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Chapter Introduction

Section 1: What Is Research?

Section 2: Problems and Solutions in Research

Section 3: Statistical Evaluation

Chapter Preview 1

Chapter Objectives · Section 1What Is Research?

Describe the process in which psychologists approach a research issue and conduct the research to test a hypothesis, solve a problem, or confirm previous research.

Chapter Preview 2

Chapter Objectives · Section 2Problems and Solutions in Research

Discuss how psychologists must recognize and resolve errors as they conduct research.

Chapter Preview 3

Chapter Objectives · Section 3Statistical Evaluation

Recognize that psychologists must collect and evaluate evidence to support their hypotheses.

Chapter Preview-End

Section 1-Main Idea

Main Idea

Psychologists must first decide how to approach the research issue. Then psychologists conduct the research in one of a variety of ways to test a hypothesis, solve a problem, or confirm previous findings.

Section 1-Key Terms

Vocabulary

• sample

• naturalistic observation

• case study

• survey

• longitudinal study

• cross-sectional study

• correlation

• hypothesis

• variable

• experimental group

• control group

Section 1-Objectives

Objectives

• Describe the process of psychological research and the scientific method.

• Name the different types of psychological research.

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1-Polling Question

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Which of the following do you think is the best method of research?

A. naturalistic observation

B. case study

C. survey

D. longitudinal study

Section 1

Pre-Research Decisions

• Researchers begin by asking a specific question about a limited topic or hypothesis.

• Then they collect evidence.

• A sample is a relatively small group of the total population under study.

• A sample must be representative.

Section 1

Pre-Research Decisions (cont.)

• Ways to avoid a nonrepresentative sample:

– Take a purely random sample.

– Deliberately pick individuals who represent the various subgroups in the population being studied, also known as a stratified sample.

Jane Goodall

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1

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Which of the following should a psychologist avoid using?

A. random sample

B. nonrepresentativesample

C. stratified sample

D. representative sample

Section 1

Methods of Research

• The goals of research are to:

– Describe behavior

– Explain its causes

– Predict the circumstances under which certain behaviors may occur again

– To control certain behaviors

Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.)

• Methods of research used to accomplish these goals:

– Naturalistic observations

– Case studies

– Surveys

– Longitudinal Studies

– Cross-Sectional Studies

– Correlations

– Experiments A Correlation Study

Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.)

• Every experiment has:

– hypothesis

– variables (independent and dependent)

– experimental group

– control group

Experimental Research

Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.)

• Ethics are the methods of conduct, or standards, for proper and responsible behavior.

• The APA has a list of ethical principles that psychologists must follow.

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1

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What is the importance of a control group?

A. It exhibits change during an experiment.

B. It affects the results in the experimental group.

C. It allows for a comparison to identify changes in the experimental group.

D. None of the above.

Section 1-End

Section 2-Main Idea

Main Idea

The investigation of psychological issues is a painstaking process. Psychologists must recognize and resolve errors while doing research.

Section 2-Key Terms

Vocabulary

• self-fulfilling prophecy

• single-blind experiment

• double-blind experiment

• placebo effect

Section 2-Objectives

Objectives

• Summarize the methodological hazards of doing research.

• Examine experimental procedures psychologists use to avoid bias.

A. A

B. B

Section 2-Polling Question

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Do you think that expectations of behavior affect actual behavior?

A. Yes

B. No

Section 2

Problems and Solutions in Research

• A self-fulfilling prophecy is a situation in which a researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior.

Section 2

Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

• Ways to avoid self-fulfilling prophecy:

– Single-blind experiment

– Double-blind experiment

Single-Blind and Double-Blind Experiments

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 2

Do you agree or disagree that humans often have preconceived notions about what will happen in a situation?

A. Agree

B. Disagree

C. Not sure

0% 0%0%

Section 2

The Milgram Experiment

• In the 1960s, Stanley Milgram wanted to determine whether participants would administer painful shocks to others merely because an authority figure had instructed them to do so.

• The result implied that ordinary individuals could easily inflict pain on others if such orders were issued by a respected authority.

Section 2

The Milgram Experiment (cont.)

• His experiment, although no one was actually shocked, was controversial.

• Today, experiments are required to submit a plan to a Human Subjects Committee.

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 2

0% 0%0%

Do you believe that Milgram’s decision to use volunteers as he did was ethical or unethical?

A. Ethical

B. Unethical

C. Not sure

Section 2

The Placebo Effect

• The placebo effect is a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment.

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 2

0% 0%0%

Do you think that is ethical to use a placebo in an experiment?

A. Yes

B. No

C. Not sure

Section 2-End

Section 3-Main Idea

Main Idea

Psychologists must collect and evaluate evidence to support their hypotheses.

Section 3-Key Terms

Vocabulary

• statistics

• descriptive statistics

• frequency distribution

• normal curve

• central tendency

• variability

• standard deviation

• correlation coefficient

• inferential statistics

Section 3-Objectives

Objectives

• Recognize types of descriptive statistics.

• Describe inferential statistics.

A. A

B. B

Section 3-Polling Question

In your opinion, in which way are statistics more likely to be used?

A. To distort the truth

B. To honestly to support a hypotheses

0%0%

Section 3

Statistical Evaluation

• Statistics consist of the branch of mathematics concerned with summarizing and making meaningful inferences from collections of data.

Kate’s Data

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics

• Descriptive statistics involve the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way.

• One of the first steps that researchers take to organize their data is to create frequency tables and graphs.

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• A frequency distribution is a way of arranging data so that we know how often a particular score or observation occurs.

A Frequency Distribution

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• Types of graphs:

– Histogram

– Frequency polygon/frequency curve

A Frequency Polygon

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• A normal curve is a graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve.

A Normal Curve

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• A common way of summarizing is to measure the central tendency.

• Distributions also differ in their variability.

Measure of Central Tendency

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• Two commonly used measures of variability are:

– Range

– Standard deviation

Standard Deviation

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• Standard deviation is a better measure because it uses all of the data points.

• A correlation coefficient describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of observations.

• The most commonly used measure is the Pearson correlation coefficient (r).

Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.)

• A coefficient with a plus sign (+) indicates a positive correlation.

• A coefficient with a minus sign (–) indicates a negative coefficient.

• A scatterplot is a graph of scores that demonstrates the direction of the relationship between two variables.

A Scatterplot

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 3

0% 0%0%

In relation to class test scores, which of the following do you think is more descriptive?

A. An average of 84

B. A median of 85

C. A mode of 79

Section 3

Inferential Statistics

• Psychologists also want to make generalizations about the population from which the participants come, so they use inferential statistics.

• Inferential statistics are numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to change.

Section 3

Inferential Statistics (cont.)

• Researchers must perform a variety of statistical tests, called measures of statistical significance, to determine that their results are not due to chance.

• For many traits in a large population, the frequency distribution follows the normal curve.

Section 3

Inferential Statistics (cont.)

• Many researchers say that if the probability that their results were due to chance is less than 5%, they do not think the results were due to chance.

• The results would then be considered statistically significant.

A. A

B. B

Section 3

A statistically significant result always represents an important finding.

A. True

B. False

0%0%

Section 3-End

Figure 1

A Correlation StudyThese charts display possible correlations between different variables.

Figure 2

Experimental ResearchPsychology is an experimental science. Psychologists follow the same general procedures when conducting experimental research.

Figure 3

Single-Blind and Double-Blind ExperimentsResearcher’s must take measures during experimentation to guard against seeing only what they expect to see.

Figure 4

Kate’s DataKate’s data show the number of hours of television watched before and after the quiz, the grade on the quiz, the number of products recognized, and participants’ height in inches.

* Highest grade possible is 10.

Figure 5

A Frequency DistributionA frequency distribution shows how often a particular observation occurs.

Figure 6

A Frequency PolygonThis graph shows the number of hours of TV watched the night before the quiz and the night after the quiz.

Figure 7

A Normal CurveThe maximum frequency lies in the center of a range of scores in a perfect normal curve. The frequency tapers off as you reach the edges of the two sides.

Figure 8

Measures of Central TendencyIt is often useful to summarize a set of scores by identifying a number that represents the center, average, or most frequently occurring number of the distribution.

Figure 9

Standard DeviationTwo distributions with the same mean and different standard deviations are shown.

Figure 10

A ScatterplotWhen there is little or no relationship between two variables, the points in the scatterplot do not seem to fall into any pattern.

Profile

Jane Goodall1934–

“Every individual matters. Every

individual has a role to play. Every individual makes a difference.”

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Vocab1

sample: the small group of participants, out of the total number available, that a researcher studies

Vocab2

naturalistic observation: research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering

Vocab3

case study: research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants

Vocab4

survey: research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions

Vocab5

longitudinal study: research method in which data are collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development

Vocab6

cross-sectional study: research method in which data are collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age

Vocab7

correlation: the measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of data

Vocab8

hypothesis: an educated guess about the relationship between two variables

Vocab9

variable: any factor that is capable of change

Vocab10

experimental group: the group to which an independent variable is applied

Vocab11

control group: the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied

Vocab12

self-fulfilling prophecy: a situation in which a researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior

Vocab13

single-blind experiment: an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment

Vocab14

double-blind experiment: an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

Vocab15

placebo effect: a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment

Vocab16

statistics: the branch of mathematics concerned with summarizing and making meaningful inferences from collections of data

Vocab17

descriptive statistics: the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way

Vocab18

frequency distribution: an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs

Vocab19

normal curve: a graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve; a graph of normally distributed data

Vocab20

central tendency: a number that describes something about the “average” score of a distribution

Vocab21

variability: a measure of difference, or spread of data

Vocab22

standard deviation: a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean

Vocab23

correlation coefficient: describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of variables

Vocab24

inferential statistics: numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

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