Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics & &

EducationEducation

Jonathan SmartJonathan Smart

Kathleen ByrneKathleen Byrne

What is Educational What is Educational Sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics?

Educational sociolinguistics is the subfield Educational sociolinguistics is the subfield of sociolinguistics dealing with of sociolinguistics dealing with relationships between language and relationships between language and education.education.

Research examines:Research examines:• Relationships within classroomsRelationships within classrooms• Informal educationInformal education• Community- centered instructionCommunity- centered instruction• Media/Long-distance educationMedia/Long-distance education

In every society there is information that In every society there is information that members need to know, and skills they need members need to know, and skills they need

to acquire in order to meet the to acquire in order to meet the responsibilities and obligations of responsibilities and obligations of

citizenship. citizenship. TRIBAL SOCIETIESTRIBAL SOCIETIES

• Supervised by elders Supervised by elders • Ceremonies mark Ceremonies mark

entrance into entrance into adulthoodadulthood

• Imitation of skilled Imitation of skilled artisans for artisans for continuation of arts & continuation of arts & craftscrafts

• Encouragement of Encouragement of community centered community centered communicationcommunication

STATE SOCIETIESSTATE SOCIETIES• Assigned to a local Assigned to a local

institutioninstitution• Knowledge may not be Knowledge may not be

consistent with what is consistent with what is learned in the home or learned in the home or communitycommunity

• Home/school language Home/school language & cultural differences & cultural differences are one source of are one source of educational problemseducational problems

Classroom LanguageClassroom Language

• Language is heavily regulatedLanguage is heavily regulatedo Teacher talk dominates in the classroomTeacher talk dominates in the classroomo Teacher determines the topic and each Teacher determines the topic and each

student’s right to speak on that topicstudent’s right to speak on that topico Students must maintain the teacher’s Students must maintain the teacher’s

language expectations, otherwise their language expectations, otherwise their right to speak is terminatedright to speak is terminated‘‘Old Ironsides’ (Dorr-Bremme 1984)Old Ironsides’ (Dorr-Bremme 1984)

Classroom Language Classroom Language

o Oral communication Oral communication

differencesdifferences More context More context

dependentdependentLess repetition Less repetition

and redundancyand redundancyMore fragmented More fragmented

answersanswers

o Written communication Written communication differences differences

Less context Less context dependentdependent

Lots of repetition and Lots of repetition and redundancyredundancy

• Conflicting Definitions of Purpose:Conflicting Definitions of Purpose:

Letter to a pen-pal (Soloman 1995)

Structure & Culture in Structure & Culture in Classroom ConversationsClassroom Conversations

• Typically question-asking & answeringTypically question-asking & answering

• Mehan’s IRE structured sequenceMehan’s IRE structured sequence– InitiationInitiation usually by the teacher in the usually by the teacher in the

form of a request for informationform of a request for information– ResponseResponse from one of the students from one of the students– EvaluationEvaluation of the response by the teacher of the response by the teacher

followed by a request for more information followed by a request for more information or a new IRE sequenceor a new IRE sequence

Disadvantage & Classroom Disadvantage & Classroom LanguageLanguage

• Differences between classroom Differences between classroom language and home/community language and home/community language and cultural differences language and cultural differences create problems in the classroom.create problems in the classroom.– Ute cultural language expectationsUte cultural language expectations– Class/Race expectationsClass/Race expectations

•ActivityActivity

The Ways with WordsThe Ways with Words Experiment Experiment

• Heath (1983) in SC compared home Heath (1983) in SC compared home language of m-class whites, w-class language of m-class whites, w-class blacks, and w- class whites. blacks, and w- class whites.

• M-class whites read with children and ask M-class whites read with children and ask questionsquestions

• W-class whites read to their children W-class whites read to their children (fewer questions)(fewer questions)

• W-class blacks no reading or one-on-one W-class blacks no reading or one-on-one exchanges, but encourage autonomous exchanges, but encourage autonomous thought. thought.

Basil Bernstein’s ResearchBasil Bernstein’s Research

• Students from different social and Students from different social and economic backgrounds respond differently economic backgrounds respond differently to classroom experiencesto classroom experiences

• Speakers learn the language that is Speakers learn the language that is relevant to their social status thereby relevant to their social status thereby learning the requirements and restrictions learning the requirements and restrictions that regulate behavior within that social that regulate behavior within that social position. These he termed ‘codes’position. These he termed ‘codes’

Elaborated CodesElaborated Codes

Elaborate CodesElaborate Codes• Associated with the Associated with the

middle- class middle- class • Access to a wide range Access to a wide range

of syntactic and of syntactic and semantic alternativessemantic alternatives

• Encouraged to use Encouraged to use these options in these options in imaginative and imaginative and unpredictable waysunpredictable ways

• As a result they have a As a result they have a precise, highly precise, highly creative, & richly creative, & richly expressive speech expressive speech descriptions descriptions

Examples of UseExamples of Use• ExplicitExplicit• ExpressiveExpressive• Ability to conceptually Ability to conceptually

organize experiencesorganize experiences• Favors complex Favors complex

sentences sentences • Employs a large Employs a large

vocabulary by using all vocabulary by using all parts of speechparts of speech

Restricted CodesRestricted Codes

Restricted CodesRestricted Codes• Associated with the Associated with the

working- class & other working- class & other marginalized groupsmarginalized groups

• Access to a limited Access to a limited range of linguistic range of linguistic optionsoptions

• As a result they have As a result they have a limited range of a limited range of opportunities within opportunities within societysociety

Examples of UseExamples of Use• Uses minimal linguistic Uses minimal linguistic

resources:resources:– Sentences are usually Sentences are usually

shortshort– Links between sentences Links between sentences

are repetitive and are repetitive and predictable (and then, so, predictable (and then, so, next)next)

– Infrequent & un-detailed Infrequent & un-detailed use of adjectives & use of adjectives & adverbsadverbs

• Often elicit constant Often elicit constant confirmation for their confirmation for their statementsstatements– You knowYou know

Results of Bernstein’s WorkResults of Bernstein’s Work

• ‘‘Deficit Hypothesis’Deficit Hypothesis’– Poor performance of minority and Poor performance of minority and

working-class students due to a working-class students due to a language deficit or ‘verbal deprivation’language deficit or ‘verbal deprivation’

– Equivalent to not having a languageEquivalent to not having a language– Schools attempted to ‘teach language’Schools attempted to ‘teach language’

Viewed as being racially motivatedViewed as being racially motivatedStereotypically assumed the varieties of Stereotypically assumed the varieties of

English used by minority were inferiorEnglish used by minority were inferior

Labov’s ResearchLabov’s Research

• Revealed the logic behind the non-Revealed the logic behind the non-standard AAVE use of the verb: standard AAVE use of the verb: to beto be– AAVE sentences that allow the deletion of AAVE sentences that allow the deletion of

the verb the verb bebe correspond to SAE sentences correspond to SAE sentences that use the contracted form of the verb that use the contracted form of the verb bebe•She --- the first one & She’s the first oneShe --- the first one & She’s the first one

– AAVE sentences that do not allow the AAVE sentences that do not allow the deletiondeletion of the verbof the verb be, be, are equivalent to are equivalent to SAE sentences where contractions are not SAE sentences where contractions are not allowedallowed•*Who’s it? & Who --- it?*Who’s it? & Who --- it?

Persistent ProblemsPersistent Problems

• TrudgillTrudgill– Problem lies with Problem lies with

school expectationsschool expectations– School system School system

should change in should change in order to be more order to be more flexible to adapt to flexible to adapt to the needs of the the needs of the studentsstudents

• BourdieuBourdieu– Argues that the Argues that the

problem is not in the problem is not in the stratified codes that stratified codes that promote promote disadvantagedisadvantage

– Schools are used for Schools are used for ‘social reproduction’, ‘social reproduction’, meaning they are meaning they are used to maintain used to maintain class structure to class structure to restrict student’s restrict student’s future opportunities future opportunities for advancementfor advancement

Continued Effects of Continued Effects of Classroom Language Classroom Language

The power, regulation, and control of The power, regulation, and control of classroom language is shown classroom language is shown through teacher-student through teacher-student communication and is central to the communication and is central to the students’ success or failurestudents’ success or failure

Dialect & Language ChoiceDialect & Language ChoiceIn the ClassroomIn the Classroom

• Which should be language of Which should be language of instruction?instruction?

• Easy in monolingual countries Easy in monolingual countries (except for classical languages)(except for classical languages)

• Questions of choosing language of Questions of choosing language of instruction is linked to “possibilities instruction is linked to “possibilities of social and educational change” of social and educational change” (Mesthrie p. 368). (Mesthrie p. 368).

UNESCO: Vernacular in UNESCO: Vernacular in EducationEducation

• Committee 1951-1953 published report Committee 1951-1953 published report (see Mesthrie 369-370), reconsidering (see Mesthrie 369-370), reconsidering the validity of ‘vernaculars.’the validity of ‘vernaculars.’

• Critics objected to impracticality of Critics objected to impracticality of many of the committee’s suggestions.many of the committee’s suggestions.

• Balance capability of extant language to Balance capability of extant language to deal with education with advantages of deal with education with advantages of using ‘mother tongue’using ‘mother tongue’

Very Smooth Transition Very Smooth Transition

Language attitudes, Language attitudes, motivation, and standardsmotivation, and standards

• McGroarty (1996) “Language is an McGroarty (1996) “Language is an intimate part of social identity”intimate part of social identity”

• Teachers must balance teaching Teachers must balance teaching responsibility w/ respect for language responsibility w/ respect for language that students bring to class.that students bring to class.

• In examining motivation, etc, hard to In examining motivation, etc, hard to determine what are results vs. determine what are results vs. causescauses

Students are affected by:Students are affected by:(discussion)(discussion)

1.1. Effective strategies for learningEffective strategies for learning2.2. Attitudes/examples of peers, Attitudes/examples of peers,

teachers, parents towards language teachers, parents towards language studystudy

3.3. Social/Institutional language policies Social/Institutional language policies as reflected in classroomas reflected in classroom

4.4. Status of the language in societyStatus of the language in society5.5. Personal attitudes & motivations of Personal attitudes & motivations of

students themselves and teachers. students themselves and teachers.

DefinitionsDefinitions

• Attitude: “involves beliefs, emotional Attitude: “involves beliefs, emotional reactions, and behavioral tendencies reactions, and behavioral tendencies related to the object of the attitude” related to the object of the attitude” (p 5).(p 5).

• Motivation: “combination of desire Motivation: “combination of desire and effort made to achieve a goal” (p and effort made to achieve a goal” (p 5)5)

Measuring the abstractMeasuring the abstract

• Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972) gave Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972) gave self-report questionnaires about the self-report questionnaires about the language, the language speakers, etc. language, the language speakers, etc.

• Then subjects were asked to rate Then subjects were asked to rate speakers’ samples based on unrelated speakers’ samples based on unrelated qualities, judging between language qualities, judging between language varieties (but actually same speakers).varieties (but actually same speakers).

Orientation IndexOrientation Index

• Index of motivation: initial Index of motivation: initial distinction, still widely used in distinction, still widely used in psychology:psychology:

• Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation: based within : based within the individualthe individual

• Extrinsic motivation:Extrinsic motivation: individual’s individual’s perception of external rewards for perception of external rewards for actionaction

Motivation constructsMotivation constructs

• OrientationsOrientations of motivation: of motivation:

• Integrative:Integrative: the desire to be like and the desire to be like and interact with speakers of the target interact with speakers of the target language. language.

• Instrumental: Instrumental: desire to learn language to desire to learn language to achieve a goal such as achieve a goal such as academic/occupational success (p 7)academic/occupational success (p 7)

• Later Research: Orientation is indirect i/o Later Research: Orientation is indirect i/o direct influence on achievement (p 8)direct influence on achievement (p 8)

New Research (Baker, 1992)New Research (Baker, 1992)

• Indicators of attitude: gender, age, Indicators of attitude: gender, age, language background, type of school language background, type of school attended, local youth culture, etc.attended, local youth culture, etc.

• These factors shape attitudes, which These factors shape attitudes, which are also influenced by language are also influenced by language ability. ability.

Problems with ResearchProblems with Research

• Question of causalityQuestion of causality

• Operational definitions (of Operational definitions (of motivation) are too narrow to apply. motivation) are too narrow to apply.

• ““Classroom is treated generically” (p Classroom is treated generically” (p 9). 9).

Recent MethodsRecent Methods

• Newer studies correlate questionnaires Newer studies correlate questionnaires with self-reported risk taking. with self-reported risk taking.

• Newer research has made an effort to Newer research has made an effort to integrate broader (beyond the L2 integrate broader (beyond the L2 classroom) personality factors (e.g. classroom) personality factors (e.g. using Meyers-Brigg type indicators). using Meyers-Brigg type indicators).

• Tried to incorporate general Tried to incorporate general educational, industrial-occupational, educational, industrial-occupational, and social learning theory.and social learning theory.

Summary RelationshipSummary Relationship

Language learning depends on theLanguage learning depends on the

interaction between 3 broad factors:interaction between 3 broad factors:

1.1. The Person and relevant indicatorsThe Person and relevant indicators

2.2. The Nature of Instruction ReceivedThe Nature of Instruction Received

3.3. The Broader Language Learning The Broader Language Learning ContextContext

Enter DVDEnter DVD

Accommodation TheoryAccommodation Theory

• (Giles et al, 1979, 1991)(Giles et al, 1979, 1991)

• Convergent: “factors related to Convergent: “factors related to feeling of solidarity” wherein a feeling of solidarity” wherein a speaker is reinforced to use increase speaker is reinforced to use increase prestige/standard variantsprestige/standard variants

• Divergent: using marked features to Divergent: using marked features to “emphasize a distinctive social “emphasize a distinctive social identity” (p 12)identity” (p 12)

Attitudes & EducationAttitudes & Education

• Attitude no longer studied as single Attitude no longer studied as single determinative factor in learning. determinative factor in learning.

• Linked to other factors: perceived Linked to other factors: perceived competence, personal & academic competence, personal & academic self-esteem, beliefs about community self-esteem, beliefs about community of target language.of target language.

Student & Parent AttitudesStudent & Parent Attitudes

• Attitudes are shaped by personal Attitudes are shaped by personal experiences and their specific learning experiences and their specific learning contextcontext

• ESL students will not all have the same ESL students will not all have the same attitude towards learning a new language; attitude towards learning a new language; however, parents typically want their child however, parents typically want their child to be bilingual to be bilingual

• Students using a non-standard English Students using a non-standard English dialect comprehend SAE after 4-5 years of dialect comprehend SAE after 4-5 years of formal educationformal education

• Problems arise when SAE speaking teachers Problems arise when SAE speaking teachers cannot understand students using non-cannot understand students using non-standard dialectsstandard dialects

Student & Parent AttitudesStudent & Parent Attitudes

• Controversy is typical when the community Controversy is typical when the community language is different than the school languagelanguage is different than the school language

• When marginalization or oppression is a When marginalization or oppression is a historical aspect of the community being bi-historical aspect of the community being bi-dialectic is seen as positive/necessarydialectic is seen as positive/necessary

• Distinction between learning community Distinction between learning community dialect at home and school/standard dialect is dialect at home and school/standard dialect is also positivealso positive

• Some aspects of community dialect integrated Some aspects of community dialect integrated in school language is helpfulin school language is helpful

• Prohibition of community language is Prohibition of community language is unjustifiedunjustified

Language Attitude Studies Language Attitude Studies

• Acquiring a second language does Acquiring a second language does not improve social attitudes towards not improve social attitudes towards that culturethat culture

• Emotional factors are involved in Emotional factors are involved in students’ intrinsic motivation students’ intrinsic motivation

• Students may become discouraged Students may become discouraged due to the length of the acquisition due to the length of the acquisition processprocess

Choices of Norms & Choices of Norms & StandardsStandards• Descriptive Norms- what speakers Descriptive Norms- what speakers

use most oftenuse most often• Prescriptive Norms- rules applied to Prescriptive Norms- rules applied to

language use in all settingslanguage use in all settings• Language Standardization- process Language Standardization- process

over time involves selecting a norm, over time involves selecting a norm, elaboration for different uses, elaboration for different uses, restriction of diversity, & codification restriction of diversity, & codification in grammar or dictionaries in grammar or dictionaries

Standards In SchoolsStandards In Schools

• Norms are established by the Norms are established by the dominant culture groupdominant culture group

• Enforced in schools through Enforced in schools through standardized language usestandardized language use

• Historically teachers promote ‘correct Historically teachers promote ‘correct language’ equivalent to standardized language’ equivalent to standardized EnglishEnglish

• Currently history, geography, & Currently history, geography, & political and commercial relationships political and commercial relationships are influencing accepted normsare influencing accepted norms

Language PoliciesLanguage Policies

• Language policies & instruction Language policies & instruction shape attitudes towards languageshape attitudes towards language

• Language policies shape political Language policies shape political attitudes due to power struggles attitudes due to power struggles between dominant and minority between dominant and minority groupsgroups

Educational ImplicationsEducational Implications

• Find ways to motivate speakers at the Find ways to motivate speakers at the individual, classroom, and school wide individual, classroom, and school wide levellevel

• Promote the relevance of language Promote the relevance of language instruction and the real worldinstruction and the real world

• Expand opportunities for diverse language Expand opportunities for diverse language formsforms

• As conflict and disagreements over As conflict and disagreements over language continues teachers need to language continues teachers need to provide creative and effective changesprovide creative and effective changes