sociology 202 research principles and practice. bogardus social distance scale let’s say you’re...

Sociology 202Sociology 202Research Research

Principles and Principles and PracticePractice

Bogardus Social Distance Bogardus Social Distance ScaleScale

Let’s say you’re interested in the extent to which Let’s say you’re interested in the extent to which non-Muslim Canadian citizens are willing to non-Muslim Canadian citizens are willing to associate with, say, Muslims. You might ask the associate with, say, Muslims. You might ask the following questions:following questions:

1.1. Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your country?country?

2.2. Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your community?community?

3.3. Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your Are you willing to permit Muslims to live in your neighbourhood?neighbourhood?

4.4. Would you be willing to let a Muslim live next door Would you be willing to let a Muslim live next door to you?to you?

5.5. Would you let your child marry a Muslim?Would you let your child marry a Muslim?

ObjectivesObjectives

To introduce the logic and skills of To introduce the logic and skills of social scientific research.social scientific research.

To develop a critical understanding To develop a critical understanding in consuming research.in consuming research.

Note: The importance in formulating Note: The importance in formulating social policy (e.g., health care)social policy (e.g., health care)

Overview of CourseOverview of Course

Human Inquiry Human Inquiry vs. vs.

Relies on Relies on common sensecommon sense

TraditionTradition AuthorityAuthority FaithFaith

ScienceScience ObservationObservation LogicLogic Verifiable Verifiable

evidenceevidence Explicit Explicit

proceduresprocedures ReplicationReplication

Common Errors in Human Common Errors in Human InquiryInquiry

OvergeneralizationOvergeneralization Inaccurate observationInaccurate observation Ego involvement in understandingEgo involvement in understanding Premature closure of inquiryPremature closure of inquiry

Example: Letters to the editorExample: Letters to the editor

Aim of Systematic Aim of Systematic Empirical ResearchEmpirical Research

To observe (data collection)To observe (data collection) DescribeDescribe ExplainExplain PredictPredict

The Research ProcessThe Research Process

Research is an integrated process. Research is an integrated process. It is made up of a series of It is made up of a series of

sequential steps.sequential steps. It builds on previous research.It builds on previous research.

Steps in the Research Steps in the Research ProcessProcess

1.1. Choose a topic or research interest. Choose a topic or research interest. The research topic should be clear The research topic should be clear and focused.and focused.

2.2. Review the literature.Review the literature. What have other researchers done on What have other researchers done on

the topic?the topic? How did they do it?How did they do it? What did they find?What did they find? Validity and reliability.Validity and reliability.


3.3. Based upon the review of literature, Based upon the review of literature, refine/reformulate your research topic.refine/reformulate your research topic.


4.4. Deductive or inductive logic.Deductive or inductive logic.

Types of ResearchTypes of Research

1.1. DescriptiveDescriptive What exists?What exists?

2.2. ExploratoryExploratory What is going on here?What is going on here?

3.3. ExplanatoryExplanatory Identify causes and effects of social phenomenaIdentify causes and effects of social phenomena Predict how one phenomenon will change or Predict how one phenomenon will change or

vary in response to variation in some other vary in response to variation in some other phenomenon. phenomenon.

Example: Testing hypotheses and theories.Example: Testing hypotheses and theories.

Variables and AttributesVariables and Attributes

Variables are parts or aspects of Variables are parts or aspects of reality that can be seen to change or reality that can be seen to change or vary.vary.

Example: The effect of Example: The effect of socioeconomic status on health.socioeconomic status on health.

SES HealthSES Health

(cause)(cause) (effect) (effect)

Variables and AttributesVariables and Attributes

Example:Example:

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Independent and DependentIndependent and Dependent

Independent Independent Dependent Dependent

Intervening VariablesIntervening Variables

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables Antecedent variableAntecedent variable

AttributesAttributes Variables are sets of related values or Variables are sets of related values or

attributes.attributes.

HypothesesHypotheses Probability statements testing the relationships Probability statements testing the relationships

between or among variables.between or among variables. There are two types of statements: null or There are two types of statements: null or

research (alternative or hypothesis of interest)research (alternative or hypothesis of interest) Null means no relationship.]Null means no relationship.]

Example: There is no relationship between SES Example: There is no relationship between SES and health.and health.

Research (alternative or hypothesis of interest) Research (alternative or hypothesis of interest) states that there is a relationship.states that there is a relationship.Example: There is a positive relationship Example: There is a positive relationship between SES and health, i.e., people with high between SES and health, i.e., people with high SES are more likely to have better health.SES are more likely to have better health.

TheoriesTheories

ExplainExplain why things are by linking why things are by linking cause and effect.cause and effect.

SpecifySpecify the circumstances or the circumstances or conditions under which things happen.conditions under which things happen.

Permit us to Permit us to predictpredict events. events. Generally, we do not test theories; Generally, we do not test theories;

theories are comprised of a number of theories are comprised of a number of hypotheses which are then tested as hypotheses which are then tested as parts of a theory.parts of a theory.

Relationship Between Relationship Between Theory and ResearchTheory and Research

Theories function three ways in Theories function three ways in research:research:

1.1. They prevent our being taken in by They prevent our being taken in by flukes.flukes.

2.2. They can shape and direct research They can shape and direct research efforts.efforts.

3.3. They makes sense of observed They makes sense of observed patterns.patterns.

Units of AnalysisUnits of Analysis

Units of analysis are the what or Units of analysis are the what or whom being studied. In social whom being studied. In social science research there are four types science research there are four types of units of analysis:of units of analysis:

1.1. Individual peopleIndividual people

Units of AnalysisUnits of Analysis3.3. Organizations (e.g., universities Organizations (e.g., universities

in Mclean’s polls);in Mclean’s polls);

4.4. Artifacts (e.g., paintings, books).Artifacts (e.g., paintings, books).

2.2. Groups (e.g., families or Groups (e.g., families or households)households)

Time DimensionTime Dimension

1.1. Cross-sectional Studies – based on Cross-sectional Studies – based on observations made during a single time period.observations made during a single time period.

2.2. Longitudinal Studies – involve observations at Longitudinal Studies – involve observations at two or more time periods.two or more time periods.

a)a) Trend studies – study changes within some general Trend studies – study changes within some general population over time.population over time.

b)b) Cohort studies – examine more specific Cohort studies – examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they change over time.subpopulations (cohorts) as they change over time.

c)c) PanelPanel studies -- similar to trend and cohort studies -- similar to trend and cohort studies except that the same set of people is studied studies except that the same set of people is studied each time.each time.

Qualitative and Qualitative and QuantitativeQuantitative

Qualitative analysis is the nonnumerical Qualitative analysis is the nonnumerical examination and interpretation of examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships.patterns of relationships.

Quantitative analysis is the numerical Quantitative analysis is the numerical representation and manipulation of representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect. that those observations reflect.

Qualitative and Qualitative and QuantitativeQuantitative

Relationship Between Relationship Between Research Topic, Theory and Research Topic, Theory and

Data CollectionData Collection The research topic could influence the The research topic could influence the

theoretical perspective and the type of theoretical perspective and the type of data collection.data collection.

It is also possible that the theoretical It is also possible that the theoretical perspective could influence the research perspective could influence the research methods or data collection techniques.methods or data collection techniques.

Question: How would one study Question: How would one study socialization ofsocialization of

children in the family?children in the family?

Data Collection or Data Collection or ObservationObservation

SurveysSurveys Field ResearchField Research Content AnalysisContent Analysis ExperimentsExperiments Comparative Historical MethodsComparative Historical Methods Analysis of Existing Statistics Analysis of Existing Statistics

(Secondary Data Analysis)(Secondary Data Analysis)

Conceptualization and Conceptualization and MeasurementMeasurement

Conceptualization refers to nominal Conceptualization refers to nominal definitions (e.g., what is meant by definitions (e.g., what is meant by better health or SES?)better health or SES?)

Operationalization refers to Operationalization refers to measurement of the variables (e.g., measurement of the variables (e.g., how do you measure better health or how do you measure better health or SES?)SES?)

Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability

There are two criteria in measurements:There are two criteria in measurements:1.1. Validity – a term describing a measure that Validity – a term describing a measure that

accurately reflects the concept it is intended accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure.to measure.

2.2. Reliability – the degree to which a research Reliability – the degree to which a research instrument, such as a questionnaire or a instrument, such as a questionnaire or a coding system, produces consistent results coding system, produces consistent results with use.with use.

Example: Are students’ grade point averages a Example: Are students’ grade point averages a validvalid

and reliable measure of their intelligence?and reliable measure of their intelligence?

Operationalization Operationalization (measurement)(measurement)

Every variable must have two Every variable must have two important qualities:important qualities:

1.1. The attributes should be The attributes should be exhaustiveexhaustive. We . We must be able to classify every observation must be able to classify every observation in terms of one of the attributes. (e.g., in terms of one of the attributes. (e.g., political party affiliation in Nova Scotia: political party affiliation in Nova Scotia: Liberal, PC, NDP, other)Liberal, PC, NDP, other)

2.2. They must be They must be mutually-exclusivemutually-exclusive. Every . Every observation must be able to be classified observation must be able to be classified in terms of in terms of one and only oneone and only one attribute. attribute. (e.g., income: under 5000; 5000-10,000; (e.g., income: under 5000; 5000-10,000; over 10,000)over 10,000)

Levels of MeasurementLevels of Measurement There are four levels of There are four levels of

measurement of measurement of variables:variables:

1.1. Nominal – variables whose Nominal – variables whose attributes have only the attributes have only the characteristics of characteristics of exhaustiveness and exhaustiveness and mutually-exclusiveness, mutually-exclusiveness, e.g., gender.e.g., gender.

2.2. Ordinal – variables with Ordinal – variables with attributes that are attributes that are logically rank-ordered, logically rank-ordered, e.g., SES – low, middle, e.g., SES – low, middle, high.high.

Levels of MeasurementLevels of Measurement

3.3. Interval – the distance Interval – the distance between attributes can be between attributes can be expressed in meaningful expressed in meaningful standard intervals, e.g., standard intervals, e.g., temperature.temperature.

4.4. Ratio – variables having all Ratio – variables having all the above requirements plus the above requirements plus are based on a true zero point, are based on a true zero point, e.g., income.e.g., income.

Question: What are the advantages of measuring income as an Question: What are the advantages of measuring income as an ordinal measure versus a ratio measure?ordinal measure versus a ratio measure?

Multiple IndicatorsMultiple Indicators

Some variables are better measured Some variables are better measured (greater validity and reliability) using (greater validity and reliability) using multiple indicators.multiple indicators.

For example, liberalism.For example, liberalism. We can combine indicators to form We can combine indicators to form

indexes and scales. For example, job indexes and scales. For example, job satisfaction.satisfaction.

Indexes and scales are both ordinal Indexes and scales are both ordinal measures.measures.

IndexesIndexes

An index is constructed by simply An index is constructed by simply adding scores assigned to adding scores assigned to individual attributes, e.g., we might individual attributes, e.g., we might measure prejudice by adding up the measure prejudice by adding up the number of statements each number of statements each respondent agreed with.respondent agreed with.

IndexesIndexes

ScalesScales

A scale is constructed by assigning scores A scale is constructed by assigning scores to patterns of responses. Some items to patterns of responses. Some items reflect a relatively weak degree of the reflect a relatively weak degree of the variable, while others reflect something variable, while others reflect something stronger. For example, women are stronger. For example, women are different from men (weak degree of different from men (weak degree of sexism); women should not be allowed to sexism); women should not be allowed to vote (stronger evidence of sexism). A vote (stronger evidence of sexism). A scale has an intensity structure among the scale has an intensity structure among the attributes.attributes.

ScalesScales

EthicsEthics Ethical obligations to respondents:Ethical obligations to respondents:

1.1. Voluntary participation and consentVoluntary participation and consent Statements informing participants about the goals of Statements informing participants about the goals of

the study and consent forms would need to be the study and consent forms would need to be prepared in advance.prepared in advance.

2.2. The right to privacy, the maintenance of The right to privacy, the maintenance of dignity and protection against harm.dignity and protection against harm.

Anonymity and confidentialityAnonymity and confidentiality

Question: What effects could the above have on Question: What effects could the above have on thethe

research in terms of, for example, reliability?research in terms of, for example, reliability?

Quantitative Data Quantitative Data AnalysisAnalysis

Univariate AnalysisUnivariate Analysis Central tendency Central tendency

(averages)(averages)• Mode (most Mode (most

frequent number)frequent number)• Mean (arithmetic Mean (arithmetic

average)average)• Median (midpoint)Median (midpoint)


DispersionDispersion Range (from highest to lowest)Range (from highest to lowest) Standard deviationStandard deviation


Bivariate AnalysisBivariate Analysis Looking for relationships between two Looking for relationships between two

variables.variables.

IndependentIndependent Dependent Dependent

(e.g., gender)(e.g., gender) (e.g., attitude (e.g., attitude toward toward legalization of marijuana)legalization of marijuana)


Constructing and reading bivariate Constructing and reading bivariate tablestables

• Tables should have a title and numberTables should have a title and number• The independent variable should be at the The independent variable should be at the

top; the dependent variable at the side.top; the dependent variable at the side.

NOTE: Insert example of a table.NOTE: Insert example of a table.


Multivariate Analysis and the Multivariate Analysis and the Elaboration ModelElaboration Model Multivariate analysis is the analysis of Multivariate analysis is the analysis of

more than two variables simultaneously.more than two variables simultaneously.


The Elaboration Paradigm


Elaboration ModelElaboration Model1.1. ReplicationReplication is when the partial relationships are is when the partial relationships are

essentially the same as the original relationship.essentially the same as the original relationship.

2.2. InterpretationInterpretation is when the original relationship is when the original relationship is significantly weakened or disappears as a is significantly weakened or disappears as a result of an intervening variable.result of an intervening variable.

3.3. ExplanationExplanation is used to describe a spurious is used to describe a spurious relationship, i.e., an original relationship shown relationship, i.e., an original relationship shown to be false through the introduction of an to be false through the introduction of an antecedent test variable. An antecedent variable antecedent test variable. An antecedent variable is one that precedes both the independent and is one that precedes both the independent and dependent variables.dependent variables.


Refinements to the Elaboration ModelRefinements to the Elaboration Model A A suppressor variablesuppressor variable affects the affects the

relationship between the independent and relationship between the independent and dependent variable such that no relationship dependent variable such that no relationship seems to exist. However, when controlling seems to exist. However, when controlling for the suppressor variable, the relationship for the suppressor variable, the relationship between the independent and dependent between the independent and dependent variable appears. variable appears.

A A distorter variabledistorter variable reverses the true reverses the true relationship between the independent and relationship between the independent and dependent variables.dependent variables.

sociology 202 research principles and practice. bogardus social distance scale let’s say you’re...

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