, and 3:07 in the back paddlers. This difference is also without statistical
significance (p = 0.574). The index of relative asymmetry of the percentage of body fat in
front paddlers has an average value of 11:23, which is 5:45 more than the backpaddlers
(5.78). This differential was statistically significant (p = 0.251). The asymmetry coefficient of
the percentage of body fatin the front paddlerswas on average 13:54, which is 12.1 more than
the asymmetry coefficient of body fat in the back paddlers, which was 1:44. The examination
of differences in mean values did not show statistical significance (p = 0.240). The index of
relative asymmetry of predicted muscle mass of the front paddlers was on average 2.96,
which is 1:40 on average more than the index of relative asymmetry of predicted muscle mass
of the back paddlers who averaged 1:56. The differences were not statistically significant (p
= 0.455). The asymmetry coefficient for the same variables in the front paddlers was 2.85,
and 1:50 in the back paddlers. This differential was statistically significant (p = 0.467).
DISCUSSION
When it comes to the variables of the voluminosity of the upper extremities, in the
observed sample of both the front and back paddlers, there were statistically significant
differences between dominant and non-dominant hands. The circumference of the
outstretched upper arm of the dominant hand in both groups, was on average, significantly
higher than that of said volume in the non-dominant hand (p = 0.009, p = 0-007). Similar
results were obtained with the contracted upper arm circumference, wherein the average
circumference of the dominant hand is statistically significantly greater than the said volume
in the non-dominant hand.In the group of front paddlers the significance is (p = 0.001), while
the group of back paddlers significance in the 95% confidence interval is (p = 0.049). For the
percentage of body fat variable it is characteristic that the non-dominant hand is more
prominent, ie. the percentage of body fat in the dominant hand in front paddlers was on
average, statistically significantly lower than the percentage of body fat of the non-dominant
hand (p = 0-031), whereas in the back paddlers no statistically significant difference between
the mean percentage of body fat in the dominant and non-dominant hands was found.The
predicted muscle massin the dominant hand in both groups was not on average significantly
higher than the predicted muscle massin the non-dominant hand. In this study, a comparison
of dominant and non-dominant hands in canoeists showed a statistically significant
asymmetry in three variables. Two relate to the volume and there is a statistically significant
difference between the dominant and non-dominant hand with regards to the upper arm
circumference, both outstretched and contracted.These results are consistent with previous
findings in other sports fields of unilateral character (Grobbelaar, 2003; Rogowski et al.
(2008), Lucki, 2006). Krawczyk et al. (1998) found the most significant asymmetry between
the dominant and non-dominant upper extremities with tennis players and slalom canoeists.
Bily et al. (2012) found that the asymmetry of the dominant and non-dominant hands was
more significant in front paddlers, than in back paddlers. The results are somewhat consistent
with this research. The asymmetry is statistically significant in a greater number of variables
in the front paddlers, but the Student's t-test for independent samples showed that there were
no statistically significant differences in the index of relative asymmetry and asymmetry
coefficientfor the variables observed between front and back paddlers. It could be said that in
this sample, during positioning in the front or back position when paddling in the C2
82
slalomdiscipline, there is almost no difference in terms of morphological features of the upper
limbs of thepaddlers, and that in the determination of the position of the paddlers,data could
be used which indicates the level of functional and motor abilities rather than the
morphological characteristics of the upper extremities, which requires the use of other
research.Conditions in which the participants lived (climate, diet, training and
racing)contributed to the these results, in particular the number of races in which they
participated between the initial and final measurements - some have participated in individual
races and pair races, as reflected in the studied parameters . This somewhat confirms the
correctness of the practice which has been applied up to now, described by Endicott (1986) in
a study of three championship crews. Usually, in the position of the back paddler
anexperienced and senior paddler with longer stroke is placed, whose tasksare directing the
boat straight and speed accumulation, while in the position of the front paddler is a slightly
shorter dynamic paddler who has a special role in the initiation and completion of the turn.
CONCLUSION
Since numerous studies (Kugler, Kruger-Franke, Reininger, Trouiller and Rosemeyer
(1996); Kameyama, Shibano, Kawakita, Ogawa and Kumamoto (1999); Lauder and Lovell
(2001); Mei-Dan and Carmont (2013); Schoen and Stano (2002)), associate asymmetry with
injuries in sport, noting that asymmetries, both morphological and dynamic, are one of the
largest and most common causes of sports injuries, so it appears necessary that in the canoe-
kayak slalom, as a sporting field, research of an extremely unilateral character is conducted.
In this study it was shown that the asymmetry is statistically significant in a number of
variables in the front paddlers, but the but the student's t-test for independent samples showed
that there were no statistically significant differences in the index of relative asymmetry and
asymmetry coefficient for the variables observed between front and back paddlers. Thus,
asymmetry is determined on an individual level, which was not significant for the positioning
of paddlers. Therefore, further longitudinal studies in this area could provide a deeper insight
into the selection of training resources which would be used according to individual needs,
and which is required bythe asymmetry of the upper extremities for the purpose of making
morphological and dynamic asymmetry symmetric.The importance of research is in
minimizing the risk of injury caused by morphological or dynamic asymmetry, and on the
other hand maximizing sports performance. The approach to solutions for this problem should
be individualized, because it is clear that some athletes do not have the same level of
morphological differences. The question is whether, in the case of a canoe, and other
unilateral sports, a certain asymmetry as a result of adaptation of the organism to specific
demands of a discipline is necessary if we want to achieve the ultimate sports results.
Therefore, it is necessary to conduct research which would determine the extent to which
dynamic asymmetry is present and in what proportion it and morphological asymmetry
correlate with sports results.
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3.pdf
Orginal scientific paper SPORT AND HEALTH Vol IX (2014) 1: 85-91
Orginal scientific paper
Danko Przulj¹, Dejan Kulundzic²
¹Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,East Sarajevo,
²PS”Bratstvo” Novi Pazar - Srbija
UDK: 796.012.1-053.5
DOI: 10.7251/SHTEN1401085P
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOTH BOYS AND GIRLS SIXTH GRADERS OF
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SOME MOTOR SKILLS AND MORPHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
85
Summary
This study was done among sixty fifth graders male and female pupils of Primary School in
East Sarajevo 12 years old (± six months). The sample was divided into two subgroups
according to the gender. It consisted of 30 female students and 30 male sixth grade students.
The aim of this research is to determine the differences between both male and female sixth
grade Primary School students in some motor abilities and anthropometric characteristics.
The purpose of this research was to improve the quality of work in the ordinary Physical
Education classes. The four motor tests were applied: for assessment of segment speed with
hand tapping -MTAP; for troop strength lifting troops for 30sek.-MD30; for the flexibility of a
deep forward bend on the bench - MDPK and for explosive power jump from a place MSDM.
For the assessment of morphological characteristics the height of the body was measured -
AVIS, weight - ATEZ, the upper arm - AOND and skin fold of the upper arm - ANDL. The
measurement was carried out according to the procedures suggested in the study.
Keywords: girls and boys, T-test, discriminatory analysis, morphological characteristics and
motor abilities
1 INTRODUCTION
Research of the differences between boys and girls in regular Physical Education classes is
based on proper planning and programming of the teaching process. This is particularly
important in the period between 10 and 14 years old pupils when the differences between the
sexes are more and more evident. Proper training stimulus is basis of harmonious
development of anthropological characteristics of students.
In the planning and programming of training, special attention is paid to the development of
motor skills that are somewhat determined by the genotype (gene structure inherited from
parents), and to a large extent are developed under the influence of transformational
processes.
Targeted training for the development of motor abilities and morphological characteristics has
the best effects in a certain period of life (7-17 years), and biological maturity significantly
affect motor performance. Biological maturity affects motor performance differently among
boys and girls. Previous studies (Durakovic, 2007) show that girls who grow faster have
better results in motor performance of those who slowly enter the stage of maturity (11-13
years). Differences between the individuals in a population concerning the motor performance
are dependent on the growth and development, especially among male students (Bompa,
2006).
The aim of this research is to determine the differences between male and female sixth grade
students of Primary Schools in some motor abilities and anthropometric characteristics with
the aim of improving the quality of work in the ordinary physical education classes.
METHOD
The study was conducted on 60 male and female students in the fifth grade of Primary School
in East Sarajevo, 12 years (± six months) old. By gender, the sample was divided into two
subgroups as follows: 30 female students and 30 male students in the sixth grade.
For the assessment of motor abilities of students, standard motor and anthropometric
measurement instruments were selected. (Kurelić et al., 1975).
Four motor tests were applied: for assessment of segment speed hand tapping -MTAP; for
troop strength lifting troops for 30sek.-MD30; for the flexibility, deep forward bend on the
bench- MDPK and explosive power jump from a place MSDM.
86
For the assessment of morphological characteristics the height of the body was measured-
AVIS, weight - ATEY, volume of the upper arm - AOND and the skin fold of the upper arm -
ANDL. The measurement was carried out according to the procedures proposed in the study
Lohman, Roche, and Martorell. (1988).
Data were analyzed on the basis of the statistical program SPSS Statistics 12.0 and 5.0
3 RESULTS
3.1 Basic statistical parameters
Table 1: Basic statistical parameters of anthropometric measures of morphological
characteristics among boys
Antrop.
measures N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
AVIS 30 154.43 150.00 160.00 0.52 0.245 1.022
ATEŽ 30 44.26 38.00 50.00 0.64 0.524 -0.120
AOND 30 21.84 19.00 25.00 1.11 0.236 1.487
AKND 30 9.52 6.20 15.40 5.87 0.122 0.522
Explanation: mean (Mean), minimum (Min), the maximum (Max), standard deviation (Std.
dev.), skjunis (Skewn.), kurtozis (Kürtösi)
The obtained results in Table 1 for boys in the area of anthropometric measures of
morphological characteristics indicate that there are no statistically significant differences
between the results of the respondents and the normal distribution. Results of measures which
have been appraised for morphological characteristics of the respondents indicate that the
distribution is positive. To confirm the results of the asymmetry of distribution (skjunis) not
exceeding 1.00 which means that the tests are not heavy (up to +1.00) or light (up to -1.00),
but correspond to the research population and below the unit. Homogeneity results (kurtozis)
indicates that there is a good sensitivity (discrimination tests), since the obtained value below
2.75.
Table 2: Basic statistical parameters of the motoric characteristics tests among the boys
Motoriski
testovi N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
MTAP 30 35.64 32.00 40.00 10.16 0.059 -2.547
MD30 30 18.27 14.00 22.00 11.50 0.208 -2.132
MDPK 30 32.53 30.00 37.00 5.05 0.750 2.085
MSDM 30 160.54 138.55 186.45 12.20 0.170 2.583
Explanation: mean (Mean). minimum (Min). the maximum (Max). standard deviation (Std.
dev.). skjunis (Skewn.). kurtozis (Kürtösi.)
Displayed results in Table 2 among the boys in the area of motor skills in the final
measurements indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between the results
and the normal distribution. The test results, which were assessed motor skills of the
respondents indicate that the distribution is positive. To confirm the results of the asymmetry
of distribution (skjunis) not exceeding 1.00 which means that the tests are not heavy (up to
+1.00) or light (up to -1.00), but correspond to the research population and below the unit.
Homogeneity results (kurtozis) indicates that there is a good sensitivity (discrimination tests),
since the obtained value below 2.75.
87
Table 3: Basic statistical parameters of anthropometric measures morphological
characteristics among the girls
Antrop.
measures N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
AVIS 30 155.97 151.00 161.00 5.12 0.715 2.206
ATEŽ 30 45.54 39.00 51.00 2.02 0.129 0.100
AOND 30 22.25 19.00 25.00 7.00 0.414 -0.104
AKND 30 13.63 8.80 18.60 1.12 0.712 1.406
Explanation: mean (Mean). minimum (Min). the maximum (Max). standard deviation (Std.
dev.). skjunis (Skewn.). kurtozis (Kürtösi.)
The obtained results in Table 1 for girls in the area of anthropometric measures of
morphological characteristics indicate that there are no statistically significant differences
between the results of the respondents and the normal distribution. Results of measures which
have been appraised for morphological characteristics of the respondents indicate that the
distribution is positive. To confirm the results of the asymmetry of distribution (skjunis) not
exceeding 1.00 which means that the tests are not heavy (up to +1.00) or light (up to -1.00),
but correspond to the research population and below the unit. Homogeneity results (kurtozis)
indicates that there is a good sensitivity (discrimination tests), since the obtained value below
2.75.
Table 4: Basic statistical parameters of the mototic characteristics tests among the girls
Motoric
tests N Mean Min. Max. Std.dev. Skewn. Kurtos.
MTAP 30 34.24 30.00 38.00 15.55 0.042 1.562
MD30 30 12.85 8.00 16.00 1.31 0.169 0.303
MDPK 30 39.83 35.00 43.00 11.12 0.024 2.006
MSDM 30 147.62 128.35 166.25 3.15 0.502 1.236
Explanation: mean (Mean). minimum (Min). the maximum (Max). standard deviation (Std.
dev.). skjunis (Skewn.). kurtozis (Kürtösi.)
Displayed results in Table 2 among the girls in the area of motor skills in the final
measurements indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between the results
and the normal distribution. The test results, which were assessed motor skills of the
respondents indicate that the distribution is positive. To confirm the results of the asymmetry
of distribution (skjunis) not exceeding 1.00 which means that the tests are not heavy (up to
+1.00) or light (up to -1.00), but correspond to the research population and below the unit.
Homogeneity results (kurtozis) indicates that there is a good sensitivity (discrimination tests),
since the obtained value below 2.75.
3.2. Differences between boys and girls in the anthropological characteristics
Table 5 Multivariate analysis of variance of morphological characteristics between boys and
girls
Wilks’ Lambda Rao’s R Q
.174 5.54 .000
Explanation: Values of Bertletovꞌ test (Wilks' Lambda), Ra's F-approximation (Rao's R) and
level of significance(Q)
Presented results of multivariate analysis of variance between boys and girls in table 5
indicate that it is presented statistically significant intergroup differences in morphological
characteristics as WILK'S LAMBDA is .174, which Ra's F-approximation of 5:54 gives a
significant difference in the level of Q = .000. Thus, in the applied system of morphological
characteristics of the respondents, statistically significant differences were found.
88
Table 6 Univariate analysis of variance analysis of morphological characteristics of boys and
girls
Tests Means (Boys) Means (irls F-relato\ion Q
AVIS 154.43 155.97 1.55 .146
ATEZ 44.26 45.54 1.42 .104
AOND 21.84 22.25 1.55 .154
AKND 9.52 13.63 5.24 .005
Explanation: the arithmetic mean of the experimental group (Mean (e)), the arithmetic mean
of the control group (Mean (k)), the value of F-test (F-ratio) and significance level (Q)
Table 6 shows the univariate analysis of variance measures morphological characteristics by
comparing the results of arithmetic means of boys and girls. Based on the coefficients of F-
relations and their significance (P-Level) can be concluded that the significant differences of
the morphological characteristics appeared between boys and girls in skin folds of the upper
arm (ACND .005) in the favor of the girls.
Table 7 Multivariate analysis of motoric capabilities variance between boys and girls
Wilks’ Lambda Rao’s R Q
.158 7.21 .000
Explanation : Values Bertletovꞌs test (Wilks' Lambda), Ra's F-approximation (Rao's R) and
level ofsignificance (Q)
Table 7 shows the results of multivariate analysis of variance between boys and girls which
indicate that the statistically significant intergroup differences are presented in motor abilities
as WILK'S LAMBDA is .158, which Ra's F-approximation of 7:21 gives a significant
difference in the level of Q = .000. Thus, in the applied system of motor abilities were found
statistically significant differences.
Table 8 Univariate analysis of motor skills variance between boys and girls
Tests Means (Boys) Means (Girls) F-relation Q
MTAP 35.64 34.24 1.72 .158
MD30 18.27 12.85 5.55 .004
MDPK 32.53 39.83 5.42 .003
MSDM 160.54 147.62 8.45 .000
Explanation: the arithmetic mean of the experimental group (Mean (e)), the arithmetic mean
of the control group (Mean (k)), the value of F-test (F-ratio) and significance level (Q)
Table 8 shows the univariate analysis of variance tests of motor skills by comparing the
results of arithmetic means boys and girls. Based on the coefficients of F-relations and their
significance (P-Level) can be concluded that the statistically significant level of difference
between boys and girls is visible in the following motor tests꞉ in lifting troops for 30 seconds
(MD30 .004) in favor of boys, in deep forward bend on the bench (MDPK .003) in the favor
of girls and long jump from the stand point (MSDM .000) in favor of boys.
4 DISCUSSION
Although the results of this study have a special importance in the planning and programming
process of transformation as indicators of the initial status of the students, the significance of
recorded differences between the sexes cannot be generalized to the entire population of sixth
grade students in East Sarajevo.
The results may be a consequence of other factors that were not the subject of this study,
because children in the fifth grade have very different physical prior knowledge that can
greatly affect the development of their motor skills.
89
Noted differences in motor status between boys and girls are necessary to consider the
formation of homogeneous groups in the classroom. On the one hand, in order to develop the
segment speed and explosive power, boys and girls can not be in the same homogeneous
group,but on the other hand to develop explosive strength and flexibility they can be in the
same homogeneous but only in the fifth grade to the studied population.
This research confirms the need for diagnosis and analysis of the initial state of some
anthropological characteristics at the beginning of the school year in order to improve the
quality of regular and additional physical education classes . Base for planning and
programming is realized according to individualized abilities and characteristics of the
respondents.
5 Conclusion
Research to determine the differences between sixth grade male and female students of
Primary School in some features of the anthropometric and motor skills was conducted with
the aim of improving the quality of regular and additional physical education classes. It was
done so that the planning and programming of the teaching process for the development of
anthropological characteristics were consistent with the established gender differences among
students.
The results of this study can not be generalized to a wider population of boys and girls at the
age of twelve years because of the sample size and influence of various factors on the
development of morphological and motor abilities. The results of this study can serve as a
good guideline in order to better determine the homogenized group of Elementary Schools in
the regular and additional physical education.
Generalization of the results obtained in this study should be based on research on a wider
scale. Therefore, the conclusion of the younger students in other regions is not possible
because the phase of rapid maturation certainly affect the difference between the sexes in
relation to anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities.
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CATEGORIZATION OF THE PAPERS
The Joumal publishes articles, polemics, reviews, surveys, thematic bibliographies, patents, reports and
news on scientific and professionals meetings as well as similar documents vital for the field of
physical education and sport.
The category of the papers is to be determined by the reviewer and the editors. The rcvicwcd
papers are classified into the following categories:
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• Original scientific paper,
• Review
• Previous announcement,
• Paper from the scientific / professional meeting, invitation lecture and announcement,
• Scientific criticism, polemic, review
• Professional paper
MANUSCRIPT OF THE PAPER The manuscript of the paper includes: style of the manuscript, text, footnotes, quoted
bibliography, enclosures (tables, pictures, graphs etc).
The manuscript should be written in font Times New Roman, size 11, with single spacing.
TEKST
The length of the text is limited to 10 printed pages, paper format A4, margins 2cm. Generally
text is consists of Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion, Conclusion. . Within the text the bibliography are quoted according to APA system (see: Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association; www.apastyle.org).
BIBLIOGRAPHY The text of the paper is accompanied with the list of solely those works that are quoted in the paper.
The papers are quoted according to APA system (see: Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association; www.apastyle.org). The list should begin on a separate page (after the text)
under the title: Bibliography, with continuous pagination in Arabic numerals.The papers are to be
mailed to the following address: SPORT AND HEALT
Faculty Physical Education and Sports Stambulčić bb
71420 Pale, BiH Bosnia e-mail: