sources of truth primary a first-order source for truth that does not rely on any other source. a...

Sources of TruthSources of Truth

PrimaryPrimary

A first-order source A first-order source for truth that does for truth that does not rely on any other not rely on any other source.source.

SecondarySecondary

A second-order A second-order source for truth that source for truth that relies on some other relies on some other source.source.


PrimaryPrimary

Sense experience Sense experience

SecondarySecondary


PrimaryPrimary

Sense experienceSense experience

Introspection Introspection

SecondarySecondary


PrimaryPrimary


IntrospectionIntrospection

ReasonReason

SecondarySecondary

Limitations of Sense Experience and Limitations of Sense Experience and IntrospectionIntrospection

Selective filteringSelective filtering

ExpectationExpectation

Expectation and Sense ExperienceExpectation and Sense Experience

"In one experiment, subjects were told to "In one experiment, subjects were told to walk along a corridor until they saw a light walk along a corridor until they saw a light flash. Sure enough, some of them stopped, flash. Sure enough, some of them stopped, saying they had seen a flash—but the light saying they had seen a flash—but the light hadn't flashed at all."hadn't flashed at all."

Schick and Vaughn, Schick and Vaughn, How to Think About Weird How to Think About Weird ThingsThings

Expectation and IntrospectionExpectation and Introspection

"In other studies, subjects expected to experience "In other studies, subjects expected to experience an electric shock, or feel warmth, or smell certain an electric shock, or feel warmth, or smell certain odors, and many did experience what they odors, and many did experience what they expected even though none of the appropriate expected even though none of the appropriate stimuli had been given. All that was really given stimuli had been given. All that was really given was the suggestion that a stimulus might occur."was the suggestion that a stimulus might occur."

Schick and Vaughn, Schick and Vaughn, How to Think About Weird ThingsHow to Think About Weird Things

Limitations of Sense Experience and Limitations of Sense Experience and IntrospectionIntrospection

Selective filteringSelective filtering


DesireDesire

Desire and Sense ExperienceDesire and Sense Experience


"In one College Entrance Examination Board "In one College Entrance Examination Board survey of 829,000 high school seniors, less survey of 829,000 high school seniors, less than 1 percent rated themselves below than 1 percent rated themselves below average in 'ability to get along with others,' average in 'ability to get along with others,' and 60 percent put themselves in the top 10 and 60 percent put themselves in the top 10 percent."percent."

Michael Shermer, Michael Shermer, The Enchanted GlassThe Enchanted Glass


"In one study on Stanford University students, "In one study on Stanford University students, when asked to compare themselves with their when asked to compare themselves with their peers on such personal qualities as friendliness peers on such personal qualities as friendliness and selfishness, they predictably rated themselves and selfishness, they predictably rated themselves higher. Even when the subjects were warned higher. Even when the subjects were warned about the 'better than average' bias and asked to about the 'better than average' bias and asked to reconsider their original assessments, 63 percent reconsider their original assessments, 63 percent claimed that their initial evaluations were objective, claimed that their initial evaluations were objective, and 13 percent even claimed to be too modest."and 13 percent even claimed to be too modest."


Desire and IntrospectionDesire and Introspection

"In a second study, Pronin randomly assigned "In a second study, Pronin randomly assigned subjects high or low scores on a "social subjects high or low scores on a "social intelligence" test. Unsurprisingly, those who were intelligence" test. Unsurprisingly, those who were given high marks rated the test as being fairer and given high marks rated the test as being fairer and more useful than those receiving low marks. When more useful than those receiving low marks. When the subjects were then asked if it was possible that the subjects were then asked if it was possible that they had been influenced by the score on the test, they had been influenced by the score on the test, they responded that other participants had been they responded that other participants had been far more biased than they were."far more biased than they were."



PrimaryPrimary



ReasonReason

SecondarySecondary


PrimaryPrimary



ReasonReason

SecondarySecondary

InferenceInference


PrimaryPrimary



ReasonReason

SecondarySecondary

InferenceInference

MemoryMemory


PrimaryPrimary



ReasonReason

SecondarySecondary

InferenceInference

MemoryMemory

Testimony of othersTestimony of others

Limitations of MemoryLimitations of Memory

Constructive ProcessingConstructive Processing

Expectation and MemoryExpectation and Memory

"Researchers asked students to describe what they "Researchers asked students to describe what they had seen in a picture. It portrayed a white man had seen in a picture. It portrayed a white man and a black man talking to each other on the and a black man talking to each other on the subway. In the white man's hand was an open subway. In the white man's hand was an open straight razor. When the students recalled the straight razor. When the students recalled the picture, one-half of them reported that the razor picture, one-half of them reported that the razor was was in the hand of the black manin the hand of the black man. Memory . Memory reconstruction was tampered with by expectancy reconstruction was tampered with by expectancy or belief."or belief."





SuggestionSuggestion

Suggestion and MemorySuggestion and Memory

"In one experiment, people were asked to watch a "In one experiment, people were asked to watch a film depicting a car accident. Afterward, they were film depicting a car accident. Afterward, they were asked to recall what they had seen. Some of the asked to recall what they had seen. Some of the subjects were asked, "About how fast were the subjects were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" cars going when they smashed into each other?" The others were asked the same question with a The others were asked the same question with a subtle difference. The word subtle difference. The word smashedsmashed was was replaced by replaced by hithit. Strangely enough, those who . Strangely enough, those who were asked the 'smashed' question estimated were asked the 'smashed' question estimated higher speeds than those asked the 'hit' question."higher speeds than those asked the 'hit' question."



"Then, a week later, all the subjects were asked to "Then, a week later, all the subjects were asked to recall whether they had seen broken glass in the recall whether they had seen broken glass in the film. Compared to the subjects who got the 'hit' film. Compared to the subjects who got the 'hit' question, more than twice as many of those who question, more than twice as many of those who got the 'smashed' question said they had seen got the 'smashed' question said they had seen broken glass. But the film showed broken glass. But the film showed no broken no broken glass at allglass at all."."



“ “The victims of abuse are often very young children, who are quite difficult to The victims of abuse are often very young children, who are quite difficult to interview. Consequently, many professionals--including police officers, social interview. Consequently, many professionals--including police officers, social workers and mental health professionals--employ anatomically detailed dolls, workers and mental health professionals--employ anatomically detailed dolls, assuming that a young child will have an easier time describing what happened assuming that a young child will have an easier time describing what happened using a doll….using a doll….

These assumptions have been called into question by Maggie Bruck of Johns These assumptions have been called into question by Maggie Bruck of Johns Hopkins University, Stephen J. Ceci of Cornell University, Peter A. Ornstein of Hopkins University, Stephen J. Ceci of Cornell University, Peter A. Ornstein of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and their many colleagues. In the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and their many colleagues. In several independent studies, these investigators have asked preschool children several independent studies, these investigators have asked preschool children to report what they remember about a checkup with their pediatrician, which to report what they remember about a checkup with their pediatrician, which either had or had not included a genital check. Anatomically detailed dolls were either had or had not included a genital check. Anatomically detailed dolls were sometimes used to question the children, sometimes not. In general, the sometimes used to question the children, sometimes not. In general, the children's reports were more accurate when they were questioned without a children's reports were more accurate when they were questioned without a doll, and they were more likely to falsely report genital touching when a doll doll, and they were more likely to falsely report genital touching when a doll was used.”was used.”

Judy S. DeLoache, Judy S. DeLoache, Mindful of SymbolsMindful of Symbols

Testimony of OthersTestimony of Others

Books and magazinesBooks and magazines

News sourcesNews sources

Web sitesWeb sites

Personal acquaintances Personal acquaintances

InstructorsInstructors

Academic journalsAcademic journals

Assessing Testimony of OthersAssessing Testimony of Others

1. Is the person providing the testimony the 1. Is the person providing the testimony the original source of the information or a original source of the information or a second-hand source?second-hand source?

2. If the person providing the testimony is a 2. If the person providing the testimony is a second-hand source, how many second-hand source, how many intermediate sources are there between the intermediate sources are there between the person and the original source?person and the original source?


3. For each source:3. For each source:

a. Are there factors (e.g., lack of expertise, a. Are there factors (e.g., lack of expertise, bias, personal gain) that would incline the bias, personal gain) that would incline the source to misrepresent the information source to misrepresent the information reported?reported?

ExampleExample

“ “Most of the alleged intelligence [about Most of the alleged intelligence [about Saddam Hussein having weapons of mass Saddam Hussein having weapons of mass destruction] came from Iraqi exiles or third destruction] came from Iraqi exiles or third countries, all of which had an interest in the countries, all of which had an interest in the United States' removing Hussein, by force if United States' removing Hussein, by force if necessary.” --Bob Graham, Chairman of the necessary.” --Bob Graham, Chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Senate Select Committee on Intelligence


3. For each source:3. For each source:

a. Are there factors (e.g., lack of expertise, bias, personal gain) that would a. Are there factors (e.g., lack of expertise, bias, personal gain) that would incline the source to misrepresent the information reported?incline the source to misrepresent the information reported?

b. Are there factors (e.g., selective filtering, expectation, desire) that would b. Are there factors (e.g., selective filtering, expectation, desire) that would compromise the reliability of the primary sources utilized (e.g., sense compromise the reliability of the primary sources utilized (e.g., sense experience, introspection, reason)?experience, introspection, reason)?

c. Is the information based on inference? If so, are principles of correct c. Is the information based on inference? If so, are principles of correct reasoning applied?reasoning applied?

d. Is the information based on memory? If so, are there factors (e.g. d. Is the information based on memory? If so, are there factors (e.g. expectation, suggestion) that would compromise the reliability of the expectation, suggestion) that would compromise the reliability of the memory process?memory process?

sources of truth primary a first-order source for truth that does not rely on any other source. a...

Documents

subjects high

sense experiencedesire

order source

michael shermer

enchanted glassdesire

high marks

low marks

white man