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ВЕСТНИК СОЦИАЛЬНЫХ НАУК

2015 1 (20)

fiurn‚l‚ ìSoci‚lo Zin‚tÚu VÁstnesisî tiek publicÁti oriÏin‚li zin‚tniskie raksti soci‚laj‚szin‚tnÁs (socioloÏij‚, politikas zin‚tnÁ, ekonomik‚, soci‚laj‚ psiholoÏij‚, tiesÓbuzin‚tnÁ), k‚ arÓ zin‚tnisko pÁtÓjumu recenzijas, konferenËu apskati, inform‚cija parzin‚tnisko dzÓvi. Redakcija pieÚem rakstus latvieu, angÔu un krievu valod‚.

Redakcijas kolÁÏija

V. MeÚikovs, redakcijas kolÁÏijas prieksÁdÁt‚js (Daugavpils, Latvija), D. Beresnevi-Ëiene (–auÔi, Lietuva), V. BoroÚenko (Daugavpils, Latvija), G. Gavtadze (Kutaisi,Gruzija), A. Ivanovs (Daugavpils, Latvija), N. Jazdanijs (Lahore, Pakist‚na),E. Jermolajeva (Jelgava, Latvija), V. Justickis (ViÔÚa, Lietuva), V. Kosiedovskis (ToruÚa,Polija), A. MatuÔonis (ViÔÚa, Lietuva), O. Oslands (Oslo, NorvÁÏija), fi. OzoliÚa (RÓga,Latvija), S. Partyckis (œubÔina, Polija), B. Riv˛a (Jelgava, Latvija), G. Sokolova (Minska,Baltkrievija), P. –avarijs (Miskolca, Ung‚rija), M.J. –utena (Koviljana, Portug‚le),T. Tisenkopfs (RÓga, Latvija), J. VankeviËa (Vitebska, Baltkrievija), J. Varavska(Maskava, Krievija), D˛. Vestovers (Utaha, ASV), A. Vorobjovs (Daugavpils, Latvija),V. Zahars (Daugavpils, Latvija)

Redakcija

V. BoroÚenko (redaktore), M. “esterova (redaktores vietniece), A. Moziro,I. Ostrovska, A. Ru˛a, O. Ru˛a, J. SemeÚeca (sekret‚re), V. –ipilova (redaktoresvietniece), V. Volkovs, Z. Zeibote

Adrese

Daugavpils Universit‚tes Soci‚lo zin‚tÚu fakult‚tes Soci‚lo pÁtÓjumu instit˚ts,Par‚des 1, Daugavpils, LV-5400, Latvija.

T‚lr. (+371)65422163 E-pasts [email protected]

IzdevÁjs

Daugavpils Universit‚te

ReÏistr‚cijas Nr. 000702889ReÏistr‚cijas apliecÓba Nr. M 000331

Dibin‚ts 2004. gad‚

© Daugavpils Universit‚te

ISSN 1691-1881

Ir iekÔauts datu b‚zÁ: / Included in the database: / Включён в базу данных:EBSCOhost SocINDEX, Central European Journal of Social Sciences andHumanities (CEJSH), World Interdisciplinary Network for Institutional

Research (WINIR), Electronic Journals Library of University of Regensburg

ìSocial Sciences Bulletinî publishes original research papers on the problems of socialsciences (sociology, political sciences, economics, social psychology, law), as well asreview articles, information on conferences and scientific life. The Editorial Boardaccepts articles in English, Latvian, and Russian.

Editorial Board

V. MeÚikovs, Chairman of the Editorial Board (Daugavpils, Latvia), A. Aasland(Oslo, Norway), D. BeresneviËiene (–iauliai, Lithuania), V. Boronenko (Daugavpils,Latvia), G. Gavtadze (Kutaisi, Georgia), A. Ivanovs (Daugavpils, Latvia), E. Jermolajeva(Jelgava, Latvija), V. Justickis (Vilnius, Lithuania), W. Kosiedowski (ToruÒ, Poland),A. Matulionis (Vilnius, Lithuania), fi. OzoliÚa (Riga, Latvia), S. Partycki (Lublin,Poland), B. Riv˛a (Jelgava, Latvia), P. Sasvari (Miskolc, Hungary), M.J. Schouten(Covilhã, Portugal), G. Sokolova (Minsk, Belarus), T. Tisenkopfs (Riga, Latvia),Y. Vankevich (Vitebsk, Belarus), Y. Varshavskaya (Moscow, Russia), A. Vorobjovs(Daugavpils, Latvia), J. Westover (Utah, USA), N. Yazdani (Lahore, Pakistan),V. Zahars (Daugavpils, Latvia)

Editorial Staff

V. BoroÚenko (editor), M. “esterova (associate editor), A. Mozyro, I. Ostrovska,A. Ru˛a, O. Ru˛a, J. SemeÚeca (secretary),V. Sipilova (associate editor), V. Volkovs,Z. Zeibote

Address

Institute of Social Investigations, Faculty of Social Sciences, Daugavpils University,Par‚des 1, Daugavpils, LV-5400, Latvia.

Tel. (+371)65422163 E-mail [email protected]

Publisher

Daugavpils University

Registration No. 000702889Registration certificate No. M 000331

Established in 2004

© Daugavpils University

SATURS

RAKSTI / ARTICLES / СТАТЬИ

SocioloÏija / Sociology / Социология

Галина Соколова. СРЕДНИЙ КЛАСС В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ БЕЛАРУСЬ:СОСТОЯНИЕ И ПРОБЛЕМЫ ФУНКЦИОНИРОВАНИЯ ......................... 7VidusÌira Baltkrievijas Republik‚: st‚voklis un funkcionÁanas problÁmasMiddle class in the Republic of Belarus: state and the problems offunctioning

Ekonomika / Economics / Экономика

Екатерина Галешова, Елена Ванкевич. КАДРОВАЯ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬВ ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯХ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ: ОЦЕНКАРИСКОВ И ПОТЕНЦИАЛА ........................................................................ 23Person‚lvadÓba Baltkrievijas Republikas organiz‚cij‚s: risku un potenci‚lanovÁrtÁjumsHuman resources management activities in organizations of the Republicof Belarus: assessment of risks and the potential

Jaroslaw Mioduszewski. THE INFLUENCE OF PROPRIETORIALCHANGES IN PUBLIC SECTOR OF AGRICULTURE ONAGRARIAN STRUCTURE IN POLAND ....................................................... 45LauksaimniecÓbas valsts sektora ÓpaumtiesÓbu izmaiÚu ietekme uzlauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚ru Polij‚Влияние изменений прав собственности в государственномсельскохозяйственном секторе на структуру сельского хозяйствав Польше

Kaspars Steinbergs, Renate Cane. CRISIS MANAGEMENT ANDCOMMUNICATION AT FILM STUDIOS IN LATVIA ................................. 60KrÓzes mened˛ments un komunik‚cija Latvijas filmu studij‚sАнтикризисное управление и коммуникация на латвийскихкиностудиях

Soci‚l‚ psiholoÏija / Social psychology / Социальная психология

Margarita Nesterova, Svetlana Ignatjeva, Aleksejs Ruza. ADAPTATIONIN LATVIA OF SCALES OF PERSONAL AND GENERAL BELIEF INA JUST WORLD ............................................................................................ 76PersonÓg‚s un visp‚rej‚s ticÓbas taisnÓgai pasaulei skalu adapt‚cija Latvij‚Адаптация в Латвии шкал общей и личной веры в справедливый мир

6

ZIN¬TNISK¬ DZŒVE / SCIENTIFIC LIFE / НАУЧНАЯ ЖИЗНЬ

Konferences un semin‚ri / Conferences and workshops /Конференции и семинары

Sasa Drezgic, Vera Boronenko. INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFICCONFERENCE/ROUND TABLE ìREFORMS TOWARDS MOREDECENTRALIZED GOVERNMENTS AND RELATED PROBLEMS OFSUBSTANTIAL EFFECTS ON FISCAL CONSOLIDATION EFFORTSî ....... 87

Aizst‚vÁtie promocijas darbi / Defended doctoral theses /Защищенные промоционные работы

Jelena Lonska. ASSESSMENT OF TERRITORIAL STATE OFDEVELOPMENT IN LATVIAN REGIONS ................................................... 90

Aivars Stankevics. THE ROLE OF THE HIGHER EDUCATIONIN THE INCREASING OF PERFORMANCE OF A REGION ....................... 100

Rets Renemanis. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF LATVIANONCOLOGY SYSTEM IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EUROPEANREGIONS ....................................................................................................... 108

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R A K S T I

S O C I O L O Ã I J A

Галина Соколова

СРЕДНИЙ КЛАСС В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ БЕЛАРУСЬ:СОСТОЯНИЕ И ПРОБЛЕМЫ ФУНКЦИОНИРОВАНИЯ

На основании авторского определения среднего класса рассмотрены критерии выде-ления и характеристики белорусского среднего класса, выявлены проблемы функциони-рования среднего класса в Республике Беларусь. В качестве критериев экономическойстратификации общества выбрано соотношение уровня доходов населения с величинойминимального потребительского бюджета (МПБ) и величиной бюджета прожиточногоминимума (БПМ). Выступая основными социальными нормативами, данные критериипозволяют соотносить между собой показатели государственной статистики, данные выбо-рочных обследований домашних хозяйств и результаты социологических исследований.Основными функциями среднего класса в его западном варианте являются: диверсифи-кация общества по социальным группам за счет наполнения среднего класса новыми пре-тендентами; стабилизация общества в силу высокого уровня восходящей экономическоймобильности, эффективное воспроизводство научного и образовательного потенциала.Выполнение названных функций превращает средний класс в носителя национальнойкультуры и выразителя общественных интересов. Показано, что в плане выполнения функ-ции диверсификации средний класс белорусского общества включает в себя практическивсе социальные группы. В аспекте выполнения образовательной функции, белорусскийсредний класс состоит из высококвалифицированных специалистов и рабочих, а такженаиболее успешных предпринимателей. Что касается осуществления функции стабили-зации общества на основе восходящей экономической мобильности, то определеннаямобильность наблюдается, но в ограниченном диапазоне. За период с 1995 по 2013 годудельный вес малообеспеченного слоя (страты) уменьшился более чем в 7 раз, доля ниж-него слоя уменьшилась в 2 раза. При этом произошло четырехкратное возрастание слоя«ниже среднего» и превращение его в базовый (основной) слой общества, составивший в2013 г. 51.8% от всего населения (при доле среднего класса – 23.4%). Базовый слой как бы«вбирает» в себя нижние слои и «консервирует» в диапазоне от 1 до 2 МПБ половину насе-ления республики, выполняя функцию стабилизации белорусского общества как «равен-ство в бедности». По результатам социологических исследований выявлено, что базовыйслой замещает средний класс по выполнению количественных функций – диверсифика-ции и стабилизации общества, но не может заместить его по выполнению качественныхфункций – агента экономического и социального прогресса.

Ключевые слова: средний класс, критерии выделения среднего класса, характеристи-ки среднего класса, функции среднего класса, базовый слой.

Soci‚lo Zin‚tÚu VÁstnesis 2015 18

VidusÌira Baltkrievijas Republik‚: st‚voklis un funkcionÁanas problÁmas

Pamatojoties uz autores izvirzÓto vidusÌiras definÓciju, izpÁtÓti baltkrievu vidusÌiras atÌi-rÓbu kritÁriji un to raksturojums, nosakot Baltkrievijas vidusÌiras funkcionÁanas problÁmas.Par kritÁrijiem sabiedrÓbas ekonomiskajai stratifik‚cijai izvÁlÁta iedzÓvot‚ju ien‚kuma lÓmeÚaattiecÓba pret minim‚l‚ patÁriÚa bud˛eta (MPB) un iztikas minimuma bud˛eta (IMB) lielumu.Pielietojot pamata soci‚los normatÓvus, izvÁlÁtie kritÁriji Ôauj savstarpÁji salÓdzin‚t valsts statis-tikas r‚dÓt‚jus, m‚jsaimniecÓbu apsekojuma izvÁles datus un socioloÏisko pÁtÓjumu r‚dÓt‚jus.VidusÌiras galven‚ funkcija rietumu sabiedrÓba izpau˛as ‚di: sabiedrÓbas iedalÓana soci‚laj‚sgrup‚s uz vidusÌiras palielin‚an‚s ar jauniem pretendentiem rÁÌina; sabiedrÓbas stabilizÁana,Úemot vÁr‚ pieaugo‚s ekonomisk‚s mobilit‚tes augsto lÓmeni, k‚ arÓ efektÓvo zin‚tnes un iz-glÓtÓbas potenci‚la atjaunoanu. IepriekminÁto funkciju izpilde dod iespÁju vidusÌirai p‚rst‚vÁtnacion‚l‚s kult˚ras un sabiedrÓbas intereses. Pier‚dÓts, ka diversifik‚cijas funkcijas izpildesjom‚ baltkrievu sabiedrÓbas vidusÌira ietver praktiski visas soci‚l‚s grupas. No izglÓtÓbas fun-kcijas aspekta, baltkrievu vidusÌira sast‚v no augsti kvalificÁtiem speci‚listiem un str‚dniekiem,k‚ arÓ veiksmÓg‚kajiem uzÚÁmÁjiem. SaistÓb‚ ar sabiedrÓbas stabiliz‚cijas funkcijas izpildi ekono-misk‚s mobilit‚tes palielin‚an‚s ietekmÁ, nosacÓta mobilit‚te tiek novÁrota ierobe˛ot‚ diapa-zon‚. Laika period‚ no 1995. gada lÓdz 2013. gadam nosacÓtais maznodroin‚t‚ sl‚Úa svarssamazin‚j‚s vair‚k nek‚ 7 reizes, bet apakÁj‚ Ó sl‚Úa daÔa samazin‚j‚s 2 reizes. Taj‚ pa‚laik‚ Ëetrk‚rtÓgi pieaudzis ìzem‚k par vidÁjoî sl‚nis un tas p‚rvÁrties par sabiedrÓbas pamatasl‚ni, kas 2013. g. ietvÁra 51,8% no visiem iedzÓvot‚jiem (pie 23,4% vidusÌiras daÔas). Pamatasl‚nis it k‚ ìiekÔaujî sevÓ zem‚kos sl‚Úus un ìiekonservÁî diapazon‚ no 1 lÓdz 2 MBP pusi norepublikas iedzÓvot‚jiem, izpildot baltkrievu sabiedrÓbas stabiliz‚cijas funkciju k‚ ìnabadzÓbailÓdzvÁrtÓguî. PÁc socioloÏisko pÁtÓjumu datiem noskaidrots, ka pamata sl‚nis aizst‚j vidusÌirusaistÓb‚ ar kvantitatÓvo funkciju izpildi ñ sabiedrÓbas diversifik‚ciju un stabiliz‚ciju, bet nevarto aizvietot kvalitatÓvo funkciju izpildÁ, k‚ ekonomisk‚ un soci‚l‚ progresa aÏents.

AtslÁgas v‚rdi: vidusÌira, vidusÌiras noteikanas kritÁriji, vidusÌiras raksturojums,vidusÌiras funkcijas, pamata sl‚nis.

Middle class in the Republic of Belarus: state and the problems of functioning

On the basis of authorís definition of middle class, criteria of allocation and the charac-teristics of Belarusian middle class are considered, the problems of functioning of middle classin Belarus are revealed. As social stratification criterion in society is chosen correlation ofpopulation incomes level with size of minimum consumer budget (MCB) and subsistence levelbudget (SLB). Acting as basic social specifications, given criteria allow correlating amongthemselves the indicators of state statistics, data of selective inspections of household incomeper capita and the results of sociological researches. The basic functions of middle class in itswestern variant are: diversification of society into social groups at the expense of middle classfilling by new applicants; stabilization of society owing to high level of ascending economicmobility, effective reproduction of scientific and educational potential. Performance of thenamed functions transforms middle class in the bearer of national culture and the exponent ofpublic interests. It is shown, that in respect of performance of diversification function, andmiddle class in Belarusian society includes practically all social groups. In respect of performanceof educational function, Belarusian middle class includes the specialists of high qualificationand the workers with high level of skill. As to realizing of stabilization function in society onthe basis of ascending economic mobility, certain mobility is observed, but in the limited range.Since 1995 to 2013, the share of bottom stratum has decreased more than in 7 times, the shareof lower stratum has decreased in 2 times. At the same time there was a quadruple increase ofstratum ìbelow an averageî and its transformation into the basic stratum of society which hasmade 51.8% of total population in 2013 (middle class has only 23.4% of total population).

Г. Соколова. Средний класс в Республике Беларусь.. 9

The basic stratum as though ìincorporatesî the lower strata and ́ preservesª half of populationin a range from 1 to 2 MCB, originally carrying out function of Belarusian society stabilizationas ìequality in povertyî. On the results of sociological researches it is revealed, that basicstratum replaces middle class for performance of quantitative functions ñ diversification andstabilization of society, but cannot replace it for performance of qualitative functions for theagent of technological, economic and social progress.

Key words: middle class, criteria of middle class allocation, characteristics of middle class,middle class functions, basic stratum.

Введение

Средний класс западных обществ, с которым соотносятся идеи социальнойстабильности, гармонии и устойчивого развития, индивидуальной свободы,экономической независимости и достойного существования, рассматривается вкачестве ключевого момента модели социального развития, к которой идет боль-шинство современных обществ. В России, например, становление среднего классасвязывалось прежде всего с экономическим развитием страны в рамках концеп-ции либеральных реформ начала 1990-х годов. Однако социальным итогом ре-форм стало не формирование процветающего среднего класса, а размываниеранее существовавших в стране средних слоев и обострившаяся поляризацияобщества.

О среднем классе пишут ученые, политики, журналисты; при этом одни рас-сматривают его как основу социальной стабильности общества, другие – как глав-ную движущую силу реформ, третьи – как и то и другое вместе. Так, Т.И. Заслав-ская и Р.В. Рывкина отмечают, что сейчас «спрос на средний класс» особенновелик потому, что именно этот слой в принципе мог бы стать двигателем рыноч-ных перемен, развития в стране цивилизованного рынка. По существу, великспрос не столько на сам средний класс, сколько на функции, которые он мог бывыполнять. Так, высокая конфликтность общества породила, по мнению авто-ров, огромный спрос на «стабилизирующее воздействие среднего класса»(Zaslavskaia 2002: 468–494; Ryvkina 2001: 291–400).

К наиболее известным и глубоким исследователям, разрабатывающим мето-дологию адаптации характеристик феномена западного среднего класса к реалиямпостсоветского общества, относятся Е.М. Аврамова и Т. Малева (Avramova et al.2003: 506), М.К. Горшков и Н.Е. Тихонова (Gorshkov, Tikhonova 2008: 320). В ихтрудах изучены и выявлены те элементы социальной структуры современнойРоссии, которые потенциально могут претендовать на роль среднего класса; ко-личественная и качественная динамика средних классов в России; оценены ус-ловия и перспективы их развития.

Цель авторского исследования – анализ состояния и проблем функциони-рования среднего класса в Республике Беларусь. Достижение поставленной целипредполагает решение следующих задач: определить понятия и описываемый имифеномен среднего класса; обосновать критерии выделения и характеристикисреднего класса; выявить проблемы функционирования среднего класса в бело-русском обществе.


Основные определения среднего класса

Социальная структура общества представляет собой совокупность взаимо-связанных и взаимодействующих социальных групп, различающихся местом вобщественном разделении труда, располагаемыми ресурсами, социальным ста-тусом, а также ценностями, потребностями, интересами, стратегиями поведения,образом и стилем жизни. В этом плане, прежде чем говорить о среднем классе,следует выявить классообразующие признаки социального класса как такового.Наиболее плодотворная работа в этом направлении проделана П.А. Сорокиным,который определяет социальный класс как «совокупность лиц, сходных по профес-

сии (занятости – авт.), по имущественному положению, по объему прав, а следова-

тельно, имеющих тождественные профессионально + имущественно + социально-

правовые интересы» (Sorokin 1993: 376–387).Согласно данной классификации население большинства государств распа-

дается на четыре основные класса: класс трудовых крестьян (занятие – обработказемли физическим способом, имущественное положение – среднее или относи-тельно бедное, объем прав – ограниченный); класс наемных рабочих (занятие –наемный труд физического характера, имущественное положение – от среднегодо бедного, объем прав ограничен рамками трудовых контрактов); класс земле-

владельцев (занятие – получение земельной ренты и выполнение интеллектуально-управленческих функций, имущественное положение – богатые относительнорабочих и крестьян, объем прав – привилегированный); класс капиталистов (за-нятие – производство промышленного, торгового и финансового капитала, иму-щественное положение – богатые, объем прав – привилегированный, но иной,чем у землевладельцев). Органичное раскрытие определения социального класса,данного П.А. Сорокиным, в системе операциональных показателей позволяетсчитать его наиболее разработанным и наиболее «работающим» в конкретномсоциологическом контексте.

Развивая определение П.А. Сорокина применительно к так называемым сред-ним классам, мы определяем их как «иерархию социальных групп, сходных по про-

фессии (занятости), имущественному положению, объему гражданских прав, зани-

мающих срединное положение в обществе и разделяющих ценности трудовой и ры-

ночной идеологии» (Sokolova 2013: 211–215).Средний класс, при условии большого удельного веса, становится фактором

социальной интеграции общества в силу реализации ряда важнейших обществен-ных функций. Во-первых, в рамках среднего класса максимально выполняетсяусловие диверсификации (разнообразия) общества по социально-профессиональ-ным группам. При этом низший-средний, средний-средний и высший-среднийслои, составляющие средний класс, дифференцируются по показателям родазанятий и уровня квалификации, размера дохода и объему гражданских прав. Во-

вторых, средний класс способствует поддержанию относительной общественнойстабильности благодаря характерному для него высокому уровню восходящейэкономической мобильности. При этом большое число взаимообменов проис-ходит как внутри самого среднего класса, так и с другими частями социальнойструктуры общества. В-третьих, средний класс выполняет функцию агента тех-


нологического и социально-экономического прогресса, сосредотачивая в своихрядах наиболее квалифицированные кадры общества, отличающиеся высокимпрофессионализмом, значительным деятельностным потенциалом, гражданскойактивностью. Для представителей всех его слоев (страт) характерна четкая само-идентификация – соответствие между их социально-профессиональными харак-теристиками и выбором страты, к которой они себя относят. Так, доля лиц, иден-тифицирующих себя со средним классом, увеличивается по мере роста уровняобразования, социального престижа, размера денежных доходов, объема граж-данских прав. Как видим, выполнение функции социального стабилизатора об-щества предполагает не только удовлетворенность представителей среднего классасуществующим социальным порядком, но также его массивность и срединноеположение в обществе. А чтобы стать носителем национальной культуры и выра-зителем общественных интересов, этот класс должен обладать всеми названнымивыше характеристиками (Sokolova 2013: 211–215).

По данным ВЦИОМ, основную часть российского общества составляет слой,который Т.И. Заславская называет базовым, потому что к нему относятся 2/3 за-нятых в экономике и более половины населения России. Термин «базовый» пред-ставляется наиболее удачным, так как данный слой и в самом деле составляетсоциальную базу общества. Это специалисты массовых профессий (инженеры,учителя, врачи и др.), служащие без специальности, промышленные рабочие,крестьяне, фермеры, представители массовых профессий сферы обслуживания.В базовый слой перешла основная часть прежнего среднего класса, и большин-ство его представителей обладают достаточным профессионально-квалифика-ционным потенциалом, чтобы при благоприятной социально-экономическойконъюнктуре вернуться в состав среднего класса (Zaslavskaia 2002: 479–480).

Критерии выделения и характеристики белорусского среднего класса

Основные направления стратификационных сдвигов в белорусском обще-стве в период 1990-х годов состоят в следующем: социальная структура стала бо-лее подвижной, возросло многообразие социальных статусов, однако нисходя-щая экономическая мобильность крупных социальных групп до нулевых годовдоминировала над восходящей. Начиная с 2005 года восходящая мобильностьпреобладает, что способствует перемещению базового слоя из диапазона (от БПМдо МПБ) в диапазон (от 1 МПБ до 2 МПБ). Существенно изменилась и значи-мость компонентов социального статуса – если раньше положение людей опре-делялось уровнем занимаемой должности, то теперь их социальный вес все болееопределяется уровнем располагаемых ресурсов. Роль профессионально-квали-фикационного и культурного фактора в формировании высокостатусных группусилилась, а в социальной дифференциации основной части населения – ослаб-ла. Основной задачей государственной социальной политики становится эконо-мическое, правовое и информационное содействие развитию различных формсоциально-инновационной деятельности слоев общества в сфере технико-тех-нологического и социального прогресса.


В поисках среднего класса представляется наиболее рациональным выбратьв качестве критерия социальной стратификации соотношение уровня доходовнаселения с величиной минимального потребительского бюджета (МПБ) и ве-личиной бюджета прожиточного минимума (БПМ), составляющего 60% МПБ(1). Выступая основным социальным нормативом, минимальный потребительскийбюджет позволяет соотносить между собой показатели государственной статис-тики, результаты выборочных обследований домашних хозяйств (публикуемые встатистических бюллетенях) и результаты мониторинговых социологическихисследований республиканского масштаба, ежегодно проводимых Институтомсоциологии Национальной академии наук Беларуси. Подобная многоступенча-тая проверка дает возможность корректно классифицировать и исследовать со-циальные страты белорусского общества по уровню денежного дохода в среднемна душу населения.

Таблица 1Социальная стратификация белорусского общества по критериям

минимального потребительского бюджета (МПБ) ибюджета прожиточного минимума (БПМ), % (2013 г.)

По данным социоло-По данным государствен- гического исследова-

Страты с уровнем ной статистики, % от общей ния, % от числаденежных доходов численности населения ответов на вопрос о

денежном доходе1995 2000 2005 2008 2013 (11. 2013 г.)

Свыше 5 МПБ (элитарный слой) 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.4 1.2 1.2

От 3 до 5 МПБ (верхний слой) 1.0 1.2 2.4 4.1 7.1 5.3

От 2 до 3 МПБ (средний слой) 5.4 6.7 12.3 17.9 15.1 13.8От 1 до 2 МПБ (базовый слой) 13.1 15.1 42.9 53.3 51.8 55.5

От БПМ до МПБ (нижний слой) 42.0 34.9 29.3 17.2 19.3 16.1

Ниже БПМ (малообеспеченные) 38.4 41.9 12.7 6.1 5.5 8.1Итого 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Источник: Belstat 2014, str. 125, 127.

Рассмотрение экономической стратификации белорусского общества на базеданных государственной статистики показывает, что в процессе стабилизацииэкономики, т.е. за период с 1995 по 2013 год, удельный вес малообеспеченногонаселения (ниже БПМ) уменьшился более чем в 7 раз, доля нижнего слоя умень-шилась в 2 раза. При этом, произошло четырехкратное возрастание слоя «нижесреднего» и превращение его в базовый (основной) слой, составивший в 2013году 51.8% населения. Средний, верхний и элитарный слои, которые мы относимк среднему классу, составили в 2013 г. только 23.4% от всего населения. По резуль-татам республиканского социологического исследования, проведенного в ноябре2013 г., базовый слой составил 55.5%, а совокупность слоев среднего класса –20.3% от всего населения (табл. 1). Использование данных социологического


исследования, совпадающих с данными государственной статистики в пределах+/– 5%, позволяет раскрыть внутреннюю структуру каждого из выделенных со-циальных слоев (страт) (табл. 2).

Таблица 2Доля представителей разных социальных групп в каждой страте общества

по уровню располагаемых денежных ресурсов, % (2013 г.)

Величина денежных доходов

Свыше 5 МПБ (элитарный0.1 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 1.2

слой)От 3 до 5 МПБ (верхний слой) 1.2 1.4 1.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.4 5.3

От 2 до 3 МПБ (средний слой) 2.8 4.2 3.6 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 1.3 0.4 13.8

От 1 до 2 МПБ (базовый слой) 3.9 10.3 9.9 1.3 1.0 1.3 2.3 3.8 19.9 1.8 55.5От БПМ до 1 МПБ (нижний

0.6 3.1 3.8 1.3 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.8 3.8 0.7 16.1слой)

Ниже БПМ (малообеспечен-0.0 0.9 1.8 0.3 0.3 1.3 0.3 1.9 1.1 0.2 8.1

ные)

Итого 8.6 20.0 20.6 3.0 2.4 3.5 3.9 7.9 26.4 3.7 100.0

Примечание 1: В социологическом исследовании, проведенном в ноябре 2013 г., выбо-рочная совокупность составила 2110 чел. Предельная ошибка выборки по оценочнымпоказателям, гарантированная с 95-процентной вероятностью, составила – ± 2%. С уче-том данной погрешности, выводы исследования можно экстраполировать на генераль-ную совокупность, т. е. население республики. Данные в таблицах рассчитаны от числаответивших, принятого за 100%.

Примечание 2: Таблица описывает двумерное совместное распределение респондентовпо социальным группам и уровню доходов, т. е. сумма относительных частот (%) по всейтаблице равна 100%. Это позволяет производить сравнение любых относительных частотвнутри таблицы, а также сравнивать соответствующие частоты в разных таблицах.

Источник: Belstat 2014, str. 125, 127.

Так, малообеспеченный слой, составляющий, по данным социологическогоисследования 8.1%, состоит на 1/5 – из рабочих низкой квалификации, на 3/5 –из неработающих пенсионеров и инвалидов, располагающих наименьшими сред-ствами к жизни; (по 1/10 приходится на крестьян, домохозяек и учащихся). Ниж-

ний слой, составляющий 16.1%, состоит на 1/5 из специалистов массовых трудо-избыточных профессий (бухгалтеров, экономистов, юристов, учителей и др.), атакже работников торговли и сферы обслуживания, на 1/5 – из рабочих среднейквалификации, на 2/5 из пенсионеров (доля остальных слоев менее значительна).Базовый слой, составляющий 55.5% респондентов, состоит на 1/4 из квалифи-

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цированных служащих, на 1/4 – из рабочих средней квалификации, примернона 1/2 – из пенсионеров (доля остальных слоев менее значительна). Средний слой,составляющий 13.8%, состоит на 1/3 из высококвалифицированных специалис-тов, на 1/5 – из высококвалифицированных рабочих (в среднем по 1/10 прихо-дится на предпринимателей, пенсионеров, учащихся, домохозяек). Верхний слой,составляющий 5.3%, почти полностью состоит из руководителей высшего звена,высококвалифицированных и востребованных служащих и рабочих, наиболееуспешных предпринимателей. Исходя из наполнения элитарного слоя (1.2%)фактически теми же профессиональными группами, что и верхний слой, целесо-образно, по нашему мнению, определить его как элитарный слой среднего класса.

Таким образом, вместе с элитой, состоящей из наиболее успешных руково-дителей, служащих, рабочих и предпринимателей, верхний слой образует те 5–6% относительно благополучных белорусов, которые обнаруживаются практи-чески во всех исследованиях социальной стратификации белорусского общества.По критерию располагаемых денежных ресурсов мы можем отнести к среднему классу

средний, верхний и элитарный слои, составляющие в совокупности, по даннымгосударственной статистики, 23.4%, а по результатам социологического иссле-дования – 20.3% от всего населения.

Принадлежность к среднему классу связана с наличием интеллектуальногокапитала в виде среднего специального и высшего образования и постоянным харак-тером занятости, т.е. наличием реального рабочего места и круга обязанностей. Взападной литературе эти два признака характеризуются одним термином –«professional». В современном обществе положение в профессиональной струк-туре является одной из характеристик, определяющей жизненные шансы чело-века и, следовательно, формирующей социальный класс в веберовской трактовкеданного термина (Veber 1994: 147–156), точнее, в том случае, если в течение жизничеловека не происходит значимых социальных потрясений, а каналы социаль-ной мобильности открыты. На Западе большинство исследователей придержи-ваются мнения, что возникновение новых средних классов связано с професси-онализацией и формированием управленческих позиций. Характерно, что про-фессия, как универсальный индикатор среднего класса, может использоватьсятолько в странах, где в силу предыстории достаточно надежно реализуется це-почка: «образование – предпосылка, профессия – средство, доход – конечнаяцель». В нашей ситуации консистентность этих признаков пока не достигается,что делает неизбежным обращение к уровню материальной обеспеченности исамоидентификации как корректирующим характеристикам.

Анализ структуры образования показал, что в Республике Беларусь начальное

и среднее неполное образование представлено, в основном, пенсионерами; среднее

общее – на 1/3 – пенсионерами, по 1/3 приходится на рабочих низкой и среднейквалификации и учащихся; среднее специальное – на 1/3 представлено служащими,на 1/3 – рабочими высокой и средней квалификации, на 1/3 – пенсионерами;высшее (незаконченное высшее) – на 2/3 – руководителями и служащими высо-кой квалификации, (остальные доли менее значимы) (табл. 3).


Таблица 3Доля представителей разных социальных групп населения

по уровню образования, % (2013 г.)

Уровень образования

Начальное 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.0 0.0 3.6Среднее неполное 0.0 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 3.3 6.8 0.4 12.6

Среднее общее 0.6 2.1 6.5 0.8 0.6 1.6 1.3 4.8 5.7 0.7 24.7

Среднее специальное 3.0 8.4 11.8 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.5 1.0 7.1 3.0 40.3Высшее (незаконченное)высшее

4.3 6.8 1.1 0.1 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.4 2.9 0.9 18.7

Послевузовское 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2

Итого 8.1 17.4 20.4 2.8 3.0 4.2 3.9 9.5 25.6 5.0 100.0

Источник: Данные социологического исследования 2013 г.

Обратим внимание на то, что доля лиц со средним специальным и высшимобразованием составляет 59.0%, а доля лиц, выделенных в средний класс по кри-терию располагаемых денежных ресурсов 20.3% (см. табл. 1). Выделение лиц покритерию профессионального статуса (постоянного рабочего места и функцио-нальных обязанностей), т.е. ограничение объема респондентов активно действу-ющими профессиональными группами (руководители, служащие, рабочие, кре-стьяне, предприниматели), показало, что их удельный вес составляет 51.7% отреспондентов, ответивших на вопрос об уровне образования. Очевидно, что це-почка «образование – предпосылка, профессия – средство, доход – конечнаяцель» не реализуется, а уровень располагаемых среднедушевых денежных ресур-сов выступает, по силе ограничения, основным признаком выделения среднегокласса, при условии соответствующего профессионального статуса и наличии сред-него специального и высшего образования. Получается, что «образование какпредпосылка» охватывает более 1/2 белорусского населения, «профессия как сред-ство» – чуть более 1/2, «доход как конечная цель» – 1/5 белорусского населения.Полагаем, что это свидетельствует о серьезной проблеме, связанной со значи-тельным недоиспользованием образовательного потенциала общества, а также –о проблеме неадекватной оценки трудовых затрат тех или иных профессиональ-ных групп при наличии неэффективной структуры занятости. Имеет место на-личие больших групп трудоизбыточных профессий, что отражает рассогласова-ние предложения со стороны рынка образовательных услуг и спроса на те илииные профессии со стороны рынка труда.

Исходя из структуры среднего, верхнего и элитарного слоев среднего классапо уровню денежных доходов (табл. 1), можно рассматривать их иерархию как

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Раб

очий

Кре

стья

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Пре

дпри

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Без

рабо

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Дом

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Уча

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Пен

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своеобразный «эмбрион» белорусского среднего класса, в котором, по даннымгосударственной статистики, низший-средний класс составляет 15,1%, средний-средний – 7.1%, высший-средний – 1.2% (по результатам социологического ис-следования – 13.8%, 5.3% и 1.2% соответственно).

Зададимся вопросом, в какой мере «эмбриональный» средний класс белорус-ского общества, которому еще предстоит развиться и проявить себя в полной мере,соответствует качественным характеристикам среднего класса в его западномварианте.

Срединное положение между «верхами» и «низами» белорусский средний классзанимает разве что по уровню доходов: они в 2–3 раза выше, чем в базовом слое иниже, чем у наиболее состоятельной части элиты. Однако так называемые «верхи»в белорусском обществе, т. е. люди, обладающие высокими по западным меркамдоходами, составляют немногим более 1% всего населения; в данном контекстеих можно считать высшим-средним классом и ограничивать положение среднегокласса только «снизу».

Массивность, концентрация большей части общества не свойственны бело-русскому среднему классу, составляющему 1/5 всего населения; 4/5 населениясконцентрированы в базовом, нижнем и малообеспеченном слоях.

Образование, квалификация, социальный престиж – все это присуще белорус-скому среднему классу, состоящему, как упоминалось, из высококвалифициро-ванных и востребованных специалистов и рабочих высокой квалификации; чтоже касается социального престижа, то уровень оплаты труда и перекосы в зара-ботной плате значительно снижают его престижность.

Достаточно высокий статус и удовлетворенность жизнью присущи предста-вителям белорусского среднего класса «в средней мере» и во многом определя-ются уровнем их доходов.

Таким образом, средний класс белорусского общества мог бы выйти из своегоэмбрионального состояния при выполнении ряда условий, главным из которыхявляется повышение его удельного веса и интеллектуального влияния в обще-стве. При улучшении социально-экономической ситуации этот класс начнет по-полняться наиболее образованными и активными профессионалами из нынеш-него базового слоя, станет более весомым и совершенным по своей структуре.

Проблемы функционирования белорусского среднего класса

Не будем забывать, что средний класс выделяется не только по своим харак-теристикам, но и, главным образом, по тем функциям, которые он должен выпол-нять. Основными функциями среднего класса в его западном варианте являются:диверсификация общества по социальным группам за счет наполнения среднегокласса новыми претендентами, материальное состояние которых достигает необ-ходимых стандартов; стабилизация общества в силу высокого уровня восходящейэкономической мобильности, ведущей к расширению общности людей, разде-ляющих ценности трудовой и рыночной идеологии; эффективное воспроизвод-


ство научного и образовательного потенциала благодаря накоплению и эффектив-ному использованию человеческого капитала в сферах науки и образования.Выполнение названных функций превращает средний класс в носителя нацио-нальной культуры и выразителя общественных интересов.

В плане выполнения функции диверсификации средний класс белорусскогообщества включает в себя практически все социальные группы и в этом смыследостаточно разнообразен (табл. 2). Однако наполнения среднего, а тем более верх-них слоев, почти не происходит, за счет относительно низкой восходящей эко-номической и социальной мобильности.

Что касается осуществления функции стабилизации общества на основе вос-ходящей экономической мобильности, то определенная мобильность наблюда-ется, но в ограниченном диапазоне. Как отмечалось ранее, за период с 1995 по2013 год, удельный вес малообеспеченного слоя уменьшился более чем в 7 раз, долянижнего слоя уменьшилась за то же время в 2 раза. При этом произошло четырех-кратное возрастание доли среднего слоя и превращение его в базовый (основной)слой общества, который, как мы покажем ниже, не представляется возможнымотнести к среднему классу. По данным статистики, с наибольшей активностьюперемещения происходят между базовым и нижними слоями, с меньшей – междубазовым и верхними слоями, практически закрытыми для восходящей экономи-ческой мобильности. Получается, что бывший «ниже среднего», а ныне базовыйслой как бы «вбирает» в себя нижние слои и «консервирует» в диапазоне от 1 до 2МПБ свыше половины населения республики, своеобразно выполняя функциюстабилизации белорусского общества. При этом средний класс, представленныйвысококвалифицированными специалистами, рабочими и наиболее успешнымипредпринимателями, переместился в диапазон: от 2 до 3 МПБ – (низший-сред-ний класс), от 3 до 5 МПБ – (средний-средний класс), свыше 5 МПБ – (высший-средний класс).

В аспекте самоидентификации, в 2013 г., как и в 2003 г. (Соколова, 2003: 184–197) людьми «среднего достатка» (но не среднего класса) считают себя до 1/3 рес-пондентов, т.е. практически все, кто обладает средним специальным и высшимобразованием (табл. 4).

Однако этих людей объединяют весьма скромные материальные возможнос-ти и соответствующие им потребности. Так, людьми «со средним достатком» на-зывают себя те, кто располагает средствами на питание, одежду и текущие расхо-ды, но не имеет возможности приобрести крупную бытовую технику (телевизор,холодильник, стиральную машину и др.). В перспективе каждая из социальныхгрупп среднего класса может удвоиться именно за счет базового слоя, а удельныйвес среднего класса значительно возрасти при создании благоприятных обстоя-тельств, так как стремление людей вернуться в состав среднего класса из базово-го слоя связывается прежде всего с наличием среднего специального и высшегообразования и профессионального статуса (реального рабочего места), при оп-лате труда, соответствующей стоимости жизни.


Таблица 4Самоидентификация представителей разных социальных групп со слоями

общества по уровню реальных располагаемых ресурсов, % (2013 г.)

Распределение ответовна вопрос:

«Кем Вы себя считаете?»

Богатый человек 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4Обеспеченный человек 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.5 1.4 0.3 0.1 5.6

Человек среднего достатка 4.3 3.0 13.8 15.5 2.0 0.8 1.3 1.5 5.7 15.1 2.4 65.4

Бедный человек 1.2 0.1 2.8 4.5 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.3 7.5 1.0 20.4Нищий человек 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.2 2.1

Затрудняюсь ответить 0.1 0.1 1.2 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.3 1.2 0.4 6.1

Итого 6.6 4.1 19.1 22.1 3.1 1.1 2.3 2.8 9.8 24.8 4.3 100.0


Для адекватного определения состояния среднего класса и оценки перспек-тив его развития как «живого организма общества» рассмотрим, в какой обще-ственной среде он функционирует, какими общественными ценностями и идея-ми он обогащается и каковы, следовательно, возможности его качественного иколичественного наполнения из других слоев общества. Для этого необходимовыяснить, что представляет собой базовый слой как социальная база общества, ипочему он не может быть отнесен к среднему классу по своим характеристикам ивыполняемым функциям.

В более ранних статьях, посвященных анализу состояния и возможностейразвития среднего класса в Беларуси, мы рассматривали базовый слой как воз-можный резерв для содержательного наполнения среднего класса (Sokolova 2003:184–197). Однако в ходе последующих исследований выявилась устойчивая тен-денция к самостоятельному и стабильному функционированию этого слоя каксоциальной базы общества (Sokolova 2012: 42–53). Характерно, что базовый слойвыполняет, как уже упоминалось, функцию стабилизации, однако он объединяетразные социальные группы по другим признакам, нежели средний класс. А именно:в плане материальных ресурсов – по «уровню равенства в бедности», в аспектенематериальных ресурсов – на основе сохранения нерыночных ценностей в эко-номике и социальной сфере. Так, оценивая разные пути развития общества, лишь1/3 респондентов ратуют за существенные перемены, 1/4 – высказали заинтере-сованность в сохранении существующего порядка вещей, а 2/5 затруднились вответе. Отсутствие мнения по данному вопросу у 40% респондентов говорит отом, что сами они не задавались подобным вопросом или относятся к нему без-различно. Более половины таких респондентов сконцентрированы в базовом слое(табл. 5).

Рук

овод

ител

ь

Пре

дпри

ним

ател

ь

Слу

жащ

ий

Раб

очий

Кре

стья

нин

Вое

ннос

луж

ащий

Без

рабо

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Дом

охоз

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Уча

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Таблица 5Оценка представителями разных социальных групп

путей развития общества, % (2013 г.)


«Как Вы считаете, в чембольше всего нуждается

сегодня наше общество?»

В существенных переменах 11.1 8.8 1.2 1.2 4.8 4.3 3.7 35.1

В сохранении существующегопорядка вещей, ситуации

7.2 3.5 1.2 0.4 9.2 1.9 1.4 24.8

Затрудняюсь ответить 11.4 9.3 2.1 0.8 9.4 4.0 3.0 40.1

Итого 29.7 21.6 4.5 2.4 23.4 10.2 8.1 100.0


При оценке собственных подходов к решению материальных проблем, 24.7%респондентов «повышают свой доход всеми возможными способами», 45.1% –«стараются жить по средствам», 24.6% – «снижают уровень своих запросов», 5.6%«ничего не предпринимают» (табл. 6). Более глубокий анализ показывает, что те,кто «старается жить по средствам», и составляют значительную часть базовогослоя с характерным для него пассивным типом экономического поведения, на-целенным на сохранение «status quo».

Таблица 6 Оценка представителями разных социальных групп подходов

к решению материальных проблем, % (2013 г.)


«Какого подхода Выпридерживаетесь в решении

материальных проблем?»

Повышаю свой доход всемивозможными способами

3.0 2.1 6.0 6.0 0.8 0.3 0.8 0.5 2.1 2.0 1.0 24.7

Стараюсь жить по средствам 2.2 1.2 8.6 10.4 1.6 0.7 0.5 1.2 3.4 13.2 2.2 45.1

Снижаю уровень своихзапросов и потребностей

1.1 0.6 4.9 4.9 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.7 2.3 7.9 0.9 24.6

Ничего не предпринимаю,пытаюсь отвлечься от 0.1 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 1.8 1.4 0.1 5.6проблемИтого 6.5 4.0 20.2 21.9 3.1 1.1 2.3 2.7 9.6 24.4 4.2 100.0


Рук

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Пре

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ним

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Слу

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Раб

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Кре

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Без

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Слу

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Кре

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Пре

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Пен

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Оценивая свои жизненные предпочтения, 62.3% респондентов, на 3/4 пред-ставляющих базовый слой, выразили желание «жить пусть беднее, но зато с га-рантированным уровнем, без риска». Желание «жить богаче, но рискуя, действуяс инициативой» выразили 37.7% респондентов, обладающих профессиональнымстатусом и активно действующих в достижении своих целей (табл. 7).

Таким образом, базовый слой общества, презентирующий его социальнуюплатформу, владеет достаточным (для его представителей) образовательным по-тенциалом, но не обладает достаточными материальными ресурсами и находитсяв процессе простого воспроизводства своей рабочей силы. Моральное устарева-ние ценности полученного образования порождает экономическую и гражданс-кую инертность и затрудняет продвижение его обладателей в средний класс бело-русского общества – наиболее восприимчивый к инновационным изменениям вэкономической и социальной сферах. Поэтому в своей основной массе базовыйслой малопригоден для выполнения функции агента научно-технического и со-

циального прогресса и пока не может претендовать на положение среднего классав белорусском обществе.

Таблица 7Оценка представителей разных социальных групп своих жизненных

предпочтений, % (2013 г.)


«Согласились бы Вы?»

Жить богаче, но рискуя,действуя с инициативой

3.9 2.7 9.0 8.2 1.2 0.5 1.3 1.1 5.7 2.7 1.3 37.7

Жить пусть беднее, зато сгарантированным уровнем 2.5 1.3 11.2 13.6 1.7 0.6 1.1 1.7 4.3 21.6 2.6 62.3достатка

Итого 6.4 4.0 20.2 21.8 2.9 1.1 2.5 2.9 10.0 24.4 3.9 100.0


Что же касается среднего класса, то его социально-профессиональная струк-тура (1/2 высококвалифицированных руководителей и служащих-специалистов,1/5 рабочих высокой квалификации и 1/6 наиболее успешных предпринимате-лей, предоставляющих рабочие места профессионалам) удовлетворяет междуна-родным стандартам и, казалось бы, позволяет достойным образом выполнятьфункцию агента научно-технического и социального прогресса. Однако недо-статочный удельный вес и слабое интеллектуальное влияние в обществе, а такжеотносительная закрытость среднего класса, ограничивают деловую и творческуюактивность его представителей и препятствуют расширенному воспроизводствуинтеллектуального потенциала.

Рук

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Пре

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Кре

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Уча

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В целом, можно сказать, что Беларусь пока что тяготеет к общественномуустройству со значительным базовым слоем, состоящим по преимуществу из«бюджетников»; с восходящей экономической мобильностью из нижних в базо-вый слой, и в меньшей мере – из базового в верхние слои; со сравнительно не-большим средним классом, находящимся в «эмбриональном» состоянии по струк-турным характеристикам и выполняемым функциям. Для выполнения ролевыхфункций, присущих среднему классу в его западном варианте, средний классбелорусского общества должен стать более многочисленным, приобрести эко-номическую самостоятельность, стать полноправным субъектом реформирова-ния общества.

Заключение

Опыт экономически развитых стран показывает, что в последнее десятиле-тие глубина и динамика социально-экономических преобразований во многомзависят от позиции среднего класса, его численности и дееспособности. Однакоданные государственной статистики свидетельствуют о том, что белорусский сред-ний класс замещается базовым слоем, включающим в себя половину населенияБеларуси. Так, начиная с 2008 года средний класс, составивший к тому временипятую часть населения, практически закрылся для внешней экономической мо-бильности, сохраняя лишь внутренние перемещения из «низшего-среднего» в«средний-средний» класс. Что касается базового слоя, то начиная с 1995 года онактивно пополняется выходцами из нижнего и малообеспеченного слоев, «вобрав»в себя к 2008 году свыше половины населения Беларуси (табл. 1).

На материалах республиканского социологического исследования обосно-вано, что базовый слой замещает в белорусском обществе средний класс по вы-полнению количественных функций – диверсификации и стабилизации обще-ства. Однако функция стабилизации осуществляется в базовом слое по другимпризнакам, нежели в среднем классе. А именно: в плане материальных ресур-сов – по «уровню равенства в бедности»; в аспекте нематериальных ресурсов –на основе сохранения нерыночных ценностей в экономике и социальной сфере(табл. 5–7). По выполнению качественных функций, связанных с эффективнымвоспроизводством научного и образовательного потенциала, базовый слой неможет заместить средний класс, так как не располагает достаточными средствамидля непрерывного повышения образования и находится в процессе простого вос-производства своей рабочей силы.

Социальные последствия преобладания базового слоя, как альтернативы сред-нему классу, проявляются в том, что общество теряет склонность к новым реше-ниям и способность создавать новые, а не использовать традиционные возмож-ности. Ситуация могла бы принципиально измениться с переходом работниковиз базового слоя в верхние слои, при условии усиления их мотивации (в том чис-ле, материальными средствами) на упорный эффективный труд, нацеленностина постоянное повышение образовательного уровня и инновационной воспри-имчивости.


Решение задачи перехода наиболее активных представителей базового слоя вверхние слои по качественным признакам носит комплексный и долгосрочныйхарактер. Оно связано с разумной экономической политикой, обеспечивающейвозможность достойной оплаты квалифицированного наемного труда, а также –постоянного совершенствования квалификации кадров. Оно предполагает успеш-ное проведение рыночных реформ, государственную поддержку среднего и ма-лого бизнеса, государственную защиту частной собственности, продуманную идолгосрочную налоговую и кредитную политику. Оно во многом зависит от яс-ного и четкого законодательства и наличия механизмов реализации принятыхзаконов. Однако ключевым направлением в формировании среднего класса яв-ляется, как считают экономисты, повышение реальной заработной платы какпредпосылки успешной восходящей мобильности. Становление среднего классав Республике Беларусь невозможно без усиления роли государства в политикеинвестирования в материальные и нематериальные ресурсы общества; именноздесь находится центральное звено, взявшись за которое, можно вытащить всюцепочку проблем, связанных с развитием верхних слоев как среднего класса вобществе.

(1) Минимальный потребительский бюджет (МПБ) – это основной социальный норма-тив, представляющий собой стоимость набора материальных благ и услуг, необходимыхдля удовлетворения минимальных физиологических и социальных потребностей человека.Среднедушевой минимальный потребительский бюджет семьи из четырех человек с но-ября 2013 г. составлял 1.660 тыс. руб. (соответственно – бюджет прожиточного минимума –1.000 тыс. руб.).

Библиография

Avramova E. et al., T. Maleeva (red.) (2003) Srednie klassy v Rossii: ekonomicheskie i sotsialíniestrategii. Moskva. Tsentr Karnegi. M.: Genglíf. (In Russian)Belstat (Natsionalínyi statisticheskii komitet Respubliki Belarusí) (2014) Statisticheskii ezhe-godnik Respubliki Belarusí. Minsk. (In Russian)Gorshkov M., Tikhonova N. (otv. red.) (2008) Srednii klass v sovremennoi Rossii. Institytsotsiologii RAN. M. (In Russian)Ryvkina R. (2001) Drama peremen. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Delo. (In Russian)Sokolova G. (2003) Formirovanie srednego klassa v Respublike Belarusí. Obshchestvo i ekono-mika, № 12, str. 184ñ197. (In Russian)Sokolova G. (2012) Kontseptsiia analiza bazovogo sloia kak vozmozhnoi alíternativy srednemuklassu v belorusskom oshchestve. Sotsiologiia, № 3, str. 42ñ53. (In Russian)Sokolova G. (2013) Klass(y) srednii(e). Ekonomiko-sotsiologicheskii slovarí. Sost.: G.N. So-kolova, O.V. Kobiak; nauch. red. G.N. Sokolova. Minsk: Belarusí nauka, str. 211ñ215. (InRussian)Sorokin P. (1993) Sistema sotsiologii. V 2-kh t. T. 2. Sotsialínaia analitika: uchenie o stroeniislozhnykh sotsialínykh agregatov. M.: Nauka. (In Russian)Veber M. (1994) Osnovnye poniatiia stratifikatsii. Sociologicheskie issledovaniia, № 5, str. 147ñ156. (In Russian)Zaslavskaia T. (2002) Societalínaia transformaciia rossiiskogo obshchestva: deiatelínostno-strukturnaia kontseptsiia. M.: Delo. (In Russian)

23

E K O N O M I K A

Екатерина Галешова, Елена Ванкевич

КАДРОВАЯ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬ В ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯХ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ:

ОЦЕНКА РИСКОВ И ПОТЕНЦИАЛА

Предметом исследования является реализация кадровой деятельности в организацияхРеспублики Беларусь. Цель исследования состоит в обосновании необходимости совер-шенствования кадровой деятельности в организациях Республики Беларусь на основеоценки кадровых рисков и потенциала кадровых служб на современном этапе. Для выпол-нения поставленной цели разработан и апробирован в 5 организациях Витебской областиРеспублики Беларусь алгоритм диагностики кадровых рисков и оценки трансакционныхиздержек работодателя, что позволило впервые оценить в стоимостном выражении кад-ровую деятельность организаций Республики Беларусь. Для оценки потенциала кадро-вых служб организаций Республики Беларусь проведен анкетный опрос руководителей исотрудников кадровых служб организаций Витебской области (выборочная совокупностьсоставила 87 организаций). Результаты исследования и предлагаемый аналитическийинструментарий могут быть использованы в деятельности организаций для поддержкипринятия управленческих решений в области управления персоналом. Проведенное ис-следование позволило сформулировать ряд рекомендаций для совершенствования реа-лизации кадровой деятельности в отечественных организациях: совершенствование нор-мативно-правового обеспечения кадровой деятельности в организациях РеспубликиБеларусь путем обновления Типового положения о кадровой службе предприятия (орга-низации) и пересмотра Межотраслевых нормативов численности работников кадровыхслужб коммерческих организаций; оптимизация должностного состава работников кад-ровой службы организаций Республики Беларусь; повышение профессионально-квали-фикационного уровня работников кадровых служб; разработка методического подхода куправлению кадровыми рисками в организации; использование в кадровой работе спе-циализированных программных продуктов в области управления персоналом; тесное со-трудничество учебных заведений и организаций.

Ключевые слова: кадровая деятельность, кадровая служба, управление персоналом,кадровые риски, трансакционные издержки.

Person‚lvadÓba Baltkrievijas Republikas organiz‚cij‚s: risku un potenci‚la novÁrtÁjums

PÁtÓjuma priekmets ir person‚lvadÓba Baltkrievijas Republikas organiz‚cij‚s. PÁtÓjumamÁrÌis ir pier‚dÓt Baltkrievijas Republikas organiz‚ciju person‚lvadÓbas pilnveidoanas nepiecie-amÓbu, pamatojoties uz person‚la riska novÁrtÁjuma un m˚sdienu person‚la dienestu potenci‚laizvÁrtÁjuma pamata. Lai izpildÓtu noteikto uzdevumu, piec‚s Baltkrievijas Republikas Vitjebskasapgabala organiz‚cij‚s tika izstr‚d‚ts un aprobÁts person‚la risku diagnosticÁanas algoritmsun novÁrtÁtas darba devÁja transakciju izmaksas, kas palÓdzÁja pirmo reizi vÁrtÓbas izteiksmÁnoteikt Baltkrievijas Republikas organiz‚ciju person‚lvadÓbas izmaksas. Baltkrievijas Repub-


likas organiz‚ciju person‚lvadÓbas potenci‚la noteikanai tika veikta Vitjebskas apgabalavadÓt‚ju un person‚lvadÓbas dienestu darbinieku (izlases kop‚ tiks ietvertas 87 organiz‚cijas)anketÁana. PÁtÓjuma rezult‚tus un pied‚v‚to analÓtisko instrumentu iespÁjams izmantot organi-z‚ciju darbÓbas atbalstam vadÓbas lÁmumu pieÚeman‚ person‚lvadÓbas jom‚. PÁtÓjumaÓstenoana Ô‚va noformulÁt virkni rekomend‚ciju person‚lvadÓbas pilnveidoanai nacion‚laj‚sorganiz‚cij‚s tiesiski normatÓv‚s b‚zes uzlaboanas nodroin‚anai Baltkrievijas Republikasorganiz‚cij‚s ‚dos virzienos: uzÚÁmuma person‚la dienesta Standarta nolikumu atjaunoanaun starptautisko normatÓvu par person‚la dienestu darbinieku skaitu komercuzÚÁmumos p‚r-skatÓana; Baltkrievijas Republikas uzÚÁmumu person‚la dienestu darbinieku sast‚va optimizÁ-ana; person‚la dienestu darbinieku profesion‚l‚s kvalifik‚cijas lÓmeÚa paaugstin‚ana; meto-disk‚s pieejas kadru risku vadÓbai izstr‚d‚ana; person‚lvadÓbas darb‚ izmantojamo specializÁtoprogrammÁanas produktu person‚lvadÓbas jom‚ pielietoana; m‚cÓbu iest‚˛u un organiz‚cijuciea sadarbÓba

AtslÁgas v‚rdi: person‚lvadÓba, person‚la dienests, person‚la vadÓana, person‚la riski,transakciju izmaksas.

Human resources management activities in organizations of the Republic of Belarus:assessment of risks and the potential

The subject of the research is the implementation of human resources management activitiesin organizations of the Republic of Belarus. The objective of the research is the establishmentof the need of improvement of human resources management activities in organizations of theRepublic of Belarus on the basis of assessment of personnel risks and the potential of personneldepartment at the present stage. To implement this goal algorithm of diagnostics of personnelrisks and of evaluation of transaction costs of employer was developed and tested in fiveorganizations of Vitebsk region of the Republic of Belarus. The algorithm made it possible toestimate in value terms the cost of human resources management activities of organizations ofthe Republic of Belarus. To assess the potential of personnel departments of organizations ofthe Republic of Belarus a questionnaire survey of managers and employees of personnel depart-ments of organizations of Vitebsk region (the aggregate sample consists of 87 organizations)was conducted. The results of the research and the proposed analytical tools can be used inorganizations to support adoption of administrative decisions in the field of HR management.The conducted research enabled to formulate a number of recommendations to improve theimplementation of human resources management activities in domestic organizations: improvingthe regulatory framework of human resources management activities in organizations of theRepublic of Belarus by updating Standard provision on personnel department of the enterprise(organization) and the revision of Interindustry standards of number of employees of personneldepartments of commercial organizations; optimization of official structure of employees ofpersonnel department of organizations of the Republic of Belarus; increasing of vocationallevel of employees of personnel department; development of methodical approach to manage-ment of personnel risks in the organization; using in personnel work specialized softwareproducts in the field of HR management; close cooperation of educational institutions andorganizations.

Key words: human resources management activities, personnel department, HR manage-ment, personnel risks, transaction costs.

Е. Галешова, Е. Ванкевич. Кадровая деятельность в организациях Республики Беларусь.. 25

Введение

Современные тенденции деятельности организаций, характеризующиеся уси-лением глобальной конкуренции и интеграционных процессов, формированиеми развитием инновационной экономики Республики Беларусь, связаны с повы-шением внимания к человеческим ресурсам, превалированием мобильного об-раза жизни, аспекты которого «становятся все более значимыми для жизненногоуспеха и конкурентоспособности на рынках труда» (Menshikov 2014), необходи-мостью привлечения и удержания высококвалифицированных работников в орга-низациях. Это предопределяет высокие кадровые риски и требует активизациидеятельности кадровой службы. Данные обстоятельства формируют научный ипрактический интерес к проблеме совершенствования реализации кадровой де-ятельности в организациях Республики Беларусь. Поэтому важной прикладнойзадачей является оценка кадровых рисков и потенциала кадровых служб бело-русских организаций, их готовности к решению новых задач на современном этапе.

Важность и актуальность кадровой деятельности в современной организацииподтверждается многочисленными исследованиями, несмотря на существующуюкритику управления человеческими ресурсами (Waechter 2013). Так, в исследова-ниях Б. Беккера (Becker, Huselid, Ulrich 2007) было установлено, что уровень эф-фективности фирмы тесно коррелирует с уровнем эффективности системы уп-равления человеческими ресурсами. В исследовании компании «Watson Wyatt»

(Zhukov 2010), охватившем 1600 мировых ведущих компаний, доказано, что до-ходы акционеров могут возрасти на 31.5% от повышения эффективности работыкадровой службы. Социологи Института социальных исследований Даугавпилс-ского Университета отмечают, что «не только экономические ресурсы способнынести энергию хозяйственной и социальной жизни общества. Внешне такие раз-ные феномены как доверие, престиж, хороший вкус или внешняя привлекатель-ность человека также способны быть капиталами в хозяйственных и иных взаи-модействиях» (Menshikov, Vanags, Volkova 2013: 63). По результатам обследованияинновационного поведения промышленных предприятий, проведенного Инсти-тутом статистических исследований и экономики знаний НИУ ВШЭ в 2009 г. врамках Европейского обследования обрабатывающей промышленности (European

Manufacturing Survey), координируемого Фраунгоферовским институтом системныхи инновационных исследований (Карлсруэ, Германия), дефицит квалифициро-ванного персонала на предприятии занимал пятое место по рейтингу факторов,препятствующих инновациям (Kuznetsova, Rud’ 2011). Проблемам управления иоценки кадровых рисков посвящены работы А.Р. Алавердова, Г.К. Копейкина,И.Г. Чумарина, С. Ярцевой, П.А. Ваганова (в области безопасности организа-ции), В.Я. Серебряного, А.А. Аминова, Г.Г. Коробовой (как подвид операцион-ного риска в области банковского дела), Г.В. Черновой, В.М. Козубовского,В.Н Вяткина, И.В. Вяткина, В.А. Гамзы, Л.Н. Тепмана (как часть внутренних рис-ков организации), Е.С. Жарикова, А.А. Парамонова (в области психологии),А.Г. Бадаловой, Е.Н. Булановой, А.Е. Митрофановой. Вопросам идентификациии оценки кадровых рисков посвящены работы современных зарубежных иссле-


дователей Maria I. Marshall, Corinne Alexander, Triant Flouris, Ayse Kucuk Yilmaz, Robert

A. Milligan, Bernard L. Erven, V. Frederickson.Но ни одна из существующих методик оценки кадровых рисков (Rad’ko 2003;

Zharikov, Paramonov 2005; Slobodskoi 2005; Aminov 2007; Bulanova 2008; Novikova2008; Mikhnevich 2011; Mitrofanova 2013) не может быть применена в деятельностикадровых служб организаций Беларуси ввиду высокой трудозатратности расче-тов, отсутствия специальных знаний у кадровых работников, непопулярностипредлагаемых методов, отсутствия связи между методиками и реалиями белорус-ской экономики.

Проблема профессионального и квалифицированного управления человечес-кими ресурсами организации приобретает в современных условиях развития на-циональной экономики Республики Беларусь особую актуальность. Задачи ста-новления инновационной экономики, перехода к экономике знаний в сочетаниис необходимостью сохранения достигнутой степени социальной защиты населе-ния повышают значимость системы управления на микроуровне в целом и кад-ровой деятельности организаций, в частности. В этих условиях «каждому пред-приятию необходимо иметь эффективную систему управления в составе: (I) орга-низационной системы управления и (II) системы управления персоналом (илирациональной модели трудовых отношений, базирующихся на рациональной си-стеме оплаты труда)» (Shimov, Kriukov 2014: 137).

Реализация поставленной задачи предполагает совершенствование методи-ческой основы современной кадровой деятельности на микроуровне, разработкуметодического обеспечения ее осуществления и формирования адекватного по-тенциала самих кадровых служб предприятий, способных решать данные задачи.

Однако, несмотря на большое количество исследований этой темы и значи-мость полученных результатов, остаются недостаточно изученными методологи-ческие основы формирования современной кадровой деятельности в организа-циях в условиях перехода к инновационной экономике и построения экономикизнаний.

Методология кадровой деятельности организации, сформированная в периодадминистративно-командного управления экономикой, основывалась на неогра-ниченном наличии дешевой рабочей силы в условиях отсутствия рынка труда иинститута банкротства, конкуренции, то есть мягких бюджетных ограниченийдля субъектов хозяйствования, основанных на государственной поддержке. Этопредопределило особенность белорусского рынка труда: «перенос проблем обес-печения занятости с макро- на микроуровень (уровень субъекта хозяйствования)и в то же время слабый учет особенностей поведения предприятий при форми-ровании направлений государственной политики занятости» (Vankevich, Antony-sheva 2013: 124).

Рыночная экономика формирует иную систему координат, в которой в основепринятий кадровых решений лежат трансакционные издержки на рынке труда, втом числе на внутреннем рынке труда. В условиях инновационной экономики иэкономики, основанной на знаниях, повышается значимость не просто кадров,а человеческого капитала организации, так как именно он становится главным


источником ее конкурентных преимуществ. От кадровой службы в этих условияхтребуется обеспечить организацию высококвалифицированными кадрами, гаран-тировать высокую отдачу от инвестиций в человеческий капитал. Но чтобы реа-лизовать эти работы на практике, нужны конкретные методические инструментыоценки кадровых рисков и расчета величины трансакционных издержек органи-зации, связанных с кадровыми процессами. Одновременно сама кадровая службаорганизации (квалификация и статус ее работников) должна быть в состояниирешать эти задачи.

Перечисленные обстоятельства обусловили постановку рабочей гипотезыданного исследования: 1) современная кадровая деятельность организаций нужда-ется в разработке алгоритма оценки кадровых рисков и трансакционных издер-жек, связанных с кадровыми процессами на микро-уровне, для обоснованногоподбора необходимых кадровых технологий; 2) современные кадровые службыотечественных предприятий не готовы к реализации поставленных задач и нуж-даются в повышении статуса, профессионально-квалификационного уровня ееработников.

Оценка кадровых рисков и формируемых ими трансакционныхиздержек организации

Под кадровыми рисками понимают «вероятность потерь и недостиженияцелей организации в условиях информационной асимметрии и оппортунисти-ческого поведения работников, связанную с несоответствием кадрового составатребованиям внешней и внутренней среды организации при формировании, ис-пользовании, развитии и высвобождении персонала» (Haliashova 2014: 43). Диаг-ностика кадровых рисков предполагает их выявление при формировании, ис-пользовании, развитии, высвобождении персонала, сопровождающееся оценкойтрансакционных издержек на микроуровне. Таким образом, диагностика кадро-вых рисков состоит из двух этапов: первый – оценка кадровых рисков организа-ции, второй – оценка трансакционных издержек организации.

Алгоритм диагностики кадровых рисков организации можно представить ввиде следующей схемы (рис. 1).

Первый шаг предлагаемого алгоритма предназначен для предварительнойоценки кадровых рисков с целью экономии различного рода ресурсов. С учетомпредъявляемых требований к экспресс-оценке (Vankevich, Skvortsov 2010), пере-чень показателей должен быть небольшим и статистически доступным. Предлага-емые показатели являются наиболее информативными, простыми в расчете, непротиворечат изложенным выше требованиям. К ним относятся: коэффициенттекучести, удельный вес работников с высшим образованием в списочной числен-ности работников на конец года, темп прироста производительности труда, удель-ный вес работников, совершивших прогулы и другие нарушения трудовой дис-циплины, коэффициент использования полезного фонда рабочего времени,отношение среднемесячной заработной платы одного работника к среднереспуб-


ликанскому уровню, степень охвата персонала профессиональным обучением,удельный вес лиц пенсионного возраста в списочной численности работниковна конец года (1). Несоответствие значений большинства показателей установ-ленным критериям оценки будет свидетельствовать о необходимости дальней-шей структурированной и развернутой оценки кадровых рисков.

Рисунок 1Алгоритм диагностики кадровых рисков в организации

Источник: авторская разработка.

Следующим этапом диагностики кадровых рисков является оценка трансак-ционных издержек работодателя, получившая недостаточную проработку средиисследователей. Применяемые методологические подходы к оценке трансакци-онных издержек на рынке труда сводятся к оценке издержек от безработицы наразличных уровнях. Существуют исследования, касающиеся оценки отдельныхвидов трансакционных издержек на рынке труда (Mironenko 2013), либо которыеможно применить к рынку труда: известная модель Шапиро-Стиглица о взаимо-связи безработицы и «отлынивания» (Shapiro, Stiglitz 1984), определение степениоппортунизма на предприятии (Simonov, Sinov 2010) и его влияния на эффек-


тивность деятельности (Popov, Simonova 2004). Наиболее исследована оценкатрансакционных издержек на рынке труда на уровне страны, региона и индивида.Представленные в научной литературе методики расчета оценки потерь либоопираются на закон А. Оукена о связи прироста реального ВНП и уровня безра-ботицы (Fisher 2002), либо основываются на расчете потерь от безработицы пу-тем суммирования их составляющих.

Развивая подход И.В. Гуськовой к оценке трансакционных издержек на на-циональном и региональном уровнях (Egorshin, Gus’kova 2008) и подход Е.Э. Ло-бановой и М.М. Писанковой к оценке трансакционных издержек для первичногоресурса труда (Lobanova, Pisankova 2011), представляется правомерным исполь-зовать следующий методический подход к расчету трансакционных издержекработодателя (табл. 1), который дифференцирован по основным направлениямкадровой деятельности: поиск, подбор, отбор, найм, адаптация, обучение, выс-вобождение работников.

Предложенный методический подход к расчету трансакционных издержекработодателя позволит:1) оценить в стоимостном выражении стоимость кадровой деятельности;2) оптимизировать трансакционные издержки на микроуровне;3) снизить кадровые риски благодаря мониторингу трансакционных издержек

и принятию соответствующих мер по снижению текучести персонала.Это создаст предпосылки для повышения статуса и авторитета кадровых служб

в белорусских организациях, постановке и реализации на них современных тех-нологий кадровой работы.

Экспресс-оценка кадровых рисков (табл. 2) позволила сделать вывод, что ворганизациях № 1, 2, 5 кадровых проблем больше. Об этом свидетельствует от-клонение расчетных значений от пороговых по пяти показателям экспресс-оценкииз восьми. Общими кадровыми проблемами для данных организаций являются:высокий коэффициент текучести, невысокий образовательный уровень, удель-ные веса лиц, достигших пенсионного возраста, одни из самых высоких, а зара-ботная плата ниже, чем на других обследованных предприятиях. Специфическиекадровые проблемы в рамках данной группы организаций – высокий удельныйвес нарушителей трудовой дисциплины в организации № 1, низкий профессио-нальный рост работников организаций № 2 и № 5. Это свидетельствует об ори-ентации руководства организации на производственную деятельность без учетачеловеческого фактора. В то же время, полезный фонд рабочего времени исполь-зуется эффективно, темп прироста производительности труда соответствует уста-новленному значению. В организации № 1 профессиональным обучением охва-чено 39% работников, что объясняется проводимой модернизацией.

Ко второй группе по потенциалу кадровых рисков можно отнести организа-цию № 4, так как из 8 показателей 4 имеют значения, отклоняющиеся от поро-гового уровня или близкие к нему: коэффициент текучести высокий, образова-тельный уровень невысок, процент охвата персонала обучением недостаточен,удельный вес лиц, достигших пенсионного возраста, превышает критическийуровень почти в 2 раза.


К третьей группе – предприятие №3 – по всем показателям, включенным вэкспресс-оценку кадровых рисков, не наблюдалось отклонения расчетных зна-чений от пороговых, кроме коэффициента текучести, который в 2013 году соста-вил 0.29. Это может быть связано с повышенной мобильностью периферийнойчасти персонала. Высокий уровень образования, трудовой дисциплины, оплатытруда, охвата профессиональным обучением свидетельствует о нацеленности ру-ководства предприятия на сохранение и развитие «кадрового ядра» предприя-тия. На основе применения методического подхода к расчету трансакционныхиздержек в анализируемых организациях их годовая сумма составила от 67 до 193%от себестоимости продукции (табл. 3).

В случае отнесения организации к I группе по потенциалу кадровых рисков,для которой характерно отклонение от порогового уровня для большей части ото-бранных показателей, ее руководству необходимо пересмотреть принципы кад-ровой деятельности в отношении своих работников и направить усилия на по-вышение эффективности использования трудового потенциала работников сцелью выхода из «кадровой ловушки».

Для II группы организаций характерна ситуация возможности перехода в Iгруппу по потенциалу кадровых рисков при отсутствии должного внимания ккадровым проблемам. Используемые в этих целях кадровые технологии носятупредительный характер и направлены на повышение кадровой безопасностиорганизации и недопущение увеличения кадровых рисков.

III группа организаций по потенциалу кадровых рисков соответствует органи-зациям, внимательно относящимся к своим человеческим ресурсам и стремящимсяк достижению высокого уровня конкурентоспособности. Для таких организацийактуальным будет реализация мер, направленных на дальнейшее совершенство-вание их кадровой деятельности с использованием современных кадровых тех-нологий и инструментов.

Проведенный анализ кадровых рисков организаций свидетельствует о невы-соком качестве исполнения кадровой деятельности, предопределившей высокиетрансакционные издержки. Это требует активного участия кадровой службы иприменения ею современных кадровых технологий в своей деятельности. Осоз-нание роли кадровых служб в социально-экономическом развитии и укрепле-нии конкурентоспособности организаций обуславливает необходимость анали-за и оценки потенциала кадровых служб на современном этапе.

Е. Г

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дрова

я д

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ни

зац

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31Таблица 1

Методический подход к расчету трансакционных издержек работодателя

Продолжение таблицы 1 см. на с. 32

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Ástnesis 2

015 1

32

Продолжение таблицы 1

Источник: авторская разработка на основе Egorshin, Gus’kova 2008; Lobanova, Pisankova 2011.

Е. Г

алеш

ова

, Е. В

ан

кеви

ч. Ка

дрова

я д

еят

ельност

ь в орга

ни

зац

иях Р

еспубли

ки

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33

Таблица 2Показатели экспресс-оценки кадровых рисков в анализируемых организациях

Алгоритм диагностики кадровых рисков был апробирован на пяти базовых организациях, относящихся к различным отраслям эко-номики: филиал ОАО «Трест № 16, г. Новополоцк» Завод КПД (строительство), филиал РУПП «Витебскхлебпром» – Новополоцкийхлебозавод (пищевая промышленность), ПУ «Полоцкгаз» (промышленность), ОАО «Витебские ковры» (текстильная отрасль легкойпромышленности), ОАО «Знамя Индустриализации» (швейная отрасль легкой промышленности).

Источник: рассчитано авторами.

Soci‚lo

Zin

‚tÚu V

Ástnesis 2

015 1

34Таблица 3Результаты оценки трансакционных издержек в анализируемых организациях

Источник: рассчитано авторами.


Оценка потенциала кадровых служб организаций Республики Беларусь

Для оценки потенциала кадровых служб организаций Республики Беларусьпроведено исследование методом стандартизированного анкетного опроса ру-ководителей и сотрудников кадровых служб организаций на примере Витебскойобласти. При разработке анкеты использована методология международного ис-следования CRANET (CRANET 2011) и масштабное исследование Националь-ного союза кадровиков Российской Федерации (Natsional’nyi soiuz kadrovikov2006). Систематизация современных теоретических подходов к реализации кад-ровой деятельности с учетом социально-экономических условий развития Рес-публики Беларусь на современном этапе позволила выделить следующие основ-ные направления анализа:� оценка профессионально-квалификационного состава работников кадровых

служб;� определение организационного статуса кадровой службы в организационной

структуре управления;� оценка и характер взаимодействия кадровой службы с руководителем орга-

низации и руководителями подразделений;� оценка потенциала кадровых служб в активизации кадровой деятельности;� оценка уровня информационно-технического и нормативно-методического

обеспечения кадровой службы.

Общий объем выборки (2) составил 87 организаций Витебской области с чис-ленностью персонала не менее 16 человек. При построении выборки также учи-тывалась структура генеральной совокупности организаций Витебской областипо секциям экономической деятельности на основе данных об их численностипо данным Главного статистического управления Витебской области 2013 года(Vitebskoe oblastnoe upravlenie statistiki 2013).

Исследование показало, что среднестатистическим работником кадровойслужбы в организациях Беларуси является специалист по кадрам с высшим юри-дическим, реже – с экономическим образованием, имеющий средний уровеньзаработной платы в сравнении с другими подразделениями организации, в зна-чительной степени удовлетворенный своей работой. У 22% респондентов имею-щаяся специальность не соответствует занимаемой должности. Модальный ин-тервал возраста работников кадровых служб с частостью 27.2% – от 32 до 39 лет.Следующим за модальным интервалом (22.2%) является интервал работников ввозрасте от 25 до 29 лет. При этом средний стаж работы с персоналом руководи-теля кадровой службы составляет 9.8 лет. До назначения на эту должность каж-дый четвертый руководитель работал специалистом в другой профессиональнойсфере в другой организации. Образовательный уровень кадровых работниковдостаточно высок (77.2% работников имеют высшее образование), тем не менее,решать задачи стратегического характера могут только высокопрофессиональ-ные специалисты в области управления персоналом. Квалификационный про-филь не соответствует современным требованиям, предъявляемым к работни-кам кадровых служб: лишь 17.2% организаций имеют в составе кадровой службы


работников, получивших образование по специальности «Управление персона-лом» (3.3% от общей численности кадровых работников) и «Менеджмент» (8.8%от общей численности кадровых работников).

Необходимо отметить положительные структурные сдвиги в качественномсоставе работников белорусских кадровых служб, произошедшие за период с 2008года по 2014 год: средний возраст работника отдела кадров снизился на 3.8 года исоставил 38.3 года; удельный вес кадровых работников с высшим образованиемувеличился на 22.7% (рис. 2).

Рисунок 2Сравнение образовательной структуры работников кадровых служб

организаций Республики Беларусь за 2008 и 2014 гг.

Источник: построено авторами на основе проведенного исследования в 2014 году и поданным (Vankevich, Skvortsov 2010: 175).

Существенно изменился профиль образования работников кадровых службв период с 2006 года по 2014 год (рис. 3): превалирующим (46.9%) стало юриди-ческое образование, снизилась доля работников кадровых служб с гуманитар-ным образованием. В структуре работников с экономическим образованием в2014 году в отличие от аналогичной структуры 2006 года появились специалистыс профессиональным образованием «Управление персоналом», что связано с по-явлением данной специальности в Учреждениях образования «Белорусский го-сударственный университет», «Частный институт управления и предпринима-тельства», «Могилевский государственный университет имени А.А. Кулешова»,и первыми выпусками студентов по данной специальности. Удельный вес орга-низаций, имеющих в составе кадровых служб таких специалистов, невелик (3%).

Для повышения эффективности деятельности кадровой службы 37.5% рес-пондентов хотели бы повысить свою квалификацию, 28.1% – пройти переподго-товку по специальности «Управление персоналом», что может быть осуществи-мо, поскольку в 48.3% организациях средства на участие сотрудников кадровойслужбы в платных семинарах, конференциях, форумах выделяются руководствомпо запросу службы.


Рисунок 3Структура образования работников кадровых служб организаций

Республики Беларусь по профилю образования, 2006 и 2014 гг.

Источник: построено авторами на основе результатов исследования, проведённого в2014 году и по данным (Rudak 2008).

По результатам исследования Аналитического центра мониторинга социально-трудовой сферы НИИ труда Министерства труда и социальной защиты Респуб-лики Беларусь 2008 года (Vorob’eva 2008: 59) было выявлено несоответствие фак-тического профиля образования работников кадровых служб желаемому. В 2014году фактический профиль, представленный на рисунке 3, несколько прибли-зился к профилю образования, указанному работниками кадровой службы какнеобходимый (рис. 4): преобладание юридического образования отмечается вобоих профилях.

При повышении активности и инициативности работников кадровых службв получении ими дополнительных знаний они смогут повысить свой авторитет вглазах руководства и оказывать активную помощь в конкурентной борьбе. Однаконизкий организационный статус кадровой службы в общей иерархии организа-ций по-прежнему остается проблемой в организациях Республики Беларусь: в74.7% обследованных организаций кадровая служба подчинена руководителюорганизации, лишь 2.3% организаций включили кадровую службу в общее руко-водство организации.

При проведении межстранового сравнения по статусу кадровой функции вформальной структуре управления организации можно выделить 3 группы стран(рис. 5): с высоким формальным весом кадровой функции – Швеция (90%), Бель-гия (84%), Франция (83%), со средним – Япония (67%), Великобритания (60%),Россия (55%), Эстония (51%), Германия (50%), с низким – Венгрия (35%), США(32%), Болгария (24%), Беларусь (2.3%).


Рисунок 4Желаемый профиль образования работников кадровых служб

организаций Республики Беларусь, 2014 г.

Источник: построено авторами по результатам исследования.

Рисунок 5Место кадровой функции в общей структуре управления организации

(процент организаций, включивших руководство кадровой службыв высший орган управления), 2012 и 2014 гг.

Источник: построено авторами по данным (CRANET 2011) с добавлением результатовпроведенного исследования по Республике Беларусь.

Дополнительной преградой для преодоления сложившейся ситуации явля-ется позиция самих кадровых работников, которые, во-первых, не ведут целе-направленной деятельности по повышению статуса кадровой службы (27.6%опрошенных) и никогда к этому не стремились (8.0%). Преимущественной фор-


мой общения руководителя кадровой службы с руководством организации (помнению 56.3% респондентов) является внеплановое общение по вопросам дея-тельности службы. Во всех остальных случаях общение носит формальный ха-рактер: на общих производственных совещаниях (5.7%), по индивидуальномувызову руководства (18.4%), на специальных совещаниях, посвященных рассмот-рению кадровых вопросов (19.5%). Во-вторых, часто сами кадровые работникине осознают степени важности своей работы, о чем свидетельствует распределе-ние их ответов на вопрос: «Согласны ли Вы с утверждением «Кадры решают все»?».Полностью согласны с данным утверждением лишь 31.0% опрошенных работ-ников кадровых служб, частично согласны – 55.2%, абсолютно не согласны –12.6%, затруднились с ответом – 1.1%. Таким образом, консерватизм и инерт-ность персонала кадровых служб, противодействующие реорганизации крупныхзападных компаний в 70–80-е гг. XX столетия (Zhuravlev 2002), отсутствие пред-приимчивости и активности сотрудников отдела кадров белорусских организа-ций, отмеченное Н.П. Беляцким в 2003 году (Beliatskii 2003), присущи кадровымработникам отдельных организаций Республики Беларусь и в настоящее время.

Особого внимания при определении роли кадровой службы и специфики еедеятельности заслуживают следующие активно обсуждаемые исследователямипараметры: взаимодействие руководителя кадровой службы с руководителямиподразделений; распределение ответственности за отдельные направления кад-ровой деятельности и участие в ней руководителей организации, руководителейподразделений, кадровой службы и профсоюза; степень формализации оценкикадровой службы, степень автоматизации кадровой деятельности.

Результаты анкетирования показали, что взаимодействие руководителей кад-ровых служб с руководителями подразделений строится преимущественно наоснове выработки совместных решений в отношении кадровых проблем данногоподразделения (70.1% положительных ответов респондентов). Распределениеполномочий по отдельным направлениям кадровой деятельности между различ-ными категориями руководителей и подразделений организации представлено втабл. 4.

Как видно из табл. 4, в компетенции кадровых служб находится 40% кадро-вой деятельности. В компетенции руководителей организации находятся вопросысокращения/увеличения численности персонала, предоставления дополнитель-ных компенсаций, гарантий и льгот, управления мотивацией, в компетенциипрофсоюзов – ожидаемые направления: организация культурных мероприятийи досуга персонала, предоставление дополнительных компенсаций, гарантий ильгот. Руководители подразделений несут ответственность за подбор и отбор пер-сонала. Почти в трети исследованных организаций не реализуются такие кадро-вые технологии, как анализ социально-психологического климата в коллективе,разработка элементов организационной культуры. Исследование позволило вы-явить специфическую особенность кадровой деятельности в белорусских орга-низациях: низкую вовлеченность руководителей подразделений в кадровую дея-тельность при одновременном контроле кадровых вопросов руководителямиорганизаций, что демонстрирует разнонаправленный характер с современнымимировыми тенденциями.


Таблица 4Распределение полномочий по отдельным направлениям кадровой

деятельности между различными категориями руководителей иподразделений в организациях Республики Беларусь, %

Направления кадровой Руководитель Руководители КадроваяПрофсоюз

Не про-деятельности организации подразделений служба водится

Подбор персонала 33.9 34.8 31.3 - -

Профессиональный отбор 28.4 45.0 26.6 - -Правовое обеспечениекадровых процессов

11.6 4.2 82.1 2.1 -

Организация профессио-нального обучения

8.2 25.5 57.1 4.1 5.1

Предоставление дополни-тельных компенсаций, 36.4 10.9 13.6 36.4 2.7гарантий и льготАнализ социально-психо-логического климата в 12.9 18.8 29.7 9.9 28.7коллективе

Организация культурныхмероприятий и досуга 11.3 7.5 19.8 57.5 3.8персонала

Управление мотивацией 38.8 25.2 14.6 4.9 16.5Сокращение/увеличение

57.5 12.4 25.7 2.7 1.8численности персонала

Разработка элементоворганизационной культуры

19.8 20.8 21.7 12.3 25.5

Источник: рассчитано авторами по результатам исследования.

Одним из признаков развитой деятельности кадровых служб является нали-чие оценки их работы в организации (Prosvirkina 2012; Becker, Huselid, Ulrich 2007;Tsui 1984; Ulrich 1997). В 62.1% обследованных организаций оценка кадровойслужбы не формализована. В организациях, в которых существует система пока-зателей для оценки деятельности кадровой службы, характер распределения сле-дующий: оценка происходит систематически и имеет обратную связь – 17.2%;оценка не носит систематического характера – 14.9%; оценка не имеет обратнойсвязи – 5.7%.

Степень автоматизации кадровой функции в организациях Беларуси неве-лика. Профиль образования (преимущественно юридическое) работников кад-ровых служб предопределил направленность автоматизации работы кадровыхслужб: преобладают правовые информационно-справочные системы (38.2%),используют возможности программ из пакета Microsoft Office в кадровой деятель-ности 32.6% респондентов, модули в области управления персоналом в рамкахкомплексного продукта для автоматизации своей деятельности имеют 19.1% орга-низаций, лишь 5.6% организаций имеют самостоятельные специализированныекомплексные системы в области управления персоналом и 4,5% организаций


указали на наличие программ, автоматизирующих отдельные участки в работекадровой службы. Необходимо констатировать отставание от международногоуровня кадровой деятельности организаций Беларуси по данному параметру. Поданным международного исследования (CRANET 2011), в большинстве страннаиболее распространены компании, использующие преимущественно незави-симые информационные системы в области управления персоналом. Даже в стра-нах с высокой частотой ответов об отсутствии компьютеризированной информа-ционной системы в области управления персоналом (Болгарии, Венгрии, Греции,Кипре, России, Сербии, Израиле) удельный вес организаций, имеющих специа-лизированные системы в области управления персоналом или программы, авто-матизирующие отдельные участки в кадровой деятельности, в среднем в 2–3 разапревышает значения, полученные по результатам анкетирования организацийРеспублики Беларусь.

Проведенное исследование потенциала кадровых служб организаций Респуб-лики Беларусь на примере Витебской области позволило выявить следующиеособенности: отсутствие единой кадровой службы как организационной единицы;узкий спектр функциональных обязанностей и полномочий кадровой службы;несоответствующий мировым тенденциям профессионально-квалификацион-ный уровень работников кадровой службы; низкий организационный статус кадро-вой службы в структуре управления организации; неразвитость взаимоотноше-ний кадровых служб с заинтересованными внешними организациями; сосредо-точение кадровых служб на решении делопроизводственных задач.

Несмотря на положительную динамику в кадровых вопросах (взаимодействиеруководителей кадровых служб с руководителями подразделений строится пре-имущественно на основе выработки совместных решений; значительная частьнаправлений кадровой деятельности находится в компетенции кадровых служб;высшее руководство принимает участие в решении кадровых вопросов) и потен-циале кадровых служб (достаточно высокий уровень образования кадровых ра-ботников; появление в составе кадровых служб работников, имеющих специаль-ность «Управление персоналом» и «Менеджмент»; снижение среднего возрастаработников кадровых служб; положительные структурные сдвиги в их профилеобразования; наличие в каждой третьей организации формализованной оценкикадровой службы; готовность кадровых работников повышать свой образователь-ный и квалификационный уровень), темпы этих изменений недостаточны. Этоможет стать препятствием на пути инновационного развития экономики Рес-публики Беларусь. Повышение профессионально-квалификационного уровняработников кадровых служб, совершенствование нормативно-правового обеспе-чения кадровой деятельности (обновление Типового положения о кадровой службепредприятия (организации), пересмотр Межотраслевых нормативов численностиработников кадровых служб коммерческих организаций), предоставление мето-дического инструментария по диагностике и управлению кадровыми рисками,оптимизация должностного состава работников кадровой службы организацийРеспублики Беларусь, использование в кадровой работе специализированныхпрограммных продуктов в области управления персоналом; тесное сотрудниче-ство учебных заведений и организаций при отмеченной положительной дина-


мике в потенциале кадровых служб будут содействовать эффективности функ-ционирования организаций, создадут предпосылки для построения экономикизнаний и перехода на инновационный путь развития Республики Беларусь.

Заключение

Республика Беларусь является открытой социально-ориентированной эконо-микой. Поэтому для нас актуальным остается вопрос привлечения и удержанияквалифицированного персонала, готового к реализации нововведений. Недоста-точное использование современных кадровых технологий кадровыми службами,их невысокий статус и несоответствующий мировым стандартам профессионально-квалификационный уровень могут стать серьезным препятствием для повыше-ния конкурентоспособности отечественных организаций в условиях глобальногорынка.

Современные подходы к кадровой диагностике должны быть дополнены диаг-ностикой кадровых рисков и оценкой трансакционных издержек работодателя.Это будет способствовать реализации дополнительных функций кадровой службы:формирования единой кадровой политики, управления кадровыми рисками, рас-чета затрат и эффективности по каждому направлению кадровой деятельности.Авторский алгоритм диагностики кадровых рисков ликвидирует недостатки су-ществующих методик оценки кадровых рисков: высокую трудозатратность рас-четов, отсутствие специальных знаний у кадровых работников, отсутствие связимежду методиками и реалиями белорусской экономики. Это будет содействоватьдостижению основных направлений кадровой деятельности: минимизации транс-акционных издержек, снижению степени оппортунизма в трудовых отношениях,инвестированию в специфические активы. Оценка трансакционных издержекработодателя по авторской методике позволяет вычислить в стоимостном выра-жении уровень потерь при излишнем высвобождении персонала, что дает воз-можность количественно оценить риски кадровой деятельности в организацияхРеспублики Беларусь. Основными направлениями совершенствования кадровойдеятельности в отечественных организациях являются: совершенствование нор-мативно-правового обеспечения кадровой деятельности в организациях Респуб-лики Беларусь путем обновления Типового положения о кадровой службе пред-приятия (организации) и пересмотра Межотраслевых нормативов численностиработников кадровых служб коммерческих организаций; оптимизация должно-стного состава работников кадровой службы организаций Республики Беларусь;повышение профессионально-квалификационного уровня работников кадровыхслужб; разработка методического подхода к управлению кадровыми рисками ворганизации; использование в кадровой работе специализированных программ-ных продуктов в области управления персоналом; тесное сотрудничество учеб-ных заведений и организаций.

(1) По каждому из показателей экспертным путем определены пороговые значения, от-клонения от которых в нежелательную сторону является критическим. Об ухудшении од-них показателей (коэффициент текучести, удельный вес работников, совершивших про-


гулы и другие нарушения трудовой дисциплины, удельный вес лиц пенсионного возрастав списочной численности работников на конец года) будет свидетельствовать их увеличе-ние, других (удельный вес работников с высшим образованием в списочной численностиработников на конец года, темп прироста производительности труда, коэффициент ис-пользования полезного фонда рабочего времени, отношение среднемесячной заработ-ной платы одного работника к среднереспубликанскому уровню, степень охвата персо-нала профессиональным обучением) – их уменьшение.

(2) коэффициент доверия 1.87, предельная ошибка выборки 10%, объем генеральной со-вокупности 13450 ед., доверительная вероятность 93.85%.

Библиография

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Natsionalínyi soiuz kadrovikov (2006) Portret rossiiskogo kadrovika. Available:http://www.kadrovik.ru/ (accessed 01.12.2013). (In Russian)Novikova I. (2008) Upravlenie riskami v deiatelínosti vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii RossiiskoiFederatsii. Avtoref. diss. na soisk. uch. st. k.e. n. Moskva. (In Russian)Popov E., Simonova V. (2004) Sushchností endogennogo opportunizma. Vestnik UGTU-UPI,Nr. 10, pp. 5ñ12. (In Russian)Prosvirkina E. (2012) Faktory, vliiaiushchie na provedenie ocenki deiatelínosti kadrovykhsluzhb na rossiiskikh predpriiatiiakh. Rossiiskoe predprinimatelístvo, Vol. 209, Nr. 11, pp. 81ñ86. (In Russian)Radíko S. (2003) Otsenka trudovogo potentsiala predpriiatiia s uchetom riskov ego upravleniia.Upravlenie riskom, Nr. 2, pp. 30ñ41. (In Russian)Rudak I. (2008) Organizatsionno-metodicheskoe obespechenie razvitiia sistemy upravleniiapersonalom na predpriiatiiakh Respubliki Belarusí. Avtoref. diss. na soisk. uch. st. k. e. n.Minsk, BGEU. (In Russian)Shapiro C., Stiglitz J.E. (1984) Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device.The American Economic Review, Vol. 74, Nr. 3, pp. 433ñ444.Shimov V., Kriukov L. (2014) Innovacionnoe razvitie ekonomiki Belarusi: dvizhushchie sily inacionalínye prioritety. Minsk: BGEU. (In Russian)Simonov V., Sinov V. (2010) Ekonomika socialíno-trudovykh otnoshenii: ucheb. posobie.SPb.: Izd-vo SPbGUEF. (In Russian)Slobodskoi A. (red.) (2005) Riski v upravlenii personalom organizatsii: Ucheb. posobie. SPb.:S.-Peterb. gos. un-t ekonomiki i finansov. Kaf. sotsiologii i upr. personalom. (In Russian)Tsui A.S. (1984) Personnel Department Effectiveness: A Tripartite Approach. IndustrialRelations, Vol. 23, Nr. 2, pp. 184ñ197.Ulrich D. (1997) Human resource champions: the next agenda for adding value and deliveringresults. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press.Vankevich A., Antonysheva Ju. (2013) Napravlenia sovershenstvovaniia planirovaniia chislen-nosti zaniatykh v organizaciiakh. Vestnik Vitebskogo gosudarstvennogo tekhnologicheskogouniversiteta, Nr. 25, pp. 123ñ130. (In Russian)Vankevich A., Skvortsov V. (2010) Sovremennye problemi organizatsii proizvodstva, truda iupravleniia na predpriiatiiakh legkoi promyshlennosti Respubliki Belarusí. Vitebsk: VSTU.(In Russian)Vitebskoe oblastnoe upravlenie statistiki (2013) Statisticheskii ezhegodnik Vitebskoi oblasti:statisticheskii sbornik. Vitebsk. (In Russian)Vorobíeva L. (2008) Portret sovremennogo rabotnika kadrovoi sluzhby. Otdel kadrov, Nr. 7,pp. 58ñ60. (In Russian)Waechter H. (2013) Human Resource Management ñ Eine Annaeherung in kritischer Absicht.Industrielle Beziehungen. Vol. 20(4), pp. 343ñ366. (In German)Zharikov E., Paramonov A. (2005) Riski v kadrovoi rabote: kniga dlia rukovoditelia i mene-dzhera po personalu. Moskva: MCFER. (In Russian)Zhukov A. (2010) Audit chelovecheskikh resursov organizatsii: Uchebnoe posobie. Moskow:MIK. (In Russian)Zhuravlev P. (red.) (2002) Upravlenie chelovecheskimi resursami: opyt industrialíno razvitykhstran. Moskva: Ekzamen. (In Russian)

45

Jaroslaw Mioduszewski

THE INFLUENCE OF PROPRIETORIAL CHANGESIN PUBLIC SECTOR OF AGRICULTURE

ON AGRARIAN STRUCTURE IN POLAND

The article presents the changes in the structure of Polish agriculture in years 1990 ñ2012, which was largely affected by the transformation process currently carried out by theAgricultural Property Agency (APA) (Agencja Nieruchomo˙ci Rolnych (ANR)) ñ the legalsuccessor of the Agricultural Property Agency of the State Treasury (APAST) (Agencji W˘asno˙ciRolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa (AWRSP)). It was given full ownership rights of agricultural propertyof the State Treasury. In the analysis there were used data from the APAST (AWRSP) activityreports and the statistical data of the Central Statistical Office (CSO). The aim of this researchwas to assess the influence of proprietorial changes in governmental sector of agriculture onchanges of agrarian structure in Poland. By the end of 2012 more than 4.74 million ha hadbeen taken over by the Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ciRolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa), of which over 80% came from state farms. Overall 3.01 millionhectares (63.5%) were permanently brought into cultivation, of which 2.34 million hectaresthrough sale offers, which consisted of 49.3% taken over by the Agricultural Property Stockof the State Treasury (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa). There still remains morethan 1.8 million hectares to be dispensed, of which the majority of the land (73.2%) is beingleased. For distribution still remains available 6.8% of Agricultural Property Stock Resources.In Poland there has occurred historically shaped territorial variation of the agrarian structure,which was manifested by high demand for land in regions with low supply of land from thepost-state-owned farms. The results of proprietorial changes influenced the changes in theagrarian structure, which reflects in a reduction of approximately 1/3 of the number of individualfarms to the amount of more than 1456.4 thousand and increasing average farm size to 9.3hectares of agricultural land (AL), i.e. 47.6%. The number of farms was reduced in all areagroups except for the area of farms with over 15 hectares of agricultural land. In this group thechanges took place mainly on the basis of formation of large farms through repurchase orbeing leased by different entities. The level and dynamics of structural change in the area ofagriculture is mainly conditioned by the state policy reflected in its formal and legal regulationsand economic conditions affecting the profitability of agricultural production. The results ofanalysis of those changes indicate that process of ìTerritorial Farms Polarizationî will becontinued by increasing the area of the large farms with greater potential to increase.

Key words: management, cultivation, agricultural property of State Treasury, farms,agrarian structure.

LauksaimniecÓbas valsts sektora ÓpaumtiesÓbu izmaiÚu ietekme uz lauksaimniecÓbasstrukt˚ru Polij‚

Rakst‚ tiek izvÁrtÁtas izmaiÚas Polijas lauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚r‚ laik‚ no 1990. gadalÓdz 2012. gadam, kuras notika, galvenok‚rt, LauksaimniecÓbas Ópauma aÏent˚ras (LIA)(Agencja Nieruchomo˙ci Rolnych (ANR)) Óstenoto reformu ietekmÁ. LŒA ir likumÓga Valstskases LauksaimniecÓbas Ópauma aÏent˚ras (VKLIA) (Agencji W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa(AWRSP)) pÁctece. Valsts kasei pieÌira pilnas ÓpaumtiesÓbas uz lauksaimniecÓbas Ópaumu.AnalÓzÁ tiek izmantoti dati no VKLIA darbÓbas p‚rskatiem un statistiska inform‚cija no Cen-tr‚las Statistikas P‚rvaldes (CSP). Raksta mÁrÌis ir novÁrtÁt lauksaimniecÓbas valsts sektor‚


notiekoo ÓpaumtiesÓbu izmaiÚu ietekmi uz Polijas lauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚ru. 2012. gadabeig‚s Valsts kases LauksaimniecÓbas resursu aÏent˚ra (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ci Rolnej SkarbuPaÒstwa) p‚rÚÁma sav‚ Ópaum‚ vair‚k nek‚ 4.71 milj. hekt‚rus, 80% no kuriem bija valstssaimniecÓbu form‚. Kopum‚ 3.01 milj. hekt‚ru (63.5%) tika atvÁlÁti past‚vÓgai kultiv‚cijai,no tiem 2.34 milj. hekt‚ru ñ p‚rdoanas ceÔ‚, kas sast‚dÓja 49.3% no Valsts kases Lauksaim-niecÓbas resursu aÏent˚ras (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa) p‚rÚemtaj‚m lauksaimnie-cÓbas zemÁm. P‚rdalei bija pieejami vÁl vair‚k nek‚ 1.8 milj. hekt‚ru un liel‚k‚ daÔa no ÓmzemÁm (73.2%) tika izÓrÁta. –obrÓd pieejami joproj‚m paliek 6.8% no lauksaimniecÓb‚ izman-tojamiem zemes resursu kr‚jumiem. Polijai ir raksturÓga vÁsturiski izveidojusies teritori‚lanevienmÁrÓba lauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚r‚, kuru determinÁja augsts pieprasÓjums uz zemi tajosreÏionos, kuros ir zems pied‚v‚jums no iepriek valsts Ópaum‚ bijuo fermu puses. Œpaum-tiesÓbu izmaiÚu rezult‚t‚ notika izmaiÚas arÓ lauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚r‚, kas izpau˛as k‚individu‚lo fermu skaita samazin‚an‚s apmÁram uz 1/3, sasniedzot vair‚k nek‚ 1456.4 t˚kst.,un fermu izmÁra palielin‚an‚s lÓdz 9.3 hekt‚riem lauksaimniecÓbas zemes (LZ), kas kopum‚sast‚da 47.6%. Fermu skaits ir samazin‚jies vis‚s izmÁru grup‚s, izÚemot fermas, kuru teritorijair liel‚ka par 15 hekt‚riem lauksaimniecÓbas zemes. –aj‚ grup‚ izmaiÚas nodroin‚ja atpirkanasun Óres procesi, kuri veicin‚ja liela izmÁra saimniecÓbu veidoanos. LauksaimniecÓbas sfÁr‚notieko‚s strukt˚ras izmaiÚas p‚rsvar‚ tiek veicin‚t‚s ar valsts politiku caur tiesÓbu norm‚munekonomiskajiem apst‚kÔiem, kuri ietekmÁ lauksaimniecisk‚s ra˛oanas rentabilit‚ti. PÁtÓjumarezult‚ti nor‚da, ka ìfermu izmÁru polariz‚cijaî turpin‚sies k‚ platÓbas palielin‚an‚s lielaj‚mferm‚m, kur‚m ir liel‚ks potenci‚ls savas teritorijas paplain‚anai.

AtslÁgas v‚rdi: mened˛ments, kultiv‚cija, Valsts kases lauksaimniecÓbas Ópaums, fermas,lauksaimniecÓbas strukt˚ra.

Влияние изменений прав собственности в государственном сельскохозяйственном секторена структуру сельского хозяйства Польши

В статье представлены изменения структуры сельского хозяйства Польши за периодс 1990 по 2012 год, которые в основном происходили под влиянием реформ, реализуемыхАгенством сельскохозяйственных угодий (АСУ) (Agencja Nieruchomo˙ci Rolnych (ANR)),являющимся законным последователем Агенства сельскохозяйственных угодий Государ-ственной кассы (АСУГК) (Agencji W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa (AWRSP)). Государ-ственной кассе были присуждены полные права на владение сельскохозяйственной соб-ственностью. В рамках анализа используются данные отчётов АСУГК и статистическаяинформация Центрального статистического управления (ЦСУ). Цель статьи – оценитьвлияние изменений в области прав собственности в государственном сельскохозяйствен-ном секторе на структуру сельского хозяйства Польши. В конце 2012 года более чем 4.71млн. га в своё владение переняло Агенство сельскохозяйственных ресурсов Государствен-ной кассы (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa), и 80% из них были в форме государ-ственных хозяйств. В общем, 3.01 млн. га (63.5%) были отведены под постоянную культи-вацию, из них 2.34 млн. га – посредством продажи, что составило 49.3% от сельскохозяй-ственных угодий, перенятых Агенством сельскохозяйственных ресурсов Государственнойкассы (ZasÛb W˘asno˙ci Rolnej Skarbu PaÒstwa). Более чем 1.8 млн. га еще могли бытьперераспределены и большая часть земель (73,2%) были отданы в аренду. После прове-денных мероприятий доступными оставались еще 6.8% от запасов сельскохозяйственныхугодий. Для Польши характерна исторически сложившаяся территоральная вариативностьструктуры сельского хозяйства, которая детерминирована высоким спросом на земли врегионах с низким предложением со стороны ферм, ранее находившихся в государствен-ном владении. В результате изменений в области прав собственности произошли измене-ния и в структуре сельского хозяйства, выражающиеся в уменьшении количества инди-

J. Mioduszewski. The Influence of Proprietorial Changes in Public Sector of Agriculture.. 47

видуальных ферм на 1/3, достигая 1456.4 тыс., и увеличении размеров сельскохозяйствен-ных ферм до 9.3 га сельскохозяйственных угодий, что составляет 47.6% от общего количе-ства ферм. Количество ферм уменьшилось во всех размерных группах, исключая фермы стерриторией, превышающей 15 га сельскохозяйственных угодий. Изменения в этой группев основном произошли из-за формирования хозяйств больших размеров посредствомоткупа или аренды. Изменения, происходящие в структуре сельского хозяйства, стиму-лируются главным образом государственной политикой посредством правовых норм иэкономических условий, которые влияют на рентабельность производства в сельском хо-зяйстве. Результаты исследования показали, что «размерная поляризация ферм» будет про-должаться посредством увеличения крупных ферм, имеющих высокий потенциал рас-ширения своей территории.

Ключевые слова: менеджмент, культивация, сельскохозяйственная собственностьГосударственной кассы, фермы, структура сельского хозяйства.

Introduction

The process of proprietorial changes in governmental sector of agriculture is beingheld for more than 20 years. According to Niedzielski (Niedzielski 2009) it mighthave been carried out evolutionally, by eliminating inefficient entities from the marketor through revolution on basis of administrative decisions. In Poland the second versionhas been assumed and post-state-owned farms have been taken down on the basis oflegal regulations. Introduction of changes in economic system in the early 90ís meantelimination or essential limitation of state property in agriculture. It should be high-lighted that governmental sector in Polish agriculture did not play the leading part,although in late 80ís it managed over 3.4 million hectares of farm lands (around 19%of farm lands) and it possessed essential productive role by creating 18% of globalagricultural production, 19% of final production and 21% of consumption production(1). Currently this process is being held by the Agricultural Property Agency (APA) ñthe legal successor of the Agricultural Property Agency of the State Treasury (APAST),which was given full ownership rights of agricultural property of the State Treasury(2). One of its tasks formulated in 6th article of The Act (3) actively shaped the agrarianstructure by enabling creation of farms, especially increasing those existing with thehelp of farm property of State Treasury.

According to Zegar (Zegar 2014) issues of overall economic growth have essentialinfluence, by generating demand on food production which enables accumulation ofresources for development of farm lands and capturing the over-labour from theagriculture. Issues connected with favourable forming of farm income are also veryinfluential. They are caused by the technical development, which raised the land limita-tions resulting from labour. Level of that income is shaped by financial resourceswhich come in a form of direct subventions, dotation given after joining EuropeanUnion by Poland as a result of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). According toTreaty of Rome (art. 39) their aim is to increase efficiency of farm production in away of technical development, assuring the rational development of farm productionand the maximum use of production factors, especially labour, assuring the appropriateliving conditions of farm people, and assuring appropriate prices for consumers andguaranteeing alimentary security. According to the Treaty it is essential in common


agricultural policy to take into consideration specific character of agricultural economy,specific structure of farm society, regional structural and environmental differencesand connecting agriculture with the economy as well as taking steps towards theirsuccessive elimination by using special measures. Other issues influencing the agrarianstructure refer to growth of work efficiency, economical efficiency of production factors,improvement of competitiveness and matters of balanced agriculture and agriculturallands development.

Process of land concentration in Poland has two dimensions according to Zegar(Zegar 2009). The first one is connected with formation of relations between largeland properties and smaller farms and the other one refers to transfer and land concen-tration amongst family-run farms. In this report there has been shown the influenceof proprietorial changes in governmental agricultural sector on creation of agrarianstructure in Poland.

Research methods

The aim of held research was to assess the influence of proprietorial changes ingovernmental agricultural sector on creation of agrarian structure in Poland. Achievingthis goal was connected with identification of factors that determine its incidence anddynamics of the changes. It was assumed that achieving this goal should be enabledby obtaining data about management of agricultural property of State Treasury anddata about numbers, placement and land structure of farms in the country. In theanalysis there have been used data from:� reports on the activity of Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury for the

years 1990 ñ 2012,� statistical yearbooks of agriculture and farm areas for years 1990 ñ 2012,� the outcomes of agricultural census from years 1996, 2002, 2010.

In the analysis there have been used chart-describing statistics, and some of therelations have been shown in a form of graphics.

Research outcomes

Macroeconomic conditions and legal-formal regulations which are formed byagricultural policy of the country which shape agrarian structure, have and essentialinfluence on changes in polish agriculture and farm areas. According to B. Galeski(Galeski 1964) agrarian structure should be analysed by grouping farms into differenteconomic types, which shows their property form and usage of farm productionresources. Further analysis of farms covers equipment in production resources, amongstwhich land is the most important feature. It determines the direction, level of productionand level of farmsí marketability (Tyszkiewicz 1978).

One of the characteristic features of agricultural structure of polish farming is itsregional differentiation associated with the process of rebuilding farming policies afterwar. The decree of PKWN from 6 IX 1944 r (4) about executing farm reform states


that ìPolish farm policy will have good foundations such as strong, healthy andproductive farms which belong to private farmersî. For the purpose of reforms therewere allocated lands belonging to the State of Treasury, post German land, confiscatedand taken from individuals or from legal persons in cases when joined area exceeded100 hectares of general area, or 50 hectares agricultural land, and in Poznan, Pome-ranian and Silesia Voivode ships when it exceeded 100 hectares of general area,whatever the size of agricultural land was.

Those regulations determined limits of private property, which had major impacton shaping agrarian structure in post-war Poland and was the top limitation for thearea of private farm, to which farms could have increased their land till 1990. Mostof agrarian lands which were taken over have been parted and designed to createfarms by non-farmers and people coming from old Polish lands. The rest of the landscreated a base for creating governmental farms. The land was still given by repaymentfor relatively low prices (15 quintals of rye for 1 hectare of III class land). The paymentcould have been done by instalments during 10ñ20 years. Due to high expected demandit was assumed that area of received land should not exceed 5 hectares.

As a part of the reform government took over 652 thousands of agriculturalproperties, out of which 4.9% had the area above 50 hectares. As a result 6.07 millionhectares was given to nearly 1.07 million families, and 3.7 million hectares of it wasgiven for 467 thousands for families for immigration. After those processes averagearea of a farm was 5.4 hectares on old Polish lands and 7.9 hectares on immigrationlands. Already existing farms increased by 1.9 hectares. In total as a result of reformafter war around 30% of farm land was given to individual farmers. Although manyproperties have been parted, significant part of those lands came back to the possessionof government through Countryís Ground Fund by a realisation of program of sharingvillages. After war there have been taken actions which consisted on using variousincentives of commands-and-interdictions which lead to socializing and limiting privateproperty of governmental farming (Sadowski 2009).

Since 1990 in the process of management of agricultural property of State Treasurythere have been essential the chosen formal-legal solutions towards creation of Stockof Agrarian Property of State Treasury, economic and financial situation of takenover post-state-owned farms, legal state of taken over properties and countries socio-economic situation (Jaworski 1999, pp. 27ñ33). According to W. Dzun (Dzun 2005,p. 239) main point of adopted legal-formal solutions was to activate land market byactivation of agricultural land resources of State of Treasury. They were meant tostimulate structural changes in Polish agriculture. In their assumptions they weremeant to promote desired structure of family-run farms, especially through sellinglands for neighbours or by enabling creation of new family-run farms.

Another aim was to indicate those forms of management of property of State ofTreasury, which enabled itsí effective use until the moment of itsí permanent manage-ment, which was its sales. The process contained three essential steps. First step wasconnected with incorporation of agricultural property to the Stock of APA, in a formof return-receipt protocol made by returning entity and the Agency on a basis ofadministrative decision. The second step contained preparation of property to beingbrought into cultivation. After incorporating the property to the Stock of APA entities


lost their legal form and started functioning in a form of State Treasury farms withtemporary management. The main tasks of temporary manager were to manage currentactivity of the farm and creating the restructuration program of managed farm accor-ding to the Agencyís recommendation. The third step contained bringing the propertyinto cultivation consistent with its tasks described by the legal acts (5) and the assump-tions of state agricultural policy in the area of proprietorial changes in agriculturalsector (Mioduszewski, Niedzielski 2012; Jaworowski 1999).

According to the records of 5th chapter of the Act (6) different forms of managementof the Stock of APA have been drawn up depending on situation and specific conditions.Amongst main forms of cultivating the property entirely or partially we can mentionsale, time-limited rendering by private person or legal entities (mainly lease or rent),insertion into companyís property, time-limited rendering by the administrator ofentire or part of the property to manage, giving property into management of stateentity which does not possess legal form, free-of-charge rendering the property by theauthorized entities or using it for infrastructural investments.

Beside that changes introduced in the act obliged the Agency to fulfil some tasksdefined by other legal acts, especially by the Act about creation of agricultural policyfrom 11th April 2003, where 1st article defines rules enabling improvement of landstructure of farms (7), prevention from over concentration of farm properties andAPA assuring management of agricultural activity by qualified entities. Pace, rangeand form of cultivating the Stock of APA were influenced by releasing the Act from16th September 2011 about change of the act about management of farm propertiesof State Treasury (8). According to the introduced changes the Agency was obliged toe.g. selling its property entirely or partially at first and to introduce changes in rulesof giving leases, but also in existing leases. According to the statements of the ActAgency should take measures to enable the leases given before the novelisation togive up the lease on 30% of the area of agricultural land which was leased.

Those regulations had no legal force if the lease was signed a day before thecoming into life the act from 16th September 2011 and the entire area of leased landfrom the Stock of APA after the exclusion would be smaller than 300 hectares. In thesituation when the leaseholder did not accept the proposed conditions he would loseright to the first buyout of the property. The decision of Board of European Union2010/10/WE from 20th November 2009 had influence on the permanent cultivationof the Stock process, by enabling using governments help for buying agriculturalproperty for the time of 3 years, i.e., from 1st January 2010 to 31 December 2013.Matter of specific conditions of hire purchase and level of return liabilities from saleof the property from the Stock of APA has been regulated in the Decree of Minister ofAgriculture and Development of Rural Areas from 16th February 2012 (9). Govern-mental help in purchase of agricultural land was pointed mainly on purchasers, whoseaim was to create or develop their family-run farm (10).

Participation of governmental sector in use of lands, and by this in agriculturalproduction, showed big territorial differentiation. In the scale of country there havebeen incorporated to the Stock of APA land with the area of over 4.7 million hectares,in which land of out of 1666 farms made up 79.4% (3.76 million hectares), and the


rest of lands came from the Countryís Ground Fund (12.7%) and from other titles(7.9%). The process of their taking over was practically finished in 1995. The govern-ment possessed biggest part of agricultural land in north and north-west part of thecountry, where from 7 provinces there have been incorporated into the Stock of APAover 3.71 million hectares of land, which makes up for 78.5%. The most lands havebeen incorporated in the Province of West Pomerania (821.5 thousands hectares),Province of Warmia and Masuria (820.6 thousands hectares), Southern Silesia Province(509.5 thousands hectares) and Greater Poland Province (499.9 thousands hectares).As a consequence, scale of the problem and repercussions of proprietorial changes ingovernmental sector of agriculture are also territorially differentiated. Overtakingthe agricultural properties from the post-state-owned farms used to function as Farmsof State Treasury with a temporary management, and then they were offered the saleor lease entirely or partially.

In the situation of lack of regulated legal state of the agricultural property andlack of entities eager to lease or purchase the property, entities which could functionon their own obtained the farm to administrate it. This form had essential influenceuntil the end of year 2000, and according to the data from the end of year 2012,almost 2.1 thousands hectares (0.4%) of land still exist in this form. Planned paceand range of privatisation of an average property through its sale had significantlysmaller scale as it was assumed at the beginning, while creating the program ofproprietorial changes of governmental agricultural properties. On average in the periodof one year around 2.3% of land was sold out from the Stock of APA, while onaverage 3% of land could find purchasers in years 1995ñ2002. The biggest significancein bringing the agricultural lands into cultivation had lease, as in this form there havebeen cultivated around 2/3 of the Stock (2.93 million hectares). At the end of year2012 in the Stock of APA there have still been over 1.8 million hectares (38%), out ofwhich over 72.2% (1.3 million hectares) have been being leased. The majority ofthose lands is located in the Province of West Pomerania, Province of Warmia andMasuria, Southern Silesia Province and Greater Poland Province.

Since year 2003 there have been increase in cultivation of farm lands, which wasreflected by the increase of rent of lease and of prices of agricultural lands. The creationof prices of agricultural land was influenced by Poland joining European Union andpermanent cultivation since 2002 around 1/3 of total land of the APA Stock. Thisinfluenced the relation between supply and demand what was reflected by systematicalgrowth of the prices. According to the high dynamics of prices increase the farm landstarted being seen as an attractive location of the capital in the constantly changingmacroeconomic conditions, resulting from Poland joining European Union andintroducing direct subventions for users of agricultural lands as a part of CommonRural Policy. Those changes resulted in over 5 times increase in average prices of saleof farm land in years 2002ñ2012 from the amount of 3736 to 19288 PLN per 1hectares, and over 6.5 times increase in lease (see Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1).


Figure 1Results of activity of the Agricultural Property Agency in taking overand management of lands (according to the data from 31 XII 2012)

4740.6 thousands hectares ñ land incorporated from the Agricultural Property Stock of theState Treasury, 1800.9 thousands hectares ñ land remaining in the Agricultural Property Stockof the State Treasury.

Source: own study based on reports on the activity of Agricultural Property Stock of theState Treasury for the year 2012, Warsaw.

J. Mio

duszew

ski. T

he In

fluen

ce of P

roprieto

rial Chan

ges in P

ublic Secto

r of A

gricultu

re..53

Table 1The results of the activity of the Agricultural Property Agency in overtaking and management of lands

from 1992 to 2012

* ACOM ñ Agency for Construction and Operation of Motorways;** RWMM ñ Regional Water Management or Marshal.

Source: own study based on reports on the activity of Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury for the years 1992 ñ 2012,Warsaw.


Figure 2The level of rent for leased land and land sales prices of

Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury in the years 1992 ñ 2012

* Excluding land under buildings (including residential), via selected objects like water.

Source: own study based on reports on the activity of Agricultural Property Stock of theState Treasury for the years 1992 ñ 2012, Warsaw.

During the analysis of structure and dynamics of changes in number of individualfarms in area groups one can notice improvement of territorial structure. Those changesare reflected by around 1.5 times increase in average land size of a farm (from 6.3hectares in 1990 to 9.3 hectares of agricultural land in 2012). In this period of timethere was a decrease of 685 thousands farms and a decrease in farm agricultural landof 77.5 thousands hectares of agricultural land. This trend was mostly connectedwith the decrease of amount of farm in all territorial groups apart from the farmsabove 15 hectares of agricultural land. Their number has increased of around 71.3thousands farms which states for 54.8%. Amongst farms over 15 hectares of agricul-tural land every eighth farm (26.7 thousands of farms) has the area of 50 hectares ofagricultural land. Those farms were mostly created on the basis of properties of StateTreasury which had already been cultivated in north and north-west part of Poland inprovinces with essential share in agricultural property.

The biggest average area have farms in Warmia and Masuria Province (20.5hectares), Lubuskie Province (18 hectares), Pomerania and West-Pomerania Provinces(15.9 hectares) and Kuyavia-Pomerania Province (14 hectares). Farms with smallersize could increase mostly as an effect of ìdropping-offî smaller individual farm withthe small income of land from the APA Stock at the same time (see Figure 3, Table 2).As A. Sikorska (Sikorska 2013, p. 28) indicates, increase of rate of agrarian changesafter entering European Union had two causes. First one was connected with increasingcompetition in agriculture, which caused tension on increasing production scale and


strengthening market positions of agricultural resources producers. As a consequenceaverage size farms reduction became more visible.

The other cause was connected with geographical location of farms and urbanisedareas, absorptive labour markets and communication roads which facilitated accessto huge agglomerations. Tendencies of changes in shaping the territorial structuresand amount of individual farms are being shown for instance by Dzun (Dzun 2005),Kisiel and Lizinska (Kisiel, Lizinska 2001), Niedzielski (Niedzielski 2009), Sadowski(Sadowski 2009), Zegar (Zegar 2014). In Poland significant meaning for creatingagrarian structure, has familiar character of farm landsí property, which were trans-mitted from one gender to another. The process of proprietorial changes in govern-mental sector of agriculture which was started, enabled transfer of farm lands to theprivate sector. At principles, lands of The Agricultural Property of the Treasury weremanaged by lease, enabling creation of large farms and enlarging those already existingones. Influence of this form has decreased in a period of last 10 years due to buyingout leased lands for instance. Dynamics of changes of agrarian structure was influencedby increasing prices of farm lands and leases. Amongst major advantages of managingagricultural properties through lease/buying out one can name possibility of furtherevolution by increasing production abilities, reducing individual production costs,rational use of possessed resources and capital investment which enabled significantbenefits from subventions from European Union.

Figure 3The average area of agricultural land in farms by voivode ship in 2002 and 2012

The average area of agricultural land in hectares ñ 2012/2002

Source: own study based on data of the Central Statistical Office.

Soci‚lo

Zin

‚tÚu V

Ástnesis 2

015 1

56

Table 2Private farms in Poland grouped by the area of agricultural land

* on average land area farms above 1 hectaresa Date of the Agricultural Census

Source: own study based on data of the Central Statistical Office


Conclusions

Since early 90ís the process of proprietorial changes in governmental sector ofagriculture has created new possibilities of changes in agrarian structure. Currently itis being carried out by the Agricultural Property Agency, which was given full owner-ship rights of agricultural property of the State Treasury. The outcome of the researchindicates on essential influence of property changes in governmental sector ofagriculture on shaping of agrarian structure. It should be highlighted that this processhas two directions. On one side it can be connected with decreasing of the amount offarms and overtaking lands from other family-run farms, and on the other side it canbe connected with transfer of farm lands of State Treasury, which lead to developmentof existing farms and creation of large farms.

There have been huge historical diversifications of agrarian structure in Poland.It is reflected by the strong demand on farm lands in the areas with small supply ofthis land to offer by Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury. The biggestpart of the state property in agriculture was in north and north-west part of Poland,where over 2.65 million hectares of land has been incorporated from four provinces(West Pomeranian Province, Province of Warmia and Masuria, Lower Silesia Provinceand Greater Poland Province), which consists of 55.9% of total Stock of APA.

As a result of its own activity, The Agency has permanently brought into cultivation3.01 million hectares of lands out of 4.74 million hectares, of which 2.34 millionthrough sale. Out of remaining in the Stock, 1.32 million hectares (27.8%) is beingleased. Analysis of the structure and dynamics of changes in amount of individualfarms, states that there has been improvement of land structure, which is reflected indecrease of 685 thousands (to the level of 1.45 million) in amount of farms andincrease of average area of a farm by 150% (from 6.3 hectares in 1990 to 9.3 hectaresof agricultural land in 2012). This trend has been noticed in all area groups apartfrom the group of farms above 15 hectares of agricultural land. Its number has grownto 201 thousands, and every eighth farm in this group has the area of more than 50hectares of agricultural land. Those farms have been mainly created on the basis ofthe agricultural proprieties of State Treasury which had already been brought intocultivation, mostly in north and north-west part of Poland. At the same time smallerfarms were increasing their land mostly because of the ìdropping outî of otherindividual farms. Some may expect that this trend of structural changes will continuebecause of essential size of the Stock of APA and the priorities of agricultural policywhich are determined by chosen formal-legal solutions which lead to full privatisationof agricultural lands. Seeing the farm land as a good location of a capital which willcontinuously bring financial benefits (direct payments from European Union) willstimulate changes in agrarian structure in next years.

(1) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture 1993.(2) Act from 19th October 1991 about management of agricultural property of State Treasury,with later changes. (Dz. U. from 1991 number 107 position 464).(3) Act from 19th October 1991 about management of agricultural property of State Treasury,with later changes. (Dz. U. from 1991 number 107 position 464).


(4) Dz.U. from 1945 number 3, position 13 Announcement of Minister of Agriculture andAgricultural reforms from 18th January 1945, about announcement of homogenous text ofthe decret of Polish Committee of National Liberation from 6th September 1944 about deliveringagricultural reform.

(5) Dz.U.07.231.1700 it is article 6.1 of Act from 19th October 1991 about management ofagricultural property of State Treasury.

(6) Dz.U.07.231.1700 it is article art. 25 and 25 of Act from 19th October 1991 aboutmanagement of agricultural property of State Treasury.

(7) According to article 2 of Act about creating agricultural policy ìhomestead means homesteadas it is defined in Civil Code with the area not smaller than 1 ha of farm land.

(8) Dz. U. from year 2011 number 233, position 1382.(9) Dz. U. from year 2012, position 208.(10) Family-run farm described in article 5 Act 1 from 11th April 2003 about creation ofagricultural policy (Dz. U. Number 64, position 592, with later changes)

Bibliography

APA (2002) Reports on activity of Agricultural Property Agency of State Treasury for years1992 ñ 2002. APA, Warsaw.

APA (2012) Reports on activity of Agricultural Property Agency on Agricultural PropertyStock of the State Treasury for years 2003 ñ 2012. APA, Warsaw.

Central Statistical Office. (1998) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. Warsaw, pp. 36.

Central Statistical Office. (2007) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture and rural areas. Warsawp. 216, 217.

Central Statistical Office. (2008) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture and rural areas. Warsaw,pp. 217, 226, 227.

Central Statistical Office. (2009) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. Warsaw, pp. 100, 101.

Central Statistical Office. (2010) Agricultural Census. Use of land. Table 8. Warsaw, pp. 55.

Central Statistical Office. (2010) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. Warsaw, pp. 77, 91,100, 101.

Central Statistical Office. (2011) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. Warsaw, pp. 82, 105.

Central Statistical Office. (2011) The report on the results of Agricultural Census 2010. Warsaw,pp. 26ñ35.

Central Statistical Office. (2012) Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. Table 12, Chart 31.Warsaw.

Dzun W. (2005) Post-state-owned farms in a process of system changes in Poland. IRWIRPAN, Warszawa. pp. 239, 246ñ251

Jacyszyn J. (1992) Proprietorial changes in state agriculture. UW, Wroc˘aw. pp. 9ñ22.

Jaworowski J. (1999) Proprietorial changes in agriculture. UWM, Olsztyn. pp. 27ñ33.

Kisiel R., Lizinska W. (2001) The transformation of agrarian structure in Poland in the contextof integration with the European Union In: The role and position of family-run farms in Polishand European agricultural system. ART, Bydgoszcz, pp. 75ñ84.

Mioduszewski J., Niedzielski E. (2012) The influence of lease in management of agriculturallands of State Treasury. PTE, pp. 33ñ46.


Niedzielski E. (2009) Structural transformation on the areas of post-state-owned farms.Statistical Yearbooks of SERIA, Tom XI, Book 4, pp. 223ñ227.Sadowski A. (2009) Property and utilization of farm lands. UwB, Bialystok, pp. 212, 216,312ñ316.Sikorska A. (2013) Proceses of structural changes in farmersí society and in farming. Synthesis.IERiG›-PAN, pp. 28.Tyszkiewicz W. (1978) Agricultural structure of Poland in years 1945ñ1975. Territorial andtime analysis. IGiPZ PAN, Warsaw, pp. 11.Zegar J.S. (2009) The issue of land concentration in Polish individual agriculture. RocznikiNauk Rolniczych, Seria G, T. 96, z. 4.Zegar J.S. (2014) The issue of agrarian structure in Polish family-run farms. Journal of Agri-business and Rural Development, 1(31), p. 179ñ186.

60

Kaspars Steinbergs, Ren‚te Cane

CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATIONAT FILM STUDIOS IN LATVIA

The existence of every company, organization or even whole industry can be jeopardisedby a crisis situation, which can arise due to a wide range of internal and external environmentalfactors. Quite often, crisis situations affect those industries and companies whose activities arelargely affected by external factors. One example of such industries is the Latvian film industry,which to a great extent is dependent on the availability of public funding for making films andcarrying other audio-visual projects. A substantial reduction in public financing of film industryin 2009 created a crisis-like conditions within the industry as a whole and in most of therelated companies as well. This article analyses crisis management and communication in theLatvian film industry as a whole and in its individual companies. There are also statistical dataanalysed on the amount of public funding and its impact on the number of films made. Alsothe overall long-term crisis situation in film industry is analysed. In order to give an analysis ofthe situation in film industry companies six semi-structured interviews have been conducted.This allowed to determine the causes of the crisis, its impact on business activities of thosecompanies, management and communication processes during crisis. The study showed thatthe cause of the crisis was almost exclusively not receiving of public funding by Latvian filmstudios and thus a failure to implement their film projects. In such situations the work of thestudio manager and the internal communication are of the essence. The results of the interviewsshowed that such situations can be successfully overcome if there have been good pre-crisisrelationships developed, reputation and good work results provided. The most important partof internal communication during a crisis is to provide open and complete information onprevious work done by the company. If external communication is very important duringcrisis situations for the industry as a whole, then it is not so important for individual companies.It was also concluded that such crisis situations create a creative crisis, and taking into accountthe specifics of Latvian film studios, the studio directorís personal crisis communication replacesthe crisis communication of the company. Finally, it was concluded that the Latvian filmindustry long-term crisis, which was resulted from the reduction of public funding could beconsidered as systematic failure of strategy within the industry.

Key words: crisis management, crisis communication, film industry, public funding.

KrÓzes mened˛ments un komunik‚cija Latvijas filmu studij‚s

Katra uzÚÁmuma, organiz‚cijas un pat veselas industrijas past‚vÁanu var apdraudÁt krÓzessitu‚cijas, kuras var izraisÓt vesela virkne iekÁj‚s un ‚rÁj‚s vides faktori. KrÓzes situ‚cij‚mbie˛i ir pakÔautas t‚s industrijas un to uzÚÁmumi, kuru darbÓbu b˚tiski ietekmÁ ‚rÁjie faktori.Viena no ‚d‚m industrij‚m Latvij‚ ir filmu industrija, kuras uzÚÁmumu darbÓba liel‚ mÁr‚ iratkarÓga no pieejam‚ publisk‚ finansÁjuma filmu un citu audiovizu‚lo darbu projektu Ósteno-anai. B˚tiskais valsts finansÁjuma filmu industrijai samazin‚jums 2009. gad‚ radÓja krÓzesapst‚kÔus gan vis‚ industrij‚ kopum‚, gan liel‚kaj‚ daÔ‚ t‚s uzÚÁmumu. –aj‚ rakst‚ tiek analizÁtakrÓzes situ‚ciju vadÓba un komunik‚cija Latvijas filmu industrij‚ kopum‚, k‚ arÓ atseviÌost‚s uzÚÁmumos. Tiek analizÁti statistikas dati par publisk‚ finansÁjuma apjomu un t‚ ietekmiuz radÓto filmu skaitu, raksturojot ilgtermiÚa krÓzes situ‚ciju filmu industrij‚ kopum‚. KrÓzessitu‚ciju analÓzei filmu industrijas uzÚÁmumos, tika veiktas seas daÔÁji strukturÁt‚s intervijas,noskaidrojot krÓzes cÁloÚus, ietekmi uz uzÚÁmumu darbÓbu, ka arÓ vadÓbas un komunik‚cijas

K. Steinbergs, R. Cane. Crisis Management and Communication at Film Studios.. 61

procesus krÓzes situ‚cij‚s. PÁtÓjuma rezult‚t‚ tika konstatÁts, ka gandrÓz vienÓgais krÓzes cÁlonisLatvijas filmu studij‚s ir publisk‚ finansÁjuma nesaÚemana k‚da filmu projekta neÓstenoanai.–‚d‚s situ‚cij‚s b˚tiskais ir studijas vadÓt‚ja darbs un iekÁj‚ komunik‚cija. Interviju rezult‚tipar‚dÓja, ka ‚das situ‚cijas Ôauj sekmÓgi p‚rvarÁt pirms krÓzes izveidot‚s attiecÓbas, reput‚cijaun paveikt‚ darba rezult‚ti. KrÓzes iekÁj‚ komunik‚cij‚ svarÓg‚kais ir atkl‚tas un pilnÓgasinform‚cijas sniegana uzÚÁmuma darbiem. Ja industrijas krÓzes situ‚cij‚s ‚rÁj‚ komunik‚cijair Ôoti b˚tiska, tad uzÚÁmumu krÓzes situ‚cij‚s tas nav b˚tisks faktors. Tika arÓ secin‚ts, ka‚das krÓzes situ‚cijas rada arÓ radoo krÓzi, un, Úemot vÁr‚ Latvijas filmu studiju specifiku,liel‚koties studijas vadÓt‚ja personÓg‚ krÓzes komunik‚cija aizst‚j visa uzÚÁmuma krÓzeskomunik‚ciju. NoslÁgum‚ tiek secin‚ts, ka Latvijas filmu industrijas ilgtermiÚa krÓzi, ko izraisapublisk‚ finansÁjuma samazin‚ana, var uzskatÓt par sistÁmisko kÔ˚du industrijas vadÓb‚ unstratÁÏij‚.

AtslÁgas v‚rdi: krÓzes vadÓba, krÓzes komunik‚cija, filmu industrija, publiskais finansÁjums.

Антикризисное управление и коммуникация на латвийских киностудиях

Существованию каждой компании, организации и даже целой индустрии может угро-жать кризисная ситуация, которую может вызвать целый ряд внутренних и внешних фак-торов. С кризисными ситуациями часто сталкиваются индустрии и компании, на чьюдеятельность значительно влияют внешние факторы. Одной из таких отраслей в Латвииявляется киноиндустрия, чья деловая активность в значительной степени зависит от на-личия государственного финансирования для реализации кино- и других аудиовизуаль-ных проектов. Значительное сокращение государственного финансирования киноиндус-трии в 2009 году создало кризисную ситуацию в индустрии в целом и в большинстве еёкомпаний. В статье анализируется управление кризисными ситуациями и коммуникацияв латвийской киноиндустрии в целом, а также в некоторых её компаниях. Анализируютсястатистические данные об объеме государственного финансирования и количестве создан-ных фильмов, характеризующие долгосрочное управление кризисными ситуациями вкиноиндустрии Латвии. Для анализа кризисных ситуаций в киноиндустрии были прове-дены шесть полуструктурированных интервью, чтобы выяснить причины кризисов, ихвлияние на хозяйственную деятельность киностудий, а также процессы управления и ком-муникации в кризисных ситуациях. Исследование показало, что почти единственной при-чиной кризиса латвийских киностудий является неполучение государственного финан-сирования для реализации кинопроектов. В таких ситуациях важна работа руководителястудии и внутренняя коммуникация. Результаты интервью показали, что отношения, уста-новленные до кризиса, репутация и результаты деятельности позволяют успешно преодо-левать такие ситуации. Во внутренней коммуникации во время кризиса самым главнымявляется предоставление открытой и полной информации. Если внешняя коммуника-ция в киноиндустрии в кризисных ситуациях очень важна, то в отдельно взятых киносту-диях это не является важным фактором. Был также сделан вывод, что кризисная ситуа-ция приводит и к творческому кризису. Принимая во внимание специфику латвийскихкиностудий, личная коммуникация руководителя студии во время кризиса заменяет, глав-ным образом, всю кризисную коммуникацию компаний. В заключение делается вывод,что долгосрочный кризис латвийской киноиндустрии, вызванный сокращением государ-ственного финансирования, можно считать системной ошибкой в руководстве индуст-рией и в ее стратегии.

Ключевые слова: антикризисное управление, коммуникация в кризисных ситуациях,киноиндустрия, государственное финансирование.


Introduction

Crisis as an integral part of the modern business concerns all industries and com-panies (Fearn-Banks 2010). This article analyses crisis situations in the Latvian filmindustry and its companies. The Latvian film industry depends heavily on state subsidiesto be able to realise film projects, thus a significant decrease of financing may contributeto spreading of the crisis both throughout all industry and particular companies (Stein-bergs 2014). Nevertheless an insufficient state funding cannot be the only crisis-promoting factor. As it is distinguished in the crisis management literature, review ofwhich is given in the next section, a crisis situation can be triggered by a variety ofinner and outer environment factors. Evaluation of the reasons of the crisis in Latvianfilm industry companies, and analysing the processes of crisis management and com-munication were the aims of this study. Film industry, similarly to other media mustconsider the effect of crisis on the communication with an audience and the link betweencreativity crisis and company or industry crisis. In the investigation of the crisis situationin the Latvian film industry companies, it is also taken into account that most of thesecompanies are ìone man businessesî, where film director is also a producer and studiomanager (Juris Podnieks Studio 2011). In such case, the communication crisis of themanager of a film studio relates to the communication of the studio and vice versa.Accordingly, the film studio ownersí and managersí personal crisis perception andcommunication are analysed in this article.

The article consists of five sections. The first deals with the theoretical aspects ofcrisis management and communication; the second reports on the methodology ofthe research; the third provides a review of the financial situation of the Latvian filmindustry and its impact on the work of the film studios; and the fourth forms theresults of the interviews with the film studio owners and managers. The main findingsare reflected in the fifth or the conclusion part.

Crisis management and communication

A crisis is a serious event that occurs suddenly, often unexpectedly, and calls fora fast reaction. To understand what a crisis is and what its possible influence may be,different stances of several authors will be reviewed. Several well-known authorsassess a crisis from the viewpoint of business management, stating its negative influenceon the operation and processes of the organisation to be the most essential points, aswell as threats to its existence and material losses. For defining a crisis more expres-sively, specialists often emphasise the characteristics of a crisis ñ suddenness, uncer-tainty, insecurity and doubt. For example, Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer define organiza-tional crises as ìspecific, unexpected, and non-routine events or series of events that[create] high levels of uncertainty and threat or perceived threat to an organizationíshigh priority goalsî (Seeger et al. 2003).

Similarly to the mentioned above, such public relations classics as Cutlip, Centerand Broom define a crisis while assessing its negative influence on the operation of anorganisation as a whole. They emphasise uncertainty as a characteristic of crisis,


stating that it imposes restrictions on the immediate capacities of the organisation: ìalow-probability, high-impact events that threaten the viability of the organisationand itís characterised by ambiguity of the cause, effect, and means of resolution, aswell as by a belief that decisions must be made swiftlyî (Cutlip et al. 2000).

Still, a great amount of specialists, especially those who assess a crisis from theangle of public relations problems, believe that an organisation should review itspriorities and strategies, and that the most essential loss after a crisis is the loss ofreputation. Reputation should not be viewed as a factor separate from other essentialfactors that regulate the work of an organisation ñ financial data, client, employeesatisfaction etc. Instead, reputation should be viewed as the sum total of all thesethings and thus the crisis also has to be ascribed to all the factors taken together.

One of the keenest defenders of this view is Andrew Griffin, who defines crisis asan ìacute risk for reputationî (Griffin 2009). That is, crises occur unexpectedly, theydraw focused attention and the organisation is blamed for everything. Kathleen Fearn-Banks, a crisis communication researcher, also defines crisis by viewing its impact onthe organisation as a whole, and notes the harm it does to reputation, which she callsan organisationís ìgood nameî. ìA crisis is a major occurrence with a potentiallynegative outcome affecting the organisation, company or industry, as well as its publics,products, services, or good name. A crisis interrupts normal business transaction andcan sometimes threaten the existence of the organisationî (Fearn-Banks 2010).

W. Timothy Coombs, the author of many academic books and publications withfocus on crisis communication, defines crisis as a sudden and unexpected event thatthreatens to disrupt an organizationís operations and poses both a financial and areputational threat. Crisis can harm stakeholders (community members, employees,customers, suppliers, stockholders) physically, emotionally and/ or financially. Coombsproposed Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) that provides an evidence-based framework for understanding how to maximize the reputational protectionafforded by post crisis communication. This theory identifies how key facets of thecrisis situation influence attributions about the crisis and the reputations held bystakeholders. SCCT research has identified three crisis clusters based upon attributionsof crisis responsibility by crisis type: (1) the victim cluster has very week attributionsof crisis responsibility (natural disasters, workplace violence, product tampering andrumour) and the organization is viewed as a victim of the event; (2) the accidentalcluster has minimal attributions of crisis responsibility (technical-error accident,technical-error product harm and challenge) and the event is considered unintentionalor uncontrollable by the organization and (3) the intentional cluster has very strongattributions of crisis responsibility (human-error accident, human-error product harmand organizational misdeed) and the event is considered purposeful. SCCT modelsthe crisis situation and provides an evidence-based set of guidelines for using crisisresponse strategies that can benefit crisis managers and their organizations (Coombs2007).

The authors of this article see conceptual likenesses in the aforementioneddefinitions of crisis ñ a crisis is defined as a serious threat to the processes in an orga-nisation, involved parties or an industry as a whole, and often the outcome predicted


is negative. It leaves a severe impact on the development of the organisation and canendanger the existence of an organisation. Although definitions may vary greatly,most definitions of crisis are characterized by three elements:a) surprise element;b) threat to the organisation;c) short time for making decisions.

However, one must remember ñ for a crisis to occur, many (or at least several)negative aspects have to coincide simultaneously. One aspect is not a crisis. Particularlyemphasizing, a crisis occurs if the processes are not managed and controlled; however,if the processes are being controlled on an ongoing basis, a crisis can be predicted andtherefore avoided.

Regardless of the fact that a crisis usually intensifies suddenly and it is difficult toprognosticate a precise time of its occurrence, there are several indications that makeit possible to forebode the approach of a crisis. For example, it can be the fact that acurrent aggravation of a situation is very important to an organisation (more importantthan similar situations before) and is threatening the successful development of thecompany or even its existence.

Gilpin and Murphy define Complexity theory and its perspective on crisis com-munication. A complexity view suggests that, rather than imposing tight crisis planningparameters, with most crisis situations it may be more effective to understand thecontexts in which they are embedded and then work with the multiple possibilitiespresented by those contexts. Certain features of the complexity theory ñ dependenceon history, instability, nonlinearity, and self-organization ñ constrain the ability oforganizations to exercise control over these patterns. Complexity theory acknowledgesthe non-linearity and holistic nature of crises, which often have no clear start or endpoints, emerging instead from larger contextual patterns and relationships. Complexityoffers a framework for understanding not only those crises precipitated by a singleorganization but also more diffuse crisis situations that emerge as a result of denseinterconnectedness, ranging from food safety to beleaguered world financial markets,from terrorism to natural disasters. Complexity offers a framework for advances inconceptualizing stakeholders, studying the emergence of issues and crises, and trackingreputation across media and across national borders (Gilpin, Murphy 2010).

The complexity of a crisis is determined by several factors:� uncertainty and lack of in-depth information about the incident which is subjacent

to the crisis situation;� very rapid and unpredictable progress of the situation;� lack of means and different resources (for example, qualified specialists ñ PR, law

etc.) needed for an operative and effective solution of the situation, which canlead to loss of control (Lehtonens et al. 2011).

Cutlip et al. divide crises into the following, when viewed from the angle of timing:� a sudden crisis;� a ripening crisis;� a long-term crisis (Cutlip et al. 2000).


A sudden crisis is the most dangerous type of crisis ñ it occurs so suddenly andunexpectedly, that there is hardly any or no time for research or planning. The examplesof such crises are airplane crashes, bomb threats, fires, the sudden death of a governmentofficial etc. Such cases need a timely developed plan, which is coordinated with allexecutives and provides precise instructions on how each executive should take action;this can prevent possible disturbances, uncoordinated actions, procrastination andother problems.

In case of a ripening crisis there is more time to explore the situation and planmeasures. However, it must be considered that such crises after a long period ofripening can expand at the speed of lightning. The examples of such crises are long-term dissatisfaction of employees, abuse of official power, incompetence or overloadof decision-making officials etc. The most difficult task in such a situation is to convincethe top-level management of the need for adjusting actions, before the crisis reachesits critical phase.

A long-term crisis can last for months and even years, even though the managementdoes everything to liquidate it. Most frequently such crises are connected to reputationproblems and may be caused by a gossip or wrong assumptions established in theconsciousness of the society, and public relations specialists are incapable of controllingthem. Outspoken denials and simplified countermeasures are often not able to interruptthe spread of a harmful situation.

The key to effective crisis management is to be ready before the crisis occurs.Crisis management consists of different methods, used both for reacting to a crisisand for understanding it. For example, it is important to recognize the basic causes inorder to establish what scenarios result into crises. Accordingly, this helps to engagethe necessary response mechanisms, which can either help to avoid crises or to makeit as easy as possible to overcome them. Crisis management also includes a crisismanagement plan. When an unexpected event occurs, there is little time to think andeven less time to plan, however without a successfully implemented, methodical crisisplan the events can turn out unfavourable for the organization. Therefore, a situation-appropriate, effective and powerful crisis management plan helps to defend the reputa-tion of an organisation, brand or the place in market, and also contributes to themaintenance of clientsí, employeesí and partnersí loyalty to the organisation and itsmanagement.

Otto Lerbinger believes that planning should begin with the definition of objectives,which this plan is supposed to achieve:� to address uncertainty during the crisis by establishing the principal guidelines of

the initial reaction towards a crisis situation. This can be achieved by definingcommunication procedures and responsibilities;

� to provide guidance for crisis management team;� to provide communication guidelines to spokespeople in the company who during

crisis time will communicate with the media and audiences directly involved;� to evaluate the companyís resources that might be of use in a crisis situation

(Lerbinger 2011).


In turn, Fearn-Banks incorporates a definition of the objectives into the crisiscommunication plan. In her opinion, the crisis management plan shall be developedby incorporating a substantial amount of different instructions. Therefore, crisis com-munication plan could be developed as an independent piece of crisis managementdocument and is intended to facilitate public relations professionals in better manage-ment of a crisis situation (Fearn-Banks 2010).

Originally crisis communication gained research interest as a variable in crisismanagement, however due to public relations and communication researchers, nowa-days crisis communication has become the central object of crisis management research,putting emphasis on such crisis communication tasks as reputation protection andmanagement. These functions in crisis management belong to crisis communication,and Kathleen Fearn-Banks also emphasises this role, stressing that effective crisismanagement includes crisis communication, which can not only maintain the reputa-tion and credibility of an organisation, but even improve it. Fearn-Banks defines crisiscommunication as a dialogue. ìCrisis communication is a dialogue between the organi-sation and its public during and after the negative event. Strategies and tactics fordialogue are created in order to lessen the harm done to the image of an organisation.îIn addition, she recommends to break down involved audience into the followingcategories that would facilitate determining easier communication sequence andprovide compliance in a crisis situation:1) enabling public (determines crisis management and actions): authorities, decision-

makers, stakeholders, owners, investors, etc.;2) functional public (perform technical instructions, tasks): employees, unions,

suppliers, vendors, consumers, etc.;3) normative public (indirectly involved in crisis actions): trade associations, profes-

sional organizations, competitors, etc.;4) diffused public (indirectly linked to the crisis): the media, neighbours of the physical

plant, etc. (Fearn-Banks 2010).

The strategy of crisis communication can comprise different tools, yet one of themost effective is a crisis communication plan, which helps to ensure an effective col-laboration with media, whose task is to provide a factually accurate and objectiverepresentation of the situation in the mass media. In the opposite case, many yearsor even decades may be required to change the public opinion into the necessarydirection.

Coombs considers that the general goal of crisis communication is to prevent orlessen the negative effects of a crisis. In turn, crisis management serves to protectconstituents, organizations, industries, and the environment from harm. Crisis manage-ment is not one ìthingî. Rather, it is a set of factors that form a process ñ crisismanagement process, which can be divided into three parts: pre-crisis, crisis event,and post crisis. The three parts are related to one another; they are not stand-aloneelements (Coombs, Holladay 2010).

One of the specific features of crises is that during a crisis the organisation is oftenthe focus of attention for mass media and the society; furthermore, the media cantake the role of either ìfriendî or ìfoeî. This equally applies to all three periods of a


crisis. Efficient and strategically targeted work with information constitutes a successfulcrisis communication.

During the pre-crisis phase crisis communication is focused on early risk identi-fication and its reduction. This model involves vigilance thereby facilitating decision-making and crisis prevention processes (Ray 1999). By using biology analogy, thesepre-crisis statements provide stakeholders with information on potential crisis, thereforeallowing them to develop safeguarding mechanisms ñ some sort of immunity frombacklash and negative representation of the existing crisis in the media (Coombs,Holladay 2010). The pre-crisis phase is also the preparation phase, therefore it isoften seen as more important than the actual crisis phase. During the preparationphase the task of crisis communication is to develop a communication plan and providean evaluation of communication strategies and tactics.

During the crisis phase the main tasks of communication are to determine howand what needs to be communicated. The basic criteria for a way how to communicateare: rapid response, avoiding silence, accuracy and consistency. In turn, content orstrategic suggestions are based on three main tasks: preparation of information onways how to physically and psychologically cope with crisis, as well as reparation ofreputation (Heath, OíHair 2010).

Recovery after crisis can also be called a confidence regaining phase with thepublic which would also mean the resumption of normal communication. However,initially during the post-crisis period communication should be slightly proactive.Often during the crisis the company is not able to prepare detailed information for allstakeholders right away. Therefore, it makes a promise to prepare the additionalinformation when the acute crisis phase will be over. Promises must be fulfilled, there-fore a more proactive approach is needed in order to prepare additional informationand present it to all stakeholders (Lehtonens et al. 2011). Additional informationincludes statements on the recovery process of the company, on measures taken toprevent the repetition of the crisis, results of crisis expertise carried out and reportsmade, etc. Each of the target groups has its own interests. For example, investorswant to know what impact the crisis will have left on their profits, whereas the employeeswill be more interested in how the crisis will affect their future activities. Those affectedby the crisis will be more interested in what steps the company intends to take toprevent the repetition of the crisis. And the media will mostly be interested in theremainder how successful the overall recovery process in the company is. This com-munication of the organisation must be focused on restoring their confidence (HarvardBusiness School Press 2004).

Crisis communication strategy development is already a developed PR theoreticaldirection. Practitioners are adapting various theories which have their roots in com-munication sciences. What strategy will the company choose will be determined bythe objectives set to ensure successful crisis communication.


Methodology

The analysis of the crisis situation in the Latvian film industry consists of twoparts: first a brief industry statistics data analysis is given, and then the results of theinterview analysis with industry company managers are reflected.

Industry statistics include the data from the National Film Centre on funding ofthe film industry and the Central Statistical Bureau data on created film amountduring the period from 1995 ñ 2013. Those data allow to describe the situation in theLatvian film industry properly, because first of all similarly to the film industries ofother European countries, state subsidies are essential for the Latvian film industry inorder to realize the film projects (Morawetz et al. 2007). Secondly, the amount ofcreated films shows the funding spending efficiency and the efficiency of the work ofthe studios. These two factors enable to evaluate the situation in the industry in general,as well as identify the overall crisis situations.

Six semi-structured interviews were carried out during the research ñ with filmstudio managers, producers and film industry experts. The interview included questionson studio crisis situations, their causes, and steps for overcoming them as well asinternal and external communication in these situations, and related problems. Thelength of the interviews was 30ñ60 minutes. Studio managers, producers and expertswere chosen based on whether they have worked in the Latvian film industry for atleast the last 10ñ15 years, and come from different types of film studios: studioswhich mostly work only with documentary, animated or feature films, studios, whosemain source of financial support comes from state subsidies and studios which havedifferentiated sources of income.

An overview was prepared for each interview and five categories describingcommunication and crisis management of the film studio owners and managers wereidentified using grounded theory methodology.

Long-term crisis of the Latvian film industry

When evaluating Latvian cinema from a crisis viewpoint, one can surely declarethat over its whole existence (more than 110 years), the most important and enduringcrisis began around 1990 and is still enduring with certain increases and declines.There are several causes for the long-term crisis of the past 15ñ20 years in the Latvianfilm industry.

Firstly, as it is shown in Figure 1, during this time, especially the first ten years,film industry received very little state funding, therefore the industry was not only onthe level of surviving minimum, but for several years even below it. Until 2002 subsidieshad changed in the margins of 1 million Euros, and only afterwards they rose to 6million for the film industry as a whole per year. This was connected to the overalleconomic growth that followed Latviaís joining the European Union and a followingincrease in budget receipts and expenditures. However, this level of subsidies onlyremained until 2008 when, due to the world financial crisis and local economic problemsthe amount of subsidies declined again, creating a crisis situation for many companies.


Figure 1Total state funding and amount of produced full-length films (1)

in Latvia (1995ñ2013)

Source: authorsí calculation on the base of data of the Nacionalais kino centrs 2015; LRCentral Statistical Bureau 2015.

However, the availability of financing has only a partial impact on the number offilms being made. For example, in the early í00s (especially in 2003) there was aconsiderable rise in the number of full-feature films recorded, even though the financingin the previous years had been critically low. The limited number of films made canbe attributed to several factors, one of them is the fact that the first film directorsíclass who were trying to finish their first full-feature films in financially challengingconditions, graduated from the Latvian Academy of Culture in 1997 (Perkone et al.2011). During that time, several films were finished that were commenced in the 90s,and for some time suspended due to the lack of sufficient financing. Films made duringthese financially difficult times were mostly documentaries with low technical andcreative quality. Overall, it created the conditions in which most films were not of aparticularly high quality and thus never reached cinemas. The films received badreviews from both audience and politicians. For example, at the end of 2002 thenPrime Minister Ein‚rs Repe proposed to cut state financing for films entirely (Proko-pova, Araja 2002).

The number of films produced each year is also connected to the timing of thenational film awards ceremony Lielais Kristaps, organized every other year since2001 (Gilde Film Studio 1998) and it serves as an encouragement for filmmakers tocomplete their projects before the nominees are named.

However as with all medium and small-sized countries, the existence of the Latvianfilm industry is only possible with a support from the state. Similar to other EUcountries, state funding is necessary to allow co-production in international filmmakingprojects as well. However, if these finances cannot be allocated to a certain Latvianfilm studio, it cannot become a co-producer and copyright holder of the film. Besides,in comparison to a lot of film industries in different European Union countries, there


is fairly little interest from private investors and sponsors in the film industry in Latvia,thus the amount and availability of state funding is of vital importance to the existenceand development of the Latvian film industry.

This aspect is emphasised by the narrow Latvian market and restricted languagearea, which prevents from regaining the finances invested in the film industry. Animportant role is played by the low purchasing ability of Latvians ñ with the increaseof cinema ticket prices and cinema maintenance costs, the vast majority of Latviancinemas without the aid of state and municipalities was forced to go bankrupt. There-fore, Latvian audience cannot be habituated to regularly watching national cinema.Finally, the situation was also influenced by the overly rapid rise of inflation level,which was notable from 2003 to 2008, meaning that the increase in subsidies shouldbe viewed in correlation with inflation.

The long-term crisis situation in the Latvian film industry was also influenced byrather unstable political situation in the country, which stimulates often government(and culture minister) changes; every culture minister arrived with their own priorities,and cinema was rarely amongst them.

These and many other important factors, mainly often incompetence of film industryofficials, as well as the inability of film professionals themselves to identify and success-fully solve the above-mentioned problems, did not allow the Latvian cinema to stepout of crisis for more than 15 years. The first positive features in the situation beganto develop in the middle and later í90s, when the industry started recovering from theshock triggered by constitutional change and the following depression ñ the LatvianAcademy of Culture began to train young cinematographers, therefore new peopleentered the industry, there was active foreign film institution contact acquiring andLatvian films started to take part in the international circulation, also the local filmenvironment began to settle. However, altogether the crisis of Latvian cinema stillhas not been overcome.

Crisis communication and management of film studios

In interviews five categories describing the communication and crisis managementof the film studio owners and managers were: crisis situations of film studios, the roleof employees, confidence and reputation, communication with audience and society,personal perception of crisis. In the subparagraphs of this section each of the above-mentioned categories is described.

Crisis situations of film studios.Most of the studio managers and producers interviewed stated that crisis situations

occur when a certain filmmaking project is not allocated a state funding, which createsproblems with the financial flow and inability to pay off fixed costs such as rent, phonebills, and salaries. Such situations require optimisation and cost reduction: halting theproduction of the filmmaking project, letting employees go, decreasing salaries, andalso seeking fast means for acquiring finances, such as advertisement making, collectionof debts for outstanding bills. However, as is typical for crisis situations, sometimes thereis not enough time for sorting problems and, after solving one problem, others appear.


ìWhen we let people go, we need to do more of the work, our reactions slowdown, we miss unpaid bills, penalty charges grow etc.î (Director-producer,Fa Filma).

Altogether the situation in the Latvian film industry is characterised by insufficientstate subsidies for filmmaking projects and large competitiveness among studios regardingthis funding. Therefore, the chances for receiving funding are influenced by the ideasand quality of projects and the ability of meeting administrative criteria. Communicationskills in pitching events are important, as well as the ability to convince the expertcommittee about the idea, its uniqueness, capacity and commercial success. Studioproducers who have these convincing skills are able to acquire funding even whenstate subsidies are greatly decreased, and vice versa. A small amount of state fundingavailable for filmmaking projects is a constant fact in Latvia with the exception of2008. Thus crisis situations in film studios, which occur after not receiving fundingfor a new film project, are to a great extent influenced only by the ability of the studiomanagement to persuade about their ideas and projects. This is characterised by theexpression of chief editor of magazine Kino Raksti: ì(Ö) if the only problem is funding,itís not a crisis. Itís the problem of a freelance artist.î

The role of employees.In crisis situations the support from employees and mutual trust with the manage-

ment are crucial. Considering the specifics of crisis situations in the Latvian film studios,it is important to explain the situation to the employees, such as possible salary cutsor the standstill of a project. In crisis situations the most important aspect for internalcommunication is openness, provision of complete information, practical supportand mutual trust, which can only be achieved if they have developed and existedbefore the crisis.

The manager of a large animation studio explains how the employees were keptin the studio when a freshly opened branch of a foreign studio tried to lure them byoffering better salaries and conditions: ì(Ö) my communication was talking personallyto these few people and inviting them to hear me out when I stated that this companywould not remain in Latvia for more than two years. It lasted three, even though theyhad great ambitions and great salaries. Therefore we couldnít compete with themfinancially. The more honest you are, the stronger you are.î (CEO, Rija Films)

Confidence and reputation.Internally in the industry, as well as among collaboration partners (such as the

National Film Centre), the results of previously realised projects and the overallreputation of a studio are also crucial. Successful and timely realisation of previouslyfunded projects is an important factor when allocating new funding, thus the crisissituations regarding lack of funding can be averted. Reputation and confidence canbe created by the quality of previous works, the relationships established with employees,collaboration partners and other stakeholders.

ìTrust is very important, it is difficult to develop, but very easy to kill. Withpublic relations I understand openness and honesty, no lying to anyone inany situation. The best communication is action. Not talking, but action!î(Producer, Anim‚cijas Brig‚de).


The reputation and confidence are also very important for a studio in crisissituations, which occur, for example, due to lack of financial means, and they are notpossible to overcome in a short period of time. Such situations require cost cutting,maintaining collaboration partners and seeking new collaboration partners. Thepositive reputation of a studio is developed by orientation towards long-term collabo-ration with all the interested parties instead of trying to gain as much benefit aspossible in the short term. As already mentioned, the quality of works realised is alsoa positive catalyst for the reputation of a studio. This is well characterised by thefollowing from a film studio CEO.

ìWe started with relationships, with international recognition, our filmsstarted to enter the world and participate in festivals. Work needs to be ofgood quality; one cannot take it easy but has to maintain the reputation.This was our bonus, which helped overcome all the problems. We tried towork so that our output is of high quality (Ö)î (CEO, VFS Studio).

Communication with audience and society.Crises in studios do not directly influence their communication with audience,

however similarly to situations with employees and collaboration partners; the processof communication in the time of pre-crisis is vital. This communication needs to behonest, open and fair too, because a successful marketing campaign can achieve alarge audience; however their disappointment will mean trouble to gain audience forthe next film. This was best characterised by the director and producer of severalsignificant Latvian films.

ìEach film can be shown from different aspects and can be differently com-municated to an audience, but for godís sake without lying to him; otherwisehe will immediately get frostbiteî (Director-producer, Fa Filma).

If we use this terminology, some previously created Latvian films have ìfrostbittenîlocal audience, because it has been already a long time since their interest in Latvianfilms is low and their opinion ñ critical, often related to disappointment in directoríswork and films created by the studios previously. Moreover, several conflicts haveoccurred and continue to occur inside the industry while the studios compete forfunding and few studios get into conflict with government institutions and publicorganisations too, especially the National Film Centre. As the former director of theNational Film Centre and current manager of a film studio points out, this has anunequivocal influence on the public face of the industry.

ìAll internal conflicts, for example, regarding unfinished films, ownershipof old films, evaluation on (national film award) Lielais Kristaps and otherthings should not be addressed publicly, because that diminished the overallimpression about the industry. Of course, there are things which need to bestated publicly, but there are some that belong to the working process andshould remain internalî (Producer, Studio Centrums).

The audience disappointment in previous films and externally visible internalconflicts of the industry surely creates negative ground in situations when state financial


crisis is pressing and it becomes impossible to convince the government to not performsuch large budget cuts on the film industry. A certain magic circle is created: in thebeginning of 90s, the critically insufficient funding did not allow creating mainstreamfilms, which caused a lot of audience disappointed in local cinema. A slight increasein subsidies created new studios and competition increased among them regardingfilmmaking project funding. This competition creates internal industry conflicts andtheir publicity damages the overall reputation of the industry. As a result, when politi-cians make decisions regarding the overall amount of funding, especially in the timesof crisis, questions raise whether funding is required at all. As stated by the chief editorof Kino Raksti:

ìSuch crises with funding cuts would not occur when film studios wouldnot be the main that need Latvian cinema. If we had demand from thepublic, then the politicians would know that cinema needs that money,because the public needs that cinemaî.

Personal perception of crisis.Personal perception of the crisis by the manager of the studio, leading producer

or director is among essential in crisis communication. Of course, the perception of acrisis situation is influenced by previous experience and the reviewed internal andexternal trust and reputation of the studio. If crisis situations connected to not receivingfunding have already been experienced several times during the existence of the studio,then one can agree with the director and producer of the studio Fa Filma that ìuncer-tainty about tomorrow has become an everyday occurrence and you donít fear it anymoreî. Nearly all the interviewees pointed out that a crisis is a development-improvingfactor that requires a search for other film-making project funding means, collaborationopportunities outside Latvia and differentiation between filmmaking projects. Ofcourse, it is not always easy to get along with the first stage of the crisis, not alwaysthere are sufficient financial means and time resources for attracting new collaborationpartners and projects, however most interviewees made a similar conclusion to theone by CEO of the studio Rija Films:

ì(Ö) any crisis is in the head. [Most producers currently think] only aboutthe opportunity to get funding, and thatís it. But he [the producer] cancreate that funding, he can create work positions. It is not communication;it is the ability to be smart in generalî.

Conclusions

The Latvian film industry is largely dependent on the state subsidised funding,which has been at a low level over the past 20 years, with a small, but noticeableincrease trend in 2006ñ2008. This has created a long-term crisis situation in the filmindustry as a whole, which largely influences the development of crisis situations ineach film studio of Latvia. However, the statistical data analysis showed that a smallamount of funding does not always reflect on the amount and international acclaimof films made locally. Therefore, it can be agreed that crises connected to decreases in


funding have a smaller impact on the studios, which have diversified their work,completed projects in good quality and with a focus on long-term collaborations, andhave been openly and honestly communicating with their employees, collaborationpartners and the audience and society. Very important are leadership skills and crisisperception of the lead producer or director of the film studio. Internal ability to percepta crisis situation with calm mind and ability to assure the employees and other stake-holders of crisis management and successful negotiation of such situation ñ these arevery important factors of crisis communication. Crisis situation because of the lack offunding in film studios in many situations led to creative crisis, and in such cases away out of crisis was much harder or even unsuccessful.

Although we conclude that such crises both at the level of companies and industrycannot be fully regarded as the situations that match the definitions viewed in theliterature analysis of this article. These situations are more likely to be considered assystemic failures of the state funding and both the industry and company strategies ingeneral. Of course the decrease of funding or its absence can cause crises (in otherindustries, too), but given, that it was mentioned as almost the only factor of thecrisis, we believe it reflects the failures of the strategic management.

In further research crisis situations in different film industries should be analysedto compare the situation in Latvia with the situation in other countries, especially inthe countries where state funding for film projects is so important in the developmentof this industry.

(1) According to the Central Statistical Bureau, full-length films are animation films anddocumentaries longer than 50 minutes and feature films ñ longer than 60 minutes.

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S O C I ¬ L ¬ P S I H O L O Ã I J A

Margarita Nesterova, Svetlana Ignatjeva, Aleksejs Ruza

ADAPTATION IN LATVIA OF SCALES OF PERSONALAND GENERAL BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

Adaptation of PBJW and GBJW scales in Latvia that is connected with linguistic andsociocultural features of their use is revealed in the present article. The analysis of questionnaireísparticular indicators and the structure of factors is made. The aim of the research was toanalyze the validity, reliability and standardization facilities of BJW questionnaires. To studythe belief in a just world (BJW) Dalbertís questionnaire (1999) ìPersonal Belief in a Just Worldî(PBJW (a=0.72)), and Dalbert, Montada, Schmittís questionnaire (1987) ìGeneral Belief in aJust Worldî (GBJW (a=0.65)). For the adaptation procedure of GBJW and PBJW surveysquestionnaires of 800 participants were selected from 5 various groups: female prisoners(n=166); male prisoners (n=201); males not put on trial (n=226); English philology students ofDaugavpils University (n=98); random law-obedient male and female sample (n=103). CranachísAlpha criterion results range from 0.67 to 0.832 that indicates quite high consistence of separatequestions of the questionnaire. Two-factor structure verifies the results of the previous researchesand suggests that it is necessary to distinguish between general and personal belief in a justworld for the researches on the just world. In addition, the results revealed that personal beliefin a just world is assessed higher than general one. On the basis of the performed test thelinguistically adapted version of the questionnaire can be recommended for usage within varioussocial groups, including both law-obedient respondents, and imprisoned respondents.

Key words: belief in a just world, adaptation, factor analysis.

PersonÓg‚s un visp‚rej‚s ticÓbas taisnÓgai pasaulei skalu adapt‚cija Latvij‚

Rakst‚ atspoguÔota personÓg‚s ticÓbas taisnÓgai pasaulei un visp‚rej‚s ticÓbas taisnÓgaipasaulei skalu adapt‚cija Latvij‚, kas saistÓta ar t‚s izmantoanas lingvistiskaj‚m un sociokul-tur‚laj‚m ÓpatnÓb‚m. Veikta aptaujas instrumenta atseviÌo indikatoru, k‚ arÓ faktoru strukt˚rasanalÓze. PÁtÓjum‚ piedalÓj‚s 800 respondenti no 5 da˛‚d‚m grup‚m: sievietes, kas atrodas ieslo-dzÓjum‚ (n=166); vÓriei, kas atrodas ieslodzÓjum‚ (n=201); vÓriei, kas nav saukti pie krimin‚l-atbildÓbas (n=226); Daugavpils Universit‚tes angÔu valodas filoloÏijas studÁjo‚s (n=98); nejau‚likumpaklausÓgo vÓrieu un sievieu izlase (n=103). PÁtÓjum‚ tika izmantots Dalberta aptaujasinstruments (1999) ìPersonÓg‚ ticÓba taisnÓgai pasauleiî (PTTP (a=0.72)) un Dalberta, Mon-tadas, –mitta aptaujas instruments (1987) ìVisp‚rÓg‚ ticÓba taisnÓgai pasauleiî (VTTP (a=0.65)).Aptaujas validit‚tes p‚rbaudei tika pielietoti papildus subjektÓvie ‚rÁjie kritÁriji, kas ietvÁrasevÓ ticÓbu taisnÓgumam un taisnÓgai pasaulei, k‚ arÓ attieksmes kritÁriji, kas skar apmierin‚tÓbuar dzÓvi, emocion‚l‚ st‚vokÔa novÁrtÁjumu, attieksmi pret likuma ievÁroanu, uzticÓbu cilvÁkiem,vainas atzÓanu, spÁju piedot un ticÓba dievam. PÁtÓjuma mÁrÌis bija izanalizÁt aptauju particÓbu taisnÓgai pasaulei validit‚ti, ticamÓbu un standartiz‚cijas iespÁjas. Kronbaha-Alfa kritÁrijarezult‚ti atrodas diapazon‚ no 0.67 lÓdz 0.832, kas nor‚da uz diezgan augstu atseviÌu aptaujasjaut‚jumu saskaÚotÓbu. TaËu izslÁdzot atseviÌus jaut‚jumus no aptaujas instrumenta, to kopÁj‚saskaÚotÓba var nedaudz samazin‚ties, tomÁr paliekot pietiekami augst‚ lÓmenÓ: ne zem‚k par

M. Nesterova, S. Ignatjeva, A. Ruza. Adaptation in Latvia of Scales of Personal.. 77

0.637 VTTP un ne zem‚k par 0.763 PTTP. Divu faktoru strukt˚ra apliecina iepriekÁjo pÁtÓjumurezult‚tus, un nor‚da, ka pÁtÓjumos j‚noÌir visp‚rÁjo ticÓbu taisnÓgai pasaulei un personÓgoticÓbu taisnÓgai pasaulei. Turkl‚t, rezult‚ti p‚r‚dÓja, ka personÓg‚ ticÓba taisnÓgai pasauleikopum‚ tiek vÁrtÁta augst‚k. Pamatojoties uz veikto p‚rbaudi lingvistiski adaptÁt‚ aptaujasinstrumenta versija, t‚ var tikt rekomendÁta izmantoanai da˛‚d‚s soci‚laj‚s grup‚s, ieskaitotgan likumpaklausÓgos respondentus, gan respondentus, kas atrodas ieslodzÓjum‚.

AtslÁgas v‚rdi: ticÓba taisnÓgai pasaulei, adapt‚cija, faktoranalÓze.

Адаптация в Латвии шкал общей и личной веры в справедливый мир

В предлагаемой статье представлена адаптация шкал общей веры в справедливый мири личной веры в справедливый мир, связанная с языковыми и социокультурными осо-бенностями ее использования в Латвии. Проведён анализ как отдельных индикаторов,так и факторной структуры теста. Проанализированы валидность, надёжность и возмож-ности стандартизации теста. В исследовании участвовали 800 респондентов из разныхгрупп: женщины, которые находятся в заключении (n=166); мужчины, которые находятсяв заключении (n=201); мужчины, которые не привлекались к уголовной ответственности(n=226); студентки английской филологии Даугавпилсского Университета (n=98); слу-чайная выборка мужчин и женщин (n=103). В исследовании использовался опросникДалберта (1999) «Личная вера в справедливый мир» (ЛВСМ (a=0.72)) и опросник Дал-берта, Монтады и Шмитта (1987) «Общая вера в справедливый мир» (ОВСМ (a=0.65)).Для проверки валидности опросников были использованы дополнительные субьектив-ные внешние критерии – такие, как вера в справедливость и справедливый мир, а такжекритерии отношения, которые включают в себя удовлетворённость жизнью, оценку эмо-ционального состояния, отношение к соблюдению закона, доверие к людям, признаниевины, способность прощать и веру в бога. иЦелью исследования является анализ валид-ности, достоверност и возможности стандартизации опросников веры в справедливыймир. Результаты критерия Альфы-Кронбаха находятся в диапазоне от 0.67 до 0.832, чтоуказывает на достаточно высокую согласованность отдельных вопросов опросников. Крометого, при исключении отдельных вопросов из опросников их общая согласованность мо-жет понизиться, при этом оставаясь на достаточно высоком уровне: не ниже 0.637 дляОВСМ и не ниже 0.763 для ЛВСМ. Двухфакторная структура подтверждает результатыпредыдущих исследований и указывает на необходимость разделять общую и личную верув справедливый мир, причём результаты исследования показали, что личная вера в спра-ведливый мир оценивается выше. На основании проведённой проверки лингвистическиадаптированную версию теста можно рекомендовать для использования в исследователь-ских целях в разных социальных группах, включая законопослушных респондентов и рес-пондентов, которые находятся в местах лишения свободы.

Ключевые слова: вера в справедливый мир, адаптация, факторный анализ.

Introduction

One of the most topical problems in the modern rapidly changing world are repre-sentations of moral values and social norms prevailing in the society that largelydetermine the tendencies of mutual relationships and the general emotional state, andbehavioural tendencies in different everyday situations. Several authors stress thatthe perception of justice is one of the most important components of everyday life fornearly every individual, because every individual wants to get what he or she deservesand to be treated justly from the others, as well as to be able to trust the justice of


others (Schmitt et al. 2010). The results of several researches (Dalbert 2001; Maes,Schmitt 2004) suggest that there are individual differences in the perception of justicethat are influenced by emotional and behavioural reactions on injustice and life expe-rience. One of the prevailing approaches to individualsí representations on justice isbelief in a just world. Lerner (Lerner 1965), the founder of the just world hypothesis,asserts that people need the belief in a just world to be sure that everybody gets whathe or she deserves and deserves what he or she gets. This one-dimensional modeldescribed people whose BJW was the reason they held to their opinion that ìgoodîpeople always are rewarded with good fate/fortune; whereas ìbadî people receivepunishment as consequences of their actions; thus primary research on the belief in ajust world focused on victim derogation, for example, victims of crime or accidenthad enlarged burden of responsibility (Lerner 1980; Lerner, Miller 1978).

Recently the positive psychological influence of the belief in a just world on indivi-dual has gained more attention emphasizing that belief in a just world has the adaptivefunction (Furnham 2003), (Dalbert 2009) and helps individuals to maintain psycho-logical balance and sense of wellbeing (Dalbert 2001). The first attempts to study theindividual differences in the belief in a just world appeared with Belief in a just worldscale developed by Rubin and Peplau (Rubin, Peplau 1975) that was criticized due toits heterogeneity (Furnham, Procter 1989). The results of several researches (Hafer,Olson 1993; Dalbert 1999; Lipkus et al. 1996; Beígue, Bastounis 2003) verified thatit is necessary to distinguish between the general belief in a just world, when people ingeneral receive what they deserve, and personal belief in a just world that is expressedin just treatment to the individual, as the latter has wider adaptive functions and theindividual has tendency to maintain personal belief in justice (Dalbert 1999, 2009).Several authors (Lerner, Miller 1978; Furnham, Procter 1989; Hafer, Olson 1993;Dalbert 1999), updating the issue on the differences between the general and personalbelief in a just world, assert that the distinction must be made between personal andgeneral belief. Researchers believe that the more personal is injustice experience, themore threatening it is and the more it will be denied, for example, injustice anddiscriminations will be more strongly denied in own group than in other (Dalbert,Yamauchi 1994) and own discrimination will be more strongly denied than the discri-mination of the whole group (Taylor et al. 1990). Therefore Dalbert (Dalbert 1999)asserts that general belief in a just world and belief in justice of own fate should beseparated, and individuals support more the personal belief in a just world than thegeneral belief. Several scales were developed on the basis of the differentiation betweenthe just world constructions that distinguish between personal and general belief in ajust world. Lipkus and his colleagues (Lipkus et al. 1996) in his two-dimensional justworld model offered one of the first scales that determined the differences betweenthe belief in a just world for self and for others stating that belief in a just world forself is more strongly linked to the psycho-social adaption indices and therefore ismore important for the prediction of psychological wellbeing. 6-point General beliefin a just world scale developed by Dalbert, Montada and Schmitt (Dalbert et al.1987) is relatively widely used to study the general belief in a just world; in turn,Personal belief in a just world scale developed by Dalbert (Dalbert 1999) is used tostudy the personal belief in a just world.


Recently the belief in a just world as the predictor of socially acceptable behaviourhas gained more attention (Otto, Dalbert 2005; Correia, Dalbert 2008). In the sameway the correlation between the belief in a just world and social responsibility (Bierhoff1994) and commitment to just means (Cohn, Modecki 2007; Hafer 2000; Sutton,Winnard 2007) was established. Several researches (Dalbert 2001; Otto, Dalbert 2005;Dalbert, Filke 2007) revealed that belief in a just world has adaptive functions indicatingthe personal contract and obligation to behave justly, thus ensuring the confidencethat individuals will be treated just and that they will not become the victims of unpre-dictable conditions, and giving a conceptual opinion for the individual that helps tointerpret own life events rationally. On the basis of the test results of these functionsresearchers (Dalbert, Stoeber 2006) came to the conclusion that belief in a just worldserves as an important personal source that helps prisoners to reduce the expressionsof hostility in the form of intensified behaviour and strengthens the sense of socialadaptation; in other words, belief in a just world allows to control prisonersí processesof aggressive behaviour and attempts to increase their social inclusion; in addition,offenderís personal belief in a just world can be an important precondition for thedevelopment of the inner motivation to support socially acceptable norms of behaviourin future (Dalbert, Filke 2007).

The aim of the present research was to adopt GBJW and PBJW scales to the con-ditions in Latvia to give an opportunity to use these scales in different social groups,including prisoners.

The adaptation of questionnaires is necessary to ensure its adequate use in newconditions that are connected with language and sociocultural peculiarities.

Participants

For the adaptation procedure of GBJW and PBJW surveys questionnaires of 800participants were selected from 5 various groups (Sample 1): female prisoners (n=166);male prisoners (n=201); males not put on trial (n=226); English philology students ofDaugavpils University (n=98); random law-obedient male and female sample (n=103).

To test whether the psychometric characteristics of the questionnaire are dependenton testing situation structures of factors and separate validity indicators of surveyscales that were acquired during the survey in prison (373 participants ñ sample 4)and at liberty (487 participants ñ sample 5) were compared.

Besides, sensitiveness of separate parameters of the questionnaire towards parti-cipantsí gender and age was analyzed. 318 males (sample 2) and 482 females (sample 3)took part in the research.

Respondentsí age varied from 18 to 74 years, half of them were not more than 28years old. For the analysis of the influence of the age on separate parameters of thequestionnaire 4 age groups were distinguished: from 18 to 22 years (n=258), 23 to 30years (n=207), from 31 to 40 years (n=169) and more than 41 years old (n=166).

The structure of sampleís age and gender, as well as the legal status of respondentsis reflected in Table 1.


The linguistic adaptation of the questionnaire was made in the sample (n=49)within the age group from 19 to 21 years where participants were asked to fill in thequestionnaire in the English and, in a month time, in the Latvian language.

Analysis of BJW indicators

To study the belief in a just world (BJW) Dalbertís questionnaire ìPersonal Beliefin a Just Worldî (PBJW (a=0.72)) (Dalbert 1999), that contains 7 questions, andDalbert, Montada, Schmittís questionnaire ìGeneral Belief in a Just Worldî (GBJW(a=0.65)) (Dalbert, Montada, Schmitt 1987), that contains 6 questions, were used.All questions were assessed with 6 point scale (Likert scale) from1 (totally agree) to 6(totally disagree).

Table 1Sample structure

Gender Legal status Age Groups Total18ñ22 23ñ30 31ñ40 41+

Female Prisoners 30 58 41 37 166Law-obedient 118 15 7 12 152

Total 148 73 48 49 318Male Prisoners 32 65 62 48 207

Law-obedient 78 69 59 69 275Total 110 134 121 117 482

BJW indicators are reflected in Table 2. Means (M) and Standard Deviation (SD)are gained from the generalized sample (Sample 1).

Table 2Descriptive statistics of GBJW and PBJW indicators

Sample 1Item N=800

M SD1 2 3 4

GBJW_1 I think basically the world is a just place. 3.21 1.34GBJW_2 I believe that by and large people get what they deserve. 3.82 1.34GBJW_3 I am confident that justice always prevails over injustice. 3.40 1.43GBJW_4 I am convinced that in the long run people will be compensated

for injustices.3.99 1.37

GBJW_5 I firmly believe that injustices in all areas of life (e.g. professional.family. politics) are the exception rather than the rule. 3.62 1.28

GBJW_6 I think people try to be fair when making important decisions. 3.64 1.27PBJW_1 I believe that by and large. I deserve what happens to me. 3.92 1.35

Sequel to Table 2 see on p. 81


Sequel to Table 2

1 2 3 4PBJW_2 I am usually treated fairly. 3.77 1.15PBJW_3 I believe that I usually get what I deserve. 3.65 1.26PBJW_4 Overall events in my life are just. 3.49 1.25PBJW_5 In my life injustice is the exception rather than the rule. 3.79 1.21PBJW_6 I believe that most of the things that happen in my life are fair. 3.82 1.22PBJW_7 I think that important decisions that are made concerning me

are usually just.3.67 1.18

GBJW 21.6 5.15PBJW 26.1 5.91

Paired Samples Test (Sig.) Sig.<0.0001

The indices of indicators vary from 1 to 6 and for the half of participants do notexceed 4 points in all cases, except the first question (GBJW_1). The indicator GBJW_1half of the respondents assessed not higher than 3 points. The average indices varyfrom 3.21 (GBJW_1) to 3.99 (GBJW_4).

Almost all GBJW indicators, except GBJW_5, are sensitive to gender; in addition,female indices are higher. The conditions of the survey influenced only the indicatorGBJW_6, indices of the imprisoned participants are much lower. The 6th question issensitive also to the age, the highest indices 3.85 are within the age group from 18 to22 years, and decrease to 3.42 for those participants who are more than 40 years old.

The average indices of PBJW indicators vary from 1 to 6 and for half of theparticipants they do not exceed 4 points. The average indices vary from 3.49 (PBJW_4)to 3.92 (PBJW_1).

Only PBJW_5 and PBJW_6 indicators are not sensitive to gender; in all the othercases females demonstrate higher level of personal belief in a just world.

All indicators are sensitive to the conditions of the survey, the average indices forthe imprisoned participants are lower and these differences are statistically significant.Indicators PBJW_3 and PBJW_7 are sensitive to age, the older are the participants,the lower are the indices.

Analysis of the structure of the questionnaireís factors

To analyze the structure of the questionnaireís factors exploratory (research) factoranalysis was performed within the generalized and separate samples that allows toconsider the influence of the survey conditions and participantsí peculiarities. Thefactor analysis within various samples was performed according to one scheme: selectionof factors with principal component method and subsequent Varimax-rotation (Extrac-tion Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with KaiserNormalization).

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy is equivalent to 0.87, in thegeneralized sample and all the other cases it stays higher than 0.85 that indicates theusefulness of factor analysis to analyze the structure of the questionnaire. The factor


analysis allowed confirming BJW two-factor structure. The distinguished factorsconform to GBJW and PBJW.

The factor structure remains while carrying out factor analysis in various samples.The highest factor loadings are related to indicators PBJW_6, PBJW_4, PBJW_3 (PBJWfactor); GBJW_3, GBJW_4, GBJW_5 (GBJW factor). The lowest factor loadings onthe corresponding factors and the highest sensitiveness to testing conditions expressedthe indicators PBJW_5 and GBJW_2.

Table 3 reflects what percentage of summary variance explains each of BJW factors.In all cases the highest percentage of the summary variance (from 25% to 28%) isexplained with GBJW factor. PBJW factor explains 18% to 20% of summary variance.

Analysis of reliability and validity of the questionnaire

To determine the reliability two different approaches are used:1. Reliability ñ stability characterizes the stability of the results in time. Reliability ñ

internal consistence characterizes the consistence of questionnaireís items.

Table 3Factor Loadings for the Two Factor Model of the General

and the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale

Item (1) (2)(1) I think basically the world is a just place. 0.56(2) I believe that by and large people get what they deserve. 0.51(3) I am confident that justice always prevails over injustice. 0.77(4) I am convinced that in the long run people will be compensated for

injustices0.68

(5) I firmly believe that injustices in all areas of life (e.g. professional.family. politics) are the exception rather than the rule.

0.59

(6) I think people try to be fair when making important decisions. 0.53(7) I believe that. by and large. I deserve what happens to me. 0.67(8) I am usually treated fairly. 0.61(9) I believe that I usually get what I deserve. 0.72(10) Overall. events in my life are just. 0.73(11) In my life injustice is the exception rather than the rule. 0.37(12) I believe that most of the things that happen in my life are fair. 0.79(13) I think that important decisions that are made concerning me are

usually just.0.71

Explained variance after rotation 26% 19%aaaaa 0.71 0.81

Factor correlation 0.507

To determine the reliability ñ stability of the results in time retest of one samplewas performed in a month time. The results of the two surveys were compared usingthe analysis of the correlation coefficients of the corresponding indicators.


The average correlation between the results of GBJW test and retest is 0.716; inturn PBJW ñ 0.712. Taking into consideration that 0.5 is an acceptable retest reliabilitycoefficient, PBJW and GBJW questionnaires indicate high enough level of stability intime.

To determine the reliability ñ internal consistence of the questionnaireís items,Cranachís Alpha, Spearman-Brown Coefficient and Guttman Split-Half Coefficientwere used.

Cranachís Alpha criterion results range from 0.67 to 0.832 that indicates quitehigh consistence of separate questions of the questionnaire.

Another method that tests the internal consistence of the questionnaire is theconsistency analysis of split forms. In this case, the assessment of measurements consis-tency is made with the Spearman-Brown equivalent form Coefficient (consistencyindex) and Guttman Split-Half Coefficient. The consistency index of GBJW question-naire (Spearman-Brown Coefficient) is 0.676, Guttman Split-Half Coefficient is 0.672.For PBJW questionnaire Spearman-Brown Coefficient ñ 0.760, Guttman Split-HalfCoefficient-0.740.

The validity indicates the conformity of the questionnaire to the testing aim, aswell as to what degree its components correspond to the problem studied.

The validity of the questionnaire as the conformity to external criteria was performedthrough the analysis of correlation between separate GBJW and PBJW indicators andsubjective external criteria that reflect participantsí belief in justice and a just worldin general. Despite the quite small correlation, all of them are direct and statisticallysignificant.

To assess the quality of linguistic adaptation of the questionnaire the students ofEnglish philology was offered to go through the testing procedure twice, at first, inEnglish, than in Latvian. All correlations are direct and statistically significant. Theaverage correlation between the results in GBJW factor is 0,631 and PBJW ñ 0,641.The comparison of the average results in the groups of linguistic adaptation did notreveal indicators that are sensitive to the language of testing.

Determination of GBJW and PBJW aggregated indices

GBJW and PBJW aggregated indices can be gained through1) summarization of corresponding indicators;2) exploratory factor analysis;3) confirmatory factor analysis.

The first variant, provided by the authors of the scales (Dalbert 1999), (Dalbert,Montada, Schmitt 1987), from the realisation point of view is the simplest one, but itdoes not consider factor differences of separate indicators.

While the second variant, in contrary, considers factor contribution of the allindicators, including those with low factor loadings.

The third variant, obviously, is the most precise; it allows considering the coeffi-cients of separate indicators in the structure of factors. In this case, the calculation offactors is done according to the formula that is derived through the confirmatoryfactor analysis:


GBJW = GBJW_1 + 0,99 * GBJW_2 + 1,35 * GBJW_3 + 0,99 * GBJW_4 ++ 0,76 * GBJW_5 + 0,77 * GBJW_6 + ER

PBJW = PBJW_1 + 0,8 * PBJW_2 + 1,03 * PBJW_3 + 1,05 * PBJW_4 ++ 0,57 * PBJW_5 + 1,15 * PBJW_6 + 0,96 * PBJW_7 + ER

However, the average indices of factors from the first and the third variant do nothave statistically significant differences that allows to use for the factor analysis thevariant provided by the authors of the questionnaire.

There is a correlation between GBJW and PBJW factors. According to the Spear-man correlation coefficient significant average correlation 0.508 was found.

For better understanding and further interpretation the standardization of factorassessment is essential. Standard values are divided according to normal division withzero average and variance equal to 1.

It is convenient for comparative analysis of standard assessment of different indicesor one and the same index within different participantsí groups and it is necessary forthe further cluster analysis. Standardized indices of factors allow to classify participantsaccording to each factor depending on their level of belief (whether it is lower orhigher than average). However, this phenomenon, and it is reflected in the Scatterdiagram, has two-factor nature. Two-stage cluster analysis performed by SPSS allowsdistinguishing two to four homogeneous clusters (see Figure 1) depending on thesample and the parameters of classification. Qualitatively these clusters can be describedas following:

CL1. GBJW and PBJW in general higher than averageCL2. GBJW and PBJW in general lower than averageCL3. GBJW lower, but PBJW higher than averageCL4. GBJW higher, PBJW lower than average

The first and the second clusters are more heterogeneous and contain 68% ofparticipants, in turn, the third cluster 15% and the fourth 17%.

Figure 1Average indices of GBJW and PBJW factors in distinguished cluster groups


Average indices of GBJW and PBJW factors in all distinguished cluster groupshave statistically significant differences. Average indices of GBJW and PBJW factorsin the first and second cluster groups do not differ significantly and do differ signifi-cantly in the third and fourth cluster groups. In the first and second cluster groupssignificant direct correlation was found, in the third and fourth cluster there is nocorrelation between the factors.

Conclusions

The results of the research confirm the original assumption that GBJW and PBJWquestionnaires are useful for various social groups and conform to socioculturalstandards in Latvia. Two-factor structure verifies the results of the previous researches(Dalbert 1999) and suggests that it is necessary to distinguish between general beliefin a just world and personal belief in a just world for the researches on the just world;in addition, the results revealed that personal belief in a just world is assessed higherthan general. The correlation between the indicators of GBJW and PBJW and subjectiveexternal criteria that are connected with the belief in justice and just world in generalwas found. In addition to the examined subjective external criteria there can be usedsuch relative criteria as satisfaction with life, assessment of emotional state, attitudeto compliance with law, trust in people, admission of guilt, veniality, belief in God; inaddition, these relative criteria are more often statistically significantly linked withPBJW that indicates the high validity of this questionnaire.

In the framework of the present article it was not planned to analyze the belief ina just world within various groups of respondents; however, four distinguished clustergroups advance a perspective for the further content analysis of these groups and thepsychological interpretation of the results in the context of Latvia, paying specialattention to the peculiarities of imprisoned participantsí belief in a just world.

References

Beígue L., Bastounis M. (2003) Two Spheres of Belief in Justice: Extensive Support for theBidimensional Model of Belief in a Just World. J. Pers., 71:3.Bierhoff H. W., (1994) Verantwortung und altruistische Persˆnlichkeit [Responsibility andaltruistic personality]. Zeitschrift f¸r Sozialpsychologie, 25, pp. 217ñ226.Cohn E. S., Modecki K. L. (2007) Gender differences in predicting delinquent behavior: Doindividual differences matter? Soc. Behav. Pers., 35, pp. 359ñ374.Correia I., Dalbert C. (2008) School bullying: Belief in a personal just world of bullies, victimsand defenders. Eur. Psychol., 13, pp. 249ñ254.Dalbert C. (1999) The world is more just for me than generally: About the Personal Belief in aJust World Scaleís validity. Soc. Just. Res., 12, pp. 79ñ98.Dalbert C. (2001) The justice motive as a personal resource: Dealing with challenges andcritical life event. New York: Plenum Press.Dalbert C. (2009) Belief in a just world. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.) Handbook ofIndividual Differences in Social Behavior. New York: Guilford Publications, pp. 288ñ297.


Dalbert C., Filke E. (2007) Belief in a Personal Just World, Justice Judgments, and TheirFunctions for Prisoners. Crim. Just. Behav., Vol. 34, No. 11, pp. 1516ñ1527.Dalbert C., Montada L., Schmitt M. (1987) Glaube an eine gerechte Welt als Motiv: Vali-dierungskorrelate zweier Skalen [The belief in a just world as a motive: Validity correlates oftwo scales]. Psychologische Beitr‰ge, 29, pp. 596ñ615.Dalbert C., Stoeber J. (2006) The personal belief in a just world and domain-specific beliefsabout at school and in the family: A longitudinal study with adolescents. Int. J. Behav. Dev.,30, pp. 200ñ207Dalbert C., Yamauchi L. (1994) Belief in a just world and attitudes toward immigrants andforeign workers: A cultural comparison between Hawaii and Germany. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol.24, pp. 1612ñ1626.Furnham A., Procter E. (1989) Belief in a just world: Review and critique of the individualdifference literature. Br. J. Soc. Psychol., 28, pp. 365ñ384.Furnham A. (2003) Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade. Pers. Indiv.Differ., 34, pp. 795ñ817.Hafer C. L. (2000) Investment in long-term goals and commitment to just means drive theneed to believe in a just world. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 26, pp. 1059ñ1073.Hafer C. L., Olson J. M. (1993) Beliefs in a just world, discontent, and assertive actions byworking women. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 19, pp. 30ñ38.Lerner M. J. (1965) Evaluation of performance as a function of performerís reward andattractiveness. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 1, pp. 355ñ360.Lerner M. J. (1980) The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York: PlenumPressLerner M. J., Miller D. T. (1978) Just world research and the attribution process: Lookingback and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85, pp. 1030ñ1051.Lipkus I. M., Dalbert C., Siegler I. C. (1996) The importance of distinguishing the belief in ajust world for self versus for others: Implications for psychological well-being. Pers. Soc. Psychol.Bull., 22, pp. 666ñ677.Maes J., Schmitt M. (2004) Belief in a just world and its correlates in different age groups. InC. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood: Originsand consequences. London, UK: Routledge, pp. 11ñ25.Otto K., Dalbert C. (2005) Belief in a just world and its functions for young prisoners. J. Res.Pers., 39, pp. 559ñ573.Rubin Z., Peplau L.A. (1975) Who believes in a just world? J. Soc. Issues, 31(3), pp. 65ñ89Schmitt M., Baumert A., Gollwitzer M., Maes J. (2010) The Justice Sensitivity Inventory:Factorial validity, location in the personality facet space, demographic pattern, and normativedata. Soc. Just. Res., Vol. 23, No. 2ñ3, pp. 211ñ238.Sutton R. M., Winnard E. J. (2007) Looking ahead through lenses of justice: The relevance ofjust-world beliefs to intentions and confidence in the future. Br. J. Soc. Psychol., 46, pp. 649ñ666.Taylor D. M., Wright G. C., Moghaddam F. M., Lalonde R. N. (1990) The personal/groupdiscrimination discrepancy: Perceiving my group, but not myself, to be a target for discrimi-nation. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 16, pp. 254ñ262.

87

Z I N ¬ T N I S K ¬ D Z Œ V E

K O N F E R E N C E S U N S E M I N ¬ R I

Sasa Drezgic, Vera Boronenko

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE/ROUND TABLEìREFORMS TOWARDS MORE DECENTRALIZED

GOVERNMENTS AND RELATED PROBLEMSOF SUBSTANTIAL EFFECTS

ON FISCAL CONSOLIDATION EFFORTSî

International conference/round table ìReforms towards more decentralized govern-ments and related problems of substantial effects on fiscal consolidation effortsî wasorganized on July 6, 2015 by the Faculty of Economics University of Rijeka (EFRI),Center for Local Economic Development (CLER) and POL-LOC initiative. This confe-rence/round table has been supported in part by the Croatian Science Foundationunder the project ìTax Policy and Fiscal Consolidation in Croatiaî [8174] and theUniversity of Rijeka under the project ìPorezni sustav i ekonomsko-socijalni odnosihrvatskog drutvaî (13.02.1.2.02.).

Participants of this conference/round table were representatives of the EFRI ñDr. Helena Bla˛i„, Dr. Saa Drezgi„, Dr. Ana –tambuk, as well as international repre-sentatives ñ Dr. Paolo Fedele (University of Udine, Italy), Prof. Johen Franzke (Univer-sity of Potsdam, Germany), Dr. Vladimir Klimanov and Dr. Anna Mikhaylova (Insti-tute for Public Finance Reform, Russia), Mr. Uro PinteriË (University of Trnava,Slovakia), Dr. Jelena Stankovi„ and Dr. Marija D˛ini„ (University of Ni, Serbia).Participation of Dr. Vera Boronenko (University of Daugavpils, Latvia) in this con-ference/round table has been supported by the the Marie Curie FP7-PEOPLE-2011-COFUND program ñ NEWFELPRO (The new International Fellowship MobilityProgramme for Experienced Researchers in Croatia) within the project ìRethinkingTerritory Development in Global Comparative Researches (Rethink Development)î,Grant Agreement No. 10.


Moderator of the conference/round table was Dr. Saa Drezgi„, Director of theCenter for Local Economic Development. The main target group of this event werestudents-participants of the Jean Monnet EFRI Summer School 2015.

The conference/round table consisted of two parts ñ the first part was related torevenue and expenditure aspects of fiscal consolidation. Second part was devoted tothe wider effects of fiscal consolidation on local economic development. The partici-pants gave presentations and discussed on the following issues:1) effects of fiscal consolidation on local government revenue and expenditure policies:

ñ local government revenues: what tax structure of local governments domi-nates in countries presented? what tax reforms (taxes) should be promotedto support fiscal consolidation? relation of fiscal autonomy and fiscal conso-lidation; intergovernmental fiscal relations (central ñ local cooperation/conflict);

ñ local government expenditures: what expenditure structure is favourable interms of fiscal consolidation? local expenditure policy issues (pork barrel,rent-seeking etc.); efficiency of local government spending;

2) fiscal consolidation effects on local economic development:ñ fiscal consolidation promotes (de)centralisation?ñ financing capital investment under fiscal consolidation pressure;ñ relevance of strategic and capital planning for local economic development;ñ fiscal consolidation and local democracy (votersí participation);ñ observations on empirical evidence on effects of fiscal consolidation.

Participants of the conference/round table (from right to left):Dr. Paolo Fedele (Italy), Prof. Johen Franzke (Germany),

Dr. Vladimir Klimanov and Dr. Anna Mikhaylova (Russia)

S. Drezgic, V. Boronenko. International Scientific Conference / Round Table.. 89

All participants presented the local governmentsí financial systems as well as fiscalconsolidation efforts in their countries ñ Croatia, Italy, Germany, Latvia, Russia,Serbia and Slovakia, finding many similar features and challenges in this area. Parti-cipants and audience of the conference/round table have discussed also the pros andcons of value-based and area-based property taxation in developing and transitioneconomies concluding that value-based taxation could be too complicated and relatedto high administrative costs for those countries.

Moderator of the conference/round table Dr. Saa Drezgi„concludes main findings of the discussion

90

A I Z S T ¬ V « T I E P R O M O C I J A S D A R B I

Jelena Lonska

ASSESSMENT OF TERRITORIAL STATE OF DEVELOPMENTIN LATVIAN REGIONS

Relevance of the topic and state of the research:The relevance of the topic is related to the fact that

the progressive experience of the world is still not beingused in Latvia in the field of evaluation of the territorialstate of development (1). After the performed analysisof Latviaís practice in evaluation of territorial state ofdevelopment, the author of the doctoral thesis believesthat Latvia has stopped at the second stage of the evolu-tion of the tools for evaluation of territoriesí state ofdevelopment, wherein only the objective indicators areanalyzed, ignoring the inhabitantsí subjective evaluationsof life in a specific territory, the significance of which isevident in the research carried out both in Latvia andthe rest of the world.

In order to evaluate the level of territory development,different countries apply the objective ñ economic and

social (non-economic) ñ indicators. For last twenty years, in the global research practicein this field is prevails the view that in the course of time the society has already maturedfor a new approach to evaluation of territorial development: the emphasis has to beswitched from the evaluation of objective economic productivity and social well-beingto measuring the overall well-being, including the subjective well-being of people (Stig-litz et al. 2009). A sufficiently well-rounded evaluation of development requires a setof indicators describing a territory from as various aspects as possible. The evaluationindicatorsí system has to incorporate economic aspects, social aspects and subjectiveindicators of development, i.e., satisfaction with life and subjective well-being of peopleresiding in the territories. Development has to be viewed from the perspective of both,the reached level and the ongoing positive or negative changes. Consequently, a greatsignificance is attached to the search of such territorial state of development evaluationtools that would fully and comprehensively characterize territoriesí development andwould be applicable in comparing the development levels of different territories.

Throughout the world officially acknowledged and alternative methodologies andindices to establish territorial state of development are being used. They comprisevarious indicators describing territorial state of development, intended for measuringand comparing both separate territories within countries and the state of development

Author of the thesisDr. oec. Jelena Lonska

Aizst‚vÁtie promocijas darbi 91

of countries to each other or in relation to the previous years: Index of SustainableEconomic Wellfare (Stockhammer et al. 1997; Jackson 2007), Genuine Progress Indi-cator (Talberth et al. 2006, 2007; Cobb et al. 1999), Sustainable Society Index (vande Kerk, Manuel 2012), Index of Wellbeing of Nations, Country-by-Country LifeQuality and the Environment (Prescott-Allen 2001), Physical Quality of Life Index(Morris 1979), economist associationís ìEconomist Intelligence Unitísî Quality ofLife Index (The Economist Intelligence Unit 2005), Human Development Index (UNDP2011; Mahbub ul Haq 1995; Klugman 2009), Happy Planet Index (Abdallah et al.2012), Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index (Ura et al. 2012), SwitzerlandísSustainable Development Indicator System (Willi et al. 2012), Great Britainís Sustain-able Development Indicators (Hall et al. 2010a, 2010b), OECD Better Life Index(OECD 2011), Australian National Development Index etc.

A certain methodology for calculating the level of territorial development hasalso been present in Latvia for already seventeen years: Territorial Development Indexand Territorial Development Level Change Index (Cabinet of Ministers of the Republicof Latvia 2010). Concurrently to the official methodology, Latviaís scientists andresearchers constantly offer alternative methodologies and indices for measuring thelevel of territorial development: a methodology created by Ltd. ìKonsortsî for evalu-ation of the regional development level (2011), Development Level-Rate Matrix ofLatviaís Cities by A. VÓtola and Z. Hermansons (2010), Index of Latviaís InhabitantsíLife Quality, elaborated by the Strategic Analysis Committee (2006), SRDAís RegionalDevelopment Indicator Module (2012).

The doctoral students of Latviaís higher education institutions have also repeatedlyfocused on the evaluation of Latviaís regions state of development. During the lastfive years, several dissertations have been presented in Latvia, for instance, in RigaTechnical University I. Judrupaís thesis called ìEvaluation of the Competitiveness ofLatviaís Regionsî, were the factors affecting competitiveness of planning regions ofLatvia and their interrelations have been researched, in addition, a complex assessmentsystem for evaluation of the regionsí competitiveness has been elaborated (Judrupa2011), in the Latvia University of Agriculture the S. »ingule-Vinogradova thesis calledìEvaluation of the Potential and Development Directions of Southern Latgaleî, inwhich an analysis of the potential of Latviaís Southern Latgale region has been carriedout and national economy development directions have been elaborated (»ingule-Vinogradova 2011), in the Latvia University of Agriculture the thesis of V. Vesperscalled ìEvaluation of Regional Developmentî, where the existing evaluation systemof Latviaís regional development has been assessed and the alternative territory develop-ment index for planning regions has been elaborated (Vesperis 2012), in DaugavpilsUniversity E. RaËkoís thesis called ìEvaluation and Potential of Increase of the competi-tiveness of Latviaís Regions in the European Unionî, where the methodology of theintegral indicator of the competitiveness of Latviaís statistical regions calculation hasbeen elaborated and the main directions of increasing the competitiveness of the regionshave been determined (RaËko 2013). The researches usually deal with the analysis ofonly one stage of the territorial development process, such as competitiveness (Judrupa2011; RaËko 2013), or the development process is viewed in the framework of onlyone region (»ingule-Vinogradova 2011). V. Vesperis offered for use an alternative


index of territoriesí development, however, this newly created index showed the levelof the development of Latviaís regions that is actually similar to the evaluation resultsobtained in accordance with the methodology officially applicable in Latvia. However,a major part of the existing regional researches fail to emphasize the significance ofsubjective indicators in the evaluation of the level of territorial development. Theauthor of the doctoral thesis believes that so far there is no clear conceptual solutionfound neither in Latvia nor the rest of the world to what is a developed territory andin accordance to which methodology it can be asserted that, for example, the regionof Riga is more developed than the region of Kurzeme.

Considering the topicality of the theme and the previous research experience inthe field, the author of the doctoral thesis offers to evaluate the state of developmentof Latviaís statistical regions (2) basing on the structural scheme of the evaluation ofterritorial state of development, the indicators of which are aimed at the HUMAN asthe territoriesí main agent of economic activity and determining the level of his/herobjective and subjective well-being in a specific territory. Exactly this kind of schemewould conform to the modern theoretical elaborations and tendencies of researchpractice in the world.

Developing the structural scheme of the territorial state of development evaluation,the author of the thesis relies on a comparatively new direction of economic science ñDevelopmental Economics and its theoretical findings that explain, ìwhat is a deve-loped territoryî and ìwhat indicators witness the level of developmentî (Todaro,Smith 2011; Thirlwall 2011), on the worldís scientific practice in the researched field(Arrow1951; Lewis 1955; Sen 1970; Sen 1983; Goulet 1975; Krugman 1991; Stiglitz1994; Rostow 1960; Robinson 1996; Johnson 1966), as well as uses such moderneconomic elaborations as conception of the competitive advantages of territories (Porter1990), creative class theory (Florida 2002, 2003), evaluation of territoriesí state ofdevelopment with subjective indicators (Easterlin 1974; Inglhart, Foa 2008; Layard2005; Kahneman, Deaton 2010; Veenhoven, Hagerty 2006; Diener, Biswas-Diener2002; Bjørnskov, Gupta, Pedersen 2008; Dolan, Peasgood, White 2008).

From the point of view of the Developmental Economics in the basis of territoriesdevelopment lies the conception of the human development; in accordance with it aterritory can be considered to be developed only when the effective and sustainableeconomic growth experienced in the territory facilitates the broadening of humanopportunities, the realization of their economical and political rights and freedoms,as well as satisfaction of material and intellectual needs of the current and futuregenerations. In accordance with this conception, a developed nation is the final aimof a territoryís development, and the economic growth is the tool to reaching thisfinal aim. Thus, result of development of any territory, i.e., the state of development,can be judged by its inhabitantsí common well-being objective and subjective indicators,that have been included in the structural scheme of evaluation of territorial state ofdevelopment, elaborated by the author. The author of the thesis emphasizes twoconceptual aspects of the scheme:1) all the traditional economical, technological and other indicators (the state of

infrastructure, industrial production etc.) used in the evaluation of territorial stateof development are not absent in this scheme, but rather they are viewed through


humans, i.e. they have to transform into indicators of human well-being. If suchtransformation does not take place, in this case according to the methodology ofDevelopmental Economics such a territory cannot be considered to be developed.

2) the newly elaborated structural scheme of evaluation of territorial state of develop-ment does not provide for calculation of the integrated index of territorial state ofdevelopment, but it works with six separate elements of the scheme according towhich territorial state of development can be characterized. It is based on thequalitative approach to the evaluation of territorial state of development, so calledpluralistic paradigm of territorial development which provides for parallel existenceof different kind of natures of development (ìqualitiesî) in the global world,instead of one quantitative scale application for all the territories to be researched,as it happens in the framework of quantitative (evolutionary) paradigm of terri-torial development (Boronenko, Lonska 2013).

The author stresses that separation of terms ìdevelopmentî and ìstate of develop-mentî is principally important in the methodology of evaluation of territorial level ofdevelopment. The result of territory development as a process is methodologicallydefined as territorial state of development, therefore the author in her work emphasizesexactly the measurable result of development process ñ territorial state of development.

Hypothesis of the research: the result of evaluation of territorial state of develop-ment depends on the paradigm used in the process of evaluation.

The object of the research: statistical regions of Latvia, the subject of the research ñthe state of development of the statistical regions of Latvia.

The aim of the research is on the basis of the theoretical guidelines of Developmen-tal Economics to elaborate and approbate the instrument, corresponding to the levelof the modern world (3), for evaluation of the state of development of Latviaís regions.

The tasks of the research:1) to analyze the theoretical and methodological aspects of territorial development;

determine and view the elements of the territorial development process from theviewpoint of economics; on the basis of the human development conception todevelop the methodological basis for evaluation of territorial state of development,and on its basis ñ a structural scheme of evaluation of territorial state of development;

2) to research the worldís experience in evaluation of territorial state of developmentand substantiate the significance of the subjective indicatorsí application in thisprocess; to view the history of application of territorial state of development evalu-ation tools; assess the tools of evaluation of territorial state of development appli-cable in the world in accordance with the chronology of their emergence;

3) to study the officially applicable and elaborated alternative indices of territorialstate of development evaluation in Latvia and analyze their methodological basis;to perform an empirical approbation of the structural scheme elaborated by theauthor for evaluation of territorial state of development in Latviaís statistical regions.

The used scientific methods:1) monographic method ñ for the development of theoretically methodological base

of the research;


2) logical analysis and synthesis method ñ for a description of territorial developmentas a process by graphically depicting results in functional models;

3) monographic, analysis and synthesis method ñ for the development of the structuralscheme of evaluation of territorial state of development, basing on the work elabo-ration foreruns and theories of the economic science;

4) the method of statistical information analysisñ for determining the values of basicindicators of the structural scheme of territorial state of development evaluationin the regions of Latvia;

5) survey method ñ to assess the subjective indicators of territorial state of develop-ment;

6) data processing with SPSS program ñ for the quantitative analysis of data acquiredduring the survey;

7) the model of V. Zapf for classification of territories according to the results oftheir state of development evaluation.

The informative basis of the research consists of scientific works published by therepresentatives of the Developmental Economics, publications of Latvian and foreignscientists on the topic of the thesis, namely, on the significance of indicators of subjectivewell-being of humans when evaluating the territorial state of development, humancapital conception, theory of competitiveness of countries, knowledge economy,creative class theory; the indices developed by the world class organizations (UN,OECD, Economist Association, New Economics Foundation et al.) and their publishedreports on the development level of the worldís countries (among them ìThe EconomistIntelligence Unitís quality-of-life indexî, ìHuman Development Reportî, ìHappyPlanet Indexî, ìOECD Your Better Life Indexî), indices and sets of indicators ofterritorial development elaborated by various countries of the world (among themSwitzerlandís MONET indicator system, UK Government Strategy Sustainable De-velopment indicators, Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index, The Australian UnityWellbeing Index), Regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latviaand other normative acts on the Procedure of the Territorial Development IndexCalculation, State Regional Development Agencyís annual report on the ìDevelopmentof Regions in Latviaî, the available information on alternative tools elaborated inLatvia for evaluation of the level of territorial development, statistical material fromthe database of the Central Statistical Bureau of the Republic of Latvia, data from thestatistics of the Centre for Disease Prevention and Control of Latviaís National HealthService on health care in Latvia, data from the survey carried out among the Latviaísinhabitants by the research center Ltd. ìSKDSî.

Scientific novelty of the doctoral thesis:1) the description and analysis of the process of territorial development based on the

conceptions of Developmental Economics;2) defining the terms similar to development, their conceptual separation and deter-

mination of their relation to the development process, as well as conceptualizationof the term ìterritorial developmentî and its definition from the perspective ofDevelopmental Economics;


3) definition and substantiation for the use of the term ìterritorial state of develop-mentî and its introduction into the scientific circulation;

4) elaboration of the conceptual substantiation of the final aim of territorial develop-ment, focused on humans living in the territory;

5) elaboration of the structural scheme of territorial state of development evaluationfor the assessment of territorial state of development, complying with the moderntheoretical elaborations and research practice tendencies.

Practical significance of the doctoral thesis:1) analysis of the instruments used in the world and in Latvia for evaluation of ter-

ritorial state of development;2) empirical approbation of the elaborated structural scheme of territorial state of

development evaluation on the statistical basis of Latviaís regions;3) empirical analysis of Latviaís regionsí state of development as a result of which

new knowledge on evaluation of territorial state of development is obtained andthe role of subjective indicators shown.

The thesis is composed of three chapters:The first chapter called ìTheoretical and Methodological Aspects of Evaluation

of the Territorial State of Developmentî deals with the analysis of historical develop-ment of the knowledge on the research of territories and the conclusions on the entryof territorial development process as a research object into economic science, it providesconceptual definitions of the elements of the territoriesí development process in theeconomic science and deals with the operationalization of this process, it provides aresearch on territories state of development from the perspective of DevelopmentalEconomics, as well as elaboration of the methodological basis for the evaluation ofterritories state of development, which conforms with the modern international scien-tific level.

The second chapter ìWorldís Experience in Evaluation of the Territorial State ofDevelopmentî views and systematizes the process of evaluation of territorial state ofdevelopment indicators, provides substantiation for the use of subjective indicators inevaluation of territorial state of development, as well as reveals the strengths andweaknesses of the objective and subjective indicators of territorial state of developmentand provides a review and analysis of tools of evaluation of territorial state of develop-ment in the worldís practice.

The third chapter ìEmpirical Assessment of the State of Development of LatviaísRegionsî studies the alternative indices officially used and elaborated in Latvia toevaluate the territorial state of development and analyzes their methodological basis,describes the structural scheme of evaluation of territorial state of development elabo-rated on the methodological basis of evaluation of territorial state of developmentthat was elaborated in the first chapter, on the basis of the scheme the state of develop-ment of Latviaís statistical regions is being empirically evaluated.

Main conclusions:1. The origins of the concept ìterritorial developmentî can be found in the antique

geography. In the turn of the 19th and the 20th centuries as a result of geographical


differentiation to the physical and social, emerged regional studies of social,economical, political and humanitarian profile, where lies the origin of a newscience. In the middle of the 20th century under the influence of the political andeconomical global processes in the science of geography emerged geoeconomics(later ñ geopolitics), which along with the economic science facilitated the forma-tion of a new direction of economics ñ regional economy. Moreover, in the middleof the 20th century also emerged a new direction of economic science ñ Develop-mental Economics, which studies the issues of inequality, poverty and countriesídevelopment.

2. In accordance with the findings of the Developmental Economics, the territorialdevelopment is viewed as a process having a certain result (aim): the process ofdevelopment itself is a quantitative growth of territorial capital, while the measurablequalitative result reached in this process is territorial state of development. Thereare two approaches of the territorial development process analysis: quantitative,in accordance with which a territory (society) develops gradually undergoing certainstages of development, and the qualitative or paradigm of pluralistic development,which essentially believes that every of the cultures (civilizations) existing in theworld has its own, different from the others and unique course of development.These approaches do not exclude, but supplement each other, allowing performinga more detailed and complete analysis of the development process.

3. The structural basic elements of the process of territorial development are attrac-tion, competitiveness, growth and state of development of territories. The processof development begins with attraction and maintaining the resources necessaryfor the development, et al., a territory becoming more attractive. Then the territorybecomes competitive, by turning the comparative advantages of the attractedresources into competitive. Efficient and profitable use of competitive resourcesensures a territory with economic growth, when the existing resources are accu-mulated and increased and when as a result of advised resource distribution politicsthere is an increase in the general well-being of population, what is the final aimof the territorial development process ñ state of development of territories.

4. Analyzing the concept of development in the territorial framework, it is evidentthat the concept ìterritorial developmentî, opposite to such a similar concepts asìgrowthî, ìprogressî, ìevolutionî etc. have several features, differing the conceptsfrom the others, et at. (1) territorial development is a process related to the specificterritory; (2) territorial development is a purposeful process of changes withdirection, et al., the process aimed at reaching a specific goal; territorial develop-ment process consists of several structural elements, (4) territorial development isa social and economic process.

5. In the historical course of tools for evaluation of the territorial state of developmentevolution in the world it is possible to distinguish 3 stages: (1) the stage of objectiveeconomic indicators (17th century); (2) stage of objective economic and objectivenon-economic (social) indicators (1830s, rebirth ñ 1960s); (3) stage of objective(economic and non-economic) and subjective indicators (1980s). In Latvia theofficially applicable indices include both economic and non-economic, but only


objective indicators, complying with the second stage of tools for territorial stateof development evaluation.

6. The most widely used in the world tools for evaluation of the territorial state ofdevelopment can be divided into four groups, depending on the type of indicatorsthey include: (1) the containing objective economic indicators (Index of SustainableEconomic Wellfare; Genuine Progress Indicator), (2) the containing objective(economic and social) indicators (Sustainable Society Index, Index of Wellbeingof Nations, Physical Quality of Life Index, etc.), (3) the containing objective (eco-nomic and social) and subjective indicators (Human Development Index, HappyPlanet Index, ESAO ìYour Better Life Indexî, etc.) (4) the containing onlysubjective indicators (exceptions) (Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index,Australian Unity Wellbeing Index).

7. The first official methodology of calculation of Latviaís Territorial DevelopmentIndex (TDI) was elaborated by the Latvian Institute for Statistics in 1997: thedistricts and towns of the republic could be evaluated according to 9 statisticalindicators, and the civil parishes and towns of the districts ñ by 6 statisticalindicators. Since 2000 a TDI has been calculated: for regions summarizing 8statistical indicators, for civil parishes ñ 6, and towns ñ 4. In 2009 the methods ofTDI calculation were adopted to the new administrative territorial division ofLatvia, i.e., counties, republic-level towns and planning regions. In 2010 Latviastarted to calculate two indices describing the territorial development: the Indexof Territorial Development Level (TDLI) and Territorial Development LevelChange Index (TDLCI).

8. An active work in Latvia takes place in relation to the development of alternativetools for territorial state of development evaluation: Support to RegionalDevelopment Index developed by ìKonsortsî Ltd., the EU project implementedby the SRDA regarding the development of the Regional Development IndicatorModule, the Alternative Index of Territorial Development offered by the doctoralstudent of the LUA V. Vesperis, the Development Level-Rate Matrix of LatviaísCities elaborated by Z. Hermansons and A. Vitola, provided for the evaluation ofthe level of social and economic development and tendencies of Latviaís biggestcities, and the Life Quality Index developed by the Strategic Analysis Committee.

9. Exploring the officially used and alternative indices offered for application, it ispossible to conclude that the methodological basis of evaluation of the territorialstate of development used in Latvia does not correspond with the global scientificlevel in this field, since it fails to include subjective indicators, ignoring the subjectiveassessments of population in the specific territory, the topicality of which indicatealso the studies carried out in Latvia.

10. The structural scheme of the evaluation of the territorial state of developmentelaborated in the framework of the doctoral thesis is based on the DevelopmentalEconomics, the Conception of Human Development, Happiness Economicsíscientific insights on peopleís subjective well-being, Human Capital Conception,M. Porterís Theory of Competitive Advantage of Nations, conclusions of ìknow-ledge-based economicsî, as well as R. Floridaís Creative Class Theory. Elaboratingthe scheme the author methodologically based on the finding that a territory can


be considered to be developed when the number of population is constantly growingand the population is materially provided, healthy, highly educated, accepts spiritualvalues and is satisfied with life. This tool for evaluation of the territorial state of de-velopment consists both of objective and subjective indicators, conforming to themodern theoretical elaborations and tendencies of research practice in the world.

11. The basic elements of the structural scheme of the territorial state of developmentevaluation are as follows: (1) changes in the number of population, (2) peopleísmaterial prosperity, (3) peopleís health, (4) peopleís education, (5) peopleís attitudetowards spiritual values, (6) peopleís overall satisfaction with life. The basicindicators are aimed at determining the Humanís existence and his/her objectiveand subjective well-being. The author emphasizes two conceptual aspects:

12. All the traditional economical, technological etc. indicators applicable in evaluationof the territorial state of development (infrastructure, industrial production etc.)are not absent in this scheme, but rather they are viewed through a human;

13. The newly elaborated structural scheme of evaluation of territorial state of develop-ment does not provide for calculation of the integrated index of territorial state ofdevelopment, but it is provided for comparison of separate indicators of the schemeelements in the territories to be researched.

14. Analyzing the values of the chosen basic indicators for empirical approbation ofthe structural scheme of territorial state of development, the author of the thesiscomes to conclusion that it is not possible to highlight only one of the statisticalregions of Latvia according to its highest or lowest level of development. It is onlypossible to assert that the development of the regions of Latvia is qualitativelydifferent and this phenomenon must be viewed from the point of view of pluralisticparadigm, stressing the functional effectiveness of every region in the functioningof all the united country of Latvia.

Statements and findings:1. The topic of territorial development is well-studied by the papers of Latvian

scientists, especially in relation to the economical growth of territories. However,the result of the territorial development process and its evaluation until now wasresearched insufficiently. The research problem of the thesis is formed by the factthat the greatest part of the researchers and scientists analyzing the territorialdevelopment do not separate the process of development itself from the state ofdevelopment ñ the result achieved in the development process. On the basis ofmethodology of the Developmental Economics the thesis provides a definitionthat territorial state of development is the objective and subjective well-being ofthe population residing there, and it cannot be evaluated by taking into accountobjective social and economic indicators, which are the same, according to whichcan be concluded that a territory is developed (pluralistic paradigm of territorialdevelopment).

2. In the hypothesis of the research the author on the basis of worldís progressivepractice in evaluation of territorial state of development assumed that the resultof territorial state of development depends on the paradigm to be used in theprocess of evaluation.


3. To prove the hypothesis, the author in the process of the thesis elaboration analyzedthe history of knowledge related to the research of territories and drew conclusionsregarding the entrance of territorial development process as an object of researchin the economic science, conceptually defined the elements of territorial develop-ment process in the economic science and provided a description and analysis ofthe process, as well as studied the territorial state of development from the per-spective of Developmental Economics, elaborating the methodological base ofterritorial state of development evaluation, corresponding with the modern inter-national scientific level.

4. Implementing her research, the author viewed and systematized the process ofindicators of territorial state of development evaluation, provided justification ofsubjective indicators application in territorial state of development evaluation,revealing the strengths and weaknesses of the objective and subjective indicatorsin territorial state of development evaluation, as well as performed review oftools for territorial state of development evaluation and analysis in the worldpractice.

5. Proving the hypothesis of the thesis the author justified by the approbation of theelaborated structural scheme for territorial state of development evaluation,empirically evaluating the state of development of the statistical regions of Latviaand showing that applying the qualitative paradigm of territorial state of develop-ment evaluation, it is not possible unequivocally to highlight only one of thestatistical regions of Latvia according to its highest or lowest level of development,as it is done according to the official territorial state of development evaluationmethodology in Latvia, evaluating the territorial state of development of Latviaísregions according to TDLI/TDLCI, when the quantitative approach of territorialstate of development evaluation is used. In case of Latgale region, which accordingto TDLC/TDLCI calculations is placed as the last among the Latviaís statisticalregions according to their state of development, there are quite high indicators ofpopulationís subjective satisfaction with life and attitude towards spiritual values,what is an integral part of territorial state of development. Consequently the aimof the thesis ñ on the basis of the theoretical the theoretical guidelines of Develop-mental Economics to elaborate and approbate the tool, corresponding to the levelof the modern world, for evaluation of the state of development of Latviaísregions ñ was reached, the tasks of the thesis are completed and the hypothesis isproven.

(1) Russian ñ ́ развитостьª, Latvian ñ ìattÓstÓtÓbaî, German ñ ìEntwickeltheitî (ELDO 1995:46). Within the framework of this thesis, ìterritory developmentî is understood as the level ofterritoriesí development attained during the process of territoriesí development, i.e., the finalresult of the development process, which is measurable.(2) According to the methodology of regional economy both the countries and the internalregions of the countries are defined as a territory (BoroÚenko2009).(3) Namely, the use of objective and subjective indicators as well as acknowledging the crucialsignificance of territoriesí competitive advantages in evaluation of territoriesí state of develop-ment.

100

Aivars Stankevics

THE ROLE OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION IN THEINCREASING OF PERFORMANCE OF A REGION

The choice of the theme: substantiation, argumentsand motives:

Long-term economic growth is closely connected withtechnological progress and innovation, considering inno-vation as a process of ìcreative destructionî. It shouldbe noted that, in the policy planning documents of theLatvian Republic, a new paradigm of regional policy isdefined (i.e. ìRegional Policy Guidelines 2013ñ2019):it emphasises the role of creativity and innovation inregional development and, in particular, its importancein promoting territorial competitiveness, visibility andpeopleís welfare. The availability of new technologies,knowledge and skills become extremely significant, whenproduction is shifting to its higher value added segmentsand knowledge-intensive products and services. Thedevelopment of science-intensive industries, which pro-

motes regional development, is based on the use of unique resources and conditionsof each region. At the same time, it comes out to be clear that the knowledge gap canbe bridged by such players as technology transfer centres, regional business incubators,innovation centres, higher educational establishments, innovation-promoting publicorganizations, public-private partnerships, whose work is connected with innovativeapproaches, etc. This is this close link of innovation policy with economic developmentthat determines the necessity to define the new role of higher education in increasingeconomic performance.

Until the 19thcentury higher education was traditionally associated with the accu-mulation and transfer of knowledge to future generations. 19th century IndustrialRevolution marked a new stage in the development of higher education ñ a transitionfrom learning to research, namely a creation of new knowledge. The turn of the 21st

century and the subsequent transition to a postindustrial society and then to a neoin-dustrial one determined a new mission of higher education ñ direct involvement ofhigher education into socio-economic development of territories. At present, the changeof the mission of higher education requires to seriously reconsider not only the role ofhigher education institutions as such, but the very interaction of all public and highereducation institutions as well. Today, it is not possible to consider higher educationinstitutions just as establishments that develop and transfer specific knowledge andskills to students. Higher education is no longer perceived as a personal benefit ofsome individuals; it is viewed as the main resource required for the development ofknowledge society, which is based on collective public-private partnership, and as a

Author of the thesisDr. oec. Aivars StankeviËs


factor of regional performance (AcadTerm). Nowadays, higher education institutionshould be considered as an element of change and an agent that does not just stimulateand encourage the interconnection of learning, research and innovation: it should beconsidered as a necessity to develop knowledge and innovation infrastructure, whichcould ensure this interrelation and a transfer of knowledge into economy. What factorsdetermine a performance of a region and how they affect the system of higher educa-tion ñ is a question the author of the present doctoral thesis is trying to answer, offeringsolutions for the development of higher education policy to ensure a greater role ofhigher education in the increase of regional performance.

The theoretical and methodological basis of the doctoral research: the works bythe classics of Economics ñ J. M. Keynes, F. Quesnay, A. Lˆsch, K. Marx, A. Marshall,W. Petty, D. Ricardo, A. Smith, and other opinions, connected with the theme of thedoctoral thesis, were analysed and used.

In the doctoral thesis, the findings of many other recognised economic theoristsand experts, educational researchers and experts are used ñ M. Agranovich (М. Агра-нович), W.†Christaller, E. A. Hanushek, E. F. Heckscher, W. Isard, S. S. Kuznets,W. F. Launhardt, A. Madison, J. Mincer, B. G. Ohlin, M. E. Porter, T. A. Reiner,L. Shpakovskaya (Л. Шпаковская), J. H. Th¸nen, A. Weber, L. Vosmana (L. Wˆfl-mann), etc.

It should be noted that many excellent Latvian scientists and practitioners havecontributed significantly to the consideration of the issues on the Latvian regionaleconomic development and performance and the ones on the development, qualityand efficiency of higher education system: V. BoroÚenko, J. Borzovs, A. CÓrule, J. Dzelme,L. Jermolajeva, O. LavriÚenko, J. Lonska, V. MeÚikovs, L. PaÚina, A. Rauhvargers,B. Riv˛a, V. RocÁns, Ã. Rungainis, A. Sannikova, E. Vanags, D. VÓksne, T. Volkova,A. Zobena, etc. However, in the Latvian scientific space, it is hard to find a fundamentalresearch devoted to the links between higher education system and regional economicdevelopment, growth, competitiveness, performance, etc.1

The object of the Doctoral Thesis: countries of the world2 and Latvian regions.The subject of the Doctoral Thesis: regional performance and the role of higher

education in it.The hypothesis of the Doctoral Thesis: the role of higher education in increasing

regional performance depends on the stage of regional economic development.The aim of the Doctoral Thesis: to determine the role of higher education in

increasing regional performance in Latvia.

1 In this respect, only V. RocÁnsís doctoral thesis can be mentioned (2012) ìCompetitiveEnvironment in Higher Education, Economic Efficiency and National Economic Growthî, inwhich the influence ofhighereducation system on economic growth has been studied. However,this work, elaborated in the field of Management Sciences (sub-branch ñ Education manage-ment), did not explore the regional aspect of this influence.

2 In order to achieve the aim of the doctoral thesis all the reference territories ñ countries andinternal regions of a country ñ will be considered as regions, as in Economics a region is aterritory with specific economy. According to this definition, a country can be called a region.


The objectives of the Doctoral Thesis:� to analyse the concepts of region and regional performance presented in Economics,

as well as to elaborate a methodological basis to detect regional performance andfactors that influence it;

� to explore the processes of globalization and internationalization in the modernhigher education system at the EU level, as well as to analyse the developments ofthe Latvian higher education system and its place in the European higher educationarea;

� to empirically explore the role of higher education in the worldís and Latviaísregional performance, as well as to explore the availability of higher educationresources and the degree of their activation and capitalization and their specificitiesin Latviaís regions.

The methods used to achieve the objectives set in the Doctoral Thesis:� descriptive, analytical, synthetic and logically-constructive methods have been

used to identify region and significance of regional performance in Economics;� correlation analysis and methods for linear regression analysis, as well as classi-

fication of the stages of economic development, elaborated at the World EconomyForum, have been used to identify empirically the role of higher education inregional performance;

� to define the situation and the trends in the Latvian higher education system,statistical analysis of the data has been used and interviews with the experts ofthe Latvian higher education system have been conducted;

� cartographic and graphical methods have been used for tangible visualisation ofthe obtained results.

The materials used to achieve the objectives of the Doctoral Thesis:Theoretically and methodologically the Doctoral Thesis is based on the works by

Latvian and foreign scientists in the field of Regional Economics, Latvian and foreignscientific studies on the economic aspects of higher education system and its linkagewith regional socio-economic development.

The empirical analysis presented in the Doctoral Thesis is based on Eurostatregional data, regional data from the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia, reports onLatviaís higher education prepared by the Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia,the World Economic Forumís Global Competitiveness annual reports and othermaterials with statistical and empirical data.

The interviews with experts, who are occupied in the sphere of higher education,can be considered a significant source of information:� Dr. habil. med. J‚nis VÁtra, Chairman of the Council of Higher Education,

Professor of Riga StradiÚ University, who has long been both Rector of RÓgaStradiÚ University and Chairman of Rectorsí Council;

� Dr. oec., prof. Tatjana Volkova, Vice-Chairman of the Council of Higher Educa-tion, former Rector of BA School of Business and Finance and Chairman of RectorsíCouncil;

� Dr. habil. sc. pol., Dr. iur. T‚lavs Jundzis, a Vice-President of the Latvian Academyof Sciences, Director of Law College, who also is Member of the Board of the


Latvian Association of Colleges (previously ñ Chairman of Board) and Professorof Latvian University;

� Dr. sc. ing. Anatolijs Melnis, previously ñ Assistant Director of the Departmentof Science and Higher Education in LR Ministry of Education and Science, atpresent ñ Senior Expert of Higher education, science and innovation departmentin LR Ministry of Education and Science, who has been actively developing theLatvian higher education policy and accompanying legislation;

� Dr. habil. paed. Tatjana KoÌe, Vice-Rector for Education, RÓgaStradiÚ University,former Minister of Education and Science (2007ñ2010), Parliamentary Secretaryof Ministry of Education and Science (20006ñ2007), State Minister of HigherEducation and Science, Republic of Latvia (1999);

� Dr. habil. med., prof. J‚nis Gardovskis, Rector of RÓga StradiÚ University;� Dr. habil. philol., prof. Dace Markus, Rector of RÓga Teacher Training and Educa-

tional Management Academy;� Dr. oec., prof. Marga fiivitere, Rector of Graduate School of Information Systems

Management;� Dr. paed. J‚nis Rozenblats, Director of Riga Technical College, Member of Board

of the Latvian Association of College (previously ñ Chairman of Board);� Dr. phys., prof. Ark‚dijs Vocis, former Rector of Baltic International Academy,

who has long been a Chairman of the Association of Latvian Private HigherEducation Institutions.

Structurally, the Doctoral Thesis has three chapters:� The first chapter of the Thesis ìTheoretical and Methodological Aspects of Region

and Regional Performanceî explores the concepts of region and regional perfor-mance and their conceptual significance in Economics, as well as the theoreticaland methodological basis of the process of economic regionalization, and economicglobalization processes that influence regional performance;

� The second chapter ìHigher Education as One of The Factors That InfluencesRegional Performancesî presents the analysis of the processes of globalizationand internationalization in the European space of higher education, the develop-ment of the Latvian higher education system in its long-term context, and theempirical research of the role of higher education in the enhancement of the perfor-mance of world regions;

� The third chapter ìEmpirical Research of The Role of Higher Education in ThePerformance of Latvian Regionsî displays the analysis of the understanding ofregion in the Latvian education system, as well as the empirical research of thelevel of activation and capitalization of higher education resources in Latviaísregions and the expertsí opinion about the role of higher education in the perfor-mance of Latviaís regions;

� The conclusions summarise the main findings, as well as the problems and theirpossible solutions.

The scientific novelty of the Doctoral Thesis:� conceptualization of the concept of regional performance and elaboration of a

methodological basis for the study of its conditions;


� study of the linkage of higher education with regional performance within regionaleconomy;

� critical evaluation of the role of higher education in enhancing regional perfor-mance.

The practical novelty of the Doctoral Thesis:� global empirical evaluation of the factors that may potentially influence regional

performance;� the defined role of higher education in regional performance, applying international

research data;� preparation of recommendations for the development of the Latvian higher

education policy, taking into account the regional specifics of Latvia.

Theses for defence:1. In Economics, regional performance can be measured by the average GDP per

capita;2. In the global economic space, regions are at different stages of development, and

each stage has its own factors that determine regional performance;3. Access to the latest technologies influences regional performance more than higher

education;4. Provision of Latvian regions with higher education resources differs, but the level

of the use of these resources does not differ much.

General findings:The issues connected with higher education system have been studied by Latvian

scientists in rather different ways, while its connection with regional economic perfor-mance has been relatively little studied, at least at the level of basic research. Theeconomic dimension of the research problem is generated by the fact that, regardlessthe topicality of higher education, in the process of which new knowledge and skillsare received, particularly in relation to the development of knowledge economy, inLatvia, one can observe a relatively low economic efficiency from specialists withhigher education that does not enhance economic performance in Latviaís regions.

On the basis of the methodology of regional economics, the author of this thesishas examined the role of higher education in enhancing regional performance in termsof resources-assets-capital approach. On the basis of this approach, it can be arguedthat each region has its own resources of higher education, which it activates (introducesinto the economic cycle) and capitalizes them (commercializes, drawing added valuefrom them).

Therefore, in the hypothesis of the present research, on the basis of both themodern research by Latvian economists, devoted to the economic aspects of highereducation, and the research results of world regional economy, the author has statedthat the role of higher education in enhancing regional performance depends on thestage of the economic development of a region.

To prove this hypothesis, the author of the thesis has analysed the theoretical andmethodological aspects of regional economy, investigated the topical issues of highereducation system and modern challenges in the EU and Latvia, and studied the role of


higher education in enhancing the performance in the world and Latviaís regions atdifferent stages of economic development. The research hypothesis has been proven,using the data of the World Economic Forum on more than 100 regions of the worldand applying the method of multi-factor analysis.

Hence, the aim of the doctoral thesis ñ to determine the role of higher educationin enhancing regional performance in the world, the EU and Latvia ñ has been achieved.The research has demonstrated that today the regional performance at the stages ofeconomic development Latviaís regions are at, is conditioned by an ability of a regionto attract talented people and by the availability of the latest technologies, ratherthan by higher education. The author has developed a number of recommendationsfor the higher education policy in Latvia, considering the possibilities of how, withthe help of a cluster of higher education, to attract talented people and the latest tech-nologies into the regions, which in its turn will enhance regional economic performance.

Main conclusions:1. The formation of regional studies within the economic theory is connected to the

idea of territorial division of labour, which appeared in the works by A. Smith.However, up to the end of the 19th century, territorial factor was completelyignored in economic theory. In the 1950s, the study of the issues of regionaleconomy developed in many countries. In 1954, at W. Isardís initiative, in theUnited States there was established Regional Science Association.

2. At present, regional economy is actively institutionalising in the European researcharea, in particular: new international organizations and different regional researchnetworks are established, research projects in the field of regional studies areimplemented, fundamental investigations are published and international scientificconferences in the field of regional economy are organized.

3. The term ìregion, which is used in scientific literature, is characterized by polysemy,i.e. ambiguity. Its content depends on which aspect of life in a region is actualisedin this or that way. It is an economic region, which is a part national territorymarked by specific economy.

4. The basic concept of the present study is regional performance, which the authordefines conceptually and interprets empirically in terms of economic science.Methodologically regional performance is regionís economic productivity andability to produce a product ñ productivity, output, results of economic activity,and GDP per capita is an indicator of regional performance.

5. Economic conditions of regional performance can be studied by resources-assets-capital approach, which is based on the following theoretical methodologicalguideline: in a result of their effective use the resources available to a region canbe transformed into regional assets, which, in their turn, can give the region socio-economic returns, i.e., turning into regional capital ñ a precondition for its per-formance.

6. The methodological novelty of the present study is a consideration of the role ofdifferent factors that influence regional performance, taking into account the stageof the economical development of a region not only in general as it was in classicaland neoclassical economic theories. Classifying the stages of regionsí economic


development, the author took into account the approach of the World EconomicForum, having singled out three basic stages ñ factor-driven stage, efficiency-driven stage and innovation-driven stage.

7. Because of Latviaís relatively low technological readiness and availability of thelatest technologies, specialists with higher education cannot realize their fullprofessional potential in Latvia.

8. A clearly positive role of higher education and education in general in the develop-ment of modern economy has been discussed and even criticized in two recentlyissued collections of research articles: ìThe Knowledge Economy and LifelongLearning: A Critical Readerî (Livingstone, Guile, 2012) and ìEducating for theKnowledge Economy: Critical Perspectivesî (Lauder et. al., 2012). These collec-tions of articles summarise and systematise different research experience receivedin the analysis of economic relations between education and knowledge.

9. The methodological basis of the present thesis is also based on the fact that, atpresent, the role of higher education in enhancing regional performance cannotbe considered as unambiguously positive. One of the explanations of this ambiguitycan be found within regional economics ñ diversity of stages of regional economicdevelopment with different performance-determining factors.

10. Nowadays, higher education institutions with their intellectual and institutional,but sometimes with their financial potential and diversified range of offered servicesbecome one of the most influential global ìplayersî, participating in both decision-making and opinion-making and contributing into the regional performance.

11. Education with its significant potential also is a part of the global market, where,nowadays, different learning providers compete, offering a wide range, though atpresent not always qualitative and relevant to the time of services, and globallycompeting for the main target audience of higher education ñ potential students.

12. Despite the current achievements in the development of Latvian higher educationsystem, a number of higher education experts have noted a number of problems,which can become the major risk factor for the existence of the system itself andits sustainability. They are: funding shortages, poor quality and poor commer-cialization of the results of scientific research.

13. For empirical study of the role of higher education in regional performance basedon the data of global research (more than 100 regions) there were selected indicatorsthat characterize the higher education system of a region, the level of its techno-logical development, and the ability of a region to attract and retain highly educatedand talented people. The analysis was carried out in accordance to three stages ofregional economic development, in three periods of time ñ 2005, 2009 and 2013(in order to prove that the results obtained are stable).

14. The results of the research showed that each stage of regional economic develop-ment out of the three mentioned ones is determined by various (different) factors.For example, the indicators that characterize higher education system influenceregional performance only at the lowest stage of regional economic development,and only simultaneously with the factor of technological development.

15. At the innovation-driven stage and at the transition stage to it, where Latvia hasbeen since 2009, new factors ìare involved into the gameî ñ the ability of a


region to retain and attract talents. It has been found that regions, which are ableto attract and retain in their economies talented and highly educated people, havea better performance compared to those regions, which have a relatively highlevel of higher education development (the proportion of students and in terms ofquality).

16. All Latviaís regions have higher education resources ñ higher education institutions,research institutions, state and private funding, academic staff, population withhigher education, etc. the statistical analysis of the data showed that, despite thefact that Latviaís regions are ensured with the above mentioned higher educationresources is uneven, in all Latviaís regions higher education resource is activatedand capitalized relatively at the same level.

17. Analysing the location of higher education institutions in Latviaís regions, it canbe concluded that regardless the fact that there are a lot of affiliated branches inthe peripheral regions, it is Riga region (the only Latviaís region at the innovation-stage and, in this region, there is the centre of Latvian higher education cluster),which is able to attract talented people, in this way effectively capitalizing thehigher education resources of all Latviaís regions in order to increase its perfor-mance.

18. Among the experts of Latvian higher education system, there is no one unifiedopinion, whether the current Latvian higher education system and its principlespromote Latvian economic performance and how effectively higher educationsystem at present uses the resources that are available to it. And the most impor-tant ñ there is no unified opinion on what should be in these fields.

19. To promote a faster development of regional performance, regional economicplanners should be guided by the stage of the economic performance of eachspecific region in order to understand what makes a driving force of regionalperformance, in the given period of time, ñ quantitative indicators of higher educa-tion, quality of higher education or any other factors, such as higher educationtogether with the regionís technological readiness. Such an approach would allowto use the available financial resources of a region in a more efficient way.

108

Rets Renemanis

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF LATVIAN ONCOLOGYSYSTEM IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EUROPEAN REGIONS

Topicality of the subject:As one of the core values, health is the basis for oneís

quality of life and the well-being of families and society.In general, about 30% of all deaths in the world arepremature, where people lose their lives at a workingage. Since the reasons for early mortality and the loss ofworking ability are in most cases related to various healthrisks, by minimising their impact one is able to increasethe working-age peopleís life expectancy and quality,thus improving the natural growth and promoting em-ployment in the country (National Development Plan2014ñ2020 2012: p. 37). At the beginning of the 21stcentury, current socio-economic processes in Latvia, aswell as the long-term trends (aging population, decliningworking-age population and increased economic depen-dency) have increasingly brought to attention the issues

of quality of life and public health. At the same time, good public health is the foun-dation of sustainable social and economic development of any country.

Since increase in the birth rate is very slow and the rapid immigration of labourforce is causing some serious social problems, it is important to improve public healthand prolong the working age to ensure long-term economic and social developmentof Latvia. Maintaining and improving health is a shared responsibility of society,each individual and the state through the realisation of policies of various sectors ofthe national economy. The topicality of the study is related to the priority nature ofthe health sector, as evidenced by a number of strategic planning documents of Latvia.The Latvian National Development Plan 2007ñ2013 states that health is one of thecore human values and the basis for oneís quality of life and well-being, as well as thewell-being of oneís family (Latvian nationalÖ 2006). Similarly, the Latvian NationalDevelopment Plan 2014ñ2020 specifically states that it is necessary to implementtargeted and effective health-promoting and risk-limiting measures, improve the acces-sibility and quality of healthcare services by providing timely disease diagnostics andfaster initiation of treatment (National Development PlanÖ 2012). In addition, thelist of national medium-term priorities includes the goal to extend the number of healthylife years of the Latvian population and prevent premature death by maintaining,improving and restoring health, including improved access to healthcare services (Infor-mative report on Latvian Strategic DevelopmentÖ 2010; Public Health Guidelines2011; Public Health StrategyÖ 2010).

The life expectancy of the population has been included by the United Nations inthe Human Development Index calculations as one of the three components of the

Author of the thesisDr.oec. Rets Renemanis


index. The World Health Organisation frequently calculates and internationallycompares the indicators of healthy life expectancy by country.

The topicality of the Thesis is also demonstrated by the fact that public health(including prevention, treatment, diagnostic tools and methods) is one of the prioritydirections of science in Latvia (Cabinet of Ministers Order No. 594 2009). Therefore,research in the field of healthcare economics is particularly topical. In addition to theabove, it should be emphasised that promoting the health of population is receivingincreasing attention both in Latvia and Europe. Disease significantly reduces the qualityof life of individuals and their families and results in various costs, mainly the loss oflabour capacity due to absence from work and disability. Good health, in turn, increasessocial, economic and human capital.

Thus, healthcare is one of the strategic sectors of the economy that guaranteespopulation reproduction and enhances the quality of human capital, social guarantees,etc. Economic analysis of the healthcare sector is also necessary because healthcareresources have always been and will be limited, while the needs for medical servicesare very diverse and will always exceed the existing financial capacity of the state.Moreover, the uneven development of the healthcare sector and the oncology systemin particular, is largely due to socio-economic problems of the society, mainly due tosignificant differences in income levels in different population groups. This is oftenwhy people have uneven access to both medications and treatment in general (treatmentmethods and techniques), which consequently contributes to the spread of oncologicdiseases and a growth in the number of oncologic patients, especially in the advancedstages of the disease. Latvian healthcare sector must use the economic knowledge ofhow to manage and improve the medical assistance process more actively. Issues witheffective management of existing limited resources are attracting the attention ofhealthcare sector specialists at all levels, especially in light of the consequences of theeconomic crisis of 2008. Both international and national statistical data shows that inthe last few years there has been a significant deterioration of Latvian healthcareindicators. According to the World Health Organisationís (WHO) classification, Latviais characterised as a country with a markedly low birth-rate and high adult mortalityin productive age, which in turn causes major economic losses (World Bank Report2010).

Also, the Euro Health Consumer Index (EHCI) ranked Latvia in one of the lastplaces in 2013. The annual EU healthcare overview ranked the Latvian healthcaresystem in the 32nd place out of 35, which means that Latvia is competing with Serbiaand Romania (Euro Health ConsumerÖ 2013). Therefore, the author of the Thesishas conducted an economic analysis of the Latvian oncology system as a healthcarebranch in the context of ES NUTS 2 regions in order to determine the position ofLatvia among the EU countries, familiarise himself with the experience of other coun-tries and consider the possibilities to adapt their experience for Latvia.

Oncologic diseases is one of the most serious threats to human health and one ofthe leading causes of death worldwide, including Latvia, and the rate of tumoursamong the causes of death is 13% worldwide and 20.6% in Latvia. Since 2011,cancer has surpassed heart disease as the leading cause of death in the world. In 2012,there were 14 million diagnosed cases of cancer in the world. The number of new


cases of cancer in the world within five years has increased by 11%, reaching 14.1million cases last year, while the number of breast cancer cases has increased by afifth. Malignant breast cancer is the most common cause of death in women in theworld ñ in 2012 there were 522 thousand of such cases (World Cancer Report 2014).Malignant tumours play a significant role among morbidity indicators. Besides, 50%of the people who get sick are of working age, and there are more and more youngpeople who get sick (Latvian healthcare statistics yearbook 2011; Statistical data forthe year 2011: oncology 2012). Despite the progress in the field of medical technologyand pharmaceuticals and an increase in the annual state funding for the treatment ofoncologic patients, the mortality rate due to cancer each year is increasing, and acost-intensive treatment of diseases is not yet able to ensure a significant increase inlife expectancy in Latvia. The number of primarily diagnosed cancer patients in Latviasince 2000 has increased with each year, and the mortality rate has a tendency togrow.

6.5% of the total healthcare costs in Europe and 5% in the world are currentlyspent on the treatment of oncologic diseases (Health at a Glance: Europe, 2013). InLatvia, malignant tumours are the second most common cause of death after cardio-vascular diseases. Approximately 75% of all cancer patients die from complicationscaused by tumours. In addition, the rate of advanced-stage disease cases here is higherthan in other European countries, since in 50%ñ60% cases the tumour is found aslate as in stage 3ñ4 (Statistical data for 2011: oncology 2012).

As the population ages, the incidence of malignant tumours is expected to grow.The development of the oncology system in Latvia is unacceptably slow, stemmingfrom the lack of funding and the insufficient public interest in acquiring the latestgeneration treatment methods, including medication. Due to the experience and ahigh level of preparedness of Latvian professionals, it is possible to achieve the averagelife expectancy of patients in Latvia, which is comparable to the EU and USA levels,but people who are diagnosed with cancer in Latvia have much fewer possibilities toenjoy life of equivalent quality and duration as in developed countries. So, the inabilityof the oncology system to respond to the increasing incidence of malignant tumours ismainly due to public administrative and economic reasons.

State of research in this field:Development of the theoretical and methodological framework is based on funda-

mental and applied research in economics and health economics theory, as well as themedical field in the area of socio-economic problems. The author has collected researchon the topic performed by scientists from Latvia, the European Union, USA and othercountries. The study uses and analyses the results of works of foreign scientists (NolteE., Ezzati M., Figueras J., Grossman M., Bloom, Brummand M., Murray C., SalomonJ.A., Mathers C.D., Lopez A.D., Jourmard I., Hoeller P., Monden Ch., Xu K, Sak-sena P.) dedicated to studying the economic aspects of healthcare, the problems ofintegrative use of the quality of life concept, and touching the economic analysisissues in this area. The main findings of the aforementioned studies are continuallydeveloped by contemporary scientists, including representatives of Latvian economicscience: G. BriÏis, A. GrÓnfelde, J. Kr˚miÚ, V. Kr˚miÚ, S. Me˛inska, V. SÓlis, I. Zijeva


and others. Healthcare economics theoretical issues have been addressed in the worksof many foreign researchers: Haycox A., Fogel R.W., Costa D.L., Malek M., Phillips C.,Gold M.R., Arrow K., Kernic D., Воробьев П.А., Кучеренко В.З., Семенов В.Ю.

In the period following the economic crisis in 2008, the media started an intensedebate on the administrative and economic aspects of healthcare, and this issue hasbeen addressed by many practitioners and researchers. However, the socio-economicaspects of this field have not yet been sufficiently scientifically studied and grounded.

Research object: Latvian healthcare sector and the oncology system as the sub-sector in the context of the European regions (countries) (1).

Research subject: Socio-economic regularities and factors of the Latvian oncologysystem in the European regions (countries).

Research goal is, by evaluating the socio-economic aspects of the Latvian oncologysystem in the context of the European regions (countries), to identify the socio-economicfactors causing substantial damage to individuals and society as a whole due todisability-adjusted life years (DALY).

Research objectives:1) To analyse specifics of the healthcare sectorís economic functioning;2) To analyse the Latvian oncology systemís economic framework and evaluate the

Latvian oncology systemís socio-economic condition in the context of Europeanregions;

3) To perform a complex socio-economic evaluation of the Latvian oncology systemin the context of quality of life by using the disability-adjusted life year (DALY)method, results of surveys of experts and the Latvian population and the statisticalanalysis of the sectorís socio-economic indicators;

4) To develop recommendations for the improvement of the oncology system develop-ment to ensure the implementation of an oncologic disease control programme inLatvia.

Research hypothesis: Several socio-economic factors are causing significant damageto individuals and the society in Latvia as a whole as a result of disability-adjusted lifeyears (DALY), thus creating DALY volume and structural differences among theEuropean regions.

The Doctoral Thesis information base and methods used:The legal and institutional framework of the research is based on Latvian laws

and regulations, Latvian healthcare sectorís and oncology systemís planning and internaldocuments, as well as a set of methodological guidelines, instructions and materials,information of the Republic of Latvia Ministry of Health, the Health Inspectorate(including their predecessors ñ the Centre of Health Economics and the Health PaymentCentre) and the Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (which has partially takenover the functions of the reorganised National Health Service) and other documents.The research information base consists of the Public Health Agencyís Latvian healthand healthcare indicators database (DPS), Latvian Cancer Registry data, GloboCan,European health for all (HFA-DB) World health statistics databases, European Schoolof Oncology (ESO), European Cancer Organization (ECCO), International Union


Against Cancer (UICC), World Health Organization, OECD Health Data and Interna-tional Medical Services (IMS) data, as well as studies and reports of internationalhealth organisations such as the European Health Report, The World Health Report,Health at a Glance, Euro Health Consumer Index Report, World Health StatisticsReport.

In order to provide a conceptual analysis of the Latvian oncology system, theThesis uses not only secondary data (previously conducted research data analysis,summary statistical data and document analysis), but also primary data (surveys ofexperts and population), which allowed to form a wider view on the research objectivesand describe the situation as a whole and in-depth by analysing both the administrative,economic and social aspects of the sector.

The following methods were used in the theoretical and methodological parts ofthe paper:1) The monographic method, which allows for the use of existing scientific knowledge

and theories and an objective interpretation of data and information obtainedduring the authorís research;

2) The abstract logical method was used by compiling, systematising, synthesisingand analysing the performance indicators, general condition, development oppor-tunities and challenges of the healthcare sector and the oncology system;

3) The system analysis method, to form a systemic view of the sectorís socio-economicfunctioning characteristics.

Methods used in the development of the practical part:4) The document analysis method was used for the evaluation and interpretation of

regulations and planning documents of the sector and the oncology system;5) Methods of statistical analysis were used for the collection and grouping of infor-

mation, calculation of indicators, determining the relationship between individualcharacteristics, formation of dynamics rows, determination of proportional andpercentage relationships between various indicators of the object, and for theidentification of statistical data and their collection in a standard form, and forthe comparative analysis of this data;

6) The graphical method was used to visualise data used in the paper and to graphi-cally visualise the correlations;

7) The expert survey method was used to clarify the hypothesis and to study andsupplement the interpretation of the socio-economic processes of the oncologysystem;

8) The survey method was used for the acquisition of primary data regarding problemsof the oncology system in the view of the population.

Processing of data and calculations were performed with the help of computerapplications MS Excel and SPSS. The descriptive research method was used to describethe knowledge acquired during the theoretical and empirical research.

The choice of the topic is based on the authorís many years of professionalexperience in the field, as well as the dangers and widespread prevalence of oncologicdiseases in Latvia.


The scientific novelty of the thesis:1) The Thesis is dedicated to a new trend in science ñ healthcare economics, which

has not been studied in-depth in Latvia, emphasising the oncology system as oneof the healthcare sub-sectors.

2) For the first time in the history of Latvian science, the economic basis for theoncology system has been studied based on the internationally recognised disability-adjusted life years (DALY) method.

3) Development solutions for the oncology system were offered based on the currentdata analysis and economic interpretation, as well as the authorís own extensivepractical experience.

Practical application in the national economy:1) The research results have made it possible to assess the situation in the Latvian

oncology system. Recommendations were developed which might contribute tothe development of the system and the understanding of its participants of thecurrent processes, as well as contribute to a successful operation of the nationaloncologic disease control programme in Latvia.

2) The research results and recommendations developed may be used for updatingand improving the oncology systemís strategy, developing recommendations andcreating an analytical basis for taking well-grounded and effective decisions inthe sector. The research findings can be used in further research in the fields ofhealthcare economics, management and policy, as well as in the process of impro-ving medical institutions and the oncology system.

3) The research results can be used to deepen the knowledge of functioning theoreticalapproaches of healthcare economics and the healthcare economic elements in theLatvian healthcare sector, which is important to healthcare specialists, especiallyto managers of different levels.

The structure of the Thesis is built according to the research goals and objectivesdefined by the study logic. The Thesis consists of an introduction, three main chapters,a conclusion, a bibliographic list and annexes. The first chapter of the Thesis analysesthe healthcare sectorís socio-economic functioning regularities and theoretical approachesto its assessment, as well as describes the reasoning for the importance of the healthcomponent in the concept of quality of life. Based on the study of theoretical andempirical sources, the author explains the importance of health as a component ofwell-being and quality of life. This chapter also identifies methods for assessing thehealthcare sectorís socio-economic functioning. The second chapter of the Thesisanalyses the Latvian healthcare sector and oncology systemís performance indicatorsin the context EU countries and highlights the problems and challenges of the Latvianoncology system based on an in-depth statistical analysis of the industry data. In thethird chapter of the Thesis, the development opportunities and prospects of the oncologysystem have been evaluated, and the system challenges have been highlighted by analy-sing expert assessment results included in the survey, results of the population surveyand data analysis performed previously. An in-depth socio-economic assessment ofthe oncology system has been performed based on the DALY method. The conclusionformulates the theoretical and empirical findings and conclusions of the Thesis, high-


lights development prospects of the researched industry and provides practical recom-mendations and suggestions that focus on improving the performance indicators ofthe oncology system contributing to improved quality of life of oncology patients.

Abstracts to be defended:1) Economic research of the healthcare sector today is methodologically based on

the evaluation of the quality of life of patients and the society as a whole.2) Poor healthcare sector and oncology system performance indicators largely depend

on early diagnosis opportunities and the systemís socio-economic operating con-ditions.

3) The loss of DALY resulting from oncologic diseases in Europe and Latvia is signi-ficant; it prevents the full use of the economic potential of labour force and isassociated with a number of general and specific socio-economic factors: lack ofinformation, lack of resources both in households and the healthcare sector as awhole, neglecting oneís health and the lack of motivation in patients.

Main conclusions:1) Health of inhabitants (not less than GDP, investmentsí volume, capacity of army

etc.) is one of the main criteria of a stateís well-being and quality of life. That iswhy healthcare sector is strategic one in Latvian economy. Taking into conside-ration actual demographic tendencies (especially the ageing of population), health-care sector requires more intensive state financial support, sometimes even at theexpense of other sectors of Latvian economy ñ for instance, at military sectoríscost.

2) Healthcare economics offers the methodology of socio-economic assessment ofthe healthcare sector. Healthcare economics is relatively new subunit in the econo-mics, however there are some economists in Latvia who realize economical analysisof the healthcare sector in different contexts, but nobody till now has been studiedthe functioning of the oncology system based on the theories and conceptions ofhealthcare economics, perceiving health and life of oncological patients as economiccategory.

3) Studies of the development of the interdisciplinary concept of quality of life haveproven that the assessment of the healthcare sector and its subsystems must becomprehensive, taking into account not just the results of clinical efficacy, butalso the socio-economic efficiency of healthcare services which can be measuredwith the following methods:

� cost of illness analysis, CA;� cost-effectiveness analysis, CEA;� cost minimization analysis, CMA;� cost-benefit analysis, CBA;� cost-utility analysis, CUA.

4) The healthcare sectorís economic importance has been recognised both in the EUstrategic documents (Europe 2020, the Tallinn Charter) and Latvian planningdocuments (e.g. Public Health Guidelines, Latvian National Development Plan2007ñ2013, National Development Plan 2014ñ2020). However, the poor industryindicators (average life expectancy and healthy life expectancy, healthcare con-


sumer index, quantity of disability-adjusted life years (DALY)) also confirm thequality of life challenges in the field of healthcare, including oncology.

5) By studying the DALY method comprehensively, it was found that this methodcan be used to evaluate the integral burden of disease in separate healthcare sub-systems (including also oncology system) and the sector as a whole, taking intoaccount the burden on the economy created by mortality and the loss of workingability (including disability). The total number of DALY as a result of prematuredeath and illness determines the differences in health condition between oncologypatient population and the ìperfectly healthyî population.

6) The public health indicators in Latvia continue to decline and they are among theworst in the EU. Healthcare is not directed at ensuring the quality of life andpromoting the survival of patients. In the EU, in 2010, the average life expectancyat birth was 80.2 years, in Latvia ñ 73.8 years, which is the second lowest in theEU after Lithuania. The remaining life span of Latvian population after reaching65 years of age is one of the lowest in the EU.

7) The indicator of healthy life expectancy is used to compare the burden of diseaseand its changes over time among various countries. In Latvia, healthy life expec-tancy is 53.5 years, which indicates that there is a relatively large period of lifespent with health issues of different type and degree. Looking at the figures, it canbe concluded that changes in life expectancy in Latvia are increasingly affected bythe health condition and viability of the working-age population.

8) Malignant tumours in Latvia are the second most common cause of death afterheart and circulatory system diseases. In 2012, 3340 people out of 100000 weresick with cancer and an average of 295.7 people died. In 2012, more than 11.5thousand new cases of cancer were registered and there were in total 68138 onco-logy patients in Latvia. About 50% of all the patients were of active working age.Over the last decade, no significant improvements have been achieved to reducethe population mortality rate, including diseases that could be detected early andtreated.

9) A study conducted by Latvian Public Health Agency shows that 98.6 thousandpotential life years were lost in 2012 due to deaths of Latvian residents below 64years of age. Future losses to the state can be measured as 304 million lats. Bycontrast, the losses due to mortality caused by oncology diseases in Latvia were2098 years, of which 918 years were in women, causing losses to the state in theamount of 6.2 and 2.7 million lats respectively.

10) An important healthcare quality and efficiency indicator is its accessibility topeople (both the financial, territorial and specialist accessibility). There is inequalityin the health industry in Latvia due to socio-economic factors, as evidenced bythe different health indicators of various people groups. The EHCI index showsthat the accessibility of services in Latvia is low. The accessibility of general prac-titioners and oncologic therapy waiting times are worse. Meanwhile, one of thereasons for late detection of oncologic diseases is the insufficient accessibility ofhealthcare services.

11) The Latvian healthcare budget in 2012 was 466.4 million lats or approximately9.6% of the total state budget and 3.1% of GDP. Treatment costs of oncology


patients are covered by the state. However, there are many more patients thanthe treatment budget. Another significant challenge for Latvia is that there aremany patients with advanced stages of disease who require cost-intensive treatment.Insufficient and poorly structured funding significantly worsens the situation inthe healthcare sector and this reduces the opportunities for people to use healthcareservices in a quality and accessible way.

12) Latvia is among the countries with the highest patient co-payments in Europe.Additionally, the co-payments are not in proportion to the personís income, whichsignificantly limits the accessibility of healthcare services for low-income peoplegroups (TransformingÖ2004). In 2009ñ2010, Latvia ranked 3rd after Bulgariaand Greece, in terms of the share of private payments in healthcare, which accountedfor 36.1%. This is a critically high figure, especially considering the low incomelevel and poor paying ability of the Latvian population.

13) The authorís analysis shows a direct link between the life expectancy of the popu-lation and healthcare costs. Latvia, along with Lithuania, are in the group of EUcountries where peopleís life expectancy and healthcare costs are at a lower level,while in the majority of EU countries with high income levels both these indicatorsare higher. In Latvia, total expenditure and state healthcare expenditure per personis the third lowest in the European Union.

14) During the year, an average of 14 million cases of oncologic disease was diagnosedin the world. Increase in the number of cancer patients is also due to an increasein the total population of the world, as well as increased life expectancy. Despitethe progress in the field of medical technology and pharmaceuticals, morbidityand mortality due to malignant tumours constitutes a significant public healthproblem, and it is associated with substantial healthcare costs (diagnostics, treat-ment, palliative care, rehabilitation).

15) Each year approximately 275 thousand women develop breast cancer and eachyear 88 thousand women die from breast cancer. In the EU countries, breastcancer is the leading cause of death in women between ages 35 and 59. In 2009,standardised breast cancer mortality rate in the EU-27 countries accounted for anaverage of 23.1 deaths per 100000 people.

16) In Latvia, breast cancer is the most common newly-registered cancer diagnosis inwomen (1097 new cases of disease registered in 2012). In Latvia, the incidence ofbreast cancer is increasing both in absolute numbers and per 100000 residents. In2012, 54.1 people out of 100000 residents were ill with breast cancer, whereas in30.1% cases these were working-age women (15ñ59 years). This is due to the lowquality of care and limited access to diagnostic services. Mortality from breastcancer is also due to the fact that malignant tumours are often diagnosed in thelast stages (stage 3ñ4). A negative aspect in Latvia is the fact that survival rates inpatients with breast cancer have not improved. In relation to malignant tumourswith high morbidity and mortality rates, it has been shown that adequate popula-tion screening may ensure timely diagnosis and significantly reduce mortality.

17) In Europe, 2511091 potential life years are lost due to breast cancer, in Latvia ñ11135, in Lithuania ñ 15778, and in Estonia ñ 6177, which represents approxi-mately 26.5% of the total DALY indicator in Latvia for oncologic diseases. It


was also found that in Latvia and Lithuania, in comparison with other EU coun-tries, greater loss of potential life years was associated with cases of prematuredeath ñ 8679 and 12354 years respectively. Thus, by ensuring timely diagnosisand high-quality, affordable treatment, the mortality rates can be significantlyreduced, thereby improving patient survival, quality of life and reducing the lossof DALY in general.

18) The authorís empirical research data processing and interpretation showed that36.7% respondents noted that they had not received any information on breastcancer. Besides, the majority of respondents had received information from themass media rather than the oncology system or the general practitionersí network.Similarly, the experts pointed out that there is a communication problem betweenthe agents involved in the sector, and one of the most important challenges in theindustry is peopleís own negligence toward their health.

Problems and proposals for their solutions:1st problem: In Latvia, socio-economic consequences of the disease burden are

not assessed comprehensively or taken into account in public policy planning andimplementation.

Proposals for solutions:1) Healthcare researchers should carry out regular system inspections and data col-

lection and analysis in order to obtain comparable information on health and thehealthcare sectors in the EU, ensure the exchange of best practices in the field ofhealthcare on the European level, as well as ensure that this information is distri-buted to the public.

2) The Ministry of Health, the National Health Service, in cooperation with theMinistry of Economy, and/or research institutions should perform timely andregular monitoring of the socio-economic indicators of the healthcare sector andseparate sub-sectors, as well as perform an assessment of the impact on the economyby using the DALY method, based on a uniform internationally comparable metho-dology (for example, DALY), by supplementing, adjusting and updating theexisting Latvian health and healthcare indicators database (DPS) in order to ensurethe collection of comparable data in the context of the EU.

2nd problem: Latvian population is poorly informed about the principles of opera-tion of healthcare and the possibilities of the oncology system, as well as the economiccosts associated with treatment and potential loss of working ability.

Proposals for solutions:1) The Ministry of Health and its subordinate institutions should, through diverse

communication networks, timely and purposefully inform potential patients andthe general public both regarding the possibilities of diagnostics and treatment ofoncologic diseases and their treatment options, and their impact on the quality oflife and preservation of working ability, by promoting the importance of preventivemeasures (for example, information campaign ìyour health, your responsibilityî).This will, in turn, improve the communication between the parties of the sectorand improve the accessibility of information, as well as public awareness abouttheir health as a value and the need to look after it.


2) The Ministry of Health should facilitate a greater involvement of the institute ofgeneral practitioners in solving problems of the oncology system, particularly inthe area of diagnostics and prevention, including by encouraging general practi-tioners to actively inform their patients about the diagnostic options of oncologicdiseases and treatment options, as well as promote awareness of self-examinationtechniques and early signs of disease.

3) The Ministry of Health should develop and implement common guidelines forthe functioning of the oncology system, which should clearly define the actions tobe taken by diagnosing and prescribing palliative care for oncologic patients,indicating the range of responsibilities, functions and actions of all system partici-pants (oncologists, gynaecologists, general practitioners and patients) during theprocess. This will ensure timely diagnostics and treatment of oncologic diseases,as well as information about health hazards and the importance of preventiveexaminations for early diagnostics of malignant tumours, which will lead to reducedlethality and disability rates.

4) Ministries of Health and Welfare, in cooperation with the Ministry of Educationand Science should promote the cooperation between the state, NGOs, doctorsand educational institutions, in order to raise public awareness of health as avalue and ensure education of the public, including ensuring mandatory integrationof the issues of cancer prevention and early diagnostics possibilities in trainingcourses of all educational levels (e.g. within the health education subject), by alsoincluding the information on modern cancer diagnostic and treatment methods,so that from an early age people would be better informed and involved in thepreservation and promotion of their health (including engaging in physical activityand consuming a healthy diet). Provide diverse information about the benefits ofinvolvement in screening programmes and the necessity of early diagnosis oftumours by establishing comprehensive informative and educational measuresand at the same time developing accessibility of the necessary diagnostic services.

3rd problem: The performance indicators of the Latvian healthcare sector andoncology system among the EU countries are relatively low, oncologic diseases (parti-cularly breast cancer) are detected in advanced stages (stage 3ñ4), resulting in signifi-cantly greater loss of DALY for individuals and society as a whole.

Proposals for solutions:1) The Ministry of Health should optimise the healthcare sector and palliative care

options in particular by ensuring the accessibility of specialists and extending thefunctions of general practitioners in order to improve the accessibility of carecomponents for oncologic patients, including the opportunity to perform diagnosticprocedures, chemotherapy and dynamic observation closer to the patientís placeof residence, at local multi-profile hospitals and day clinics, thereby reducing theloss of DALY at the expense of YLD (years of life lived with a partial or completeloss of working ability).

2) The Ministry of Health should improve the accessibility of the oncology systemand facilitate a faster commencement of treatment by making it possible to detectcancer in the early stages while visiting a general practitioner or undergoing mam-


mographic examination in a timely manner, including the involvement of theinstitute of family practitioners, creating an oncology system of comprehensiveprevention, diagnostics and treatment based on common guidelines which areexpected to reduce the share of disease detected in advanced stages and reducethe mortality rate from oncologic disease, thereby improving DALY and averagelife expectancy figures, as well as individual components of the ECHI index. Reviewand improve the preventive health screening programmes to ensure that they areimplemented according to available funding and the needs of the population.

3) Find possibilities to increase funding for reimbursable medicines for oncologicpatients with the aim of ensuring a wider use of innovative medicines in the treat-ment of oncologic disease, thereby providing better quality treatment, and increasingpatient survival rates and quality of life.

4) The Ministry of Health should improve the oncology systemís funding mechanismsby increasing public aid to the sector and changing priorities of resource distributionin favour of supporting preventive and diagnostic measures, as advanced stagesof disease require cost-intensive treatment. Also, improve the affordability ofhealthcare and oncology system services by gradually reducing the share of privateco-payments in the sector and developing alternative sources of financing: byexpanding public funding and involving insurance funds.

(1) According to methodology of regional economics, countries can be defined as regions(BoroÚenko 2009)

120

AUTORI

Ren‚te C‚ne Dr.sc.soc., Biznesa augstskolas TurÓba Komunik‚cijas fakult‚tesKomunik‚cijas zin‚tÚu katedras docente, [email protected]

Jekaterina GaÔeova Mg.oec., Polockas Valsts universit‚tes doktorante, [email protected]

Svetlana Ignatjeva Dr.phys., docente, Daugavpils Universit‚tes Dabaszin‚tÚu unmatem‚tikas fakult‚tes Inform‚tikas katedras vadÓt‚ja, [email protected]

Jaroslavs Miodu˛evskis PhD Ekonomik‚, Varminsko Mazurskas Universit‚tes OÔtin‚Ekonomisko zin‚tÚu fakult‚tes docents, [email protected]

Margarita “esterova Dr.psych., Daugavpils Universit‚tes Humanit‚ro un soci‚lo zin‚tÚuinstit˚ta pÁtniece, [email protected]

Aleksejs Ru˛a Dr.psych., asociÁtais profesors, Daugavpils Universit‚tes Soci‚lozin‚tÚu fakult‚tes Soci‚l‚s psiholoÏijas katedras vadÓt‚js, [email protected]

GaÔina Sokolova Dr.sc.soc., profesore, Baltkrievijas Nacion‚las zin‚tÚu akadÁmijasSocioloÏijas instit˚ta Ekonomisk‚s socioloÏijas un soci‚l‚sdemogr‚fijas nodaÔas vadÓt‚ja, [email protected]

Kaspars –teinbergs Mg.sc.envir., Ventspils augstskolas doktorants, Alberta koled˛aslektors, [email protected]

JeÔena VankeviËa Dr.oec., profesore, Vitebskas Valsts tehnoloÏisk‚s universit‚tesZin‚tnisk‚ darba prorektore, [email protected]

121

AUTHORS

Renate Cane Dr.sc.soc., Assistant Professor of the Communication SciencesDepartment of the Communication Faculty at the TuribaUniversity, [email protected]

Katsiaryna Haliashova MA in Economics, Postgraduate Student of the Polotsk StateUniversity, [email protected]

Svetlana Ignatjeva Dr.phys., assistant professor, Head of the Department of Infor-matics of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics ofthe Daugavpils University, [email protected]

Jaroslaw Mioduszewski PhD in Economics, Assistant Professor of the Faculty of EconomicSciences of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,[email protected]

Margarita Nesterova Dr.psych., researcher of the Institute of Humanities and SocialSciences of the Daugavpils University, [email protected]

Alexey Ruza Dr.psych., associate professor, Head of the Department of SocialPsychology of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the DaugavpilsUniversity, [email protected]

Galina Sokolova Dr.sc.soc, professor, Head of the Department of EconomicSociology and Social Demography of the Institute of Sociologyof the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, [email protected]

Kaspars Steinbergs Mg.sc.envir., PhD Candidate of the Ventspils University College,lecturer of the Alberta College, [email protected]

Yelena Vankevich Dr.oec., professor, Vice-Rector for Research Work of the VitebskState Technological University, [email protected]

122

АВТОРЫ

Елена Ванкевич Доктор экономических наук, профессор, проректор по наукеУчреждения образования «Витебский государственный тех-нологический университет», Республика Беларусь[email protected]

Екатерина Галешова Магистр экономических наук, аспирант Учреждения образо-вания «Полоцкий государственный университет», РеспубликаБеларусь[email protected]

Светлана Игнатьева Доктор физики, доцент, заведующая Кафедрой информатикиФакультета естественных наук и математики ДаугавпилсскогоУниверситета, Латвия[email protected]

Ярослав Миодужевский Доктор экономических наук, доцент Факультета экономичес-ких наук Варминско-Мазурского университета в Ольштине,Польша[email protected]

Маргарита Нестерова Доктор психологии, исследователь Института гуманитарныхи социальных наук Даугавпилсского Университета, Латвия[email protected]

Алексей Ружа Доктор психологии, ассоциированный профессор, заведую-щий Кафедрой социальной психологии Факультета соци-альных наук Даугавпилсского Университета, Латвия[email protected]

Галина Соколова Доктор социологических наук, профессор, руководитель От-дела экономической социологии и социальной демографииИнститута социологии Белорусской Национальной академиинаук, Республика Беларусь[email protected]

Ренате Цане Доктор социальных наук, доцент Кафедры коммуникацион-ных наук Факультета коммуникации Высшей школы бизнеса«Туриба», Латвия[email protected]

Каспарс Штейнбергс Магистр естественных наук, докторант Вентспилсской выс-шей школы, лектор Колледжа Альберта, Латвия[email protected]

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AUTORU IEV«RŒBAI

fiurn‚l‚ ìSoci‚lo Zin‚tÚu VÁstnesisî tiek publicÁti oriÏin‚li zin‚tniskie raksti soci‚laj‚szin‚tnÁs (socioloÏij‚, politikas zin‚tnÁ, ekonomik‚, soci‚laj‚ psiholoÏij‚, tiesÓbu zin‚tnÁ), k‚arÓ zin‚tnisko pÁtÓjumu recenzijas, konferenËu apskati, inform‚cija par zin‚tnisko dzÓvi.Redakcija rakstus pieÚem angÔu, latvieu un krievu valod‚. Rakstu problem‚tika nav ierobe˛ota.

Redakcij‚ iesniegtie raksti tiek recenzÁti. Atsauksmi par katru rakstu sniedz divi recenzenti,k‚ arÓ ̨ urn‚la redaktors. Redakcija ievÁro autoru un recenzentu savstarpÁjo anonimit‚ti. Rakstuautoriem ir tiesÓbas iepazÓties ar recenzij‚m un kritisk‚m piezÓmÁm un, nepiecieamÓbas gadÓjum‚,koriÏÁt savus pÁtÓjumus, veikt tajos labojumus un grozÓjumus, par termiÚu vienojoties arredaktoru. Redakcijai ir tiesÓbas veikt nepiecieamos stilistiskos labojumus, k‚ arÓ precizÁtraksta zin‚tnisk‚ apar‚ta noformÁjumu. Redakcijas izdarÓtie labojumi tiek saskaÚoti ar autoru.

Raksti tiek vÁrtÁti saskaÚ‚ ar pieÚemtajiem zin‚tniskuma kritÁrijiem: pÁtÓjuma atbilstÓbam˚sdienu teorÁtiskajam lÓmenim izvÁlÁt‚s problÁmas izpÁtÁ; pietiekama empÓrisk‚ b‚ze,empÓrisk‚ materi‚la oriÏinalit‚te; hipotÁ˛u, atziÚu un rekomend‚ciju oriÏinalit‚te un novit‚te;pÁt‚m‚s tÁmas aktualit‚te. Tiek vÁrtÁta arÓ izkl‚sta loÏika un saprotamÓba. Atlasot rakstuspublicÁanai, priekroka tiek dota fundament‚las ievirzes pÁtÓjumiem.

Redakcija honor‚rus nemaks‚, manuskriptus un disketes (vai CD) atpakaÔ neizsniedz.

Raksta noformÁana

Raksti, kuru noformÁana neatbilst prasÓb‚m, netiks pieÚemti publicÁanai.

Raksta apjoms: 0,75 ñ 1,5 autorloksnes (30000ñ60000 zÓmju, atstarpes ieskaitot).Raksta manuskripts iesniedzams pa elektronisko pastu. Teksts j‚saliek, izmantojot Times

New Roman riftu (WinWord 2000/XP); burtu lielums ñ 12 punkti, interv‚ls starp rind‚m ñ1. Teksta att‚lums no kreis‚s malas ñ 3,5 cm, no lab‚s malas ñ 2,5 cm, no apakas un noaugas ñ 2,5 cm. Ja tiek izmantotas speci‚l‚s datorprogrammas, tad t‚s iesniedzamas kop‚ arrakstu.

Raksta kopsavilkums: 2000ñ2500 zÓmju. Rakstiem latvieu valod‚ kopsavilkums j‚sa-gatavo angÔu un krievu valod‚; rakstiem angÔu valod‚ j‚pievieno kopsavilkums latvieu unkrievu valod‚; rakstiem krievu valod‚ j‚pievieno kopsavilkums latvieu un angÔu valod‚.

Raksta valoda: zin‚tniska, terminoloÏiski precÓza. Ja autors gatavo rakstu svevalod‚,tad viÚam paam j‚r˚pÁjas par raksta teksta valodniecisko rediÏÁanu, konsultÁjoties arattiecÓg‚s soci‚lo zin‚tÚu nozares speci‚listu ñ valodas nesÁju. Raksti, kuru valoda neatbilstpareizrakstÓbas likumiem, netiks izskatÓti un recenzÁti.

Raksta zin‚tniskais apar‚ts. Atsauces ievietojamas tekst‚ pÁc ‚da parauga: (Turner 1990);(Mills, Bela 1997). PiezÓmes un skaidrojumi ievietojami raksta beig‚s. Tabulas, grafiki, shÁmasun diagrammas noformÁjami, nor‚dot materi‚la avotu, nepiecieamÓbas gadÓjum‚ arÓ atzÓmÁjottabulu, grafiku, shÁmu izveides (aprÁÌin‚anas, datu summÁanas utt.) metodiku. Visiem t‚daveida materi‚liem j‚nor‚da k‚rtas numurs un virsraksts.

References j‚veido un j‚noformÁ ‚di:

Monogr‚fijas (gr‚matas un bro˚ras):Mills Ch. R. (1998) Sociologicheskoje voobrazhenie. Moskva: Strategiya. (In Russian)Turner J. H. (1974) The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood (Illinois): The DorseyPress.

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Raksti kr‚jumos:Turner R. H. (1990) A Comparative Content Analysis of Biographies. Øyen, E. (ed.)Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research. London,etc.: Sage Publications, pp. 134ñ150.

Raksti ˛urn‚los:Bela B. (1997) Identitates daudzbalsiba Zviedrijas latviesu dzivesstastos. Latvijas ZinatnuAkademijas Vestis, A, 51, Nr. 5/6, 112.ñ129. lpp. (In Latvian)Shmitt K. (1992) Ponyatie politicheskogo. Voprosi sociologii, № 1, str. 37ñ67. (In Russian)

Raksti laikrakstos:Strazdins I. (1999) Matematiki pasaule un Latvija. Zinatnes Vestnesis, 8. marts. (In Latvian)

Materi‚li no interneta:Soms H. Vestures informatika: Saturs, struktura un datu baze Latgales dati. (In Latvian)Pieejams: http://www.dpu.lv/LD/LDpublik.html (skat. 20.10.2002).

References sak‚rtojamas autoru uzv‚rdu vai nosaukumu (ja autors ir instit˚cija) latÓÚualfabÁta secÓb‚.

125

NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

ìSocial Sciences Bulletinî publishes original research papers on the problems of socialsciences (sociology, political sciences, economics, social psychology, law), as well as reviewarticles, information on conferences and scientific life. The Editorial Board accepts articles inEnglish, Latvian, and Russian. The scope of problems of articles is not limited.

The articles submitted to the Editorial Board are reviewed by two reviewers and the editor.The Editorial Board observes mutual anonymity of the authors and the reviewers. The authorshave a right to get acquainted with the reviews and the critical remarks (comments) and, if itis necessary, they may make some changes, coming to an agreement about the terms with theeditor. The Editorial Board has a right to make necessary stylistic corrections, change thelayout of the scientific paper to come to the uniformity of the layout. The corrections made bythe Editorial Board will be agreed with the author.

The articles are evaluated according to the adopted scientific criteria: correspondence ofthe research to the present-day theoretical level in the domain of the chosen problem; sufficientempirical basis; originality of empirical material; originality of hypotheses, conclusions, andrecommendations; topicality of the subject investigated. The logics and clearness of theexposition is evaluated as well. Preference is given to fundamental studies.

The Editorial Board does not pay royalties; manuscripts and diskettes (or CDs) are notgiven back.

Layout of Manuscripts

Articles, which do not have an appropriate layout, will not be accepted.

Volume of article: 30,000 ñ 60,000 characters with spaces.Manuscript should be submitted by e-mail. Text should be composed using Times New

Roman font (WinWord 2000/XP); font size ñ 12, line spacing ñ 1. Text should be aligned3.5 cm ñ from the left side, 2.5 ñ from the right side, 2.5 cm ñ from the top and the bottom. Ifspecial computer programmes are used, then they should be submitted together with the article.

Summary: 2,000ñ2,500 characters. Articles in Latvian should contain a summary in Englishand Russian; articles in English should be provided with a summary in Latvian and Russian;articles in Russian should contain a summary in Latvian and English.

Language of article: scientific, terminologically precise. If author prepares an article in aforeign language, then he/she should take trouble about the linguistic correction of the writtentext consulting a specialist of the corresponding branch of social sciences ñ native speaker.Articles, which have a wrong spelling, will not be accepted and reviewed.

Layout of article. References should be placed in a text according to the example: (Turner1990); (Mills, Bela 1997). Explanations and comments should be given in the endnotes. Tables,charts, schemes, diagrams, etc. should have indication of the source of the material and, ifnecessary, then the method of making the table, the chart, the scheme (calculations, datagathering, etc.) should be marked. These materials should have ordinal numbers and titles.

References should be compiled according to the given samples:

Monographs (books, brochures):Mills Ch. R. (1998) Sociologicheskoje voobrazhenie. Moskva: Strategiya. (In Russian)Turner J. H. (1974) The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood (Illinois): The DorseyPress.

126

Articles in collections:Turner R. H. (1990) A Comparative Content Analysis of Biographies. Øyen, E. (ed.)Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research. London,etc.: Sage Publications, pp. 134ñ150.

Articles in magazines:Bela B. (1997) Identitates daudzbalsiba Zviedrijas latviesu dzivesstastos. Latvijas ZinatnuAkademijas Vestis, A, 51, Nr. 5/6, 112.ñ129. lpp. (In Latvian)Shmitt K. (1992) Ponyatie politicheskogo. Voprosi sociologii, № 1, str. 37ñ67. (In Russian)

Articles in newspapers:Strazdins I. (1999) Matematiki pasaule un Latvija. Zinatnes Vestnesis, 8. marts. (In Latvian)

Materials from the Internet:Soms H. Vestures informatika: Saturs, struktura un datu baze Latgales dati. (In Latvian)Available: http://www.dpu.lv/LD/LDpublik.html (accessed 20.10.2002).

References should be compiled in the Roman alphabetís order according to the authorsínames or titles (if the institution is the author).

127

ВНИМАНИЮ АВТОРОВ

В журнале «Вестник социальных наук» публикуются оригинальные научные статьипо проблемам социальных наук (социологии, политических наук, экономики, социаль-ной психологии, юриспруденции), а также рецензии на научные исследования, обзорыконференций, информация о научной жизни. Редакция принимает статьи на английс-ком, латышском и русском языке. Проблематика статей не ограничивается.

Статьи, представленные в редакцию журнала, рецензируются. Отзыв о каждой статьедают два рецензента, а также редактор журнала. Редакция соблюдает принцип аноним-ности авторов и рецензентов. Авторы статей имеют право ознакомиться с рецензиями икритическими замечаниями и, в случае необходимости, внести исправления и измененияв свои исследования, причем срок внесения корректировок должен согласовываться с ре-дактором. Редакция сохраняет за собой право внести в статью необходимые стилистическиеисправления, а также изменения в оформление научного аппарата с целью достиженияего единообразия. Исправления, произведенные редакцией, согласуются с автором.

Статьи оцениваются в соответствии с критериями научности: соответствие современ-ному теоретическому уровню в изучении выбранной проблемы; достаточная эмпиричес-кая база; оригинальность эмпирического материала; новизна и оригинальность гипотез,положений, рекомендаций; актуальность темы исследования. Оценивается также самалогика и ясность изложения. При отборе статей для публикации преимущество даетсяисследованиям фундаментального характера.

Редакция гонорары не выплачивает, рукописи и дискеты (или СD) не возвращает.

Оформление рукописи статьи

Статьи, оформление которых не будет соответствовать данным требованиям, к пуб-ликации не принимаются.

Объем статьи: 0,75 – 1,5 авторских листа (30000 – 60000 знаков, включая пробелы).Рукопись статьи должна быть представлена по электронной почте. Текст набирается

шрифтом Times New Roman (Win Word 2000/XP); размер букв – 12, межстрочный интервал –1. Поля слева – 3,5 см, справа – 2,5 см, сверху и снизу – 2,5 см. Если в наборе статьи исполь-зовались специальные компьютерные программы, то они должны быть представлены вредакцию.

Резюме: 2000–2500 знаков. Статьи на латышском языке сопровождаются резюме наанглийском и русском языке; статьи на английском языке – резюме на латышском и рус-ском языке; статьи на русском языке – резюме на латышском и английском языке.

Язык статьи: научный, терминологически точный. Если автор готовит статью на ино-странном (неродном) языке, то он должен сам позаботиться о лингвистическом редакти-ровании статьи; желательна консультация носителя языка, являющегося специалистомсоответствующей отрасли социальных наук. Статьи, язык которых не соответствует пра-

вилам правописания, не будут рассматриваться и рецензироваться.

Научный аппарат статьи. Ссылки даются в тексте по следующему образцу: (Turner 1990);(Mills, Bela 1997). Примечания и пояснения располагаются после основного текста. Воформлении таблиц, графиков, схем, диаграмм должны указываться ссылки на источникматериала, при необходимости также должна указываться методика разработки (расчетаданных, выведения сводных показателей и т.д.) таблиц, графиков, схем. Все подобныематериалы должны иметь заголовки и порядковые номера.

Библиография должна быть составлена и оформлена точно, в соответствии с предла-гаемыми ниже образцами:

Монографии (книги и брошюры):Mills Ch. R. (1998) Sociologicheskoje voobrazhenie. Moskva: Strategiya. (In Russian)Turner J. H. (1974) The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood (Illinois): The DorseyPress.

Статьи в сборниках:Turner R. H. (1990) A Comparative Content Analysis of Biographies. Øyen, E. (ed.)Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research. London,etc.: Sage Publications, pp. 134ñ150.

Статьи в журналах:Bela B. (1997) Identitates daudzbalsiba Zviedrijas latviesu dzivesstastos. Latvijas ZinatnuAkademijas Vestis, A, 51, Nr. 5/6, 112.ñ129. lpp. (In Latvian)Shmitt K. (1992) Ponyatie politicheskogo. Voprosi sociologii, № 1, str. 37ñ67. (In Russian)

Статьи в газетах:Strazdins I. (1999) Matematiki pasaule un Latvija. Zinatnes Vestnesis, 8. marts. (In Latvian)

Материалы в Интернете:Soms H. Vestures informatika: Saturs, struktura un datu baze Latgales dati. (In Latvian)Dostupno: http://www.dpu.lv/LD/LDpublik.html (sm. 20.10.2002).

Библиография составляется в алфавитном порядке фамилий или названий (еслиавтором является институция) авторов в соответствии с латинским алфавитом.

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