society of afghan engineers journal · 04/04/2015 · society of afghan engineers journal...

Society of Afghan Engineers Journal

Management Practices for Afghan Professionals

Volume 4, Number 1

January 2007

Copyright Information © SAE (2007) Published by: Society of Afghan Engineers (SAE) Copyright © SAE All rights reserved. Material can be reproduced with proper referencing and credit to the author and SAE organization. Otherwise, without proper credit and referencing, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any other information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author or publisher. Caveat: The views presented are the sole views of its original authors. As such, the views presented in the proceeding papers are not necessarily those of SAE organization or its designated personnel. As such, SAE is not responsible for defending the views or suggestions made by the authors. © SAE, Print Date: 3/8/2007 Publication Date: 01/01/2007

Editorial Information Managing Editor:

Dr. Bahaudin G. Mujtaba, Associate Professor of Management Nova Southeastern University 3301 College Avenue Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33314. USA. Phone: (954) 262-5045 Email: [email protected]

Editorial Review Board:

• M. Quasem Kadir, Dean of Information Technology, Professor at Keller Graduate School of Management of DeVry University.

• Abdul Rakin, Professional Engineer, George Mason University. • Mohammad Yasin Khosti, Ohio State University. • Zabi Mojaddidy, Project Manager - Dept. of Building & Development Engineering Division, Kabul

University. • Ghulam Mujtaba, Professional Engineer, Department of Transportation, Florida State.

SAE Address:

P.O. Box 11520, Burke, Virginia 22009-1520. Phone: (909) -868-4212, Fax: (909) 868-4228. Email:[email protected] SAE Website: www.afghan-engineers.org; Conference Chair: Dr. Bahaudin Mujtaba: [email protected]

* Note. Version 1 (Ver. 01).

Acknowledgment of Contributions The old proverb states: “Sow a thought, and you reap an act; Sow an act, and you reap a habit; Sow a habit, and you reap a character; Sow a character, and you reap a destiny.” Many of the Afghan volunteers, elders and leaders have sown the seeds of wisdom and thus created powerful destinies for themselves and other Afghans through their involvement in paving the way toward a better Afghanistan. Thus, we would like to take a few minutes and dedicate this page to their contributions. The following are various individuals and volunteers who make up the SAE Journal Peer Reviewers Committee and special thanks go them all:

• Dr. Zabi Eltezam • Dr. Yar M. Ebadi • Dr. Nilofar Jamasi • Mr. Mark Quasem Kadir • Mr. Mohammad Yasin Khosti • Mrs. Belqis Majboor • Dr. Zabihullah Mojaddidy • Mr. Ghulam Mujtaba • Dr. Mustafa Mujtaba • Mr. Jacob Munir • Mr. Tamim Noorzay • Mr. Ghulam Qadir • Mr. Abdul Hadi Rakin • Dr. Fauzia Solaiman

Imam Ali said that you must “persist in your action with a noble end in mind...Failure to perfect your work while you are sure of the reward is injustice to yourself.” A reporter once stated that “It was long ago in my life as a reporter that I decided that facts must never get in the way of truth” (James Cameron, 1911-1985). All the SAE volunteers have made contributions with a noble end in mind…to improve Afghanistan. Christopher Morley had stated that “there are three ingredients in the good life: learning, earning, and yearning.” The volunteers have done, and are doing, all three as they yearn for a peaceful and developed Afghanistan.

Hopefully, we have accurately captured the names of all individuals that have contributed…we all know that it takes a village to raise a child. As such, it has required the contributions of many individuals besides this core team, mentioned above, to make such opportunities and material available to everyone. SAE would like to extend it gratitude and appreciation to all individuals and organizations that have sponsored its conferences, made themselves available to speak at the conference, and those who have assisted toward the existence and continuation of these non-profit organizations with their love, membership and generous contributions. Thank you!

“Only one life the soon will pass – Only what is done with love will last”

A Message from the Editor

We hope that you are intrigued by the ideas presented in this edition of the SAE Journal through the written work of many dedicated scholars. We are pleased to see such contributions and look forward to many more value-added articles in the prospective editions from Afghan and non-Afghan professionals and academicians throughout the world. The articles presented in this document attempt to shed light on some prospective opportunities related to Management, Education, Training, Construction, Ethics, and Infrastructure Development. Many of the authors are basically scratching the surface as they provide conceptual and some practical recommendations in the form of what can be done to progressively move in the right direction toward a brighter Afghanistan. Overall, scholars have offered ideas on business, higher education, private sector development, as well as many other topics, as can be seen from the table of content, in order to assist in the idea generation for rebuilding and progressive growth of Afghanistan.

The proceeding “blind peer reviewed” papers in this “refereed” journal explore some of

the foundational literature regarding management education in Afghanistan, as well as the relevant concepts and capacity building skills needed for jointly developing the Afghan economy. It is our hope that you too think of Afghanistan and document your ideas, research the best practices that will help the Afghan workforce become better, and submit your scholarly work for inclusion in the future publications of SAE Journal. Thank you for reading the articles of your interest, and we look forward to receiving your contributions in the rebuilding process while remaining hopeful for a more peaceful, economically prosperous and brighter Afghanistan!

Sincerely, Bahaudin.

Table of Contents Afghans helping Afghans: Afghan-Run Non-Governmental Organizations.........................................................1

Sharon D. Jumper, Esq., Walden University .............................................................................................................1 The Values of Afghan Professionals: Are they Similar to or Different from Other Cultures?.............................7

Bahaudin G. Mujtaba, Nova Southeastern University...............................................................................................7 Edward F. Murphy, Jr., Embry Riddle Aeronautical University ...............................................................................7

Science and Technology Policy for Afghanistan .....................................................................................................24 Saif R. Samady, Chairman - Independent High Commission of Education .............................................................24

Mushrooms as an Alternative Cash Crop in the Afghan Economy: .....................................................................33 Management in the View of Sustainable Agriculture.............................................................................................33

M.Nadir Sidiqi New Mexico State University; Afghanistan Sustainable Agriculture Education Organization

(ASAEO) ..................................................................................................................................................................33 Utilization of Precast Concrete Products in the Construction Of Roadways and Bridges..................................41

Ghulam Mujtaba, Florida Department of Transportation.......................................................................................41 Design Build Approach for Utility Relocation and Accommodation in Highway Widening Projects ...............46

Jeff Martin, Florida Department of Environmental Protection...............................................................................46 Fazil T. Najafi, University of Florida ......................................................................................................................46

Organizational Knowledge Management Research and Practices for Developing Economies ..........................58 Claudette Chin-Loy, Bahaudin G. Mujtaba and Barbara Dastoor, Nova Southeastern University ........................58

Project Management for Afghan Professionals ......................................................................................................76 Assadullah Oriakhel, Kabul University ...................................................................................................................76

SAE Journal Paper Submission Guidelines ............................................................................................................86 SAE Journal Objectives ............................................................................................................................................88 Society of Afghan Engineers .....................................................................................................................................88

SAE Journal, Vol. 4, Num 1 January, 2007

Afghans helping Afghans: Afghan-Run Non-Governmental Organizations

Sharon D. Jumper, Esq., Walden University

Afghanistan and its people are emerging from the darkness cast by over two decades of war. Like many nations who have suffered the plight of civil wars, Afghanistan requires international support and financial assistance in order to maintain stability and establish a solid foundation for development (Monshipouri, 2003, p. 138). While International Security Assistance Forces (ISAF) and NATO military members serving on Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRT) are valuable, they are not the panacea to Afghanistan’s development problems (Jalali, 2006, p. 3). Distrust of international forces and foreign government initiatives in Afghanistan has been rising in recent months.

The government of Afghanistan has little revenue aside from World Bank loans and handouts it is given by the United Nations and foreign government coalitions. Security is a multi-dimensional issue; there are social, economic, and human rights aspects that must be addressed in addition to the physical and governmental aspects of security (Jalali, 2006, p. 4). There are many international humanitarian relief organizations in Afghanistan whose aid workers toil tirelessly to improve the lives of millions of Afghans; much has been written about these agencies. As frustrations have increased among the Afghan populace, international relief workers have been threatened, and their successes have been more limited in scope and frequency (Donini, Minear, and Walker, 2004, p. 191).

There are also many Afghan non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that have been formed to alleviate the nation’s many problems by starting at the grassroots level. Little has been written about these Afghans helping Afghans and the successes that they have had in the past five years. Research has shown that community directed development programs generally have greater rates of success and lower security risks, due to increased trust and “buy-in” by the population to be served by the programs (Donini, Minear, and Walker, 2004, p. 195). This paper will discuss a few of these Afghan NGOs, their missions, and the future role that they can play in the development of Afghanistan and the prosperity of its people.

Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU) In 1996, a group of Afghans formed Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU), a non-

governmental non-profit organization whose primary objectives were to facilitate peace and sustainable development by promoting social justice, protesting violence, encouraging governmental reforms, and providing access to health care and education for all Afghans (CPAU, 2006). CPAU currently has projects in Kabul, Badakhshan, Wardak and Ghazni provinces. These projects seek to reach a diverse mix of Afghans; CPAU notes that the projects currently serve “Hazara Shiite Muslims in Jaghuri, Ghazni province; Pashtun Sunis in Saidabad, Wardak province; a mix of Uzbaks and Tajiks in Faizabad, Badakhshan province; and a mix of Pashtuns and Tajiks in Farza, Kabul province” (CPAU, 2006).

CPAU works with the consultative councils (shuras and jirgas) in each community by providing training in conflict resolution, humanitarian assistance, and development. Additional CPAU resources are committed to the vocational training for former Afghan combatants and the


2

reintegration of Afghan refugees back into their home communities. The key to CPAU’s success has been its focus on the resolution of differences between Afghans at the local level, rather than waiting for reconciliation between larger groups at the regional or national level to occur (Monshipouri, 2003, p. 139).

PARWAZ

PARWAZ is a microfinance agency that funds women's businesses. The name of the agency is derived from the Dari word that means “to fly.” PARWAZ was established in Kabul in 2002. It was the first women-led microfinance institution in Afghanistan (PARWAZ, 2006).

This NGO is funded by private contributions and trusts. PARWAZ is a grassroots effort whose goal is to help women form businesses. PARWAZ forms "collectives" of 12 women, typically within a community or extended family, and has them each design a business plan based on their skills and talents. Often, the businesses contained within a collective are co-dependent, i.e. weavers, tailors, wholesalers, and retailers bond together to make and market clothing. Business managers, accountants, and industry experts volunteer to mentor PARWAZ clients as they begin these ventures.

PARWAZ has helped thousands of women begin businesses since 2001, and has had 100% repayment rate on their loans. The loan money is paid out incrementally, and PARWAZ supervisors maintain contact with business owners to provide advice to grow the businesses. The typical loan is for $250-300; this relatively modest sum is sufficient seed money to begin a collective’s activities. The NGO explains why their success rate has been higher than that of many international organizations that have tried to provide assistance to Afghans, noting:

PARWAZ is managed by an Afghan staff, which enables it to understand the cultural values of the people and foresee potential problems and to take preventative measures when designing the methodology and selecting target groups for its program. This affords it social acceptability and access to superior local information. As a result, the methodology of delivery of micro-credit is designed with first hand knowledge of Afghan cultural boundaries and nuances combined with Microfinance best practices. Even if the central government is not completely successful in establishing influence throughout the country, PARWAZ, as an Afghan-run grass roots organization will be able to work with local power structures where other organizations may not have such access. In contrast, international NGO's that are dependant upon foreign personnel might consider removing employees if security problems arise. No such pressure exists for PARWAZ. PARWAZ can thus easily launch and maintain its microfinance program in various provinces from a position of credibility and ties with the local community elders (PARWAZ, 2006). The program not only provides a source of income and investment for the women and

their families, but it also empowers the women to become independent and self-sustaining; it also sets a great example for their children. In its statement of goals and objectives, PARWAZ has identified the following strengths to their program’s approach to assisting Afghan women:

First, the income from the loan allows women to work independently at home while taking care of household chores and children. Second, clients have the freedom of not having to ask relatives for loans and not being indebted to money lenders who charge high amount of interest. Third and perhaps the most important, a client can provide for


3

her children's educational needs-in particular because she can bring an income to the household the children can attend school instead of begging in the streets of the city for money (PARWAZ, 2006).

The program reduces the vulnerability of women and their families to poverty, while promoting the aims of social justice and self-sufficiency. Aschiana Aschiana is a NGO program that has been helping the "street children" of Kabul and their families since 1995. The word “Aschiana” means “nest.” Aschiana currently operates six centers in Kabul, servicing close to 3000 children; it also operates an outreach program for nearly 1000 internally displaced children at camps in the Kabul area (Aschiana, 2006).

Throughout Afghanistan, but particularly in Kabul, many children are unable to attend school because they need to produce income to help support their families. Many children do so by begging, polishing shoes, collecting trash and recyclable materials, burning incense, or selling gum and small crafts. On average, these children will only earn about $20 US per month for their efforts on the streets, and have neither the time nor the resources to attend school in addition to their work. The Director of Aschiana, Engineer Yousef, tells the story of how he first conceived the idea of this NGO:

10 years ago, I was walking home from work and a child of about 11 asked if I needed my shoes polished. I asked him why he was not at school. There was a long pause, the child looked up at me with much anger in his face and replied, 'How can I go to school when I have the responsibility of bringing money home to my family. We do not have enough to feed ourselves, how do you think I could pay for school books or clean clothes?' It was after that meeting that I realized that there were many children in the same situation as that boy and so Aschiana evolved. A place where children, many children like that boy could seek refuge from the streets, be educated, play, and receive health care and psychosocial support (Aschiana, 2006). Aschiana provides schooling and vocational training, as well as pens, paper, textbooks,

soap, toothpaste, and clothing for the children at its centers, with every child receiving a basic meal at lunch. Life skills training is incorporated into the curriculum, encompassing such subjects as Physical Education, Health, Land Mine Awareness, Traffic Training, Peace Education, Personal Development, and Design and Technology. Vocational training areas include Painting, Sculpture, Tailoring, Bicycle Repair, Hairdressing and Beauty Therapy, Carpentry, Electrical Repair, Masonry, Welding, Information Technology, Cooking, Traditional Instrument Making and Plumbing. Proceeds from the student’s artwork or services are split equally between the program and the student, so that the student may still provide financial support to their family while obtaining a formal education and learning valuable life and vocational skills; the monies earned by Aschiana students far exceeds that which they would have earned on the streets.

Aschiana also offers opportunities for sponsorship of children by individuals inside and outside of Afghanistan. For $20 per month, one can sponsor a child’s education at Aschiana and receive reports on the child’s progress and well-being.


4

Afghans 4 Tomorrow The NGO Afghans 4 Tomorrow (A4T) was originally founded in 1999 in the US by

Afghans and their descendants. It is a non-partisan, non-political organization dedicated to improving the lives of the people in Afghanistan through education, development, and investment in Afghanistan, as well as increased global awareness of the need for financial and personal contributions to the war-ravaged nation. In recent years, A4T has hired Afghan staff members to supervise projects, build schools and clinics, teach, and host tour groups from abroad in Afghanistan.

A4T is focusing its current projects on three primary areas: education, health, and agriculture. It has established several schools for girls in Kabul and Wardak provinces. Under the Taliban, girls were not permitted to attend school. As a result, only 14% of the women in Afghanistan are literate (UN, 2006). The A4T schools provide an accelerated program in which girls complete 2 years of school work in 1 year.

A4T has also built health clinics and wells; provided cash and material support for several Afghan orphanages; collected book and other equipment donations for universities in Afghanistan; and donated seeds, trees, and farming equipment to Afghan farmers. A4T owns a guesthouse in Kabul and has hosted international aid workers and tours of other individuals interested in Afghanistan, including several delegations from Global Exchange.

HALO Afghanistan

The international NGO, The HALO Trust, is a non-political, non-religious organization that began in Great Britain; it is dedicated to mine clearance operations in several dangerous parts of the world. In 1988, it began limited operations in Afghanistan. Since the fall of the Taliban, HALO Afghanistan has developed into its own NGO, “employing 2,600 Afghan staff managed by Afghans, with the assistance of five expatriate operations officers and an accountant” (HALO, 2006). HALO's website notes:

Afghanistan was heavily mined by Soviet forces during their ten year occupation, with further mine-laying by the communist regime of Najibullah, during localised internecine fighting between Mujahideen groups and most recently between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance...Afghanistan is probably the most mined country in the world, with HALO estimates of up to 640,000 mines laid since 1979 (HALO, 2006).

To date, HALO Afghanistan has cleared over 1.3 million items of unexploded ordinance and mines. Over 1.5 million refugees have been able to return to their homes in the Shomali and Andraab valleys due to the efforts of HALO Afghanistan’s survey, demining and ordnance disposal operations. Women for Women International – Afghanistan Chapter

Women for Women International (WWI) is an NGO that seeks to empower and educate women, promote social justice, and increase opportunities for women in a number of countries. The Afghan chapter of WWI is run by Afghans and currently employs a staff of 110 (WWI, 2006). In 2005, 6,472 Afghan women received aid and services from the group; since 2002, a total of 9,262 Afghan women have received aid and services.

WWI in Afghanistan offers micro-credit loans to women throughout the nation, including several of the rural provinces. The organization has been instrumental in voter registration drives


5

in the post-Taliban era, helping thousands of women to vote. WWI also provides literacy programs and midwife training courses to Afghan women. Vocational training in the areas of knitting, embroidery, dressmaking and stitching, creative home design, dairy production, gardening and fruit-growing, weaving, medicinal herb-growing, poultry farming, jewelry-making, shoe-making and carpentry provided by WWI enables women to become self-sufficient.

WWI operates several co-operatives, including stores at the Women’s Garden in Kabul, and has partnered with individuals abroad to export and sell the crafts and products made by members of WWI. After receiving training, funding, and support from WWI, thousands of Afghan women have become self-sufficient as merchants, tailors, artisans, farmers, jewelers, beauticians, and nurses’ aides. The Internet has made additional opportunities available for these women to sell their products abroad via WWI’s online bazaar.

Conclusion

After 2002, many development experts predicted that the most successful development strategies in Afghanistan would be those which focus on grassroots reconciliation, literacy, and small business projects (Helton, 2002, p. 9). Investing in programs that promote social justice and economic opportunity increases the security, stability, and prospects for long-term peace on a local, provincial, national, and regional scale (Monshipouri, 2003, p.151).

References: Afghans 4 Tomorrow. (2006). Projects. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.afghans4tomorrow.com/index.asp?ContentID=31. ASCHIANA. (2006). About us. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.aschiana.com/default.asp?action=article&ID=19. ASCHIANA. (2006). Director’s message. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.aschiana.com/default.asp?action=article&ID=17. Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU). (2006). Mission and statement of values. Retrieved

June 5, 2006, from http://www.afghanadvocacy.org/members/cpau.html. Donini, A., Minear, L., and Walker, P. (2004, June). The future of humanitarian action: Mapping

the implications of Iraq and other recent crises. Disasters, 28(2): 190-204. HALO Afghanistan. (2006). Afghanistan operations. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.halotrust.org/afghanistan.html. Helton, A. (2002, June 25). In Afghanistan, think small. The Christian Science Monitor. Jalali, A. (2006, Spring). The future of Afghanistan. Parameters, 36(1): 4-19. Monshipouri, M. (2003, Spring). NGOs and peacebuilding in Afghanistan. International

Peacekeeping, 10(1): 138-155. PARWAZ. (2006). History of PARWAZ. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.parwaz.org/home.html. PARWAZ. (2006). Goals and objectives of PARWAZ. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from

http://www.parwaz.org/home.html. United Nations News Center. (2006, May 23). UNICEF joins Afghan government in fighting

adult illiteracy. UN News Center. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=18586&Cr=afghan&Cr1= .

Women to Women International – Afghanistan. (2006). Chapter history and accomplishments. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from http://www.womenforwomen.org/chafghanistan.htm.


6

Women to Women International – Afghanistan. (2006). Bazaar. Retrieved June 5, 2006, from http://www.womenforwomen.org/bazaar.htm.


The Values of Afghan Professionals: Are they Similar to or Different from Other Cultures?

Bahaudin G. Mujtaba, Nova Southeastern University Edward F. Murphy, Jr., Embry Riddle Aeronautical University

The people of Afghanistan have gone through many changes in the past thirty years and,

through immigration, many expatriate Afghans have become familiarized with new cultures. Consequently, they have been exposed to many new values and cultural orientations of different people groups across the globe. As a start and for the first time, the researchers in this study wanted to determine the values of Afghans using the Rokeach Value Survey which has been used in many other eastern and western nations. This study fills a research gap by specifically focusing on the values of Afghan professionals and cross-cultural gender differences and similarities in values between people in Afghanistan and other nations. The meaning and implications of these findings for managers and government officials are discussed. Introduction to the Convergence and Divergence of Values

The researchers used the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) to explore similarities and differences in the values1 of males and females in Afghanistan. Clarifying these values is an important part of understanding cultural value similarities and differences around the world as more businesses and their male or female managers and employees move into the global marketplace. One question to answer is whether there is a convergence or divergence of values among the people of the world and Afghans. The clarification of values among Afghan males and females will also be useful in further studies that focus on understanding cross-cultural gender differences and similarities in values and whether those values are converging or diverging.

People and their values and cultural orientations tend to have many similarities and differences across different nations. While technology is causing some convergence of work systems and media coverage of various cultural norms, there are also cultural divisions which are leading to major conflicts and wars among different people groups within each country and people of different nations.

Research has also shown that increased contact between managers and employees (regardless of gender differences) from different nations can lead to a convergence of values because of acculturation. However, history and cultural orientations show that throughout the world males and females have been socialized to learn different roles which lead to differences between males and females in their values, attitudes and behaviors. Males and females from different nations have been shown to possess culturally-based differences in their values, attitudes, and behaviors; similarly, according to researchers, they also have unique similarities in their sub-cultures or roles in society, which impact their values, attitudes and behaviors. Researchers have investigated gender differences in numerous attitudinal or behavioral 1 Originally published in “The Ethics of Management and Leadership in Afghanistan,” 2nd edition, 2007, by Bahaudin G. Mujtaba.


8

constructs around the world, yet few studies specifically focused on cross-cultural gender differences and similarities in values and whether those values are converging or diverging. Values are the most important variables for researchers to explore nationally and cross-culturally because they give managers of multinational corporations and other companies operating and trading in Afghanistan insight into how they can develop relationships with their suppliers as well as how they lead and motivate their employees from many different cultures.

Value-Based Management

Value-Based Management (VBM) claims that what you value forms the foundation of your thinking, feelings and behaviors. Ultimately, as per value-drive management theory and concept, what you value drives your behavior. For example, if you value family security then you will do everything within your power and ability to protect your children, sisters, brothers, and parents from harm. If you value loyalty, then you are likely to behave as such and expect the same from your colleagues and friends. If you value competence and various abilities, then you are likely to go out and gain the relevant education to acquire such capabilities that lead to the success of your predetermined dreams and goals.

One example of loyalty is the patronage form of “quod pro quo” associations that are influenced by people’s cultural conditioning and overall societal values. In patronage relationships, the relationship usually includes a patron and at least one client, and they are likely to be vertical where the patron is in a higher position. The patron rewards the client’s loyalty and service, and the client is expected to reciprocate. Such relationships reflect power/social distances between the client and the patron and tend to exist in countries as such Afghanistan which demonstrates values that are usually characteristic of high context cultures. Overall, what you value forms the basis of your management and leadership styles. So, what are values?

Values are defined as assumptions about “how things ought to be” in the society. Values are often held at a preconscious level and may never be fully articulated. Values differ from beliefs in the fact that beliefs are conscious perceptions of things that exist in society, and how people ought to behave. Values can be a part of a specific organization, nation, and country as it creates a specific culture or norm. National cultural values are often embedded into one’s subconscious mind during childhood. Consequently, most individuals are unaware of their cultural conditioning. Organizational values are usually taught and learned later in life either through general education or workplace training. Therefore, these values are often assimilated into one’s conscious level and can be changed “easily.” So, values influence the cultures of organizations and nations. Global leaders and managers must recognize the influence of culture and be prepared to develop an understanding of it. Behavior is influenced by the person’s personality and values gained from their interactions with the cultural forces of the particular society in which he/she was born. The challenge that international managers often confront is to be able to identify when culture is significant and what type of response, if any, is needed to successfully manage a multicultural group. Successful management of a diverse group can substantially improve a company’s ability to attract, retain, and motivate employees from different cultural backgrounds thus increasing the organization’s competitive advantage. Overall, international managers must:

• Recognize differences between values of individuals and people in different cultures. • Understand that as cultural diversity becomes the norm in one’s department or

organization, refusing to recognize and manage it may bring disaster.


9

• Understand the nature of values and cultures, and how they influence behavior in the workplace.

• Learn about specific values and cultures-- the other, and one’s own. • Recognize which values and how cultural factors influence the expression of business

structures, systems, priorities. • Recognize how far structures, systems, values, and priorities of one’s culture can be

implemented within the other culture. Conflicting values and cultural norms can create major ethical conflicts and concerns.

Ethical dilemmas involve choosing among alternatives that lie in the gray area of right and wrong, including conflicting loyalties, trade offs between principle and practicality, and external pressure to succeed. Ethical lapse usually involves choosing an unethical or illegal action and global managers must avoid these, especially when they value honesty (Mujtaba, 2006b, d, 2007a, b). Managers can test the ethics of a specific decision or message in a number of ways, including by asking the following questions:

Does it comply with the law? Is it fair to all concerned? Whom will it benefit or harm? If so, how much? How would you feel about receiving it? Would you be embarrassed? Would you feel

good? Have you checked it out with others who are knowledgeable on the subject? Would you feel well if your decision was shared with your best friends and professional

colleagues? Would you feel happy if your decision was shared with others in the community on the

evening television news? Would your mother be proud of you if she heard you made this decision?

Resolving ethical dilemmas can be more difficult and bothersome when one’s values are

not clear. As mentioned before, a person’s values can impact his or her thoughts, feelings and behaviors. The book entitled “Workforce Diversity Management: Challenges, Competencies and Strategies” (2007) offers examples of how human beings are often acculturated to continue acting based on past conditioning until they formally replace the “automatic pilot” mentality with conscious thinking based on facts. This is why it is important to clarify one’s values and think differently using one’s head, feel differently through one’s heart, and act differently thereby changing one’s daily habits. It all starts by thinking about and clarifying one’s values. If you can die for a specific cause or value, then that is a good level of clarify regarding certain principles and issues. For example, if you are willing to go to jail to stay loyal to your friends, then you truly value loyalty and expect the same from others. The suggestions, stated throughout the Workforce Diversity Management” book, offer diversity management ideas so professionals can be successful in achieving their stated outcomes synergistically. Many of the suggestions have been used by the author as well as trainers, managers, educators, and leaders throughout the world to create a productive and happy work environment for all. As stated by Mahatma Gandhi, "Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.” The Workforce Diversity Management book is about creating harmony and consistency in one’s head (thoughts), heart (feelings), and habits (behaviors) about people of diverse values, backgrounds and cultures. It is fair to say that diversity and ethics-related issues are likely to,


10

and should, impact a person’s head, heart and habits if they are to lead to long-term peace and prosperity in life. In Workforce Diversity Management book, the author offers the following thoughts regarding the head, heart and habits concept (Mujtaba, 2007):

Head. Head implies continuous cognitive learning about each situation, clarifying one’s values, thinking objectively based on current facts, awareness of universal principles, and knowledge generation.

Heart. Heart implies the consistent controlling of one’s feeling, basing it on objective facts, and aligning it with universal values. It means basing one’s feeling for long-term impact, rather than short term satisfaction of personal desires that are linked to revenge, vengeance, payback, or retribution.

Habits. Habits should be linked to one’s objective feelings and universal principles. It means ensuring that one’s day-to-day behaviors are aligned with one’s universal principles of right and wrong, personal or professional values, and knowledge-based and goal-oriented feelings. Value-Based Management (VBM) concept claims that what a person values is likely to

have a great influence over his or her thinking, feelings and behaviors. The stronger the clarity of one’s value is regarding a specific concept, such as freedom or family security, the greater its impact on the person’s behavior. For example, most people value life and, thus, will not harm, hurt or kill another person. However, soldiers and police officers will exert sufficient force on others or even purposely shoot people to prevent them from hurting innocent citizens. This does not mean that they do not value life, it just means that they value the security and prosperity of the community’s citizens more. As such, they will do what is necessary to prevent thieves from stealing or thugs from hurting people in the community. However, if a person values life in all of its forms and has determined that there is no cause for which he or she will take another life, then this person will not even “kill” a fly or a mouse regardless of the consequence. Such was the case of Mahatma Gandhi who was willing to die for certain causes that enhanced life for humanity, but he was very certain that there was no cause for which he was willing to take another life. Living a life of such clarity and vision as that of Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. are the objectives of Value-Based Management practices. This is also why it is so important to clarify one’s own values and understand the values of others in one’s department, organization, community, and culture. Such understandings and value clarification can lead to higher performance and synergistic teamwork among diverse individuals while preventing conflict, stress and many other negative externalities that seem to exist in today’s diverse places of work.

Research Methodology and Results

This study explores whether gender differences existed in the values of male and female respondents from Afghanistan. This problem statement led to the development of the following research hypotheses and methodology.

Hypothesis one (H1). There are significant gender-based differences in terminal and instrumental values between working professionals in Afghanistan. Hypothesis two (H2). There is a converging of values as males and females from Afghanistan are adopting a mix of individualistic and collectivist values.


11

As seen in most previous studies, several major instruments are generally used in value research and the common ones area the Rokeach Value Survey, Chinese Value Survey, Schwartz Value Survey, Allport Vernon Lindzey Study of Values, England’s Personal Values Questionnaire, Hofstede’s Value Survey Module, and Kahle’s Value Survey. This study used the Rokeach Value Survey because it is simple and easy to use and it has shown its reliability and validity in cross-cultural research. The Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) is divided into 18 terminal values, (“end–state of existence” values), and labeled the 18 instrumental values (“modes of conduct” values). Instructions to those taking the survey are standard as each individual is asked to order the values in order of importance to him or her, as guiding principles in his or her life (Murphy et al., 2007).

The research population consisted of working-age Afghans who are living in Afghanistan and expatriate Afghans living abroad in such countries as Pakistan, Iran, the United States, European nations, Canada, Turkey, Russia, and others. For a convenient sample, the researchers chose English-speaking working adults because their professional email accounts were readily available and because their values have been unexplored in the research literature. The surveys were administered in various cities in the United States and electronically to Afghans in Afghanistan and around the world. The researchers surveyed a convenience sample of 200 Afghan professionals living in Afghanistan and in other nations. Since English-speaking Afghan professionals were targeted, the survey was only offered in English. We used a convenience sample because of its simplicity and quick access to Afghan professionals. Professional educated Afghans were targeted since they are more likely to be familiar with the value of cross-cultural research and the need for such studies with an Afghan population. Also, this population offered a better probability of getting more females included in the study. Electronic addresses for the targeted population were made available to the researcher by the Afghan Engineers Society, which is based in the United States, as well as the Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington D.C. The targeted population members were actively involved in their professions and/or were working for the development of their country either directly in Afghanistan or indirectly through various agencies such as the Society of Afghan Engineers. These professional Afghans were readily accessible electronically without having to travel to their places of work or living quarters. Participants were asked to complete the survey within a two-week period, and they were offered a choice of forwarding it to the researcher by email, fax, or mail to the address indicated. Most respondents completed the survey in a Word document and electronically forwarded it back to the researcher within the allotted time. Less than one percent of the respondents either mailed or faxed their completed surveys to the researcher. Returned surveys were saved anonymously by an ascending rank as they were received and data were given to the lead researcher for statistical analysis and comparison with other countries. A total of 57 properly completed instruments were returned for a 25 percent return rate. The respondents consisted of 41 males and 16 females; 55 were born in Afghanistan, 2 in other nations; 51 were raised in Afghanistan and 6 in other nations; 29 were living in Afghanistan, 21 living in the United States, 4 in Europe, 1 in Central America, and 2 in Canada.

There were statistically significant gender differences for respondents from Afghanistan for 12 of 18 terminal and 8 of 18 instrumental values2. Females more highly valued the terminal values a comfortable life, a sense of accomplishment, inner harmony, mature love, self-respect, true friendship, and wisdom, and the instrumental values broadminded, imaginative, intellectual, and loving. Males more highly valued the terminal values a world at peace, equality, freedom, 2 For statistical analysis and data, see Murphy et al. (2007).


12

national security, and social recognition and the instrumental values ambitious, courageous, logical, loyal and polite.

Table 1 – Ranking of Terminal Values Means from Afghan

Values Males FemalesA comfortable life (a prosperous life) 10 8 An exciting life (a stimulating active life) 16 15 A sense of accomplishment (a lasting contribution) 6 3 A world at Peace (free of war and conflict) 3 9 A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) 15 17 Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) 5 7 Family Security (taking care of loved ones) 1 1 Freedom (independence, free choice) 8 12 Health (freedom from sickness) 2 2 Inner Harmony (freedom from inner conflict) 12 11 Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) 11 10 National security (protection from attack) 4 5 Pleasure (an enjoyable leisurely life) 17 16 Salvation (saved, eternal life) 18 18 Self-respect (self esteem) 7 4 Social recognition (respect, admiration) 13 14 True friendship (close companionship) 14 13 Wisdom (a mature understanding of life 9 6

For similarities, males and females ranked the terminal values family security, health and

national security and instrumental values honest and responsible in their top five values of importance (ranked one through five; most important values). In addition, both males and females ranked most important or important (six through thirteen) the terminal value goals a comfortable life, a sense of accomplishment, equality, freedom, inner harmony, mature love, self-respect, and wisdom and the instrumental values ambitious, broadminded, capable, logical, loving, loyal, independent and self-controlled. Males and females equally ranked the terminal values family security and health and instrumental values capable, honest, independent, responsible, and self-controlled, and in their bottom five values of importance (ranked fourteen to eighteen; means they are unimportant) the terminal values an exciting life, a world of beauty, pleasure, and salvation, and instrumental values clean, courageous, forgiving, and obedient.

Gender-Based Similarities and Differences For similarities across the two genders, the terminal values family security and health

were in the top five of importance (ranked one through five) for both genders, which seems to be the same across many other cultures. Further, a comfortable life, a sense of accomplishment, freedom, inner harmony, and self respect were ranked important (six through thirteen) for both genders, which also seems to be true of many other cultures. Finally, instrumental values, honest, independent and responsible were ranked important (six through thirteen) across both genders.

What were the major differences across the genders? The terminal values an exciting life, or having a stimulating and active life, was unimportant for Afghan females and males. A world at peace, or seeing the world free from war, conflict and terrorism was important for both genders. Similarly, national security, or seeing one’s nation or homeland free from war, conflict


13

and terrorism was most important for Afghan males and females. This is to be expected for Afghanistan which has undergone several decades of war, strife and violence from friendly and unfriendly forces.

Another interesting finding is that equality, which means being treated equally, was ranked important by Afghan females and males. This indicates that these respondents did not feel they were treated equally in the workplace. The results for males and females in Afghanistan might indicate that respondents feel that they are not treated equally in the global marketplace. The individualistic value freedom was ranked important by both genders. Finally, wisdom, or having a mature understanding of life was important for both male and female Afghans.

For instrumental values or means respondents would use to obtain their goals, ambitious or being hard working and aspiring was important for Afghan males and females. Ambitious is normally considered an individualistic value, indicating that the Afghan professionals have adopted this normally western individualistic value. Capable or being competent and effective was important for the Afghan respondents.

Rokeach and other researchers indicated that cross-cultural differences can be explored by placing ambition and capable as two ends of a dimension. For instance, ambition is a desire to succeed above all else, while capable is having the competence and abilities to succeed. In this study, Afghan males and females felt that having capability was more important than having ambitions. The value independent is an individualistic value and Afghan respondents ranked having independence and free choice as most important or important. The Afghan males and females ranked courageous or standing up for their beliefs in their top five values of importance.

Table 2 – Ranking of Instrumental Values Means from Afghan

Values Males Females Ambitious (Hard-working, aspiring) 9 11 Broadminded (Open-minded) 12 10 Capable (Competent, effective) 8 8 Clean (Neat, tidy) 17 17 Courageous (Standing up for your beliefs) 2 4 Forgiving (Willing to pardon others) 15 14 Helpful (Working for the welfare of others) 16 16 Honest (Sincere, truthful) 1 1 Imaginative (Daring, creative) 14 12 Independent (Self-reliant, self sufficient) 3 3 Intellectual (Intelligent, reflective) 4 2 Logical (Consistent, rational) 11 13 Loving (Affectionate, tender) 10 6 Loyal (Dedication to a person, organization or concept) 6 9 Obedient (Dutiful, respectful) 18 18 Polite (Courteous, well-mannered) 13 16 Responsible (Dependable, reliable) 5 5 Self - controlled (Restrained, self discipline) 7 7

Afghan males and females ranked being forgiving as unimportant, indicating they did not

feel they need to be willing to pardon others. From the responses in this study, Afghan males and females do not always feel they needed to be helpful, indicating they do not feel they need to work for the welfare of others; perhaps this comes from the distrust of having so much violence and foreign interventions that have not always been kind to the local people. Females from


14

Afghanistan ranked imaginative, or being daring and creative as unimportant. Intellectual or being intelligent and reflective was most important for Afghan males and females. Logical, or being consistent and rational was important for Afghan males and females. Polite, or being courteous and well-mannered was not important for Afghan females, while it was most important or important for Afghan males.

Similarities and Differences: Eastern and Western Nations The terminal values family security and health, and instrumental values honest and

responsible were ranked in the top five of importance for each gender in Afghanistan. As can be seen from Tables 3 and 4, these are also true of respondents from other cultures.3

Table 3 –Cross Cultural Terminal Values Mean Values UK USA Japan Korea Singapore Afghanistan

* Arranged from highest priority to lowest as per the ranking of Afghan professionals. Family Security 2 1 5 1 1 1 Health 1 2 1 2 2 2 A sense of accomplishment 9 9 3 11 7 3 National security 14 15 18 17 17 4 A world at Peace 8 16 11 16 13 5 Equality 16 12 10 13 15 6 Self-respect 5 3 16 3 5 7 Wisdom 6 8 6 8 6 8 Freedom 4 4 9 4 8 9 A comfortable life 7 5 8 6 4 10 Mature love 13 6 7 7 9 11 Inner Harmony 10 11 14 5 10 12 True friendship 3 7 2 12 3 13 Social recognition 17 17 15 15 14 14 An exciting life 12 14 12 9 12 15 A world of beauty 15 18 13 18 18 16 Pleasure 11 13 4 10 11 17 Salvation 18 10 17 14 16 18

One significant finding was that females no longer place as high in importance the value

equality. In this study equality was ranked important for females from Afghanistan. In previous studies with different nations females ranked equality in their top seven or eight in importance perhaps because they were not treated as equally as males in the workforce. In this study, as can be seen from Table 3, respondents from other cultures studied do not necessarily place the same of level of importance on equality. Males and females from Afghanistan ranked equality as five and seven in importance. This seems to indicate that males and females in Afghanistan do not feel they have been treated equally by the different regimes that have tried to rule their nation in the past three decades.

Other significant findings were for the terminal values a world at peace, meaning the world being free from war, conflict and terrorism and national security, which means their homeland being free from war, attacks and terrorism. Male and female respondents from Afghanistan ranked a world at peace as most important or important, meaning they are 3 For data and research, see Murphy et al. (2007).


15

concerned or worried about the world being free from conflict, war and terrorism. However, in the study conducted by the authors, this was not the case for respondents from other cultures. The results for national security suggest that Afghan males and females ranked their homelands being free from war, conflict and terrorism as important. This also seems to indicate they are concerned about their homelands being free from war, conflict and terrorism. However, this was not necessarily the case for respondents from other cultures. The results for Afghanistan are to be expected because it has experienced so much violence, turmoil, war, and strife in the 20th century. Overall, some of the values of Afghan professionals seem to be very similar to the values of people from other nations, showing that there may be a convergence of some values among professionals from cross-cultural backgrounds and nations.

Table 4 –Cross Cultural Instrumental Values Mean Values UK USA Japan Korea Singapore Afghanistan

* Arranged from highest priority to lowest as per the ranking of Afghan professionals. Honest 1 1 1 2 3 1 Courageous 10 9 9 6 9 2 Intellectual 14 11 11 8 4 3 Independent 9 6 16 15 5 4 Responsible 3 2 2 3 1 5 Self-controlled 13 8 5 1 7 6 Loyal 8 7 7 17 13 7 Loving 2 4 4 4 6 8 Capable 4 5 10 12 2 9 Ambitious 12 3 17 14 10 10 Broadminded 7 10 3 5 8 11 Logical 15 14 14 10 14 12 Imaginative 16 16 12 7 16 13 Forgiving 11 13 6 16 12 14 Polite 5 15 9 9 15 15 Helpful 6 12 15 13 11 16 Clean 17 17 13 11 18 17 Obedient 18 18 18 18 17 18

Implications and Recommendations The limitations of this study are that the research populations used from Afghanistan

were mostly white collar workers, well educated working professionals who fluently spoke and easily read English. The Afghan respondents are difficult to attract because of the many years of war and unstable government that have existed there for many years. Most well educated Afghans have become part of the brain-drain phenomenon due to the many years of war and work in various countries around the world. The small number of respondents make the results suspect, but the implications are a start. The results are very important because no known studies have explored Afghan values.

The first hypothesis stated that “There are significant gender-based differences in terminal and instrumental values between working professionals in Afghanistan” and it was not supported with most of the values based on the responses of working professionals in this study. As can be seen from the mean rankings of terminal values in Table 1, the main differences in the responses of males and females were a world at peace and freedom, which males ranked at a


16

higher level of importance. On the other side, females placed a higher level of important on self respect and wisdom respectively. With regard to instrumental values, all were very similar except the value of loyalty which was ranked at a higher level of importance by males when compared to females.

The second hypothesis stated that “There is a converging of values as males and females from Afghanistan are adopting a mix of individualistic and collectivistic values” and this was supported in many areas. One must note that there are situational factors, such as cultural differences and constant threat of war, that is only impacting Afghanistan at the time of this study and it may have heavily influenced their needs. As can be seen from Table 3, the terminal values of a sense of accomplishment, a world at peace, equality, and national security were given a higher level of importance than some of the other countries studied; yet there were some similarities with individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Similarly, as can be seen from Table 4, the instrumental values of courageous, independent, intellectual, and self-controlled were ranked higher than some of the other countries studied in this research; similarly there also were many similarities with responses from collectivistic and individualistic countries.

It must be acknowledged that the results should not always be generalized as a representative of the entire Afghan population. It is recommended that future studies provide a translated version of the survey in at least Persian and Pashto languages (which are two of the main languages that most people are familiar with in Afghanistan) for more Afghan professionals who are currently working in the country. It would also be interesting to study solely the values of those professionals who have not lived outside of Afghanistan and have not had a long exposure to western cultures or countries.

This study focused on gender differences and the importance of values in Afghanistan. The research results are a sign of the importance of moving below the national level of analysis when exploring the values within and across cultures. Since values have been shown to impact attitudes and behaviors, researchers must move their level of analysis below the national level in order to fully explore the meaning of the research results, because some values which are not important at the national level are important to either males or females from different cross-cultural groups.

These differences would not be found when only national level of analysis is conducted. For instance, at the cultural or national level of analysis, the terminal value a world at peace was important for respondents from Afghanistan, but this value has been found unimportant for respondents from other nations (see Murphy et al., 2007).

At the national level of analysis the value equality, which means being treated equally or brotherhood and equal opportunity for all, was important for the respondents from Afghanistan, but it has been found unimportant for respondents from other nations Managers need to understand this finding because both males and females from Afghanistan feel they are not treated equally on the job. In the opinion of many Afghan scholars, male and females are treated equally in the workplace. Also, in reality and in the opinion of many Afghans, there is more respect for women in Afghanistan than in the United States. Based on cultural conditioning and situational variables, the people of Afghanistan generally do not want females to be involved in physical jobs as this might disrespectful to women. Of course, local practices vary and the evaluation of each situation and action must be measured based on the cultural norms and mores of each country and its people.

Similarly, at the national level of analysis mature love or sexual and spiritual intimacy was important for respondents from Afghanistan. This indicates that sexual and spiritual


17

intimacy were important for males and females in Afghanistan which must be respected by national and international managers in the Afghan workplace. At the national level of analysis the terminal value national security, which means freedom of the homelands from attack and terrorism, respondents from Afghanistan found it important.

Some instrumental values were also unimportant for either males or females. For instance, ambitious, or being hard working and aspiring was important for respondents from Afghanistan. However, clean was unimportant for respondents from Afghanistan. Courageous, which means standing up for their beliefs, was important for Afghans. However, forgiving, or being willing to forgive others, was unimportant for respondents from Afghanistan.

National and international managers and advertisers in Afghanistan need to be aware of the fact that Afghans feel having a prosperous life, making a lasting contribution at home and at work, having independence, having inner peace, having self-esteem, and close companionship are important goals, and they would pursue these goals by being sincere and truthful, being self-reliant and self-sufficient and by being dependable and reliable. Managers seeking trading partners and marketers developing advertising campaigns would easily be able to develop international relationships by emphasizing how they and their companies will contribute to their trading partners or the culture’s prosperity, making a difference or contribution at work, providing independence and free choice, freedom from inner conflict, will increase their self-esteem, and will provide companionship, and that they or their products are sincere and truthful, will provide self-sufficiency and dependability and reliability.

The results of this study show the importance of gender and people’s underlying values in Afghanistan. Managers must understand their own values and the values of managers and subordinates from both genders if they are to effectively provide a healthy and motivational work environment for their employees. They must understand the most important values from each gender and how they are similar or different to their own most important values. The same can be true of employees, colleagues and managers who are from other cultures.

These results are important for managers, practitioners and advertisers to understand because when managers understand their own culture and values their communication, negotiation and interrelationships with managers, co-workers and employees who are different should improve. Understanding values allows managers to gain insight into what motivates their partners and subordinates so they can maintain a positive self-image and help create a win-win outcome for each work situation. This study will also help managers who are supervisors of male and female managers understand what motivates them and will help companies that operate globally develop international human resources management strategies that not only meet company needs, but also the cultural needs of their own subordinates and the managers. Finally, by understainding their own values and culture and the values and culture of their suppliers or partners and subordinates, companies should be able to achieve better performance outcomes, and these outcomes should positively impact their bottom-line profitability.

Conclusions

From the research, it is apparent that Afghans place a high level of importance on such values as accomplishment, world at peace, family security, and national security which are elements of a truly democratic environment. The professional Afghans have the responsibilities of transferring such democratic dreams, principles and values to the culture of the country in the coming decades if Afghanistan is to thrive in the international community. Experts have claimed that professional and educated Afghans realize that the implementation of these values are


18

perhaps the best means for progress toward freedom, prosperity, interdependence, economical stability, and equality. All Afghans should join together regardless of their factional, tribal, linguistic and other affiliations to achieve a prosperous and powerful Afghanistan. Professional Afghans need to proactively avoid reactive approaches by educating people to gain the right skills for effective communication and peaceful collaborations. A corollary of education, collaboration and personal responsibility will be that Afghanistan can have a democratic environment for collective decision-making, government accountability, civility, truth telling and respect for the law, as well as concern for the welfare, rights and dignity of all people living in the country.

References Mujtaba, B. G. (2007). The ethics of management and leadership in Afghanistan (2nd edition).

ILEAD Academy. Davie, Florida USA. Mujtaba, B. G. (2007a). Workplace diversity management: challenges, competencies and

strategies. ISBN: 1-59526-548-1. Llumina Press; website; www.llumina.com; (phone: 866-229-9244 or: 954-726-0902).

Mujtaba, B. G. (2006b). Afghanistan: Realities of war and rebuilding (2nd edition). ILEAD Academy. Davie, Florida USA

Mujtaba, B. G. (July 2006b). Avoiding gender bias in professional and academic writing as one element of effective management. E-Writer Magazine, Vol. V, No. 7. Available on: http://www.ewritermagazine.com/July%202006/Avoiding.htm.

Mujtaba, B. G. (2006c). Cross cultural change management. ISBN: 1-59526-568-6. Llumina Press, Tamarac, Florida. Website: http://www.llumina.com/store/cccm.htm or www.Llumina.com. Toll free phone: (866) 229-9244 or Reg. (954) 726-0902.

Mujtaba, B. G. (2006d). Privatization and market-based leadership in developing economies: Capacity building in Afghanistan. Llumina Press and Publications, Tamarac, Florida. ISBN: 1-59526-551-1. Website: http://www.llumina.com/store/privatization.htm or www.Llumina.com. Toll free phone: (866) 229-9244 or Reg. (954) 726-0902.

Murphy, E. F. Jr., Gordon, J. D., and Anderson, T. (2004). An examination of cross-cultural age or generation-based value differences between the United States and Japanese. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 21-48.

Murphy, E. F. Jr., Gordon, J. D., and Anderson, T. (2006). An examination of cross-cultural age or generation-based value differences between the United States and Japanese. In B. G. Mujtaba and F. J. Cavico (2006) Age discrimination in employment: Cross-cultural comparisons and management strategies: Perspectives of aging in Afghanistan, Turkey, Jamaica, the United States and Japan. Chapter Twelve, pp. 200-22. BookSurge Publishing.

Murphy, E. F. Jr., Greenwood, R. A., Ruiz-Gutierez, J. A., Manyak, T. G., Mujtaba, B. G., and Uy, O. O. A. (2006a). Generational value changes: Their history and a cross-cultural empirical test. Presented at National Academy of Management Meeting August 11-17, 2006, Atlanta, Georgia.

Murphy, E. F. Jr., Greenwood, R. A., Ruiz-Gutierez, J. A., Manyak, T. G., Mujtaba, B.G., and Uy, Ol. O. A. (2006b). Work and family: An exploration of work-family conflict and family-work conflict in work and home roles. Presented at National Academy of Management Meeting August 11-17, 2006, Atlanta, Georgia.


19

Murphy, E. M. Jr.; Greenwood, R. A; Ruiz-Gutierrez, J. A.; Manyak, T. G.; Mujtaba, B. G.; Uy, A. O.; Chaturvedi, S. (2007). The values of males and females in the east and west: More similar or different? Unpublished Research Prepared for presentation at the 2007 Annual Meeting for Academy of Management.

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press. Rokeach, M. (1979). Understanding human values: Individual and societal. New York: Free

Press. Rokeach, M. (1986). Beliefs, attitudes and values: A theory of organization and change. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Rokeach, M., and Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1989). Stability and change in American value priorities.

American Psychologist, 44, 775-784.


20

Appendix A - Rokeach Type Survey

(Afghanistan Population) Dear colleague, A group of researchers in universities across the United States, Latin America, Asia, and Europe from five different countries are currently conducting research about people’s values and natural tendencies regarding stress in the workplace. Afghanistan is one of the countries included in this research and we need your help in completing the attached survey. The results are totally confidential and you are not required to put your name on the survey. The results will be added to a spreadsheet, analyzed statistically for each group, and several research papers will be the outcome of this study that will help human resource managers design appropriate compensation and reward systems when doing business in diverse cultures and countries. On the behavior and values scales, it is important to remember that there is no right or wrong answer. You simply answer and rank each element as you wish based on your preference. The study will be finalized later this year for presentation and publication early next year. The following individuals and institutions are some of the primary groups leading this research:

1) Dr. Edward F Murphy; Embry Riddle Aeronautical University 2) Dr. Bahaudin G. Mujtaba; Nova Southeastern University 3) Dr. Regina Greenwood; Kettering University 4) Dr. Jaime Ruiz-Gutierrez; University de los Andes, Colombia 5) Dr. Terrell G Manyak; Nova Southeastern University 6) Dr. Arnel Onesimo O. Uy; De La Salle University

Thank you for completing this survey and for being a part of this major international research. Now, please take about ten minutes to complete this survey and then mail (email electronically or fax) to Dr. Bahaudin Mujtaba at the address below. If you would like a copy of the final papers next year, just add your email address to the end or contact me next year. Thank you very much for your time and input.

-------------------------- H. Wayne Huizenga School of Business and Entrepreneurship

Nova Southeastern University 3301 College Avenue

Fort Lauderdale FL 33314-7796. USA. Phone: (954) 262-5045 Or (800) 672-7223 / (800) 338-4723 ext. 5045.

Fax: (954) 262-3965. Email: [email protected]


21

Instructions: Read each separate list of values all the way through. Then label the terminal values in order of importance from 1 (Most Important) to 18 (Least Important) as guiding principles in your life. Use each number only once, from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6…to 18). Then do the same for the instrumental values. Terminal Values

A comfortable life (a prosperous life) An exciting life (a stimulating active life) A sense of accomplishment (a lasting contribution) A world at Peace (free of war and conflict) A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) Family Security (taking care of loved ones) Freedom (independence, free choice) Health (freedom from sickness) Inner Harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (an enjoyable leisurely life) Salvation (saved, eternal life) Self-respect (self esteem) Social recognition (respect, admiration) True friendship (close companionship) Wisdom (a mature understanding of life

Instrumental Values

Ambitious (Hard-working, aspiring) Broadminded (Open-minded) Capable (Competent, effective) Clean (Neat, tidy) Courageous (Standing up for your beliefs) Forgiving (Willing to pardon others) Helpful (Working for the welfare of others) Honest (Sincere, truthful) Imaginative (Daring, creative) Independent (Self-reliant, self sufficient) Intellectual (Intelligent, reflective) Logical (Consistent, rational) Loving (Affectionate, tender) Loyal (Dedication to a person, organization or concept) Obedient (Dutiful, respectful) Polite (Courteous, well-mannered) Responsible (Dependable, reliable) Self - controlled (Restrained, self discipline)


22

1. How old are you? 18 to 25 years old (1) 26 to 30 years old (2) 31 to 39 years old (3) 40 to 45 years old (4) 46 to 50 years old (5) 51 plus years old (6)

2. What is Your gender/sex: _________ Male (1) _________ Female (2) 3. Nationality or Country where you were born: Born in US (1) Born in Korea (2) Born in Japan (3) Born in Europe (4) Born in Philippines (5) Born in Latin America (6) Born in Central America (7) Born in Africa (8) Born in Canada (9) Born in Afghanistan (10) Born in other country,

4. Nation or Country where you were raised (spent your childhood): Raised in US (1) Raised in Korea (2) Raised in Japan (3) Raised in Europe (4) Raised in Philippines (5) Raised in Latin America (6) Raised in Central America (7) Raised in Africa (8) Raised in Canada (9) Raised in Afghanistan (10) Other _________

5. Nation/Country you are presently living in: US (1) Korea (2) Japan (3) Europe (4) Philippines (5) Latin America (6) Central America (7) Africa (8) Canada (9) Afghanistan (10) Other Country

6. What is Your race/ethnic category: White (1) Black (2) Hispanic (3) American Indian (4) Asian (5) Alaskan/Eskimo (6) Others (7) 7. Number of years work/business experience:

Less than 10 years (1) 10-15 years (2) 16-20 years (3) 21-25 years (4) 26-30 years (5) More than 31 years (6)

8. Highest educational attainment:

No high school diploma (0) High school diploma (1) Working on Associate Degree (2) Completed Associate Degree (3) Working on Bachelor’s Degree (4) Completed Bachelor’s Degree (5) Working Master’s Degree (6) Completed Master’s Degree (7) Working on Degree Higher than Master’s (8) Completed PhD or equivalent degree (9)

9. Work Status:

Full-time student (1) Employed by the government (2) Employed in Military (3) Employed for a company – not owned (4) Have my own company/entrepreneur (5) I do not work (6)

10. Are you a

Manager (1) Non-manager (2) Full-time student (3) Teacher (4) Other education/training (6) University professor (7) Other type of university employee (8)

11. My religion:

Catholic (1) Christian (2) Confucian (3) Buddhist (4) Islam (5) Atheist (I don’t believe in religion) (6) Other religion, please list (7)

12. Your marital status: ____ Single/Never Married (1) ____ Single/Divorced (2) _____ Single/Widower (3) ____ Married (4) 13. Number of children you have: ____ None (0) _____ One (1) _____ Two (2) _____ Three (3)_____ Four (4) ____ Five (5) _____ Six (6) _____ Seven (7) _____ More than seven (8) 14. Number of employees who work for your company _____ None (0) _____ 1-5 (2) _____ 6-10 (3) _____ 11-15 (4) _____ 16-20 (5) _____ 21-25 (6) _____ 26-30 (7) _____ 31-50 (8) _____ 51-100 (9) _____ 101+ (10) 15. If you have your own business, how many employees do you have (including yourself)? _______ 16. What type of business are you primarily in? ______________________________________________.


23


24

Science and Technology Policy for Afghanistan

Saif R. Samady, Chairman - Independent High Commission of Education4 The first modern scientific institution in Afghanistan was the Faculty of Medicine in

Kabul that was set up in 1932. The Faculty of Science was established in 1946, primarily to train science teachers. The Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Agriculture were launched in 1958. The Faculty of Pharmacy began in 1959. The Kabul Polytechnic Institute was started in 1967. A Research Centre was established at Kabul University in 1964. In the same year, the Faculty of Medicine in Nangarhar was initiated. In 1980s and 1990s a number of other institutions of higher education and the Academy of Sciences were set up. The Academy had the responsibility for research in all fields. However, due to the war and conflicts in 1980s and 1990s, the facilities and quality of training in various institutions were not adequate and the research activities were very limited. In 2003, out of a total enrolment of 31,200 university students, around 9618 male and 884 female students studied science and technology in 26 Faculties throughout the country.

Science and technology have played an important role in the social and economic development of industrialized and developing countries. Scientific knowledge and its technological applications are expanding rapidly. Development of national science and technology capacity including the ability for transfer, adaptation and utilization of new technologies contribute to economic growth. The elaboration of a national policy for science and technology and establishment of modern infrastructure, programmes and projects for education, training and research are essential elements of a strategy for development. It should be recognized that developing a national scientific base, carrying out research and exploiting its results are long term endeavours, which require planning, sustained efforts and investment. The industrialized countries spend about 2-3% of their GNP for research and development in science and technology. Many developing countries with rapid economic growth have invested in science and technology. Capacity building in science and technology is not a luxury but an absolute necessity for sustainable development.

The Independent High Commission of Education for Afghanistan, which was convened in 2003, recommended the formulation of national policy and preparation of a strategic plan for capacity building in application of science and technology to development needs of Afghanistan. Appropriate policy and programmes for training and research in science and technology would contribute to the reconstruction of Afghanistan, stimulate long-term economic growth and modernization, reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of Afghan people. The objectives and strategies for development of science and technology should be based on national priorities, taking into account both short-term and long-term needs of the country. In building national capacity for science and technology, special attention should be given to the following: (a) Mobilizing national and international expertise and resources including Afghan specialists and entrepreneurs outside the country, (b) Creating a conducive climate for research and development, (c) Investing in formal and non-formal education at all levels - basic, secondary, technical and vocational and higher education, and (d) Promoting the participation of the private sector in the application of science and technology.

4 The Commission's Report under the title of 'The Revival and Development of Education in Afghanistan' is available on UNESCO website www.unesco.org (on-line publications).


25

The project objectives include: 1. Application of science and technology for the reconstruction and development of

Afghanistan. 2. Capacity building in human resources for enhancing agriculture and food production,

health and medical services, management of natural resources and protection of the environment, communication infrastructure, production of energy, exploitation of mines, development of industry and transfer of technology.

3. Building capability for research and development and promoting creativity and innovation in enterprises, crafts and industry.

4. Promotion of the teaching of science and technology as an integral part of general education and acquisition of basic knowledge and as a means of nurturing in young people scientific thought, observation, experimentation and innovation.

5. Popularisation of science and technology to enhance public understanding of their impact on daily life and progress in society.

The project policy guidelines include:

1. Establish national infrastructure for science and technology policy and develop a long- term strategic plan for capacity building.

2. Identify national goals and priorities for science and technology, based on the analysis of social and economic sectors and national development plans.

3. Mobilize public and private technical and financial resources for development of science and technology, and create a conducive environment and incentives for promotion of research and development.

4. Increase investment in education and training, and relevant research and development especially in priority areas such as health, agriculture, mines and industry.

5. Enhance the quality of higher education in science and technology by modernizing the curriculum, organizing programmes for faculty development and provision of adequate laboratories including new technologies.

6. Develop graduate training and applied research in agriculture, health, engineering, management and exploitation of natural resources, environment and development studies in cooperation with appropriate regional and international institutions.

7. Incorporate research and development as a component of major technical and commercial projects undertaken by ministries and government agencies.

8. Application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in education and training, research and development, business and industry and management of human resources and institutions.

9. Establish a national information system for science and technology and electronic connection with relevant international libraries and documentation centres.

10. Intensify the teaching of international languages specially English for acquisition of scientific knowledge and transfer of technology.

11. Foster international cooperation for enhancing national capacity in science and technology.

Elements of Strategies

1. Governance and Management

The application of science and technology to development needs of Afghanistan concern all ministries and government agencies as well as the private sector. The ministry of higher education, the universities and the ministry of education are particularly responsible for education and training. The institutions of higher education and the academy of science


26

should develop their research activities in science and technology, in cooperation with relevant agencies and enterprises. A national structure for promotion, coordination and funding of research and development should be considered. Measures need to be taken for provision of incentives for researchers and inventors, protection of intellectual property and financial support for innovations in small and medium enterprises (SME). On the basis of national strategies, research and development plans should be prepared by sector and sub-sector; the execution of research activities could be decentralized. The optimisation and concentration of intellectual resources and enhancement of the management capability of each sector and sub-sector for research and development should be considered. For improvement of governance and management of research, the following is proposed.

a. National Council for Science and Technology. The establishment of a National Council for promotion and development of science and technology in Afghanistan should be considered. The objective of the Council would be to prepare a national policy for science and technology and recommend their application in social and economic development of Afghanistan. The Council could be composed of senior officials of the relevant ministries and agencies, key specialists in science, technology and development from higher education institutions and the academy of science and representatives of the private sector (business, industry, communication, agriculture etc.). The President of the State should appoint the Chairman of the Council for Science and Technology.

b. Science and Technology Committees. Science and Technology Committees should be established for different sectors and sub-sectors (agriculture, health, education, industry, communication, commerce, natural resources, environment, etc.) and basic sciences. The Science and Technology Committees would bring together specialists from universities, the academy of science, ministries, agencies and the private sector to advise the National Council for Science and Technology on the research and development needs of respective sectors or sub-sectors. These Committees could also facilitate the coordination of research and development activities among the specialists in the same field and between university institutions, the academy of science and specialized laboratories. The Committees would contribute to the enhancement of research and experimental activities in various specialized fields of science and technology.

c. Management of Research. All ministries and government agencies should develop a capacity for managing research and development in the application of science and technology for modernization and enhancement of their sector or sub-sector. For this purpose, measures should be taken for establishment of appropriate structure and provision of personnel in each ministry and government agency. 2. Education and Training

a. Science and Technology Education. The teaching of science and technology should be an integral part of general education in primary and secondary schools. The training of science teachers, provision of laboratories and relevant textbooks for schools should be given priority. The curricula and methods of science teaching should be modernized. The Science Centre of the Ministry of Education should be further developed. All faculties of education and teacher training colleges should have adequate laboratories, textbooks, scientific journals, reference libraries and access to the Internet.

b. Popularisation of Science. Programmes for popularisation of science and technology for children and young people as well as adults should be developed through science literacy and skills training courses and the mass media (radio and television). Measures should be taken for publication of reading materials for public understanding of science and technology and their impact on daily life including nutrition, health and family. A


27

National Science Museum should be established and mobile exhibitions on the application of science and technology to progress and development should be organized.

c. Promotion of scientific talent. Programmes should be initiated in schools and training institutions to promote scientific studies and creativity among students (boys and girls) and encourage independent experimental and innovative projects and field work in science and technology. Olympiads in basic sciences and mathematics should be organized. Local, regional and national competition in development and adaptation of technology could be organized. The setting up of science clubs should be supported. Talented science students should be identified and guided to pursue scientific studies. Measures for giving recognition to scientific talent and creativity should be considered.

d. Training of Technicians. In order to train the technicians needed for social and economic development, measures need to be taken to expand technical and vocational education at secondary and post-secondary level and community colleges. Studies should be carried out to determine the level and type of technicians required for different sectors of the economy. The technical schools and training centres need specialized teachers and appropriate curricula and learning materials for a variety of courses. Adequate workshops and training facilities need to be developed. Measures should be taken to coordinate with industry and enterprises to ensure the quality, relevance and efficiency of the training programme. A National Institute for development of programmes and professional services for technical and vocational education and training should be established.

e. Training of specialists and engineers. Manpower studies should be undertaken to determine the number and qualification of technical and scientific personnel required by public and private sectors for development of Afghanistan. The training programmes in basic sciences and mathematics, agriculture and animal husbandry, natural resources and environmental studies, engineering and new technologies, geology and mining, economics and management should be reviewed by committees of experts to ensure their relevance, in terms of quality and quantity to the current and future needs of the country. Steps should be taken to diversify the programmes and expand the training capacity. Priority should be given to provision of modern equipment for basic science laboratories and engineering workshops, application of new information and communication technologies and establishment of a comprehensive scheme for staff development. Provision of international scientific journals, reference materials and libraries including access to the internet and understanding of English language will be indispensable for the quality of training in science and technology. Cooperation for training and research with relevant centres and institutions abroad should be developed.

f. Graduate Training Programmes. As a long-term strategy, consideration should be given to development of centres of excellence in universities and specialized national laboratories, where advanced studies and research can be pursued, in accordance with development needs of Afghanistan. A graduate training programme should be initiated in certain areas such as basic sciences, engineering, management of natural resources, agriculture, economics and development studies. In view of the present shortage of Afghan faculty with advanced degrees in science and technology, a pilot graduate programme should be developed in cooperation with one or more appropriate foreign universities. A project for modernizing the curriculum and preparing a programme for the M.Sc. Degree, provision of laboratory facilities and training of Afghan faculty should be envisaged, with bilateral and multilateral financial and technical assistance. Applied research and field work should be a requirement of the graduate training programmes.


28

3. Research and Development a. National Research Centre. Consideration should be given to the establishment of a

National Centre for Applied Research in Science and Technology, which could work closely with university institutions. The programme of the Centre would be based on the research needs of various technical ministries and agencies, development projects and the private sector. The objectives of the Centre might include the following:

- Prepare studies and proposals on policy and programmes for application of science and technology to development needs of Afghanistan.

- Studies on social and economic aspects of the application of science and technology for development.

- Studies of natural resources including water and forests, with a view to their efficient exploitation.

- Ecological studies for the preservation and improvement of the environment including the urban system.

- Research for improvement of agriculture and animal husbandry. - Research on public health and prevention of common diseases. - Experiment to improve technologies and materials for farming, construction,

handicrafts, water and sanitation, transport, household application (cooking, heating, food and energy conservation) etc.

- Applied research related to mining, petroleum, gas and relevant chemical industries. - Research and studies for improvement and development of industries (manufacturing,

textile, medicines, cement, sugar, vegetable oil etc.). - Research and studies for major construction and development projects. - Application of modern technologies to development needs of Afghanistan. - Publication of a Journal on application of science and technology for development.

b. Institute of Health Technology. In addition to reinforcing the Faculties of Medicine and the Faculty of Pharmacy, a National Institute of Health Technology should be organized for medical research and training of all categories of personnel for health science. The Institute could be established in Kabul with branches in different regions of the country, and it should be associated with relevant universities. The Institute should cooperate with the Faculties of Medicine and their hospitals in joint research projects and training. The Institute could carry out research in public health, prevention of common diseases, studies of regional health problems, pharmacology etc. It will also train health personnel for primary, secondary and tertiary health care including supervisory professionals, physicians’ assistants, nurses, technicians etc.

c. National Laboratories. In the context of a long-term plan, a number of specialized laboratories for research and pilot projects related to priority areas for economic development should be established. These research and development laboratories may be considered in the following areas: agriculture and food products, exploitation of natural resources including important mines and petroleum, industry and consumer products, construction technology and materials, water and energy, improvement of the environment etc. The specialized laboratories should work closely with relevant ministries and agencies and keep them informed about new developments in science and technology and their potential for application to the needs of Afghanistan. The laboratories should also cooperate with the institutions of higher education in providing research and training opportunities for Afghan students and researchers. Initially, international technical assistance would be required for development of the specialized national laboratories and training of their research staff.


29

4. Infrastructure and Materials a. New Technologies (ICT). New information and communication technologies are

important for education and training, research and development, planning and administration, management of human resources and institutions, business and industry. Steps should be taken for the application of new technologies to development needs of Afghanistan. The education strategies should include development of computer education in schools and higher education and access to the Internet. Appropriate infrastructure for planning, coordination and development of computer education as well as studies in computer science and engineering should be established. In addition to acquisition of necessary computers and software, it is essential to train the teachers, computer programmers, and technicians for maintenance and repair of computers. The setting up of a National Centre for Information and Communication Technologies should be considered in order to coordinate the development of ICT, establish standards for computer hardware and software, facilitate connection to the Internet, organize training for government employees and provide advisory services in this field. .

b. Science and Technology Parks. As a long-term strategy science and technology parks should be established close to university centres. A science park can play a key role in promoting and nurturing the application of science and technology. It promotes research and development and innovations. It is an economic and technological development structure that aims to foster the development and application of technology to industry. It consists of research facilities, laboratories, business incubator as well as training. Science parks promote research and development by the university in partnership with small and medium industries. The activities would be based on national and regional economic development priorities and could cover areas such as food industries, biotechnology, pharmaceutical industry, manufacturing, electronics, energy and environment etc. Science and technology parks stimulate the flow of knowledge and technology amongst universities, research and development institutions, companies and markets.

c. National Documentation Centre. A national centre for information and documentation in science and technology should be developed to collect information on projects, institutions and human resources, create databases relevant to development needs, facilitate access, retrieval and exchange of information, and provide Internet connection to other information systems. Afghan scientists and technologists need to have access to relevant research findings, reference materials and databases. A digital library should be established to facilitate access to international publications in science and technology.

d. Financing Science and Technology. Capacity building in science and technology requires investment. Studies have shown that investment in appropriate science and technology contributes to economic growth. The State budget should give priority to development of science and technology. The role of the private sector in the application of science and technology for modernization of industry, development of agriculture, improvement and expansion of the service sector will be significant. The government should encourage the development of science and technology in the private sector and provide incentive for promotion of research and development. The strategies should carefully consider the most relevant, economical and efficient ways and means of the application of science technology in the reconstruction and development of Afghanistan. Research and development, adaptation of foreign technology to national needs and efficient training systems would make the application of science and technology cost-effective. National and international expertise and resources, including Afghan specialists and entrepreneurs outside the country, need to be mobilized. It is necessary to make a substantial investment in developing education and training in science and technology. The establishment of a


30

Foundation for funding Research and Development in science and technology should be considered.

e. International Cooperation. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation and technical assistance (equipment, expertise and training fellowships) will be essential for development of science and technology in Afghanistan. Regional and international cooperation in the field of science and technology can be reinforced through exchange of information and experiences, participation in relevant networks of universities and science and technology institutions, joint research and development projects and partnership in the application of science and technology to specific economic development projects. Consideration should be given to formal cooperation schemes between Afghan scientific institutions and appropriate centres abroad. The knowledge of international languages especially English will be indispensable for effective communication with foreign partners. An intensive programme of teaching English language should be envisaged for Afghan specialists, managers and entrepreneurs.

National Council for Science and Technology The National Council will be an autonomous body with the objective of advising the

government on science and technology policy for sustainable development. The members of the Council will be appointed by the government and consist of senior officials of relevant ministries and agencies, representatives of the scientific community and the private sector. The Council will prepare a national science and technology policy and a long term strategic plan, and promote the application of science and technology in social and economic development of Afghanistan. In particular, the National Council will undertake the following:

- Formulate a science and technology policy for approval of the government. - Prepare a strategic long-term plan for application of science and technology in

social and economic development. - Assist ministries and government agencies in preparing specific plans and projects for

application of science and technology in their sector and sub- sector. - Prepare laws and regulations for protection of intellectual property and provision of

incentives for researchers and innovators. - Provide consulting services to the private sector for the application of science and

technology, especially in connection with innovations in small and medium-sized enterprises.

- Establish a national centre for research and development and other appropriate infrastructure and national laboratories, as approved by the government.

- Coordinate applied research and development in science and technology, and disseminate the results of such research, as appropriate.

- Establish a national centre for application of information and communication technologies to development needs of the public and private sectors.

- Establish cooperation with relevant scientific institutions and organizations abroad. - Establish a national documentation centre for science and technology and a digital

library. - In cooperation with the private sector and universities, support the setting up of

science and technology parks. - Promote research and development in the private sector, through funding and

technical services.


31

- Promote science and society programmes and projects through the media (TV and radio), publications, conferences, organization of an annual science week and establishment of a science museum.

- Promote scientific talent by organizing science Olympiads and technology competition at local, regional and national level, and supporting the training of young scientists.

- Promote innovations in crafts and industry, and adaptation of technology to local social and economic projects.

- Establish a Foundation for Research and Development in science and technology. Organization

The Council. The National Council for Science and Technology will consist of a chairman, members, scientific committees and the secretariat. The President of the State will appoint Chairman of the Council. Members of the Council will be deputy ministers or senior officials from the relevant ministries and agencies (higher education, education, agriculture, health, mines and industry, communication, public works, transport, rural development, environment, economy etc.), chairpersons of the scientific committees, and selected representatives of the private economic sector. The Council will prepare and recommend to the government a national policy and strategic plans for the application of science and technology in social and economic development of Afghanistan.

Scientific Committees. Scientific Committees will be established for each sector and sub-sector. Members of the scientific committees will be selected from among specialists in science, technology and development from public and private sector and will include, as associate members, appropriate international cooperating specialists and researchers. The Scientific Committees advise the Council on questions of policy, plans and projects in the application of science and technology and relevant research in each sector and sub-sector. The Scientific Committees will elect their own chairpersons. Scientific Committees may be considered for the following areas: basic sciences, agriculture, water, industry, energy, geology and mining, engineering, technology, communication, transport, environment, health, education and training, and science and society.

Executive Office. In order to support the objectives and programmes of the Council for Science and Technology, a number of technical and administrative units will be established. Under the authority of the Chairman of the Council, the Executive Vice-Chairman will be responsible for coordination and management of the functional departments and operational units of the Organization.

Departments and Technical Units. The Council will establish the following Departments: (a) Research and Development, (b) Science and Society, (c) Consulting services, (d) Research Funding, (e) International Relations. The following supporting infrastructure will also be developed:

1. National Research Centre 2. National Laboratories 3. National Centre for ICT 4. National Documentation Centre 5. A Digital Library 6. A Science Museum


32

Figure 1 - National Council for Science and Technology

Chairman Secretariat

Council Members

Scientific Committees

Consulting Services

Research and Development

Research Funding

International Relations

National Research

Centre

National Laboratories Documentation

Academy of Sciences

Universities

Ministries and

Agencies

Private Sector

Science and Society

Vice-Chairman


33

Mushrooms as an Alternative Cash Crop in the Afghan Economy: Management in the View of Sustainable Agriculture

M.Nadir Sidiqi New Mexico State University; Afghanistan Sustainable Agriculture Education

Organization (ASAEO)

The reason for this paper is to explore the potential of edible mushrooms as an alternative cash crop in Afghanistan’s economy. This fascinating organism has tremendous culinary, nutritional and health benefits. There is great potential for small-scale mushroom production for producers interested in additional income besides the traditional farming. It would be especially beneficial for farmers with little land to work. Mushrooms’ nutritional and medicinal properties are also intriguing in addition to their culinary value. Mushrooms have many essential amino acids; white button mushrooms, for example contain more protein than kidney beans (Beetz & Kustudia, 2004, p. 2). In fact, edible mushroom production and marketing can provide supplementary income for investors and farmers along the view of integrated sustainable agriculture. Edible mushroom production requires intensive labor and management; it takes a considerable amount of knowledge, training, skill, planning, research and capital investment to set up a production system. The overall objective of this paper is to introduce and promote edible mushroom production and to explore the potential for biotechnology in the Afghan economy along the framework of an integrated and sustainable agriculture policy. What are the needs for mushroom cultivation in Afghanistan? Due to current malnutrition, lack of food security and poverty in the household income in Afghanistan, I feel my proposal will be beneficial to the farming systems of Afghanistan in the view of sustainable agriculture. Afghanistan is among the poorest countries in the world and agriculture is the main sector to the Afghan economy with the sector contributing an estimated 53% to the GDP and providing employment for 67% of the labor force. Nearly 80% of the Afghan population lives in rural areas which also harbor the highest incidence of poverty. Therefore, any positive supplement in agricultural performance is essential for overall economic growth and poverty reduction. This offers the only significant prospect for raising farmers’ incomes, contributing to food security, providing rural employment and reducing the weakness of resources for poor rural people (Environmental Assessment (EA), Vol.1 the World Bank, March, 2006).

Introduction of the mushroom as an alternative cash crop besides the traditional farming has the potential to improve the quality of life for small-income farmers, as well as building a base for a large-scale mushroom production industry within Afghanistan. Due to the tremendous potential of edible fungus, we are focusing on the following issues such as mushrooms’ uses as a food source, as an additional source of personal and nationwide income, for their potential use in medicines and for their potential role in agriculture for disease management.

• Mushrooms as food: Due to the flavor of this delicious contributor to our meals, people have been enjoying mushrooms for centuries. Without additional ingredients, a serving (5 medium-sized edible mushrooms) has only about 20 calories without


34

cholesterol as well as no fat and sodium. Edible mushrooms have significant culinary value, as well as many essential amino acids, proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins B and D, and in some species, significant amounts of vitamin C and the minerals potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. For example, white button mushrooms contain more protein than kidney beans (Beetz & Kustudia, 2004, p. 2). Mushrooms are similar to the fibrous nature of meat, and mushrooms are often sold as a healthy alternative to meat (More & Chiu, 2001).

• Mushrooms as sources of income: Agriculture is a critical source of income in Afghanistan and has suffered badly during the last quarter of a century. Any sort of positive activity in the form sustainable agriculture for the purpose of economic, social and environmental benefit will help the country move towards a more self-sufficient way of life. For example, a case study in Uganda found that mushroom cultivation had great potential for increasing farmers’ income without requiring additional labor outside the family. Mushroom cultivation is not as labor-intensive as other methods and many of the farmers studied already had a working knowledge of harvesting wild mushrooms; there was also little requirement for additional training (Obaa & Nshemereirwe, 2004). Therefore, this effort can be applied in Afghanistan in environmentally suitable regions, with consideration to provide producers with the necessary knowledge and training. Currently, available data suggests that around 36% of rural households face chronic or transit shortage of food. Social indicators are no better than this. Despite the success of the back to school campaign, half of all school age children remain out of school. More than 20% of all Afghan children die before the age of five, of which a third dies soon after birth, keeping data limitations in mind (The World Bank, poverty in Afghanistan, 2006). In addition, this will provide enhancement to the livelihood of Afghani producers as well as the nation’s citizens in general.

• Mushrooms as medicines: Mushrooms used for medicinal purposes have been studied for a very long time in Asian countries. However, their use in the Western hemisphere has been recently increasing in the past decades. Similarly, mushrooms are enhancing the immune system of humans against diseases. In fact, mushrooms and other fungi are rich sources of natural antibiotics. Additionally, the exudates from mushroom mycelia are active for prevention of protozoa such as the parasites that cause malaria, plasmodium falciparum and other microorganisms according to Paul Stamens, author of Novel Antimicrobials from Mushrooms. Another study has been demonstrated in Japan that uses lentinin or crude extracts of shiitake in combination traditionally for chemotherapy. Consumption of mushrooms is becoming popular as a “nutriceuticals” study has shown about these mushrooms species such as Lentinula edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, G. oregonense and Agaricus brasiliensis that a group of Enoki farmers showed significantly lower cancer rates than the general population of the same area (Werner, 2004, p.3). Another study has demonstrated that white button mushrooms can be a chemo preventing agent against prostate cancer (Sheryl Phung, Jingjing Ye, Gene Hue, Sharon Kwok, Ki Lui and Shiuan Chen). Therefore, exploring and investing in the medicinal potential of mushrooms among Afghanistan professionals will play an important role in the public health sector in the country.


35

Note: With sincere thanks to Paul Stamets for his permission. This Cross – Index of mushroom and targeted therapeutic to duplicate in this paper.

• Role of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) in view of sustainable agriculture: Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) is a composted, growing medium that is used during the mushroom growing process and is partly left over. SMS is made from agriculture materials, such as wheat-straw bedded horse manure, hay, poultry manure, cottonseed meal, cocoa shells and gypsum. This means fresh SMS is a rich source of nitrogen, carbon and other elements which make it well suited for supporting plant growth. A study has shown in the suppression of Pythium ultimum disease of tomato plant by SMS (C. Peter Romaine & Edmond J. Holcomb, SMS, 2000). In addition, SMS application in vineyard will increase the NPK (fertilizer) level in the soil. A research in the UK has investigated the effects of SMS in suppressing soil-borne plant diseases of vegetable crop such as Phytophthora nicotianae (David Beyer, Penn State University, 2002). It seems, over all SMS is important in conjunction with current fertilizers as soil amendment in our sustainable agriculture. Hence, this biotechnology needs to be informed and utilize such a vital potential in Afghanistan. This will bring a huge positive impact in the long run to Afghanistan crop production and economy.

Growing and selecting mushroom species

Mushroom production is completely different from growing of green plants, because they lack chlorophyll and depend on other plant materials (the “substrate”) for their food. The portion of the organism that is visible to us and called a mushroom is just the fruiting body.


36

The unseen part is the mycelium, tiny threads that grow throughout the substrate, and absorb nutrients by breaking down the organic materials. Generally, each mushroom species requires a particular growing medium, although some species can grow on wide range of substrate. However, considering the mushroom production techniques and procedure, require another at least ten to fifteen pages of publication for the detail information about mushroom production techniques and procedure. It will be available in the near future on website at < www.asaeo.org> under the publication site. Therefore, in this paper just brief general information is provided as respect to mushroom production. Growing mushrooms outdoor in the farm as a part of farming involves little effort after inoculums in the substrate with the mushrooms spawn. It needs mainly to maintain the humidity and monitors for the fruiting. Once mushrooms appear, they can be added to the other farm products for market. While outdoor growing of mushrooms is delayed, this can be compensated by indoor mushroom production. This indoor mushroom production needs to be operated under suitable equipped inside facilities. For example, oyster mushroom, the grower lowers the temperature and the CO2 in the growing room to initiate fruiting. Each species has specific requirements for its stage of development. However, indoor mushrooms production demands much higher level of knowledge, skill, continuous monitoring and timely manipulation of environmental condition. (A. Beetz and M.Kustudia, 2004).

Selecting Mushroom Species

There are about 10,000 known mushrooms species in the world (U.Kiies. Y.Liu, 2000). However, these are just few species such as. Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.) and Shiitake (Lentinula edodes). The King Stropharia or Garden Giant (Stropharia rugoso-annulata) can be grown on composed of wood chips or wheat straw. Morels (Morchella spp.) are most easily grown outside in shady sawdust/ash beds. The Chinese Ling Chi, which called as the Japanese Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) can be grown outdoors and buried in sawdust. Chicken-of-the-Woods (Polyporus sulphureus) can be grown on stumps, as can many other gourmet species. Finally, white button mushroom (Agaricus brunnescens) can be grown on horse manure/straw compost. Therefore, most of these mushrooms are capable of being grown and will produce fruits on one of these abovementioned substrates. (Stamets, 1998). Before, to select the species to grow we need to consider the following issues

• What type of waste materials are needed to use as a growth medium?

• What kind of facility or environment is available?

• How much will cost of equipments?

• What level of knowledge and skill is required to manage the entire process?

• What is the market and demand for this species?

(i) Oyster mushrooms: Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species) are easier for beginners

to grow than many of the other species. This type can be grown in a small scale, with a moderate initial investment. Although, commonly grown on sterile straw from wheat or rice, they can be grown on a wide variety of high- cellulose waste materials. Some of these materials do not require sterilization, only pasteurization which is less expensive. Another benefit of growing oyster mushrooms is the conversion of high percentage of substrate to fruiting bodies, which increases the potential benefit. Some people are allergic to the spores


37

of oyster, in these cases, air-cleaning equipment or respirators are necessary in order to safely work in the production facility.

Source: www.attra.org/attra-pub/mushroom.html

(ii) Shiitake mushrooms: Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) are well known as a low input, for its alternative enterprise, because they are like oyster mushrooms, can be easily grown on a small scale with a moderate initial investment. In addition, to China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan, these mushrooms are currently cultivated and including the United States.

Source: www.mushroom-uk.com


38

Sanitation and pest management Sanitation here’s where mushroom producers can do well as compared to many other

agricultural farming systems. By controlling the environment required for mushroom production. To allow the use of steam pasteurization at the beginning and end of the crop and sanitation of the growing rooms and equipments are very important. Similarly, to our agricultural crop production, while in the case of mushroom production, there are needs for implementation of integrated pest management strategies are necessary to be applied such as exclusion, delaying access, cultural control, biological control and chemical control. Note: Before eating any mushroom that has been cultivated from the wild be sure it’s correctly identified as edible. If poisoning is suspected seek medical advice immediately and take along the sample of the mushroom.

• Exclusion: Any proper techniques that help to prevent the pest from reaching sites and cause damage. For example, to prevent entry of flies, from sealing walls cracks. Air must be filtered before it enters the rooms. Any personnel or equipment must be clean and sanitized before entering a room.

• Delaying access: Techniques that slow down the rate of pest from causing damage. Examples are maintaining sanitation in the premises around mushroom growing houses and keeping grass cut and trees trimmed.

• Cultural control: A combination of environmental techniques that is less supportative to the pests and more beneficial to organisms. For example, composting is an excellent cultural integrated pest management (IPM) technique that strongly influences fungal competitors and pathogens. Another example is in case of white button mushroom, mushroom flies, is common pest among many cultivated mushrooms; these flies are attracted to the smell of decaying mushroom substrates. The proper screening mushroom house ventilation system will prevent adult flies from getting inside. Additionally, maintaining an environment such as proper temperature and relative humidity is very important in mushroom cultivation, in order to limit the spreading diseases.

• Biological control: Any activity one beneficial organism to suppress the adverse effect of other species. Example, the release of Pteromalid parasitoids on the composting wharf, or release of entomopathogenic nematodes, in mushroom production as an example of biological control.

• Chemical control: It’s good to consider this strategy is a final tool, after all consideration of feasible and durable safely environmental strategies. Within the framework of chemical uses mushroom producers or agricultural crop growers need to keep up the rapid changes in the type of chemical and obtain information from the available sources or agency that are operating in their local area. This need to be mentions that Afghanistan agriculturists need to have available necessary education materials and resources, in order to provide relevant information to the public. (IPM Mushroom Production Pennsylvania University)

Marketing for possible generation of income

To begin with a new enterprise requires a sequence of framework by having business plan, financial plan and marketing. Author and business consultant Peter Drucker says that only two activities produce results. One is innovation, and the other is marketing. Always its need to be point out, before committing a new enterprise, fundamental questions as is following (Sullivan and Greer, 2002).

• Do Afghanistan people want Mushroom?


39

• Is there a consumption market for mushroom production among Afghan people? • What are the responses of Afghanistan people needs and desire to mushroom

production as a supplement cash crop? • Where the mushrooms products are going to be selling? • Who is the customer? • Where do the customers live, and how will their location affect mushroom selling

to them? • Do need to care what the Afghanistan people think about mushroom production? • Why we do want this enterprise (mushroom production)? • Where in Afghanistan climate is suitable for growing mushrooms? • Do we have adequate facilities? • How much will it cost?

The Cornell Farming Alternatives has marketing worksheets that address the following considerations:

• Target Market Descriptions: This deal with the demographics of people you want to sell to such as age, gender, family status, income level, class, occupation, children, marital status, location, ethnic group and education.

• Marketing Options: Any method used to sell or distribute your product. (Schuck and Green, 1991) Examples are selling directly to consumers from the farm; farmers’ markets; selling directly to restaurants; cooperative marketing; selling wholesale to a distributor, broker, or processor; etc. Identify your most promising options. Also consider transportation needs and distances to market.

• Market Entry: How will you introduce the product to the market? Will it be marketed under the producer’s or processor’s name? What will get the buyer’s attention (advertising and promotion)? (Schermerhorn, no date )

• Existing Market Demand: How many potential buyers are included in your target market at this time? What is the average purchase or frequency of service per buyer per year? What are the total purchases or number of services per year?

• Competition: At the current situation in Afghanistan there is no competition, but need to analyze in the future your competition, business name, and estimated sales volume, quality of product, price, customer satisfaction, and appearance, type of buyer targeted, strengths, and weaknesses. “Direct competition” offers the same product you do; “indirect competition” is anything your target market can substitute for your product. Remember: alliances can be formed with competitors.

• Market Trends: Has consumption been increasing? Is the number of competitors increasing? What are your projections for market trends in the next five to ten years? What are the industry trends and emerging markets?

• Expected Price: There are many formulas and strategies for setting prices. What is the lowest price you can expect to receive? What is the highest price? Ultimately, pricing will reflect your competition, costs of production, quality, service, the convenience you provide, and the types of buyers you have targeted.


40

• Expected Sales Volume: What is the least number of units you might sell in a bad year? How many in a good year? What is the expected sales volume? How long will it take to build the market to your desired sales volume?

So the bottom line is to establish marketing about mushroom production in

Afghanistan. It’s is necessary to become familiar with the benefit of mushroom properties in the local and national level in country. To convince the Afghan people for the reality and facts of mushrooms that enhancing their social, economic, and environment benefits. Conclusion

Overall, this effort is worth introducing and exploring. Also, keeping in mind any vital positive steps like edible mushroom production will help and lead the country towards a sustainable and self sufficient way of life. However, in Afghanistan, based upon the fact that this fascinating edible mushroom production possesses the properties and is a crucial remedy for all aspects of human needs such as a food, medicine, soil amendment and income, this edible mushroom biotechnology becomes an additional supplement marketable demand in the view of sustainable agriculture in country, because there are no other edible mushroom producer’s competitors currently situated in Afghanistan. There is opportunity to introduce this biotechnology of mushroom production in Afghanistan either in a small scale level or in a commercial scale level. This is good potential in the infrastructure of Afghanistan, and as a result of this activity it will be greatly aid in the livelihood of Afghan’s nation. The need to emphasize implementation of this edible mushroom biotechnology requires a huge effort, such as knowledge and training available resources, suitable environment and sequence of integrated management team work, cooperation of the public, government and donors in order to achieve this tremendous vital investment in the country. References: B. Obaa. And F. Nshemereirwe (2004). Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 9th ed.

ISBN: 1026-0919. Beetz, A and Kustudia, M. (2004) National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.

Mushroom Cultivation and Marketing. Reviewed August 25th, 2006. www.attra.ncat.org.

Beyer. D. (2002) Pennsylvania State University. Spent Mushroom Substrate Research in US. Environmental Assessment (2006). The World Bank. Vol. 1. www.worldbank.org. Integrated Pest Management Mushroom Production Pennsylvania State University. Poverty in Afghanistan (2006). The World Bank. www.worldbank.org. Romaine and Holcom, (2000). Spent Mushroom Substrate.www.mushroom-sms.com. Sheryl Phung. and Jingiing Ye. White button mushroom and prostate cancer prevention.

Proceeding of the American Association for Cancer Research, vol. 46, Abs.1580. Stamets. P. (1998) A Simplified Overview of Mushroom Cultivation

Strategies.www.fungi.com. Stamets, P. (2001). Novel Antimicrobials from mushrooms. www.fungi.com. Sullivan and Greer, (2002) Evaluating a Rural Enterprise. www.attra.ncat.org U.Kiies. andY.Liu (2000). Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. Fruiting body production in

basidiomycetes. Werner, P. (2004). Mushrooms as medicines. 9/19/2006. www.mykoweb.com


41

Utilization of Precast Concrete Products in the Construction Of Roadways and Bridges

Ghulam Mujtaba, Florida Department of Transportation

The utilization of prefabricated concrete elements in the construction of roadways and bridges achieves the improved quality infrastructures and accelerated project completion. This paper provides practical examples and overview of Florida Department of Transportation's quality management practices related to the planning, design, fabrication, and uses of different types precast concrete products for the construction and rehabilitation of roadway and bridge projects. Introduction

There are many elements of the roadways and bridges that can be manufactured at the fabrication facilities and then transported and erected at the job site. This process will accelerate the construction of roadways and bridges and achieve better quality and lowers life-cycle costs of infrastructures. It reduces worker exposure to traffic during construction of bridges and roadways.

The examples of these products may include: concrete piles, beams, slabs, barrier walls, light poles, noise barrier walls, light pole bases, pipe, inlets, manholes, junction boxes, and culverts. The utilization of these components reduces the disruption to traffic by minimizing the duration of construction.

The uses of these products in the roadways and bridge infrastructures require the availability of the quality standard specifications, designs, materials, quality manufacturing process, testing equipment, qualified production and quality control/quality assurance personnel, delivery equipment, and erection means and methods. The following sections include examples Florida Department of Transportation's standard operating procedures related to the fabrication process and acceptability of the prefabricated products. The paper includes a brief description of the specifications, plans, manuals and other contract document requirements related to the manufacturing and uses of precast concrete products. The conclusion part of the paper includes recommended plans for the development of the production facilities in Afghanistan. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction

The Specifications are written to the bidder, prior to the award of the contract, and to the contractor during the construction of the projects to perform the work. The direction to the contractor is usually written in the active-imperative mood. The materials part of the specification is written in the passive voice written style.

The standard specification has been divided in three parts. Division I describes general contract requirements and covenants. This part includes contract proposal, award and execution, scope of work, control of work, control of materials, legal requirements and responsibility to the public, prosecution and progress, measurement and payment.

In addition to the standard specification, the contract documents may include special provisions; technical special provisions; plans; road design, structures, and traffic operation standards; developmental specifications, and supplemental specifications.


42

Division II of standard specification includes construction details including, general construction operations; clearing construction site, earthwork and related operations; base courses; bituminous treatment surfaces courses and concrete pavement; structures; incidental construction; traffic control devises; and traffic control. The construction requirements of precast concrete products are included in Division II. Each section describes the description of work; materials; equipment; construction method; storage; delivery; erection; measurement, and basis of payment. Fabrication Facilities

The Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) maintains a list of the approved fabrication facilities. Each facility is required to submit a quality control plan, which describes the standard operating procedures of the plant, including construction planning, materials, equipment, and methods. The quality control plan also includes the list of qualified quality control personnel, qualified laboratory, and testing method.

The FDOT reviews the proposed quality control plan of the fabricators and performs inspection of the facility. Upon the review of the quality control plan and results as well as satisfactory inspection, the fabrication facilities will be placed on the list of FDOT qualified plants. Materials

The durability of the products depends on the quality of their material ingredients and workmanship. For the manufacturing of the precast concrete products, Florida Department of Transportation requires that they should be selected from the approved sources. For example, the aggregates, cement, supplemental cementitious materials, steel reinforcing materials, steel strands, steel welded wire reinforcing, admixtures, and curing materials are used from the FDOT approved sources. The suppliers of these products perform the tests and provide certification of compliance with requirements of the specification and/or FDOT performs the testing to verify compliance with requirements of contract documents.

The suppliers and manufacturers of cement, fly ash, slag, silica fume, aggregates, and concrete are required to have an FDOT approved quality control plan.

The reinforcing steel, prestressing strands, and welded-wire-reinforcing products are accepted based on the certification of their suppliers and/or FDOT testing.

For some products such as admixtures, curing compounds, and repair materials, FDOT maintains a list for each qualified material and product. These products are selected or accepted from the qualified FDOT product list. Ready-Mixed Concrete Plants

The conventional concrete, flowing concrete, and self-consolidating concrete are accepted from an onsite or off-site ready-mixed concrete plants. These types of concrete are used to manufacture the prefabricated concrete products at the fabrication facilities. The ready-mixed concrete plants are also required to have an approved quality control plan. The FDOT maintains a list of the qualified ready-mixed concrete plants.

The ready-mixed concrete plants use the FDOT approved materials to produce concrete. The FDOT personnel inspect each plant including its transit mixers. It requires that the plant manager, operator and quality control personnel have the required training and certifications. Fabrication Facilities

The Florida Department of Transportation accepts the manufactured precast concrete products only from the plants that are on the list of qualified plants. These plants may


43

include, concrete pipe plants, culvert plants, drainage structures plants and prestressing concrete plants. These plants are required to have quality control plans and address their manufacturing process, equipment, and personnel qualifications. The process may include materials, manufacturing methods, storage, and transportation of products to the job site and their erection process. Laboratories

The testing laboratories that perform quality control or quality assurance testing for acceptance of materials for FDOT projects are required to obtain their qualifications prior to start of any testing. The laboratories may be qualified under American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) accreditation program or any other program equivalent to it.

The specification provides the list of agencies that inspects the laboratories, their equipment, and personnel. The qualification agencies issue certificate of compliance. The laboratories are required to have the calibrated equipment and qualified technicians and engineers. Quality Control and Quality Assurance Programs

The Florida Department of Transportation provides guidelines to the personnel who inspect the quality of materials and their workmanship. These guidelines include construction project administration, materials manuals, self-study courses, and classroom instruction courses. The web site address of FDOT has listed over 1500 on-the job training courses, which have been offered or are being offered based on the need.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The manufacturing of prefabricated products is done in a controlled environment. It reduces the dependence on weather. The manufacturing and use of the prefabricated products in the construction or replacement of roadway and bridge structures minimizes traffic impact of construction projects and improves construction zone safety. It makes construction less disruptive for the environment.

In Afghanistan consideration should be given to the increased use of these products. This requires the preparation of a standard specification and/or developmental specifications. The contract documents may include standard specification, supplemental specifications, special provisions, or plans. The specification will be evolved through its implementation and modified revisions. This way the specification development will be achieved by implementation of new technology.

The standard design methods and plans are also a necessary part of the utilization of prefabricated products. The standard designs may be modified and customized for each product based on its location, environmental condition and other field conditions. The fabrication facilities may prepare their own shop drawings based on their available manufacturing process and equipment. The designer of the structures should review the shop drawings to ensure that they are in accordance with the requirements of the structural drawings. It is necessary that the offices of structure designs, roadway designs, and drainage design prepare guidelines for the designers related to the required design standards.

The local material should be selected from approved sources. These sources should have required quality control plans. The responsible governmental agencies should review and approve the material suppliers and producers of these products.

Some products may be accepted by certification of the independent laboratory based on their test data. The specification should include requirements regarding the acceptably and review process of each product or its materials ingredients.


44

The certified product should be included as part of the materials qualified products list. The Roadway Department of Ministry of Publics Works or any other governmental agency in Afghanistan may prepare structural design guidelines, construction project administration, materials manuals, drainage, and other necessary manuals.

The availability of the required testing equipment for quality control and quality assurance is needed to ensure that quality products are manufactured for Afghan infrastructures. The laboratories should have the required testing equipment and qualified personnel. The Afghan standard testing methods and specifications should be prepared for testing and materials. At present any of the international standard test methods, specifications, and practices may be implemented.

The quality assurance depends on the availability of proper testing and inspection equipment and qualified personnel. The Roadway Department or its agent may perform the required inspection and testing as part of the acceptance process of the products for Afghan projects. The governmental agencies should have the qualified inspection personnel. The qualification requires the personnel training and experience. Each governmental agency should prepare a plan for the on-the-job training program of its employees. These training programs may include for those who test or inspect the manufacturing, delivery, installation, and repair of the products.

The inspectors are needed to inspect and perform necessary tests of the aggregates, water, cement, reinforcing steel, soil, foundation, and asphalt. The training of personnel is a necessary part of this process.

The government should give priority consideration for workplace to protect personnel during the manufacturing, delivery, and installation process of precast concrete products. On-the-job safety observations and training programs should be included as part of each construction agency.

All construction personnel, including workers, technicians, engineers, and managers should take construction safety training courses. In accordance with Du-Pont: “All injuries and occupational illnesses can be prevented. Safety is a line-management responsibility. All construction and operating exposures can be reasonably safeguarded. Line management has a responsibility to train all employees to work safely. Preventing injuries and incidents is good business. Working safely is a condition of employment.”

All managers and supervisors should take training courses to learn the principles of reducing accidents and injuries at the workplace.

Contractors and manufacturers should be licensed to perform any building, roadway, bridge, and any other public work activities in Afghanistan.

Licenses should be required for engineers, architects, landscape architects, bridge and building code inspectors, and all other professional personnel and companies.

The government should plan for having additional qualified aggregate mines, cement factories, and ready-mixed concrete batch plants. The building of the precast reinforced concrete pipe, precast concrete drainage structures, piles, and beams are the essential needs of Afghan roadway and bridge projects.

The establishment of the precast/prestressed concrete plants should be one of the immediate goals in Afghanistan. Acknowledgment:

The author has referenced Florida Department of Transportation's current practices and construction management processes for the fabrication of precast concrete products. The names of the FDOT documents and the documents of other institutes are included as part of the references section of this report.


45

References American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2003),

Part 1 Specifications, Washington, D.C American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2003),

Part 2 Tests, Washington, D.C American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2003),

Standard Specification for Highway Bridges, Washington, D.C American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohoken, PA E.I. Du Pont DE Nemours & Co. (1986), Training Observation Program for Supervision,

Administration, and Leader’s Guide, E.I. Du Pont DE Nemours & Co. (1976), Training Observation Program for Non-Supervisory

Personnel, Florida Department of Transportation (2004), Standards Specifications for Road and Bridge

Construction, Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (2004), Training Web Address by alphabetical order:

http://personnel.dot.state.fl.us/pdf/tressalpha.pdf. Florida Department of Transportation (2004), Training Web Address by course number:

http://personnel.dot.state.fl.us/pdf/tressnum.pdf. Florida Department of Transportation (1993), Work Zone Traffic Control Handbook,

Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation, Design Standards for Design, Construction,

Maintenance, and Utility Operations on State Florida Department of Transportation (2003), Construction Project Administration Manual,

Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (2003), Basics of Estimates, Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (1996), Negotiation Handbook for Professional

Services Contracts, Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (1994), Field Standards for Final estimates,

Engineering Support Services, Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (1994), Minimum Specification, for Traffic Control

Signals and Devices, Tallahassee, Florida Florida Department of Transportation (2003), Structures Design Guidelines, Tallahassee,

Florida Florida Department of Transportation (2003), Standard Drawings, Load Factor Design,

Tallahassee, Florida. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (1991), Principles of

Writing Highway Construction Specifications, Participant Notebook, NHI Course No. 13401, The National Highway Institute, Philadelphia, PA

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (1991), Principles of Writing Highway Construction Specifications, Case Studies, Workshops, NHI Course No. 13401, National Highway Institute, Philadelphia, PA

U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration (1988), Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, Fredericksburg, Virginia.


46

Design Build Approach for Utility Relocation and Accommodation in Highway Widening Projects

Jeff Martin, Florida Department of Environmental Protection Fazil T. Najafi, University of Florida

Many state transportation agencies authorized by their State legislature use alternative project-delivery methods to save time and money on highway projects. One of the principal alternative techniques for road improvements is design-build. The objective of this paper is to identify states with design-build statutory authority and effective design-build techniques for utility relocation. A survey conducted as part of this paper, identified thirty states with design-build authority and five states exhibiting extensive experience with design-build projects in highway corridors. The survey identified two design-build case studies with utility construction and revealed five common successful techniques. Case studies from Florida and North Carolina demonstrate that the design-build approach successfully relocated and accommodated utilities in highway widening projects. BACKGROUND

In order to address utility relocations and accommodations for projects in road corridors, many project delivery methods are considered to contract the work. Work forces to accomplish utility relocations can be from private utility staff, public utility staff, State and utility hired contractors, and State agency employees. Historically, project delivery methods were predominantly design-bid-build. In the last decade, many varied contract methods have been employed by State transportation agencies. A few of the most commonly used contract methods include:

1) Cost plus time bidding, also know as A+B bidding (1). The first cost component is the traditional bid dollar amount. The second cost component of the bid is the estimated number of days the contractor bids to complete the project. The State transportation agency will assign a dollar value to each contract day and compare the bids received.

2) Lump sum allows the bidder to reduce administrative costs associated with quantity calculation, verification and measurement. The contractor submits a lump sum price to complete a project as opposed to bidding on individual pay items. The contractor bases the quantities for the bid based on the agency provided set of bid documents.

3) Bid averaging method (BAM) is a method used to cause contractors to bid a true and reasonable cost. State transportation agencies may have various formulas for BAM, but in general, they will average the bids and select the contractor bid that is closest to the average of all bids received.

Design-build is defined as the combination of the design and construction phase of a

highway project into a single contract. One firm is assigned to design and construct the project before plans are complete. There are three main objectives of design-build. The first goal is to save time because construction begins during design. Secondly, there is a single point of responsibility for issues concerning cost, quality and scheduling efforts. Finally, the design-build effort allows the contractor to consider techniques for flexibility and innovation.


47

The bid process is more expensive for the design-build firm. The request for proposal (RFP) is the document the State transportation agency uses to solicit proposals from prequalified design-build firms to design and construct the highway project. The request for qualifications (RFQ) is a document used by State transportation agencies to prequalify and short-list potential design-build firms.

Bid selection in the past was often based solely on lowest bid. Now the bids in many cases are adjusted according to a formula for best value such as for the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) (2), (3). There are two common types of design-build bids. When very clearly defined project requirements are specified, the lowest bid is typically selected. The second type of bidding is an adjusted score for projects where the end purpose is well defined, but the specifics of design materials, and construction techniques are not well defined. The climate is changing for State transportation agencies in the way they provide public service. Decades ago, State transportation agencies would provide design, construction, operation and maintenance activities almost exclusively. Now, work forces used for relocations include utilities, contractors and State Agency forces. Recent changes in the last 10 years are evident as the FDOT now has 90% of the design work performed by consultants (4).

The increasing use of design-build for highway projects was the starting point for this research paper to survey State transportation agencies and identify those States with statutes to allow design-build projects for highways. Of those 30 states identified, the State list was narrowed to transportation agencies with design-build projects involving utility relocations or utility accommodations for highway widening projects.

The survey paid attention to utility agency/owner (UAO) agreements, joint project agreement or joint participation agreements (JPAs), contract incentives, contract penalties, and the timing for environmental permits related to utility relocations. Based upon this survey criteria, the targeted States were queried for potential case studies and effective methods used to handle utility conflicts in the right-of-way.

FEDERAL REGULATIONS

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has regulations, policies and practices dealing with utility relocation and accommodation in highway corridors. Federal highway law located in Title 23 of United States Code (23 U.S.C.) section 109(l) concerns the accommodation of utilities and 23U.S.C. 123 concerns reimbursement for relocation of utility facilities (5). Relocation is the adjustment of utility facilities required by a highway project and includes removing, reinstalling and replacement. Accommodation involves existing utility facilities that are to be retained, relocated or adjusted within the right-of-way. Highway widening projects typically involve both utility relocation and utility accommodation.

Utility relocation is a critical component of the accommodation for utilities in the right-of-way. In accordance with 23 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 645, FWHA has developed the guideline Program Guide for Utility Relocation, Adjustment and Accommodation on Federal-Aid Highway Projects (5). Federal-aid highway funds are used for relocation of utility facilities and for the accommodation of utility facilities on qualified Federal-aid highway right-of-way.

Title 23 CFR, Subsection 636.103 defines the design-build contract as an agreement that provides for design and construction of improvements by a contractor or private


48

developer. The term encompasses design-build maintain, design-build operate, design-build finance, and other contracts that include services in addition to design and construction (6).

NATIONAL GUIDELINES, POLICIES, AND STANDARDS

American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has formed a committee directly involved in the design-build process known as the AASHTO Joint Technical Committee on Design-Build. The committee was formed with the objective to assist State transportation agencies in the implementation of design-build contracting and to establish a national framework for design-build in transportation. The AASHTO committee has recognized utility relocations as one of the major design-build issues (7).

Several research efforts are currently underway in the design-build arena. NCHRP Project 25-25(12), report, Design-Build Environmental Compliance Process and Level of Detail: Eight Case Studies, was recently published (8). This report details the concern of obtaining required environmental permits by the State transportation agencies and the transfer and timing of the responsibilities from the State to the design-build entity.

Another AASHTO design-build report expected for completion (7) in December 2006, is the NCHRP Project 20-07, Task 172, Recommended AASHTO Design-Build Procurement Guide. This procurement guide will assist contracting agencies with the development of request for qualifications (RFQ) and request for proposal (RFP) documents. The Design Build Institute of America (DBIA) sites seven major benefits for design-build (9):

1) With both design and construction in the hands of a single entity, there is a single point of responsibility for quality, cost and schedule adherences.

2) The singularized responsibility inherent in design-build serves as a motivation for quality and proper project performance.

3) Designers and contractors work as one team and cost savings are realized. 4) Design and construction overlap such that total project time is less. 5) During design and construction, the owner is not required to invest time and money

coordinating and arbitrating between separate design and construction contracts. 6) Guaranteed construction costs are known much earlier. 7) Performance aspects of cost, schedule and quality are clearly defined and

responsibilities and risks are appropriately balanced. Research Objectives

The objective is to identify successful design-build techniques where utility relocation and accommodation were necessary in highway widening projects. Design-build is used as one of the tools in the state transportation agency toolbox to cut project delivery time, reduce and eliminate cost overruns and claims, gain efficiency in processes, and improve professionalism and project quality. The first step to identify common elements of utility relocations in design-build programs was to develop survey questions. Thirty State transportation agencies identified as having design-build experience are listed in Table 1. Of these thirty States, the focus of this report was to target states with design-build projects that involved utility relocation or accommodation.

The second step was to submit the questions to the targeted state transportation agencies and then summarize the survey questions and responses as shown in Table 2. Supplemental design-build data from the states is presented Table 3.


49

As a result of the survey, five successful techniques were identified and two design-build case studies were identified that exhibited these techniques. The identified successful techniques are:

1) utility relocation agreements 2) incentives, limitations and constraints (to reduce total project duration) 3) coordination and collaboration 4) project oversight 5) environmental permits obtained prior to project start

TABLE 1 State Transportation Agencies Identified with Design-Build Experience (30 States) State Highway Agency

Alabama Department of Transportation.

Arizona Department of Transportation.

Alaska Department of Transportation

Arkansas Department of Transportation

California Department of Transportation

Colorado Department of Transportation

Connecticut Department of Transportation

Delaware Department of Transportation

Florida Department of Transportation

Georgia Department of Transportation

Illinois Department of Transportation

Idaho Department of Transportation

Indiana Department of Transportation

Iowa Department of Transportation

Kansas Department of Transportation

Kentucky Department of Transportation

Louisiana Department of Transportation

Maine Department of Transportation

Maryland Department of Transportation

Massachusetts Department of Transportation

Michigan Department of Transportation

Minnesota Department of Transportation

Mississippi Department of Transportation

Missouri Department of Transportation

Montana Department of Transportation

NE Department of Transportation

Nevada Department of Transportation

New Hampshire Department of Transportation

New Jersey Department of Transportation

New Mexico Department of Transportation

New York Department of Transportation

North Carolina Department of Transportation

North Dakota Department of Transportation

Ohio Department of Transportation

Oregon Department of Transportation

Pennsylvania Department of Transportation

Rhode Island Department of Transportation

South Carolina Department of Transportation

South Dakota Department of Transportation

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Texas Department of Transportation

Utah Department of Transportation

Vermont Department of Transportation

Virginia Department of Transportation

Washington Department of Transportation

West Virginia Department of Transportation

Wisconsin Department of Transportation

Wyoming Department of Transportation


50

TABLE 2 Survey for State Transportation Agencies With Extensive Design-Build Projects Questionnaire

1. Does your State have Master Utility Agreements (MUA), Joint Partnership Agreements (JPA), or

other agreement where utilities are included in design build, allowing a contracted entity perform utility work? (Joint Participation Agreement =JPA. UWHC=Utility work by Highway Contractor. Utility Agreement = UA.)

2. What is included in the definition of utilities? Storm drains, water, wastewater, reclaimed water, streetlights, irrigation, electrical, telephone, cable, or other utilities?

3. Does your State transportation agency acquire most (if not all) environmental permits prior to the Request for Proposal (RFP)? Then, are the permit risks and responsibilities transferred to the contractor or Design-Build entity? (NEPA=National Environmental Policy Act. Corps 404)

4. Describe steps to identify utilities prior to RFP. How is the risk of unidentified/misidentified utilities allocated?

5. Is Subsurface Utility Engineering (SUE) criteria specified? Is there a minimum level of SUE required: A, B, C or D?

6. For utility relocations, are there: a) Bonus dollars and incentives for early completion. b) Clearing and grubbing conducted by State agencies or a contractor (if applicable) to assist in early relocation. c) Contingency fund for unexpected utility relocation issues. d) Process to verify pay quotations. e) Refund of excess deposit amounts?

7. Does the State transportation agency provide construction/resource staff such as a Project Engineer (PM), Project Manager (PM), Construction and Engineering Inspector (CEI) or an Environmental Compliance Inspector to monitor the project?

8. Can you provide an example of a Design-Build project for a case study where utility relocations techniques were necessary as described above?

Question Number

AZ FDOT MDHA MNDOT NCDOT OHDOT

1 UA UA, UWHA, JPA

MUA UA UA UA

2 All utilities All utilities All utilities All utilities All utilities All utilities 3 NEPA NEPA NEPA NEPA NEPA NEPA 4 Transfer to

DB firm Transfer to DB firm

Transfer to DB firm

Transfer to DB firm

Transfer to DB firm

Transfer to DB firm

5 SUE. No level specified.

SUE level B minimum.

SUE. No level specified.



SUE. Project specific.

6 a) no b) no c) yes d) yes e) yes

a) no b) yes c) yes d) yes e) yes

a) no b) no c) yes d) yes e) yes




7 PM PM, CEI PE, PM PM PM, CEI PM 8 SR-68 I 95 at

SR 210 MD 113 Hiawatha

Transit US 64, SR 1128

CR 88

Utility Relocation Agreements

As indicated in Tables 2 and 3, state transportation agencies have various names for utility agreements and agreements with various parties. FDOT does allow utility work by a highway contractor (UWHC) (1). This is an arrangement where the utility agency owner (UAO) agrees to let the FDOT’s highway contractor perform the utility work. Joint project agreement is between FDOT and the UAO to establish conditions for utilities in state right-of-way. The contract is handled under the latest version of Design/Build Utility Agreement


51

form No. 710-010-18 (10). The majority of FDOT utility adjustment work is performed by the UAO or their contractor.

North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) scope of work for design-build firms indicates the firm is responsible for all utility conflicts, utility construction plans and coordinating all utility relocations. Any additional subsurface utility engineering (SUE) work is design-build team responsibility. NCDOT is the approving authority for all utility agreements and for approval of plans.

NCDOT has the following contract steps associated with design-build utility relocations (11):

1. Preparation for relocating utilities within existing or proposed right-of-way, the design-build firm is required to use all State guidelines and standard utility encroachment agreements. Design-build firm is responsible for confirming the location of utilities.

2. Design-build firm will arrange for adjustments, relocation or removal of utilities. For utility conflicts, the design-build firm must have the utility submit relocation plans, execute agreements with utilities and submit all documents to NCDOT. Design-build firm must determine cost, responsibility and compensation. Cost payments are made by NCDOT. Cable television (CATV) joint use issues may be compensated in certain cases. Utility relocation work and improvement work will be negotiated between the design-build firm and the utility. State utility agent must execute approved agreements.

3. Attachment to structures is allowed with certain restrictions and must provide feasible alternatives and cost estimates. Electrical service and communication service for lighting, signing, and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is covered. Electric utility coordination and approval is conducted by the State. NCDOT will pay for service taps and will pay costs to adjust utilities due to traffic management systems with fiber optics. TABLE 3 Summary of Targeted State DOT Design Build Responses State DOT

Type of Utility Relocation Agreements JPA=joint participation agreement UWHC= UA=utility agreement MUA=Master Utility Agreements OA= other

State DOT Acquires Environmental Permits. Prior to DB firm selection. NEPA, Corps 404, other.

Number of design build projects. C= completed. A=active.

State DOT Provides: Project Engineer (PE), Project Manager (PM), Compliance Inspector (CEI)

Typically, incorporate utility relocations in Design-Build projects.

AZ UA NEPA A=2 C=3 PM Yes

FL UA, JPA, UWHC

NEPA A=39, C=33 PM Limited

MN UA NEPA A=6, C=3 PM Limited

MD MUA NEPA, 404. A= 5 C=1

PE, PM Limited.

NC OA NEPA, 404. A=15 C=1

PM Yes.

OH PA NEPA A=16 C=34

PM Yes


52

INCENTIVES, LIMITATIONS AND CONSTRAINTS The concept of incentives or bonus dollars to design-build firms is an important

concept of the state transportation department contracts and policies. When the design-build project is completed ahead of schedule and the design-build firm has fewer impacts to the right-of-way and less impact to the environment, there is an inherent savings to the State transportation agency in time, a benefit to the environment and less public travel time delays. The design-build firm savings are in terms of time. Cost savings are tangible and intangible.

NCDOT offers incentives for the design-build firm to reduce the projected wetland impacts and stream impacts. FDOT incentive concept is savings in materials and time and this will result in savings to the design-build firm. FDOT also considers past experience with contractor performance. Firms with one day or more of liquidated damages on three or more contracts in the past year would not be considered for the design-build list (2).

Design-build in conjunction with constructability reviews during design reduces total project duration. State transportation agencies have increased pressure to complete projects on time or earlier than scheduled. Delay and disruption of commerce due to road widening projects pressures State transportation agencies to reduce or minimize traveler inconvenience and reduce travel impacts to local businesses. COORDINATION AND COLLABORATION

FDOT has a formal utility coordination process to meet with each UAO, to schedule public meetings to evaluate conflicts, determine reimbursement (if warranted), to hold a pre-design conference and to follow and monitor progress of percent design completion.

FDOT has the position of choosing design-build for projects where major utility conflicts and relocations will be minimal (12). Most utility conflicts occur in urban construction/reconstruction with major utilities and major right-of-way requirements. When it is necessary to obtain needed right-of-way for widening projects, states have allowed the design-build firm to secure right-of-way acquisition. While FDOT now allows right-of-way services to be included in design-build contracts, AzDOT does not allow right-of-way services to be included in the design-build project. In the State of Arizona, right-of-way procurement is the responsibility of the AzDOT (13).

Design-build firm contractor work forces have schedules of 7 days per week focusing and concentrating on specific projects. Utility companies not only focus on new construction, but also they must deal with day-to-day operation and maintenance activities. Utility forces tend to be spread in many areas and typically not able to focus and concentrate on a given project as well as the design-build firm. FDOT and NCDOT have found great benefit in upfront coordination and collaboration meetings with the design-build firm and affected utilities. As the project progresses, the design-build firm has the burden to be responsible for resolving utility conflict, and utility construction activities. PROJECT OVERSIGHT

State transportation agencies have indicated that they provide a project engineer (PE) or project manager (PM) assigned to the design-build project (see Table 3). Project manager is responsible for coordinating the procurement of design-build services and overseeing the engineering/inspection and construction of the project.

Design-build firms provide a construction engineer inspector (CEI) and in certain larger scope or sensitive projects, the firm will provide (or may be contractually required to provide) an environmental compliance inspector. Co-locating staff is a concept under


53

exploration by Minnesota, Florida and Maryland. State transportation staff has been assigned to projects based on location and in accordance with staff expertise and experience with similar projects. ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITS

States transportation agencies indicate that they will conduct the NEPA review processes up front to evaluate and assess the highway project potential effects on the environment. NCDOT indicates they can obtain environmental permits from US Army Corps (section 404), NPDES stormwater permits, and State required permits for water and wastewater. However, the permit responsibilities and construction authority is transferred to the design-build firm. The design-build firm is responsible to maintain permit compliance and is held accountable for environmental permit violations and any resulting penalties. The general public has heightened concern in recent years with environmental protection, management and conservation. Environmental agencies provide oversight to protect and regulate the environment and enforce regulatory compliance. State transportation agencies have championed environmental protection and management activities associated with highway widening projects.

FDOT performs sufficient preliminary design (10%-15%) to verify that a project can be permitted and to limit the design-builder's risk. The design-builder is responsible for obtaining environmental permits, address mitigation responsibilities, and other permit issues. The RFP package allows the design-builder a time-frame for securing permits, and commencing the project when a completed application is approved by the permitting agency. FDOT establishes the design-build criteria from which prospective bidders then will develop design proposals. CASE STUDIES: Research Methodology

Design-build case studies were sought where utility relocation and accommodation were conducted in highway widening projects. Two case studies identified illustrated the five techniques that were successful in design-build projects where utility relocation and/or utility accommodation were necessary.

North Carolina Case Study

Beginning in 2002, NCDOT bid the highway project segment of SR1128, known as Ruin Creek Road. This highway project included a bridge that passes over Interstate 85 (I-85). The total road project was approximately 1 mile in length and involved widening the existing two-lane road to a five-lane curb and gutter facility. The existing bridge across I-85 was replaced with a new structure of six lanes with a sidewalk. The award method was best-value. An upfront partnering workshop was conducted with the design-build firm, NCDOT, and affected utilities. This partnering effort was most productive for the utility companies in this project. One of the identified needs is to increase the level of trust, familiarity and to build working relationships between the utilities and the design-build firm.

A public newsletter was mailed, a public neighborhood meeting was conducted and a website maintained to inform the citizens that travel the highway. The public outreach over the project timeframe informed the public of all highway construction progress.

This project required all right-of-way staking and right-of-way coordination to be conducted by the design-build firm. The design-build firm also had to acquire and pay for the right-of-way. After review and consideration of the right-of-way procedure, the state transportation agency has changed this process and on future design-build projects, the


54

design-build firm will acquire right-of-way. Then NCDOT will pay directly for right-of-way acquisition. It was felt that direct pay from the NCDOT for the right-of-way would be more effective and efficient. NCDOT questioned staff, the design-build firm, contractors and utilities. Responses and comments received indicated that utility relocation process was successful (14):

• Utility companies appeared more responsive because the final project information, and final relocation schedule was presented.

• Design-build firm presented a strong unified front and pressed utility owners. The direct relationship between the firm and the utilities resulted in many situations being resolved without NCDOT intervention. Utility relocation work and improvement work was negotiated between the design-build firm and the utility.

• Use of a utility coordinator on the project was successful. The contractor stated that the utility coordinator was busiest person on the job.

• Utility work was made more successful because of the upfront partnering meeting.

NCDOT has determined that their staff is learning and needs further training, guidance and computer software to more adequately track design-build projects. The requirement for detailed Critical Path Management (CPM) submittals for all design-build projects is under consideration by NCDOT (14). Engineers that oversee design-build projects are public project managers that also must oversee consultants. This particular project revealed no noted incentives, as it was finished by the projected completion date.

Environmental permits for the NCDOT project included Best Management Practices (BMPs) for erosion and sediment control. Changes were necessary to the initial BMPs because few options were available and daily changes to the process were needed. The key issue here is that State and Federal environmental officials and the contractor want to make changes based on necessary requirements for best protection to safeguard water quality and minimize impacts. Design-build firms have asked that specific erosion and sediment control requirements, with more detailed description and pre-approved BMPs be included in future proposals to allow a better contractor bid.

Florida Interstate Case Studies

Two FDOT design-build case studies were reviewed and are presented in this paper. The FDOT has a similar and effective approach to the utility relocation process when compared to NCDOT.

Interstate 95 (I-95) widening project in Northeast Florida proposed adding a lane to both North and South bound. The added lane involved replacing the I-95 overpass at CR 210 with a new bridge to accommodate six lanes of traffic and six lanes of traffic beneath the overpass on CR 210 (15). Utility relocations at the overpass were handled with Master Utility Agreements and the utility and contractor agreements were handled and managed separately by FDOT. As the design-build scope was underway, this allowed FDOT to move forward timely to address the utility relocations.

The selected design-build firm presented a strong unified front and worked successfully with utility owners. The direct relationship between the firm and the utilities resulted in many situations being resolved with less FDOT intervention as would be anticipated in a design-bid-build project.

The second FDOT design-build project had some utility relocation requirements on Interstate 4 (I-4) in Orlando, Florida (15). This project, while in a rapid growth area, essentially only required utility relocations for the widening project at the bridge overpass. The I-4 westbound bridge over the Central Florida Parkway was repaired and widened. Utility corridors were parallel to the roadway and not transverse across the highway right-of-


55

way. The project was 3.25 miles in length and involved adding one auxiliary travel lane in each direction, plus milling and resurfacing existing lanes.

For both FDOT projects, public information was provided by interviews with news media, press releases, public meetings were conducted and a website was maintained during the time of construction. The public outreach effort informed citizens that travel the highway and give them an opportunity to submit questions and comments.

Accelerated schedules in the design-build agreements would not allow utility agreements with design-build firms and were not placed in the design-build contract as part of the process. FDOT is evaluating and has under review the development and consideration of a Master Utility Agreement (MUA) with the design-build firm. At this time, this is not available for design-build projects. The difference is in managing the utility relocation work. The design-build firm however, must identify utilities, coordinate relocations, and determine adjustments in accordance with the FDOT scope of work. The utility must still acquire a DOT right-of-way utility permit.

For the I-95 project, and as part of an effort to study the design-build process, construction engineer inspectors (CEIs) were hired by FDOT as internal consultants to insure environmental and construction compliance (16). This effort was allowed for the Northern and Central segments, but for the Southern segment, the RFP required the design-build firm to hire its own CEI. FDOT is analyzing the success of these two CEI approaches and will use the knowledge gained for future design-build projects. CASE STUDY CONCLUSIONS

One strong advantage for State transportation agencies that pursue the design-build method is that the utility relocation responsibility is transferred to the design-build firm. The State DOT has the management role to oversee the design-build firm for utility relocations and accommodation, but the design-build firm is responsible for coordinating and scheduling, conducting meetings, locating utilities, and for any delays cased by utility conflicts.

In the previous paper (17), it was determined that there were two emerging issues needing improvement. One issue was the determination of standard costs for utility relocations and the second issue was project follow-up to review, and implement positive strategies for accommodating utilities. These two issues result in better utility participation and stronger cooperation in future road projects. For the case studies reviewed, the design-build firm through this contract process, as addressed in the project scope, develops standard costs for utility relocation and must coordinate and cooperate with the utilities. Addressing these emerging issues is to the betterment of the design-build firm and to the utility. Utility participation and cooperation was better as the design-build firm focused on project specific utility efforts. The State transportation agencies in the case studies were able to provide better overall management of the project and lessons learned are carried forward to future projects (see Table 4).

The State transportation agencies in these case studies both indicate that they are able to try innovative concepts. In addition, the agencies provide project follow-up, evaluations and implement positive strategies to future projects. Even in cases where the State transportation agency handles utility coordination and relocations before the contract is awarded to the design-build firm, the overall benefit for timely utility relocation is evident in the case studies.

The design-build firm is a partnership between the design firm and the contractor. Utility relocation work and improvement work was negotiated between the design-build firm and the specific utility. The close working relationship of the design-build firm and their contractor helped to resolve conflicts and eliminated claims that the State transportation agencies stated would have been prevalent if the project was not design-build.


56

TABLE 4 Summary of Case Studies Design Build Utility Relocations State DOT

Utility Relocation Agreements

Incentives, Limitations, Constraints

Coordination And Collaboration

Project Oversight

Environmental Permits

FL Coordination. Conduct relocations. Utility Relocation Agreements. Project evaluation. Standard costs.

Cost savings. Design and material savings.

Public meeting. Website. Mailing. Collaborative meetings and resolutions.

Project Manager (PM), Compliance Inspector (CEI)

DB firm responsibility to obtain environmental permits.

NC Coordination. Conduct relocations. Utility Relocation Agreements. Project evaluation. Standard costs.

Cost savings. No penalties. Quality work.

Public meeting. Website. Mailing. Partnership meeting.

Project Engineer (PE), Compliance Inspector (CEI)

DB firm responsibility. To obtain environmental permits. Construction/stormwater BMPs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Special thanks go to the following people (in no particular order): • Rodger Rochelle and Victor Barbour, North Carolina Department of Transportation • Vince Camp and Kenneth Weldon, Florida Department of Transportation • Nelson Smith, Maryland State Highway Administration • C. Paul Scott, TBE Group, Inc.

REFERENCES

1. Florida Department of Transportation. Contracts. http://www.dot.state.fl.us/specificationsoffice/ accessed June 10, 2005.

2. Design-Build Guidelines, February 17, 2004. Florida Department of Transportation. http://www.fdot.state.fl.us/utilities. Accessed June 10, 2005.

3. Minnesota Department of Transportation. Innovative Contracting. http://www.dot.state.us/information/ici/methods/designbuild.html). Accessed June 14, 2005.

4. Kingsley, G. Task Report 1: A Literature Review of Consultant Management. GDOT Research Project Number 2020. Georgia Institute of Technology’s Schools of Policy and Civil and Environmental Engineering. Georgia Institute of Technology. October 2003.

5. Utility Relocation and Accommodation on Federal Aid Highway Projects: Program Guide, 6th edition. FHWA-IF-03-014, Office of Program Administration, FHWA, January 2003. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ reports/utilguid. Accessed May 14, 2005.

6. United States Department of Transportation (USDOT). Transportation Decision Making. Public Law 105-178-June 9,1998. Section 1306, 1307 and 1309. http://environment.fhwa.dot.gov/projdev/tdmpdo.htm/ Accessed June 23, 2005.

7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Joint


57

Technical Committee on Design-Build. http://cms.transportation.org/?siteid=63&pageid=1236. Accessed June 6, 2005.

8. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Design-Build Environmental Compliance Process and Level of Detail: Eight Case Studies. AASHTO Standing Committee on the Environment, Prepared by the Louis Berger Group, Inc. Prepared as part of NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 12, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, January 2005.

9. Design Build Institute of America. (http://designbuild.transportation.org/?siteid=63&pageid=1228. Accessed Thursday, June 23, 2005.

10. Florida Department of Transportation. Design/Build Utility Agreement form No. 710-010-18. (www.dot.state.fl.us/rddesign/utilties/files/interimdocs.htm. Accessed June 24,2005.

11. North Carolina Department of Transportation. Design Build, Scope of Work. http://www.doh/dot.state.nc.us/construction/ps/a;tern/design_build/. Accessed June 21, 2005.

12. Design Build Program Evaluation. Evaluation for July 1996 - June 2003. Florida Department of Transportation, Project Management, Research and Development Office, Tallahassee, Florida 32399-0450. November 2004.

13. Arizona Department of Transportation. Design-Build Procurement and Administration Guide. (http://www.azdot.gov/highways/constgrp/designbuildguide.asp). Accessed July 1, 2005.

14. North Carolina Department of Transportation. Design-Build Post Construction Review for I-3807. Draft version. July 21, 2005.

15. Florida Department of Transportation. Construction Projects. http://www/dot.state.fl.us/redesign/utilities/files/utilties.htm. Accessed June 1, 2005.

16. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Design-Build Environmental Compliance Process and Level of Detail: Eight Case Studies. AASHTO Standing Committee on the Environment, Prepared by the Louis Berger Group, Inc. Prepared as part of NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 12, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, January 2005.

17. Martin, Jeff and Najafi, Fazil T. Management Strategies for Utility Relocation and Joint Use in Highway Right-of-Way. University of Florida paper submitted and presented at Transportation Research Board. January 2004.


58

Organizational Knowledge Management Research and Practices for Developing Economies

Claudette Chin-Loy, Bahaudin G. Mujtaba and Barbara Dastoor, Nova Southeastern University Organizational learning and effective knowledge management practices are a necessity in today’s international environment where information becomes available and obsolete very quickly (Mujtaba, 2007; Chin-Loy, 2003). Furthermore, managers are expected to have all of the information they need to make effective decisions regardless of whether they work at home or abroad. Yet, today’s managers are constantly bombarded with more information they can possibly absorb in a given day. As such organizations are required to create such organizational cultures where the right information is learned, retained and shared with all relevant parties. Thus, the study of managing knowledge and learning amid continuous change becomes critical. This paper provides an overview of organizational culture, learning organizations and offers suggestions for effective knowledge management. Democracy and Knowledge Management

Effective knowledge management is the essence of true democracy, as well as the fact that each leader should strive for providing a fair and just environment for everyone to access and benefit from the information. Most developing economies are now focusing on the accumulation and free dispersion of knowledge to encourage and promote democracy. What exactly is democracy and how does it relate to knowledge management in various professions? According to research and experts on this subject, democracy generally consists of four basic elements and none of these elements can take place effectively without a good system for knowledge management and distribution to all relevant parties. First, democracy can be seen as a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections. Second, democracy is defined through the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and the civic life of a nation. Third, democracy is about the protection of the human rights of all citizens living in a nation. Fourth, democracy is about the rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens that live in the country.

The dream and means of achieving democracy might vary in different cultures since their history as a people, their mores and economic realities will vary from one society to another. For example, “free and fair elections” require an effective system so all the right information is easily documented, disseminated and presented to a majority of the population if they are going to freely and fairly elect officials and vote for certain constitutional amendments. Some countries do not have such luxuries as free access to information through computers, websites, or libraries; therefore, they rely on the initiative and knowledge of the few to guide the majority and make fair decisions for their welfare. In developing economies, such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Morocco, and many others, a large percentage of the population may not be able to read and write at a functional level. To be a little more gender specific, in many third world countries, over 60% of the female population may not have had the needed education to read or write.


59

Consequently, when the information is available, it is of very little use to these individuals who are not able to make good use of it. Thus, knowledge management strategies might be very different for such cultures and may take the form of story telling and community socialization seminars.

While the rules of law should apply equally to all citizens, their creation and public education about them must be the responsibility of those who are effectively equipped to make such decisions. For example, it is not fair to expect a four-star military general to competently make technical decisions about a country’s marketing website for attracting tourists from across the globe. Besides, there might be other individuals who are better equipped for decisions related to tourism and online communication as per their professional background and educational achievements. Similarly, experts in the tourism industry and online communication are not necessarily always the best individuals for decisions that relate to the security of government officials and people all around the country. So, knowledge management as well as its creation and dissemination must be left to the professionals and experts who are properly equipped for it. This is especially true of third world countries where community elders or “freedom fighters” are often expected to become politicians. One must remember that these community elders and “freedom fighters” may not be qualified to perform the required expectations.

Of course, what is also interesting is that people have different perceptions of certain professions and generally attach either less or more respect for people who are associated with such careers. According to a survey report on July 26, 2006 from the local affiliate of the American Broadcasting Corporation in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, people have a high level of respect for such professions as fire fighter, medical doctors, nurses, and teachers respectively. Perhaps these professionals are given the highest level of respect because they have to earn their knowledge prior to being able to actually perform their tasks. Furthermore, individuals associated with these professions are also expected to keep up with the changing pace of information and new knowledge. Finally, they work hard to serve people, and what they do is often physically transparent to the naked eye. On the other side, such jobs as those of lawyers, real estate agents, and business executives were ranked on the bottom with regard to respectful professions. While members of these professions also have high ethical standards and are encouraged to be responsible leaders in the field, they are often accused of taking care of themselves first, of selfishness and self aggrandizement. The citizens of the United States, where the survey was completed, form these perceptions from what they hear from television reporters and what they read in the newspapers. Such perceptions are formed when people read that business executives (i.e. those from Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, etc.), who earn millions of dollars each year, intentionally cheat stockholders by hiding the truth, manipulating their earnings, or “cooking the books” to show more profits. Of course, such examples of unfair practices and unethical dealings in developing economies are evidence that all nations need to work on the creation of a democratic culture through effective knowledge management in order for everyone to receive fair and just treatment. Organizational Culture and its Basics Organizational culture is recognized as a major contributor to knowledge management as it represents a major source of competitive advantage for organizations to achieve their objectives. Cabrera and Bonache (2001) contend that, clearly, knowledge management is of central importance to organizations. The latest revolution in business shows that instead of hoarding knowledge, there is an urgent need for managers to collaborate and share knowledge


60

(Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007). The paradigm shift to knowledge management is pushing the efforts of many companies to manage knowledge as a competitive advantage in order to achieve their objectives; and there is a growing sense of urgency among executives about the practicality of leveraging knowledge within the organization. The current competition among businesses forces them to develop and manage systems to benefit from employees’ learning, possession and development of knowledge; the way in which employees who hold this knowledge are managed can be an important source of competitive advantage.

Culture is a pattern of norms, values, beliefs and attitudes that influences behavior within an organization (Schein, 1999). Schein’s research on organization culture analyzed culture at three levels (1) Artifacts, which is defined as the visible organizational structures and processes which is difficult to define precisely; (2) Espoused values, the strategies, goals, and philosophies the entity claims for itself; and (3) Basic underlying assumptions, the unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. There thus are a number of ways to conceptualized organizational culture.

A strong culture may be an important factor in obtaining a competitive advantage. The concept of organizational culture can most conveniently be operationalized in terms of either types or dimensions. According to Fletcher and Jones (1992), the uses of types involve categorizing organizations on the basis of a range of evidence using a theoretical basis, for example, a bureaucratic culture. The use of dimensions identifies the position of the organization on a number of continua, each describing elements of importance to individual and organizational performance, such as how people perceive the quality of communication.

According to De Long and Fahey (2000), to find the fit between the existing organization and knowledge management objectives, managers need frameworks to effectively identify how culture affects their unit’s ability to create and apply knowledge. As De Long and Fahey emphasize, only then can they design strategies to either adapt to the culture or try to reshape it to support the firm’s knowledge management objectives. As illustrated above, the concept of culture continues to be researched in the literature as a key variable in the success or failure of organizational innovations or initiatives. Hence, the theoretical framework and the competing values framework of Quinn and McGrath (1985) provide the main focus of the literature review. The competing value framework (CVF), provides a useful conceptual tool for understanding an organization’s culture and thus to examine the relationship of culture to knowledge management.

The competing values framework is widely known to scholars and researchers as an efficacious way to measure and compare one culture to the other. According to Quinn and McGrath (1985) the competing values framework also has been used to organize the literature on organizational effectiveness, leadership, information processing, organizational change, organizational culture, and organizational decision-making. In a series of studies, Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) investigated the similarity and dissimilarity between pairs of organizational descriptors. The results of their numerous analyses are the competing value model of organizational effectiveness (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

Quinn, et al. (1983) brought together four quadrants to form a model that illustrates the conflicts or competing values of organizational life. It depicts the organizations as adaptable and flexible, but also stable and controlled. They point out that the goals of the organization are to have growth, resource acquisition, and external support for tighter information management and formal communication, by emphasizing on the value of human resources and planning and goal setting. The two primary dimensions reflected preferences for either structural control or flexibility, and focus on either internal or external constituents. Crossing these two dimensions at


61

their centers, therefore, identified four distinctive organizational types. Particular objectives and/or preferred processes for achieving objectives characterized each of the quadrants; the means-ends third dimension. Each of the four quadrants had a conceptual polar opposite. Each implied values that appeared to be mutually exclusive.

The competing value model has two axes, which define four quadrants, as depicted in Figure 1. The vertical axis ranges from flexibility to control; the horizontal axis ranges from an internal to an external focus. Each quadrant of the framework represents one of the four major organizational theories on values reflected in a specific organizational culture. In the human relations quadrant, one finds descriptors such as cohesion and morale, criteria suggesting the value of human resources and training. Horizontally contiguous to the human relations quadrant is the open systems quadrant, including descriptors such as adaptability, readiness, growth, resource acquisitions, and external support. The lower-right rational goal quadrant includes descriptors such as planning, goal setting, productivity, and efficiency. Last, the lower-right internal process quadrant includes information management and communication, stability, and control. Each quadrant in the model has a polar opposite. For example, the human relations quadrant, emphasizing flexibility and internal focus, stands in contrast to the rational goal quadrant, emphasizing control and external focus. The open systems quadrant, characterizing flexibility and external focus, runs counter to the internal process where control and internal focus are valued. As pointed out by Quinn, et al. (1991), the parallels among the quadrants are also important. For instance, the human relations and open systems and rational goal quadrants have an external focus, which responds to outside change and production needs in a competitive market. Central to both the internal process and rational goal quadrants is the concept of control; whereas process and rational goal quadrants share a concern for the internal process and human relations quadrants share a concern for the human and technical systems inside the organization.

Quinn (1988) subsequently labeled the quadrants to refer to four types of organizational cultures. In the Human Relations culture, flexibility, values, and an internal focus describe the dominant value orientation, with group cohesiveness and morale providing the means to human resource development. In the Open Systems approach, flexibility values and external focus include innovation as a means to growth. In the Rational Goal culture, values for control and an external focus emphasize goal setting as a means to enhance productivity. Finally, in the Internal Process approach, values for control and an internal focus include formalizing communications and centralizing decision-making in order to achieve stability. Each cultural type seems tailored to meet the demands of particular constituents. Nonetheless, it is argued that all four approaches coexist in modern organizations, with some values more dominant than others, and with the apparent oppositions perhaps existing only in our minds.

The competing values framework also has proven useful for describing the dynamics of several organizational behavior phenomena. For example, Quinn and Spreitzer (1991) report on publications and research of Quinn and his colleague’s application of the CVM to explicate concepts of organizational communications, leadership, organizational transitions (Kimberly & Quinn, 1984), and organizational decision-making. Other empirical research lends indirect support for the CVM. Deshpande, Farley and Webster (1993), for example, reported associations among patterns of organizational characteristics and patterns of firm performance indices, which are consistent with the competing values approach. Ostroff and Schmitt also concluded that a balance of apparently competing characteristics was necessary in order for their subject organizations to achieve both efficiency and effectiveness, just as the CVM proposes (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007). Cameron and Quinn (1999), as can be seen in Figure 1,


62

described each of the four culture types as Clan, Hierarchy, Adhocracy, and market (as cited by Chin-Loy and Mujtaba, 2007).

The Clan Culture: An organization that focuses on internal maintenance with flexibility, concern for people, and sensitivity to customers. The clan culture type organization provides a friendly place to work where people share a lot of themselves. The head of the organization and leaders are considered to be mentors or parent figures. The organization is held together by loyalty or tradition. Organizational commitment is usually high and the organization emphasizes the long-term benefit of human resources development. Great emphasis is placed on cohesion and employee morale. The success of the organization is defined in terms of sensitivity to customers and concern for people.

The Adhocracy Culture: An organization that focuses on external positioning with a high degree of flexibility and individuality. This culture type provides a dynamic, entrepreneurial, and creative place to work. It is a place where people stick their necks out and take risks. The leaders are considered innovators and risk takers. The glue that holds the organization together is commitment to experimentation and innovation. The organization places great emphasis on the leading edge. The long-term emphasis is on growth and acquiring new resources. Success means gaining unique and new products or services. The organization encourages individual initiative and freedom.

The Hierarchy Culture: An organization that focuses on internal maintenance with a need for stability and control. The hierarchy culture in an organization is one that is very formalized and structured. Procedures govern what people do and the leaders pride themselves on being good coordinators and organizers who are efficiency-minded. Maintaining a smooth-running organization is most critical. Formal rules and policies hold the organization together. The long-term concern is on stability and performance with efficient, smooth operations. Success is defined in terms of dependable delivery, smooth scheduling, and low cost. The management of employees is concerned with secure employment and predictability.

The Market Culture: An organization that focuses on external positioning with a need for stability and control. The market culture type organization is result-oriented and the major concern is getting the job done. People are competitive and goal-oriented. The leaders are hard drivers, producers, and competitors. They are tough and demanding. The glue that holds the organization together is an emphasis on winning. Reputation and success are common concerns. The long-term focus is on competitive actions and achievement of measurable goals and targets. Success is defined in terms of market share and penetration. Competitive pricing and market leadership are important and the organizational style is hard-driving competitiveness.

The competing values model (CVM) describes organizational culture in what has been described as a mutually exclusive value dimensions. This model was first used by Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) to examine the relationship between culture and organizational effectiveness; and their work showed that differences among the many effectiveness criteria in the literature could be better understood when they were organized along two axes. The competing values model has been used in subsequent research. For example, Quinn and Spreitzer (1991) used it for two studies to examine the impact of culture on executive well-being. The model was also used by them to identify alternative patterns of culture and to examine the impact of the patterns on various measures of life quality. Goodman, Gifford and Zammuto (2001), drawing upon data from seven different hospitals, also utilized the competing values framework.


63

Figure 1- Organizational Culture Type

Human Relations Model Open Systems ModelTYPE: Clan TYPE: Adhocracy

DOMINANT ATTRIBUTES: Cohesiveness, participation, team work, sense of family

DOMINANT ATTRIBUTES: Entrepreneurship, creativity, adaptability

BONDING: Loyalty, tradition, interpersonal cohesion

BONDING: Entrepreneurship, flexibility, risk

STRATEGIC EMPHASES: Toward developing human resources, commitment, morale

STRATEGIC EMPHASES: Toward innovation, growth, new resources

INTERNAL MAINTENANCE EXTERNAL POSITIONING (smoothing activities, integration) (competition, differentiation)

TYPE: Hierarchy TYPE: Market

DOMINANT ATTRIBUTES: Order, rules and regulations, uniformity

DOMINANT ATTRIBUTES: Competitiveness, goal achievement

BONDING: Rules, policies and procedures

BONDING: Goal orientation, production, competition

STRATEGIC EMPHASES: Toward stability, predictability, smooth operations

STRATEGIC EMPHASES: Toward competitive advantage and market superiority

Internal Process Model Rational Goal Model

A Model of Organizational Culture Types

SOURCE: Adapted from Cameron and Freeman (1991); Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983); Desphande, Farley and Webster (1993); Denison and Spreitzer (1991).

PROCESSES (control, order, stability)

ORGANIC PROCESSES (flexibility, spontaneity)

The competing values framework portrays these oppositions as mutually existing in real

systems. By implication, it suggests that these descriptors, and the values and assumptions they represent, are oppositions only in our minds; thereby reporting that the four organizational approaches are very different from one another, and may sometimes even be assumed to be mutually exclusive. Quinn and McGrath (1983) describe the competing values approach as a “meta” theory that emerged from their series of empirical studies and conceptual papers. They describe it as a theory of human information processing that assumes that all abstract knowledge is organized around a consistent framework of perceptual values and that the articulation of these values can do much to further human understanding.

The CVM holds that there are four distinct dimensions of organizational culture – group, hierarchical, developmental, and rational. Drawing from descriptions provided by Harris and Mossholder (1996), the following is a summary of each of these dimensions. The group dimension represents an orientation based on values associated with affiliation and concern for people. The development of human resources, trust, teamwork, participative decision-making,


64

and morale is emphasized in organizations whose cultures are high on the group dimension. The hierarchical dimensions describe an orientation reflecting values associated with beauracracy. The developmental dimensions represent an orientation permeated by assumptions of change; and finally, the rational dimension describes an orientation based on notions of competitiveness, performance, decisiveness, and goal achievement.

Organizational Culture and Change Schein’s (1993) work has contributed much to psychological elements that inhibit or promote change. One of the primary focuses of his study was to help organizations find ways to change faster, in order to keep up with the rapidly shifting environment. His studies identified the abstract concept of learning, and also outlined a change management procedure that leaders can use to help their organizations change, and, ultimately, to develop perpetual learning organizations (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

The idea of the learning organization has been around for quite some time, and it has been studied extensively (Rowden, 2001). Rowden reported that “the learning organization” derives from Argyris’ work in organizational learning (Argyris & Schon, 1978). Its conceptual foundations are firmly based on systems theory, and its practical application to managing a business evolved out of strategic planning and strategic management. It also has roots in much of the quality improvement movement of recent years, with an emphasis on continuous improvement, and in Senge’s application of learning organization concepts. Learning organization research shows that structural and cultural approaches to organizational learning can be institutionalized to systematically collect, analyze, store disseminate, and use information that is relevant to the success of the organization. Schein states that most organizational learning theories focus on knowledge acquisition and insight, but instead should target behavior change. Organizational learning is important to the investigation of an organizational culture that traditionally hoarded knowledge and other assets believing that scarcity creates value. The organizational change theory can be useful to identify factors affecting organizational culture transformation and adaptation to knowledge management programs. The most difficult aspect of learning is overcoming bad habits and cultural rules.

An introduction to change theory was developed in the mid 1940s by Kurt Lewin. Lewin’s 1947 model of organizational change consists of two basic concepts. The first is that an organization’s natural state is static or unchanging. He describes this state as being “frozen.” When the organization is in a state of change it is malleable or it “thaws” then reverts to a static or “frozen” state. The second concept is an organization can be successfully divided into two groups: one that seeks change, and one that opposes change. Lewin also identified three phases through which the change agent must proceed before the planned change becomes a part of the system. These stages include: Unfreezing, Movement, and Refreezing. Unfreezing is where the change agent unfreezes forces that maintain the status quo, where people often become discontented and become aware of a need to change. Before change can occur, they must believe change is needed. Movement is where the change agent identifies, plans, and implements appropriate strategies. One must be sure that driving forces for change exceed restraining forces. Refreezing is the stage where the change agent assists in stabilizing the change in the system so that it becomes integrated into the status quo (Chin-Loy, 2003).

The strength of Lewin’s (1947) theorizing lay not in a formal propositional kind of theory, but rather in his ability to build models of processes that drew attention to the right kind of variables that need to be conceptualized and observed. He emphasized that each part of a


65

system (or “field”) is affected by other parts of the system. This distinction is important because it lends to the concept of the different stages in the change process. Chris Agryris has shown in many ways that organizations are more effective when people are more open with each other when they solve problems, but it can be very difficult to get them to be open because of cultural rules about how to behave (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

Organizational culture change has been considered broadly as having an influence on an organization’s ability to successfully implement strategy. Management research has sought to explore the understanding of organizational culture for strategic change in organizational settings and to explore theoretical understanding of the links between changing organizational culture and management. Lanegan-Fox and Tan (1997) report that a recurring issue in the literature is the lack of universally accepted definition of organizational culture. What is the nature of the concept ‘culture’, and how can it be operationally defined? Lanegan-Fox and Tan cited a number of pertinent authors reporting that there appear to be four core issues underlying the many definitions of organizational culture: (a) that it is stable and resistant to change; (b) that it is taken for granted and less consciously held; (c) that it derives its meaning from the organization members; and (d) that it incorporates sets of shared understanding. As a result of the complexity of organizational culture, researchers have focused on layers of culture as a way to understand this organizational phenomenon. Organizational culture change has been considered in an effort to transition the organization to one that will foster knowledge sharing and management. That is, it is imperative to access and implement changes to the existing culture. Lanegan-Fox and Tan state that the fundamental assumption underlying these recommendations for culture-based strategies is that organizational culture enables positive economic consequences, such as increased employee commitment and cooperation, greater efficiency, improved job performance, and better decision-making. As such, culture must play a critical role when dramatic, significant change is mandated.

Bennett et al.’s (1994) model of stability and change to address cultural alignment in response to strategies of organizational change. This model provides new considerations for a change framework. Bennett and his colleagues report two propositions for organization when confronted with persuasion for significant strategic change: (1) either the existing culture appears complimentary to the changes imposed by the new strategy, or (2) some cultural change may be deemed necessary in order to affect and maintain organizational effectiveness. Their research proposes a generic model for initiating culture change. This change is viewed as a controlled process. Bennett, et al.’s model provides both theorist and practitioners with a guiding framework for understanding the actual change process (Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007). Their studies highlighted the following reasons for the organization to undergo significant strategic change:

• Poor performance • Environmental turbulence and uncertainty • Resource shifts • Risk reduction • Managerial Preference.

According to Bennett, et al. (1994, p.481), “Regardless of the impetus for such a change, the need to align all aspects of the organization with the new strategy is of vital importance to overall effective performance, as well as survival.” McElyea (2002, p.2) states “Change is a functional characteristic of organizational existence.”


66

Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management

After reviewing of the knowledge management field in general, this study focuses on research that categorizes knowledge management initiatives and practices towards organizational competencies and effectiveness. The primary focus is on how people share knowledge. “Like people, organizations are unlikely to be successful unless they can learn from experience and their environment, transit that knowledge throughout the organization, and modify their behavior as needed in response to the knowledge gained” (Goh, 1998, p. 15). According to Peterson and Hicks (2000), in order to build a culture of learning and unleash talent, organizations need to enable the learning process.

Organizational learning has attracted considerable attention in the organizational literature. Argyris and Schon (1978) specifically devoted a lot of time and research on this topic focusing on the descriptive facet of organizational learning and its prescriptive facets. Kolb’s (1984) model of the Learning Cycle, describes learning as a four-phase cycle that begins with experiencing and moves to reflection and conceptualization and then to experimentation, which restart the cycle. His model also posits that individuals have different learning styles and that, ideally, learning addresses all forms of styles. Applying Kolb’s individual level of analysis model can be extended to the organizational level by adapting the change and learning style that best fits a particular organization or country’s style (or culture). As the world changes, organizations must learn to adapt faster to survive and grow (Schein, 1993). The most urgent priority is learning to learn faster, organization must understand that learning is necessity not a choice (Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

Senge (1998) reports that sharing knowledge occurs when people are genuinely interested in helping one another develop new capacities for action; it is about creating learning processes. Popper and Lipshitz (1998) present a two-faceted (structural and cultural) approach to organizational learning. The structural facet focuses on organizational learning mechanisms, which are institutionalized structural and procedural arrangements allowing organizations to systematically, collect analyze, store, disseminate, and use information that is relevant to the performance of the organization. The cultural facet focuses on the shared values, without which these mechanisms are likely to be enacted as rituals rather than as means to detect and correct errors.

Peter Senge (1990) articulates the reasons for transformation into a learning organization. Later, in The Dance of Change: The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations, he proposes a means to sustain the change as a learning organization. Senge outlines the process to achieve a learning organization and the core of learning organizations in systems theory. McElyea (2002) referencing Senge states, in fact, the same open environment needed to facilitate the growth of knowledge to improve a competitive advantage can be argued as synonymous with the environment that facilitates organizational learning. Goh (1998, p.16), quoting Garvin (1993), states that “A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insights” (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007)

The aim of the learning organization approach is to implement organizational culture change as it relates to fostering an environment for strategic change through effective knowledge management and diffusion. Mellander (2001) proposes that no knowledge management initiatives can exist or succeed in any environment without first providing the right conditions for learning. Pemberton and Stonehouse (1999) argued that by learning about the learning process


67

itself, and by formalizing the processes and structures of knowledge management, organizations could shorten the time taken to learn and improve the quality and quantity of knowledge available.

Drew and Smith (1995) report that it is advantageous to link organizational learning strategies for restructuring and that such change can best succeed if the organization is ready. They developed a framework for conducting a type of “change audit”. They further outlined the concepts of the learning organization and how it can be utilized to “change proof” the firm – to increase its capacity to withstand and exploit unexpected and rapid change. They also recommend combining implementation of a learning approach to strategy with successful, proactive change management.

The learning systems model, “change proofing,” (Drew & Smith, 1995) consists of three essential elements – focus, will, and capability. Focus, will and capability may be interpreted as the organization’s knowledge and awareness of potential change as described below.

1. “Focus,” which means a clear sense of direction and vision, arises from the strategic thinking, knowledge and understanding of the key decision-making groups and may be symbolized in clearly articulated strategic plans.

2. “Will” is the strength of strategic intent. With an inclination to set ‘stretch’ targets and face up to challenges, it characterizes groups and organizations with high levels of will. Will requires emotional commitment and high energy levels, which may be the result of tensions evoked by dissatisfaction with the status quo.

3. “Capability” is related to a limited number of learned competences, unique to the organization at a given time. Suggesting that capability is a characteristic of the top decision-making teams, the organization history and culture. That capability also includes the ability to and freedom to take action. Drew and Smith propose that the three-circle framework (focus, will and capability) has

the benefit of conceptual simplicity and elegance. It has been extremely useful as a tool for simulating discussion of issues related to radical change. They report that it is simple to grasp at an intuitive level, and can easily be linked to the characteristics of the learning organization. History shows that the consequences of failing to recognize and interpret change can be devastating. According to Senge, reaction to change is significant because change is inevitable, and accepting change makes an individual part of the process and so he or she can survive (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

Goh (1998) identifies five strategic building blocks, supporting foundations and specific strategic measurement and intervention processes that are the key factors in the learning organization archetype. They are:

1. Mission and vision -- Clarity and employees support of the mission, strategy, and espoused values of the organization.

2. Leadership – Leadership that is perceived as empowering employees, encouraging an experimentation culture, and showing strong commitment to the organization.

3. Experimentation – A strong culture of experimentation that is rewarded and supported at all levels in the organization

4. Transfer of Knowledge – The ability of an organization to transfer knowledge within and from outside the organization and to learn from failures

5. Teamwork and Cooperation – An emphasis on teamwork and group problem solving as the mode of operation and for developing innovative ideas.


68

Goh (1998) suggests that building a strong learning capability is crucial for knowledge-

intensive organizations and for companies operating in highly competitive environment. Although described as separate dimensions, these building blocks are interdependent and mutually supportive in a learning organization. It was further argued, “A learning organization is one where employees are empowered to act based on the relevant knowledge and skills they have acquired and information about the priorities of the organization (Goh, 1998, p.4)”. Goh posited that skill and knowledge acquisition are obviously useless unless the employees can transfer them to the immediate job. Goh further proposed that it is even better if this knowledge can also be transferred to other parts of the organization to solve problems and energize creative new ideas (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007).

In The Fifth Discipline, Peter Senge presents a model of a systems thinking and acting that, if followed correctly, can be used for the basis in creating a learning organization. According to Senge, in order to change what exists, the process must begin with identifying what he calls “the seven learning disabilities. Cathon (2000) reviewed Senge’s seven processes, which consisted of “I am my position”, The Enemy is out There”, “The Illusion of Taking Charge’, The Fixation of Events”, The Parable of the Boiled Frog”, ‘The Delusion of Learning from Experience’, “The Myth of the Management Team.” I am my position means that people in general are trained to be loyal to their job. This becomes so ingrained in some that their job becomes part of their everyday identity. ‘The Enemy is out there’ when focused only on one’s self, one cannot see beyond his or her own actions. When a problem appears, the blame is placed on an external source. ‘The Illusion of Taking Charge’, often when an organization is faced with a problem, the feeling is that management needs to become more proactive. ‘The Fixation on Events’, learning cannot be sustained in an organization if people focus on short-term growth or on a single event. ‘The Parable of the Boiled Frog’, Learning to see slow changes in a process requires one to step back from the everyday frantic pace and pay attention to subtle as well as the sudden. ‘The Delusion of Learning from experience’, the most powerful learning comes from direct experience. We learn best from experience but we never directly experience the consequences of many of the most important decisions. ‘The Myth of the Management Team’, often those in control who live by micromanagement theory supply the best example of skilled incompetence. These individuals becomes so aggressive in trying to control, they have no concept as to the process in which certain functions occur.

In order to make this change to a learning organization, Senge describes five disciplines. The five disciplines are (1) Personal mastery, (2) mental model, (3) shared vision, (4) team learning, and (5) systems thinking.

1. Personal mastery goes beyond competence and skills. It means developing one’s life as a creative adventure. When personal mastery becomes a discipline an active part of one’s everyday way of life takes on two strong movements. One is clarifying continuously what is important, the second is continuous learning of how to see the now reality.

2. Mental models - one thing managers know is that many of the best ideas never are put into practice. More specifically, new insights fail to gain acceptance because they conflict with deeply held internal images that limit the individual to familiar ways of thinking and acting. Mental models are powerful in affecting what one does because they affect what one sees. That is why the management of mental models, of improving the internal picture, is a major step for building a learning organization.


69

3. Shared vision is not an idea; rather it is a force in a person’s heart, a power. A vision is shared when more than one person has a similar picture and commits to making it a reality. A shared vision is important for the learning organization because it provides the focus and energy for learning.

4. Team learning is the process of alignment and development of a team to create the results its members truly desire. It builds on the discipline of shared vision and personal mastery. Team learning has three critical areas; the need to think insightfully about issues, the need for innovative and coordinated actions, and the role of team members on other teams. Team learning requires practice.

5. System thinking binds the other disciplines together and it is essential that they develop as a whole for the learning organization to survive. It is the key to growing from a “me to “we” mentality.

Pemberton and Stone (2000) describe the organizational learning context as consisting of

three elements; (1) organizational culture, (2) structure, and (3) infrastructure. Further, stating that these elements are the means by which an organization continuously increases the effectiveness and the efficiency of its learning and knowledge management processes and systems. As Stone and Pemberton notes, learning is treated as a cognitive process, with the organization ‘learning about learning’ and developing conditions which foster individual and organizational learning with emphasis placed on its knowledge assets and the supporting knowledge management systems (Chin-Loy, 2003; Chin-Loy & Mujtaba, 2007). The first element, culture, was stated as the most important component of the learning organizational context.

The culture of the learning organization places great emphasis on learning and knowledge, creating an atmosphere of trust within which individuals feel empowered to experiment with new approaches to business, often resulting in the development of new core competencies. According to Chin-Loy and Mujtaba (2007), Stone and Pemberton (2000), as well as other experts have defined the following as the components of a learning culture:

◊ A clear organizational vision ◊ Leaders who are designers, teachers and stewards ◊ A desire for continuous improvement ◊ Attaches a high value to knowledge ◊ Encourages questioning and experimentation through empowerment of individuals ◊ Creativity, risk taking and tolerance of mistakes ◊ Build trust to encourage sharing of knowledge within the organization and with selected

partners ◊ Emphasizes frequent contact and good communication ◊ Encourages socialization and the development of a concept of community ◊ Experiential learning of tacit knowledge ◊ External vision to learn from the environment in which the business operates.

The second element, structuring for learning and knowledge management, requires flatter organizations with reduced cross-functional boundaries. Organizational knowledge must be holistic to ensure that specialist knowledge from related areas is fully integrated. Having a matrix structure is one way to promote a holistic view of knowledge. Pemberton and Stone (2000) reporting from Quinn (1992) stated that ultimately, network organizational structures are perhaps


70

the most appropriate for supporting a learning culture, while having fewer hierarchical features and existing in a variety of forms. Pemberton and Stone further stated that while there is no single structure that uniquely supports learning, empowerment of the individual together with a flat network structures, which foster cross-functional communication and where functional barriers are low, appear to facilitate knowledge management more effectively.

The third element, infrastructure and communication, is an integral part of building the learning organization. Developments in technology, and particularly those in information and communications technology (ICT), have played a vital role in providing the infrastructure needed to support network structures and organizational learning within. According to Pemberton and Stone, ICT has transformed the ability of both the individual and the organization to augment their intelligence via accelerated learning. It has also increased the potential for sharing knowledge between collaborating organizations. The storage and communication of knowledge is also central to the way in which organization capitalizes on its knowledge base. Explicit knowledge is easy to store and communicate, with most media being effective. However, the intangible nature of implicit knowledge makes this a far more difficult proposition.

Pemberton and Stone (2000), citing Grant (1997), describe the difficulties with storage and communication of knowledge, stating that the location base of knowledge is critically important. It is especially relevant in relation to implicit or tacit knowledge. Summarizing that systems and infrastructure go beyond the technology that supports them, training plays an important part in the process of knowledge diffusion. Ultimately, a learning organization gains sustainable competitive advantage by accelerating learning to develop superior intelligence and knowledge that, when harnessed, produces unique and durable competences.

Knowledge Management

The study of knowledge management dates back to Plato and Aristotle. The recent research and discussions surrounding knowledge management focus on the technology issue or the human issue. Today, knowledge management offers a unique concept considered by many in the industry as progressive and “soft” in application, primarily because of the intangible elements of knowledge, especially of tacit knowledge which is competence that one is not aware of. One way to make tacit knowledge explicit is through sharing and collaboration.

The literature proposes that it is imperative to have a better understanding of knowledge as the world change from a knowledge transition stage to a knowledge era. Lee (2000) writes that the latest revolution centers on an organization's ability to use intelligently the knowledge it already has within it, as well as the new intellectual capital created daily. He further went on to say that in this new paradigm, collaboration and sharing will replace knowledge hoarding, interested communities will provide the equipment necessary to maintained improvements, and technology will be positioned to ensure efficient knowledge transfer. For example, as De Long and Fahey (2000) suggested, the purpose of knowledge management is to enhance organizational performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of all three types of knowledge that are critical for decision-making (Chin-Loy, 2003). As discussed further by Lee (2000), information embedded and synthesized in the brain is knowledge. Communication of this intellectual capital is typically difficult to structure, much less capture, on machines or electronically. He further went on to show that knowledge by its nature is highly personal and extremely difficult to transfer with the richness as complete as the original holder of the knowledge understands it. Identifying that this difficulty in transfer exists is what often makes knowledge tacit as opposed to explicit. As Berry


71

(2000) claims, with effective knowledge management, managers will eliminate the barriers between the person who knows and the person who needs to know. He states that this is not an easy task, because one of the major impediments to successful knowledge management is changing the belief that “knowledge is power,” and this should be hoarded, rather than shared freely. De Long and Fahey (2000) suggest that more and more managers and leaders are recognizing that organizational culture can be a major barrier to leveraging intellectual assets. Understanding how culture influences knowledge and its use are essential to finding a fit between culture and knowledge in any organization. As Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (1996, p.548) so aptly state,” Culture influences how decisions are made, the style of management, and relations and behavior patterns in the organization.” Eisenhart (2001) states that, successful knowledge gathering and sharing cannot take place in an adversarial environment, where people are competing against each other, and where they feel they would be jeopardizing their own status and security by giving up knowledge. Eisenhart recommended that a company’s overall knowledge management strategy include managers actively encouraging sharing behaviors within and across the company, so that varying experts in the organization are willing to share what they know.

McDermott (1999) identified fundamental requirements for leveraging knowledge. Knowledge is different from information; accordingly, sharing it requires a different set of concepts and tools. He proposed that rather than identifying information needs and tools, we identify the community that cares about a topic and then enhance their ability to think together. More specifically, in order to leverage knowledge one must focus on the community that “owns” it and the people who use it, not the knowledge itself. De Long and Fahey (2000) discuss three related themes that are critically important to viewing culture as a lens to understand knowledge distribution. That is, who controls it, what knowledge and where they are located. Elliot and O’Dell (1999) identify four enablers essential and critical to successful knowledge management (culture, technology, infrastructure, and measurement); they emphasize that all four are necessary to yield sustainable success.

According to Lambert (1999), it is evident that the emergence of understanding the complexity of knowledge management is a good indicator of business competitiveness in the knowledge era; intellectual capital becomes primary asset, as the company’s knowledge base continues to grow. Lee (2000, p.2) writes, “What distinguishes knowledge from its data and information brethren, is the inclusion of human contribution, and this adds more value to the transferee.” As pointed out by Lee (2000), the new business model of knowledge management is distinguished by the historical perspective, which is the closeness of knowledge to the application of its use. Klaila (2000) writes that knowledge management is about planning to change, revaluing our work, and changing the way we value work. Klaila further stated that as a result of this change, there would be a shift in the way we work, and in the way we define leadership. Knowledge management is when executives get the insight they need to run their business and how they formalize that insight. Gupta, Iyer and Aronson (2000) state: “Knowledge management is a process that deals with the development, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of information and expertise within an organization to support and improve its business performance (p.17).” They cite Nonanka and Takeuchi (1995) in identifying four processes that are commonly used in organizations for knowledge management:

1. Socialization: sharing of experiences through observation, imitation and practice. It generally occurs through workshops, seminars, apprenticeships, and conferences, as well as at the water cooler.


72

2. Capture: the conversion of tacit knowledge (e.g. what one learned at a workshop) into explicit form (e.g. written report).

3. Dissemination: the copying and distribution of the explicit knowledge. 4. Internalization: process of experiencing knowledge through an explicit source, i.e., one

can combine the experience of reading the workshop report with previous experience. Given the importance of knowledge management, researchers have looked for answers to

the critical question "What is the meaning of the growing importance of knowledge management?" With the emergence of knowledge management and intellectual capital as new concepts, more and more research is been done to examine knowledge management. Focusing on these relationships is important for theoretical and strategic reasons. Knowledge management is emerging as an important concept, and is often cited as an antecedent of innovation. While the need to effectively manage knowledge generally is accepted, knowledge management is still an elusive concept and much of the literature continues to explore issues of definition. Until a definition is widely accepted, measuring knowledge management and identifying its effect on outcomes such as innovation, growth, firm performance, and competitive advantage will be hard to determine.

Research suggested that knowledge is comprised of data, information and tacit and explicit knowledge; and that knowledge management is a process that deals with the development, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information and expertise within an organization to support and improve its business performance (Gupta et al., 2000). The management function that creates or locates knowledge manages the flow of knowledge within the organization and ensures that the knowledge is used effectively and efficiently for a competitive advantage. When knowledge is used, learning takes place, which, in turn, improves the repositories of knowledge available to the firm. Therefore, a firm that effectively manages knowledge is also likely to be considered a learning organization. Effective knowledge management has been presented in the literature as one method for improving innovation, productivity, and performance. More specifically, knowledge dissemination and responsiveness to knowledge repeatedly have been cited as the most effective way to a competitive advantage. Summary This paper has provided sufficient evidence that effective knowledge management is critical to the success of twenty first century organizations in both third world and developed economies. Knowledge management is an effort to capture or tap an organization’s experience and wisdom and to make them available and useful to everyone in the organization, which is the essence of a true democratic culture.

The material presented on this topic supports the conclusion that as we move from an industrial era, to one of knowledge, responsibility is placed on all national and global managers of all economies to better understand knowledge management systems. Studies also make clear that organizational culture should foster the concept that knowledge management is the tool to support an organization’s strategic plan. It is evident that the evolution of knowledge management should incorporate technology solutions, content, process and people. Accordingly, it will be interesting to witness in future research the tools needed to identify future knowledge management efforts as a key competitive strategy. The application of knowledge management in developing economies such as Afghanistan requires special reflections and planning. For examples, the Afghan workforce is facing a shortage of highly educated professionals who can


73

obtain and disseminate organizational knowledge, be they implicit or explicit, using email, internet, and other technical means. Furthermore, many workers in the country may not be functionally literate. Consequently, some of the material discussed in this paper might only be appropriate for government institutions and large firms that are attempting to create a knowledge management culture in their organizations. Thus, such conditions and concerns must be assessed, taken into consideration, planned for, and executed as per the data regarding the current workplace and their ability to absorb, retain, and use various forms of technical and non-technical knowledge.

References Argyris, R. P. and Smith, D.M. (1985). Action Science. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Armistead, C. (1999). Knowledge and Process Performance. Journal of Knowledge Management, 3, 2, 143 Bennett, R.H.III, Fadil, P.A., & Greenwood, R.T. (1994). Cultural Alignment in Response to Strategic

Organizational Change: New Considerations for a Change Framework. Journal of Managerial Issues, 6, 4, 474

Cabrera, E. F. & Bonache, J. (1999). An expert HR system for aligning organizational culture and strategy HR. Human Resource Planning Tempe, 22, 51-60

Cameron, K.S. & Quinn, R.E. (1999). Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

Cathon, D. E. (2000). The Learning Organization: Adapted from The Fifth Discipline by Peter Senge. Hospital Material Management Quarterly, 21, 3, 4-10

Chin-Loy, Claudette (2003). Assessing the Influence of Organizational Culture on Knowledge Management Success. Completed Dissertation at Nova Southeastern University. ProQuest #: 310-9732. Phone: (800) 521-0600, ext. 7020. Email: [email protected].

Chin-Loy, C. and Mujtaba, B. G. (2007). Organizational Learning and Knowledge. In B. G. Mujtaba; Workforce Diversity Management: Challenges, Competencies and Strategies. Llumina Press. Chapter 10; pages 207-229.

De Long, D.W. & Fahey, L. (2000). Diagnosing cultural barriers to knowledge management. The Academy of Management Executive, 14, 113-127.

Denison, D.R. (1996). What is the Difference Between Organizational Culture and Organizational Climate? A Native’s Point of View on a Decade of Paradigm Wars. Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Review, 21, 3, 619.

Deshpande, R. Farley, J. U. & Webster, F.E. (1993). Corporate Culture, Customer Orientation, and Innovativeness. Journal of Marketing, 57, 1, 23

Drew, S. A. W., Smith, P. A. C., (1995). The Learning Organization: “Change Proofing” and Strategy. The learning Organization, 2, 1, 4-14

Drucker, P. (1995). Managing In a Time of Great Change. New York: Dutton 1995, 273. Drucker, P., et al. (1997). Looking ahead: Implications of the Present, the Future Has Already Happened. Harvard

Business Review, 20-24 Drucker, P (1998). Management’s New Paradigms. Forbes, 162(7) 152-177 Eisenhart, M. (2001). Gathering Knowledge While It’s Ripe. Knowledge Management, 4, 50. Elliott, S., O’Dell, C. (1999). Sharing Knowledge & Best Practices: The Hows and Whys of Tapping Your

Organization’s Hidden Reservoirs of Knowledge. Health Forum Journal, 42, 3, 34-37 Fletcher, B., Jones, F. (1992). Measuring Organizational Culture: The Cultural Audit. Managerial Auditing

Journal, 7, 6, 30 Goh, S. C. (1998). Toward a Learning Organization; The Strategic Building Blocks. Advanced Management

Journal, 63, 2, 15-22 Gupta, B., Iyer, L.S. & Aronson, J.E. (2000). Knowledge Management: Practices and Challenges. Industrial

Management + Data Systems, 100(1) 17-21 Harris, S. G., Mossholder, K. W. (1996). The Affective Implications of Perceived Congruence with Culture

Dimensions During Organizational Transformation. Journal of Management, 22, 4, 527 Hersey, P., Blanchard, K H. & Johnson, D. (1996). Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human

Resources. Prentice Hall, upper Saddle River, NJ.


74

Hofstede, G. (1998). Attitudes, Values and Organizational Culture: Disentangling the Concepts. Organizational Studies, 19, 3, 477-492

Klalia, D. (2000). Knowledge Management. Executive Excellence, 17, 3, 13-14 Kallio, J., Saarinen, T., Tinnila, M. & Vepsalainen, A. P. J. (2000). Measuring Delivery Process Performance.

International Journal of Logistics Management, 11, 1, 75-87 Lambert, L. M. (1999). Intellectual Capital: A Primary Asset. Life Association News, Washington, 94, 8, 12. Lange-Fox, J., Tan, P., (1997). Images of a Culture in Transition: Personal Constructs of Organizational Stability

and Change. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 3, 273-293. Lee, James Sr. (2000). Knowledge Management: The Intellectual Revolution. IIE Solutions, 32, 34-37. Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in Group Dynamics. Human Relations, 1, 5-41. Liebowitz, J. & Suen, C. Y. (2000). Developing Knowledge Management Metrics for Measuring Intellectual

Capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1, 1, 54-67 McDermott, C.M. & Stock, G.N. (1999). Organizational Culture and Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Implementation. Journal of Operations Management, 17, 521-533 McDermott, R. (1999). Why Information Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver Knowledge Management.

California Management Review, Berkely, 41, 103-117 McElyea, B. (2002). Knowledge Management, Intellectual Capital, and Learning Organizations: A Triad of Future

Integration. Futurics, 26 ½, 59-65 Mellander, K. (2001). Engaging the Human Spirit: A Knowledge Evolution Demands the Right Conditions for

Learning. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 2, 2, 165-171 Nonaka, I., Konno, N. (1998). The Concept “Ba”: Building a Foundation for Knowledge Creation. California

management Review, 40, 3, 40-54 Ostroff, C. & Schmitt, N. (1993). Configurations of Organizational Effectiveness and Efficiency. Academy of

Management Journal. 36, 6, 1345 Pemberton, J. D. & Stonehouse, G.H. (2000). Organisational Learning and Knowledge Assets – An Essential

Partnership. The Learning Organization,7, 4, 184-193. Popper, M., & Lipshitz, R. (1998). Organizational Learning Mechanisms: A Structural and Cultural Approach to

Organizational Learning. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 34, 2, 161-179 Quinn, R.E. & Rohrbaugh, J. (1983). A Spatial Model of Effectiveness Criteria: Towards a Competing Values

Approach to Organizational Analysis. Management Science, 29, 3, 363-377 Quinn, R.E. & McGrath, M.R. (1985). The Transformation of Organizational Cultures: Competing Values

Perspectives. Management Science, 18, 315-334. Quinn, R.E., Hildebrandt, H.W., Rogers, P.S. & Thompson, M.P. (1991). A competing Values Framework for

Analyzing Presentational Communication in Management Contexts. The Journal of Business Communication, 28, 3, 213-232

Quinn, R.E. & Spreitzer, G.M. (1991). The Psychometrics of the Competing Values Culture Instrument and an Analysis of the Impact of Organizational culture on Quality of Life. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 5, 115-142.

Quinn, R.E., Spreitzer, G. M. & Brown, M.V. (2000). Changing Others Through Changing Ourselves: The Transformation of Human Systems. Journal of Management Inquiry, 9, 2, 147-164

Rowden, R. W. (2001). The Learning Organization and Strategic Change. S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, 66, 3, 11-16

Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. New York: Double day, 1990, 1-2, 8.

Senge, P. (1998). Sharing Knowledge. Executive Excellence, 15, 6, 11-12 Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey-Bass, 1986, 9. Schein, E. H. (1993). How Can Organization Learn Faster? The Challenge of Entering the Green Room. Sloan

Management Review, 34, 2, 1985 Schein, E. H. (1996). Three Cultures of Management: The Key to Organizational Learning. Sloan Management

Review, 38, 1, 9 Schein, E. H. (1996). Culture: The Missing Concept in Organization Studies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41,

2, 229 Simpson, B. (2002). The Knowledge Needs of Innovating Organizations. Singapore Management Review, 24, 3,

51-60 Ulrich, D. (2000). Creating the Future. Executive Excellence, 17, 17-18


75

Veiga, J., Lubatkin, M., Calori, R., & Very, P. (2000). Measuring Organizational Culture Classes: A Two-Nation Post-Hoc Analysis of a Cultural Compatibility Index. Human Relations, 53, 4, 539-557

Verespej, M. (1999). Knowledge Management: System or Culture? Industry Week, 248(15) 20


76

Project Management for Afghan Professionals

Assadullah Oriakhel, Kabul University


77

Project Management for Afghan Professionals

Assadullah Oriakhel, Kabul University

منجمنت پروژه

اداره و تنظيم نمائيم؟ بهتر پروژه ها را ميتوانيمچگونه

ه چيست؟ژ پرو

. ع و بودجۀ تثبيت شده انجام يابدعبارت از کاريست که توسط يک تيم مشخص، در يک محل مشخص، در يک زمان معين، با مناب

ه چيست؟ژمنجمنت پرو

عبارت ازتنظيم، بسيج و تشويق مردم شامل کارمندان، کارگران، تهيه کنندگان، مستفيد شوندگان و ساير کسانيکه به نحوی از انحا در پروژه ارتباط دارند، يت شده طرح ريزی و تطبيق نموده و اهداف قبًال مشخص شده را به صورت مؤثر، مفيد و ميباشد تا آنها مشترکآ يک کار را در يک مؤعد معينه، با بودجۀ تثب

.مطلوب به دست آرند

اين نوع منجمنت با انواع ديگر چه فرق دارد؟

وتين و در منجمنت عادی مانند منجمنت يک ادارۀ مرکزی، همه کارها به صورت ر. منجمنت پروژه ها فرق فاحشی با انواع ديگر منجمنت دارد يکنواخت درهر سال تکرار شده و کارها در منجمنت عادی به صورت موازی هر کدام به چينل خود در جريان ميباشند

يعنی اينکه از روز اول پروژه، هر کس می داند . برعکس جريان کار پروژه ها تقريبًا مانند يک مسابقه ايکه در خط آخر خود رسيده باشد، می باشند

. روژه در يک روز معين تکميل شده و بايد اهداف مشخص پروژه به مقابل بودجۀ تثبيت شده، در زمان معيين شده، به دست آيدکه بايد کار پ

. بنًا منيجران پروژه ها به مهارت بيشتر و قدرت بيشتر ضرورت دارند تا به هدف اصلی خود نائل آيند

: قرارداد

اگر پروژه وابسته به پول پروژه است بايد بدانيم که فعًال پول در کجاست؟ . رداد پروژه با فند دهنده امضأء شود بايد قبل از آغازهر نوع کار پروژه، قرااين پول در چه زمانی ضرورت است و چگونه به دسترسی قرار ميگيرد؟ تا وقتيکه پول پروژه در دسترس شما قرار نگرفته است بايد به کار پروژه اقدام

را در همچو شرايطی بسياری از مؤسسات سرمابه های هنگفتی. نمائيد تا حد اقل يک قسمت از پول پروژه در بانک مؤسسۀ شما برسدبايد صبر. ننمائيد .از دست داده اند که کدام سند قاطع در دست نداشته اند

و آنرا کافی دانسته است و کار پروژه را آغاز نموده اند که در پروژه هائيکه چند فند دهنده دارند، با يک فند دهنده قرارداد نمودهمؤسسات بسياری اوقات

در مورد پروژۀ مورد مؤسسۀشمابنا برين بايد حتمًا تمام سهم گيرنده ها با . بعد ها باالثر عدم موافقۀ دونر دومی، پروژه يا معطل شده يااينکه لغو شده است .نظر شان قرارداد نموده و بعدًا به کار آن اقدام نمايند

:استخدام منيجر پروژه

منيجر . ولی منيجر پروژه بايد مهارت های اضافی و خاصی را دارا باشد. اين يک امر مسلم است که هر منيجر ضرورت به آموزش مهارت ها دارد

.داشته باشد) People Skills(پروژه، از همه اولتر بايد مهارت قوی مردمی

از قبيل مواد، سامان آالت، وسايط، ترانسپورت، نقشه ها، افراد مسلکی و ماهر، پالن ها و (Hardware)دوير اگر انجام کار يک پروژه مربوط به هار . يعنی تشويق، بسيج، تنظيم و ترغيب کارمندان آن پروژه ميباشد(Software)پول نقد باشد، موفقيت آن پروژه زيادتر به سافت وير

خود بايد طرق مختلف تشويق و ترغيب مردم را آموخته باشد تا آنها را به شکل يک تيم درآورده و هر کدام يک منيجر مؤفق بخاطر کامياب ساختن پروژه .را مکلف به اجرای مسوؤليت های شان بسازد

يک منيجر ورزيده يا يک انجنير ورزيده شايد ) يا باشد( بنابر داليل فوق، احتمال دارد که يک داکتر اليق يک منيجر خوب برای يک پروژه صحی نباشد

). يا نباشد( برای يک پروژۀ انجنيری باشد


78

اين يک امر مسلم است و مطلقًا بايد حکم نمود که بايد منيجران پروژه ها در مسلک مربوطۀ خويش وارد باشند اما موفقيت و عدم موفقيت آنها زيادتر

اخت از مردم، احترام به مردم، واحترام به عقايد و سنن و مفکوره های مردم مربوط و منوط به ايجاد حسن روابط و حسن تفاهم در بين کارمندان، شن .را در خود پرورش داده باشد) کارمندان و مستفيد شوندگان(برعالوه منيجر مؤفق بايد استعداد خوب رهبری مردم .ميباشد

دم را کمک نمايد تا از فرصت ها استفادۀ نيکو نموده و خود را انکشاف يک منيجر موفق نه تنها بايد مشکالت روزمرۀ پروژه را حل نمايد، بلکه او بايد مر

.دهند

در وقت استخدام منيجر پروژه بايد برعالوۀ مطالعۀ اسناد دست داشتۀ تحصيلی، سوابق کار و مهارت های فنی و مسلکی کانديدان، بايد به موضوعات مهم ی مردم، طرز تشويق و ترغيب مردم، تجارب و دستاوردهای مثبتی که وی از پروژه های ديگر از قبيل روابط اجتماعی، طرز گوش کردن به حرفها

همچنان بايد مطمئن شويد که آيا شخص کانديدا در پروژه های گذشته با زير دستان خود با احترام . گذشته حاصل نموده است، نيز خيلی اهميت قايل شويد است يا نه؟، متقابل، حسن نيت، مساوات و عدالت برخورد نموده

شايد بتواند پروژه را در وقت معينه و بودجۀ تثبيت شده تکميل نمايد اما اينکه مردم چه تجارب کسب کرده اند و برداشت های اوشان يک منيجر ديکتاتوردم زمينۀ آموزش تعليمی مساعد در پروژه های انکشافی يکی از اهداف عمدۀ پروژه ها آنست که بايد برای مر. موضوعيست قابل سوالبه چه شکل است؛

زير دستان منيجر پروژه بايد تجارب خود را حين انجام پروژه طوری انکشاف دهند تا در همچو . گردد تا مردم خودشان قادر به حل مشکالت خود شوند .پروژه ها در آينده بهتر کار نموده بتوانند

داشته باشيد و افرادی را برای اين کار استخدام نمائيد تا تشويش تانرا از ناحيۀ نتايج مؤفقانه بايد در قسمت انتخاب منيجران پروژه ها توجه عميق و جدی

.پروژه کًال رفع نمايد نه اينکه تشويش داشته باشيد که وی چگونه اين نتايج را بدست مياورد

:ضرورت های آمر پروژه

:صالحيت و اعتماد

محتاطانه عملی شده باشد و مناسب ترين کانديدا انتخاب گردد ديگر جايی باقی نمی ماند که باالی شخص در صورتيکه پروسۀ استخدام به صورت علمی و .بايد صالحيت ها و آزادی الزم برای آمر پروژه داده شود تا وی بتواند استعداد خود را رشد داده و نظريات خود را عملی نمايد. موصوف بی اعتماد باشيد

:معلومات کافی

علومات را در مورد پروژه از قبيل پروپوزل، قرارداد، بودجه، مدت، شکل راپور دهی، تقسيم اوقات کار و تمام چيزهائيکه شما و اعانه دهنده تمام م

.ضرورت داريد، به دسترس آمر پروژه قرار دهيد

:وقت

خصوصًا اينکه وی . فی برای مسائل ابتدايی برايش داده شودوی ضرورت دارد که وقت کا. آمر پروژه بايد قبل از کارمندان ديگر پروژه استخدام شوداين مدت را بنام . نظر به حجم پروژه مدت اين وقت از چند هفته و يا چند ماه فرق می تواند بکند. مسوؤليت استخدام پرسونل مادون خويش را داسته باشد

.مدت آماده گی نيز ياد مينمايند

:استخدام مرحله وار

:ندان پروژه در سه مرحله قرار ذيل صورت می گيرداستخدام کارم

.موضوعات مختلف پروژه فکرنمايد استخدام آمر پروژه و مساعد ساختن زمان مناسب برای وی تا پيرامون .1 د بخش مالی، بخش اداری، سکرتريت، افرا(در صورت امکان، آمر پروژه بايد پرسونل ماتحت خود را بخاطر ايجاد يک تيم منجمنت شامل .2

.استخدام نمايد) کليدی و غيره

.تيم منجمنت بايد باقی اعضای پروژه را استخدام نمايد .3

:کنترول

زيرا از . بايد وی محتويات پروپوزل را مطالعه نموده و آنرا با شرايط عملی و فعلی مقايسه نمايد. آمر پروژه را تشويق نمائيد تا کنترول را به دست بگيردمنظوری پروژه تا مرحلۀ تطبيق مدت کافی سپری شده می باشد که به اين ترتيب حتمًا شرايط فعلی چه از نقطۀ نظر اوضاع جوی وقت سروی، ديزاين، و

.و چه از نقطۀ نظر قيم مواد نظر به شرايط آن وقت تغير نموده است


79

وی . رسونل و قيمت، بهتر از طرح پيشنهادی، عملی نمايدچه از لحاظ پ يک منيجر موفق استعداد آن را دارد که پروژه را چه از نقطۀ نظر کيفيت ودر صورتيکه آمر پروژه در محتويات . بخوبی می تواند که اهداف پروژه را به آسانی بدست آورده و پروژه را مطابق به مواد قرارداد عملی نمايد

.مايدپروپوزل با خصوصيات تخنيکی آن تعديالت می آورد بايد منظوری فند دهنده را کسب ن

:حمايت

بايد اين چيز ها به ديگران حتی در داخل مؤسسه به شکل قرض يا امانت داده . بودجۀ هر پروژه شامل پول، کارگران، وسايل، وسايط و غيره می باشد .نه رسمآ حاصل کرده باشيدتنها اين کار وقتی صورت گرفته می تواند که موضوع را با فند دهنده در ميان گذاشته و منظوری آنها را در زمي. نشوند

:مسئووليت

آنقدر آزاردهنده نخواهد بود مگر اينکه در صالحيت ها و مسئوليت هائی که به وی مربوط است و خود ما به وی تفويض هيچ چيزی برای آمر پروژه

.د و حتی در زمينه بايد وی را مساعدت نمائيدزمانيکه يک کار را به شخصی سپرديد بگذاريد که وی آن کار را انجام ده. نموده ايم مداخله نمائيم

:فيد بک

وقتی به آمر پروژه صالحيت داديد که مستقالنه و با مسئوليت کار های خود را به پيش ببرد به اين معنی نيست که وی را کامًال از خود تجريد نموده و يا . رايش فيد بک بدهيد يعنی او را مطلع سازيد که کار هايش به چه شکل پيش ميرودآمر پروژه از شما توقع دارد که از چگونگی کار هايش، ب. مجزا سازيد

او به نظريات شما شديدًا نيازمند می باشد شما منحيث مسئول اداره بايد وی را از نتايج کارش و عکس العمل های منفی يا مثبت فند دهنده در مقابل کار وی .مطلع سازيد

.پروژه، آزاردهنده بر و خطرناکتر است نظر به مداخله ء وی در کار های آمر پروژه خاموشی مسئول اداره برای آمر

:قرارداد

بايد برايش همه . آمر پروژه مانند ساير کارمندان مؤسسه ضرورت به امضأی قرارداد دارد و همچنان ضرورت شديد يه اليحۀ وظايف خويش ميداشته باشد

.ای اين ضروريات تدارک گردد

بايد پروپوزل پروژۀ مورد نظر، دقيق . ها و ساير ادارات همه کار ها مطابق به روحيۀ پروپوزل ها عملی و تکميل می شوندNGOموسسات، در -1اگر به لسانی که پروپوزل تحرير شده است آشنايی نداريد بايد آنرا توسط شخص ديگر، به لسان مادری تان تبديل نموده يک کاپی آن و . مطالعه شود

.ک کاپی اصلی را در بين يک دوسيه قرار بدهيد تا روزانه هنگام ضرورت در اختيار تان باشدي

بايد ببنيد که دونر به کدام شکل از شما راپور . برعالوه مطالعه پروپوزل و قرارداد، چيزيکه بسيار درخور اهميت است خواسته های دونر می باشد ت چه نوع معلومات بايد برای آنها تهيه گردد؟ شما خود اين کار را چگونه پالن گذاری مينمائيد؟نيازمندی های دونر چيست؟ چه وق می خواهد؟

در استخدام کارکنان اداری و تخنيکی بايد با خود تان بسيار صريح باشيد، حتمًا مردم در پيشبرد کار های پروژه ها کمبود و ناتوانی هايی درخود -2

ناديده نگيريد و ببنيد که نواقص و کمبود ها به چه طريق رفع شده ميتواند، زيرا پروژه بايد به صورت درست تطبيق بايد ناتوانی های خود را . ميبينندمثًال شما مهارت کافی داريد که چگونه . آن چيزی که برای پروژه ضرور و در شما کمبود است بايد توسط يک فرد با استعداد ديگر رفع گردد. گردد

ولی شما در قسمت ساختمان پل، پروگرام کريدت دهاتی، نهال شانی، پروگرام . و داخل بودجۀ منظور شده به پيش ببريدپروژۀ خود را به موقعبايد اين خأل را توسط آنها پر . اشخاص ديگری هستند که در همچو موارد تخصص کامل دارند. مبارزه با بيسوادی و غيره معلومات اندک داريد

.نمائيم

بايد بدانيد که ضرورت های موسسه شما، دونر، . وژه و اهداف آن معلومات کافی پيدا کنيد و از همه ابعاد آن خود را بفهمانيدبايد در قسمت پر -3از موسسه . بايد شما بدانيد که اين ضرورت ها را چگونه مرفوع نماييد. کارمندان، کارگران، مستفيد شوند گان و جامعۀ اطراف پروژه، چه می باشد

تان برای اينکه صالحيت و آزادی کامل در اختيار شما گذاشته است، سپاسگزار باشيد و در وقت و زمان معين بايد اداره مافوق خود را با ای مربوطۀ سبب پس مانی،..... بايد بدانيد که بار کج به منزل نميرسد نه شود که خدا ناخواسته با غفلت و . راپور های دقيق و صادقانه در جريان بگذاريد

.بدگمانی و بد نامی خود و ديگران شويد به اين معنی که بايد يک دفتر ايجاد . با در نظرداشت اينکه شما چه وقت استخدام شده ايد و چه مقدار کار پيشرفته است شما بايد از صفر شروع کنيد -4

م و اليحه آن را مرتب سازيد، مراحل استخدام از قبيل دادن پاليسی استخدا. بايد اليحۀ وظايف ترتيب نمائيد). در صورتيکه پروژه ايجاب نمايد( کنيد .اشتهار، انترويو، امضأی قرارداد و آشنا سازی پرسونل ماتحت به خصوصيات پروژه را عملی سازيد

در . و تفهيم خوب را پيدا نمائيدبايد با آنها روابط کاری حسنه ايجاد نمائيد و زمينهء افهام. بايد بدانيد که مسئوليت راپوردهی به کدام اقراد را داريد -5

باوجود . رابطه با تفويض صالحيت ها و مسئوليت ها، شما مکلف هستيد که آنها را به بهترين وجه از پيشرفت کار های خويش در جريان بگذاريد .نموده اند در اوقات مختلف جلب نمائيداينکه به شما صالحيت کامل پيشبرد پروژه داده شده است، مگر با آنهم مشورهء آنهايی را که شما را توظيف

منجمنت پروژه ها


80

اين کار سبب تفاهم باهمی . در ساحهء پروژه منيجران مؤفق و هوشيار بايد در منجمنت پروژه و مسئوليت های کارمندان ديگر پروژه را سهيم سازند -6

آمر پروژه بايد در اوقات مختلف با . ميابدهمچنان سلسله ارتباطات به همين طريق تقويه. و ايجاد مناسبات خوب در روند کار پروژه می باشدبايد از نظريات آنها معلومات داشته باشد تا از آن در مورد . کارمندان پروژهء حتی کارگران عادی برای مدت کوتاه در حين کار مجالس داير نمايد

ار کوتاه روزانه، سبب بميان آمدن بهبود غيرقابل باور بسياری اوقات حتی مجالس بسي. پالن گذاری، تعديل پالن و حل مشکالت پروژه استفاده نمايد .در کار ميشودبايد مجالس هفته وار در سطح افراد معين نيز داير گردد

با آنکه شما مسئوليت داريد تا نتايج پروژه را به اهداف . به صفت منيجر يک پروژه،ء انکشافی بايد شما بسيار مسئوليت های اضافی را پذيرا باشيد -7

.ه موافق سازيد، بايد شما بر عالوهء آن بدانيد و آماده باشيد که چگونه ميتوانيد اهداف انکشافی پروژه را مورد تطبيق قرار دهيداولي

:نقش آمر پروژه ارزيابی ضرورت ها -1

چه ضرورت ها است تا پروژه شروع و ختم شود؟ چه چيز ها ضرور است تا پروپوزل پروژه جنبهء عملی بيابد؟ : گذاریپالن -2

. منيجر برای رفع اين ضرورت ها پالن می سازد و کار ها را به زير دستان خود تقسيم می نمايد :تفويض صالحيت -3

منيجر کار های خود و ديگران را . منيجر با خود می سنجد که چه اشخاص را به کدام کار ها بگمارد و آن ها را چگونه به مسئوليت های شان متوجه سازدار گروپی تنظيم می نمايد و هر کس می فهمد که کار و فعاليت او برای بدست آوردن اهداف پروژه خيلی حياتيست، عينًا مانند پرزه های يک به شکل ک

.انجن که اگر حتی کوچکترين آنها درست کار نکند انجن از فعاليت ميماند :کنترول -4

. پروژه را تحت کنترول خود در آورده کار را مطابق به پالن انجام ميدهدمنيجر با افراد مجرب مسلکی و با مسئوليت خود همه کار های :نظارت و بررسی -5

مشکالت را حل و فصل نموده در صورت ضرورت بخاطر . آمر پروژه و تيم وی در اوقات مختلف امور محولهء خويش را نظارت و بررسی مينمايندنظارت و بررسی ادامه می يابد، تا اينکه تمام ضرورت های پروژه ) سايکل(بهمين ترتيب چرخ . رندبهبود کار تعديالتی را در کار های خود بوجود می آو

.مرفوع شده و پروژه تکميل شود :تشويق و ترغيب پرسونل مربوطه -6

منظور شده تطبيق گردد و اهداف کار عمده آمر پروژه اينست که کارکنان پروژه خود را تشويق کند تا کار مطابق به پالن پيش بينی شده به داخل بودجهء يکی از راه های بهتر تشويق اينست که کارمندان خود را در کار های فوق سهيم سازد تا آنها خود جزء با اهميت پروژه فکر نمايند و با . پروژه بدست آيد

.مسئوليت نقش خود را ايفأ نمايند راپور دهی -7

بايد آمر پروژه متيقن باشد که راپور را بوقت و زمانش با محتويات ضروری تسليم نموده . ر دهی استيکی از بخش های بسيار مهم پروژه عبارت از راپو .است

تطبيق پروژه :ترتيب تقسيم اوقات- 1

بينيد ب. از همين حاال در مورد آن تجديد نظر کنيد. تقسيم اوقاتی را که در پروپوزل موجود است از نظر بگذرانيد، ممکن تاريخ آن گذشته باشد •که در پروپوزل آيا مقدار کافی وقت در نظر گرفته شده بود؟ آيا کدام کار يا وقت از نظر افتيده است؟ و در باره اوقات آن کار ها تجديد نظر

.در اين جريان از تاريخ های واقعی استفاده نموده و آنرا استعمال نمائيد. نموده و آنها را اصالح کنيد


81

چک نمائيد که آيا کدام فعاليت اضافی ديگر ضروری است ؟ اگر ضروری . باره برای هربخش و فعاليتها تخمين نمائيدبا دقت کامل وقت را دو •باشد به کدام شکل ميتوانيم که بدون از اضافه شدن قيمت پروژه، اين فعاليت ها را انجام بدهيم؟ اگر ممکن باشد راه هائی را دريافت نما ئيد که

. بدست آريم ، اما بايد متوجه بود که مدت پروژه طوالنی نشودبواسطه آن وقت کافی .مطمئن باشيد که تقسيم اوقات مشتمل بر راپور های به وقت و ديگر اشيا ضروری باشد • يا اوقات يک تقسيم اوقات را به سائز بزرگ بروی ورق، تخته سياه يا سفيد، ساخته و آنرا باالی ديوار که هر کس آنرا در اوقات مالقات و •

در جائيکه سطح دانش پائين باشد، در صورت امکان، از سمبول ها استفاده . ديگر ديده بتواند نصب کرده و آنرا در وقت ضرورت تجديد کنيد . نمائيد

:استخدام پرسونل منجمنت - 2

اعالن نمودن پست ها، . اين کار را انجام دهيداستخدام کارمندان، اگر کدام پالن قبلی موجود نباشد شما بايد مطابق پالن ترتيب شده در صورت •استخدام را بصورت . براه انداختن مصاحبه ها، انتخاب مامور مورد نظر، مقرری و قرارداد نمودن از جمله اقدامات مهم و اساسی ميباشد

ا مينمائيد، شما ضرورت به بعضی از در پروژه های که ايجاب استخدام تعداد زياد کارمندان ر. مرحله وار که در فوق ذکر شده انجام دهيد . بايد در قدم اول تشريح وظايف را آماده سازيد. کارمندانی داريد که در استخدام بعدی شما ياری رسانند

باشد، اگر موسسه چنين پاليسی داشته . موسسۀ مربوطۀ تان ضرورت به ترتيب پاليسی استخدام کارمندان داريد قبل از استخدام کارمندان، شما و •

.خود را مطمئن سازيد که آيا باالی استخدام کارمندان اين پروژه عملی شده ميتواند؟ اگر نه، يک پاليسی جديد را ترتيب نمائيد .در ارتباط به تشريح وظايف که هر کارمند بايد آنرا داشته باشد، ورکشاپ جداگانه داير خواهد شد •

:اترتيب و تنظيم امور فرمايشات و خريداری ه-3 اطمينان حاصل نمائيد . آغاز شود" که در کار پروژه تاخير بوجود نيآيد، فرمايشات و خريداری های اجناس، تجهيزات، اکماالت و غيره بايد قبالبرای اين

.تا قيمت ها از بودجه منظور شده تزئيد نيابد :تنظيم وقت -4 مطلب اينست که منيجران بايد بطور درست بدانند . ش را باالی مسايل کوچک ضايع ننمايدمنيجرها بايد هميشه کارهای مهم را انجام دهند و وقت خوي •

ی پروژه کدام ها اند ؟ و در اخير هر روز پالن خويش را، نظر به اولويت ها، برای روز آينده ترتيب داده تا مطمئن شود که کدام کار که اولويت ها. دکاری را که در درجه دوم قرار دارد انجام دهي" و بعدا. در روز بعدی اولين کاری را که بسيا رمهم باشد انجام دهيد. ها در روز بعدی اجرا ميشوند

بايد کارمندان . اگر شما منيجران لست کار ها را قبل ازاجرا تکميل نتوانستيد، حد اقل شما قادر به آن شده ايد که کار های بسيار مهم راتشخيص دهيد .ديگر را نيز به اين طريقه آموزش دهيد

: ژورنال ها و پالن های کاریترتيب -5 خود را تنظيم نمايند و کار هائی را که اولويت دارند انجام دهند و ببينند که کدام قسمت کار های شان با هم کارمندان را بايد تشويق نمائيم که وقتتمام •

اهداف ماهانه را معين نموده و توسط پالن رو به . پالن های کاری بايد ترتيب شده و هماهنگ شوند. شريک است يا کدام قسمت کار ها تداخل دارند .م اهداف در يک هفته و يک روز برآورده شده ميتواندعقب مالحظه کنيد که کدا

.نمونه ای را که ضميمه است مالحظه نموده و از آن استفاده نمايد. يک ژورنال روزانه را برای اين پالن های کاری و فعاليت ها ترتيب نمائيد • تمام اين کار ها را ثبت نموده تا از پيشرفت کار . يب نمائيدبصورت شفاهی اهداف کاری را با کارگران در ميان گذاشته و پالن های کاری را ترت •

.مطمئن شويد :)اسناد( نگهداری فايل ها -6

وقتی که اسناد درست نباشد بسيار مشکل خواهد بود که پيشرفت و . يکی از مشکالت عام در جريان پروژه ها نگهداری غير مؤثر فايل ها و اسناد استاسناد هر پروژه شامل بخش های ذيل . ن پروژه ها از يکديگر متفاوت می باشند، نوع نگهداری اسناد آنها نيز فرق ميکندچو. دست آورد هاپيمايش شود

:ميباشد

پروپوزل و قرارداد - مکاتيب مربوطه -

راپورهای ارائه شده -


82

اسناد مالی -

ژورنال ها برای پالن گذاری وثبت فعاليت ها -

وظايفقرارداد های کارمندان و تشريح - :نظارت و بررسی خودی -8

يک منيجر خوب همراه با کارمندان اش روزانه پروژه را نظارت وبررسی ميکنند و به همين ترتيب پالن بطور مسلسل تازه ميشود و مشکالت از قبل نظارت و بررسی خودی قرار ذيل صورت ميگيرد . شناسائی شده و جلوگيری ميشوند

ايم؟آيا مشکالت را پيش بينی کرده - آيا کدام يک از کارگران و يا مستفيد شوند ه گان در خطر اند؟ -

آيا مشکالت بصورت تکراری بوجود ميآيد، و آيا ما در باره آن کدام اقدام نموده ايم ؟ -

آيا مطابق تقسيم اوقات عمل ميکنيم؟ اگر نخير، چطور ميتوانيم که مطابق تقسيم اوقات عمل کنيم ؟ -

که ما را در انجام موفقانه پروژه کمک و ياری کند که ما آن را در نظر نگرفته ايم؟ اگر هست چگونه آنرا بدست آورده آيا کدام چيزی است -

ميتوانيم ؟

آيا کدام چيزی ديگری را ميبينيم که در کاميابی پروژه کمک کند؟ -

آيا مصارف مطابق بودجه است؟ -

ر بدهيم؟آيا ما خوش و قانع استيم ؟ اگر نه چه را بايد تغي -

اگر ما همين پروژه را در کدام جائی ديگر انجام بدهيم، چه بايد بکنيم تا پروژه نظر به مرتبه اول بهتر انجام شود؟ -

ازين پروژه چه آموختيم؟ -

چه تغيراتی بايد حاال روی دست گرفته شود؟ -

:منجمنت مالی

هيچ وقت پول يک پروژه را در . عليحده، کتاب های رسيدات ، راپور مالی و غيره باشدتمام پروژه ها بايد دارای منجمنت مالی جداگانه، حساب بانکیبرای " کمک کننده گان اکثرا. حساب بانکی پول های ديگر موسسه يکجا نکنيد زيرا بسيار مشکل خواهد بود وجوه مالی و حسابات پروژه را تعقيب نمود

برای تنظيم و مصرف پول ) از مامور خريداری تا محاسب( نظر به سايز پروزه از يک الی چندين نفر.پروژه ها حساب بانکی عليحده را تقاضا مينمايند . ضرورت است

اگر چه مقامات عالی در مدت طوالنی به آن (بايد هميش راپور مالی خويش را بشکل ماهوار . منيجر پروژه مسوليت نهائی منجمنت مالی را دارد" معموال

.در راپور مالی ماهانه شما ميتوانيد که مشکالت را دريافته و قبل از بزرگ شدن، آنها آنرا حل نمايئد. تهيه بداريد) ضرورت داشته باشد

.در تلويزيون و اخبار ما در باره پروژه هائی بزرگ ميشنويم که قيمت تمام شد آن از قيمت تخمين شده متفاوت ميباشد ميلون دالر رسيده است ،و يا قيمت اصلی يک شاهراه، تونل، و شفاخانه 200ليون دالرتخمين شده، به مي80قيمت تمام شد يک ميدان هوائی به عوض .نظر به بودجه تخمين شده بسياربلند ميباشد

قابل قبول شده ميتواند مگر در پروژه های موسسه ازدياد بودجه غير coverبه هر صورت، مصارف اضافی که در پروژه های دولتی واقع ميشود دوباره اگر بودجه يک پروژه موسسه از اثر بی توجهی يا علل ديگر کمبود شود يک . است زيرا کمک کننده پول اضافی در دسترس ندارد که دوباره کمک نمايد .زم و ضروری استاحتياط فوق العاده زياد در مصرف و منجمنت بودجه ال. مشکل بزرگ ايجاد شده که برای موسسه يک خساره غير قابل جبران ميباشد

:راپورها

منيجر بايد راپور ها را مطابق تقسيم اوقات معينه آماده ساخته و مسوليت دارد تا عندالموقع معلومات ضروری را آماده بسازد محتويات اين راپورها بايد

د واين ديتا شما، رئيس شما و فند دهنده را ازنتايج و تحليل آن بسيار مهم ميباش) data(همين است که ارقام . سواالت مشخص دونرها را جوابگو باشد .دلخواه مطمئن می سازد


83

:ديتاهاجمع آوری

.ديتا را شما جمع ميکنيد، چگونه؟، چه وقت؟ و چرا؟ ديتا های جمع آورده شده بيان ميدارد که آيا اهداف پروژه برآورده شده است يا خير قسم هچ

يست که شامل ارقام عددی و توضيحات تشريحی بوده و بايد شما بدانيد که کدام معلومات دربارۀ پروژه شما جمع شود تا ديتاها عبارت از ارقام و فکت هائ بيان گر کار های متوقعه باشد؟

اردر زمان اگر اين ک. بخاطر ديزاين پروژه ضرورت به جمع آوری ديتا های بنيادی است که شرح دهندۀ حالت و شرايط قبل از شروع پروژه باشد .قبل از شروع پروژه انجام دهيد") فعال(ديزاين پروژه شما اجرا نشده است ، اگر ممکن باشد اين کار را

کدام ديتا ها در جريان و بعد از پروژه جمع شود تا تغيراتی را که بوقوع پيوسته است، نشان دهد؟ چطور تاثيرات پروژه پيمايش شود؟ کی اين •

. کند؟ چی وقت؟ درکجا؟ چطور؟ بايد برای انجام اين کار يک پالن جمع آوری ديتا ها ترتيب شوداندازه گيری را اجرا .وقتی که اعداد و شماره ها جمع آوری شدند بايد آنها تحليل و تفسير شوند. در کار انکشافی ارقام، آمار و احصائيه به تنهائی بی فايده اند •

ديتا چيست؟ :سوال

ارقام و آمار :جواب

:مثالها

تن آنها گفتند که ما در باره آن چيزی 10 تن آنها گقتند که خدمات توسعوی بسيار مفيد است، 60 دهقان در مجلس اشتراک نمودند، 75 •

.نشنيده بوديم، و پنج تن آنها گفتند که ما به آن ضرورت نداريم .تمام فاميل هائی که درينجا هستند از نژاد ترکمن اند •

گرچه در باره . که توسط مهاجرين انجام شده مشکل دارم) ايکولوجيکی ( فت معلومات قابل اطمينان در باره تخريب محيطی من در دريا •

.اين موضوع سخن بسيار گفته شده مگردر زمينه تحقيقات علمی کم انجام يافته است

.در سال های گذشته ، قيمت پشم خام دو چند قيمت فعلی آن بود •

متفاوت است و نميدانيم که " يم که چون سروی دقيق تشناب ها را قبل از شروع پروژه انجام نداده بوديم حاال، حالت کامالما حاال می فهم • .شرايط قبلی چگونه بوده است

تعداد فارغ شده گان

1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 سال 134 165 198 204 180 220 225 صحت 360 375 388 389 415 423 425 تعليم

260 287 312 324 350 364 387 زراعت 107 93 79 69 65 68 78 هنر ها

215 196 197 198 167 115 112 مخابرات قسمی که در فوق نشان داده شده است در پوهنتون در شش سال گذشته، تعداد فارغين دررشته صحت ، تعليم

. فارغين در هنرها و مخابرات تزئيد نموده اند و زراعت بشکل دراماتيک تنزيل نموده است مگر تعداد جمع آوری معلوماتپالن

ضرورت جمع آوری معتوماتچی چيز ها به

دارند؟کی اين معلومات را جمع آوری

چی وقت ؟ چطور؟ ميکند ؟

برای خود يک فارم را، به اين شکل، برای جمع آوری معلومات ترتيب نمائيد


84


85

SAE Journal Paper Submission Guidelines (For Prospective Authors, Blind Peer Reviewers and Contributors)

GENERAL: Submission of papers is open to every individual interested in the theme of this journal and the promotion of its purpose. However, in the interest of maintaining our anticipated quality of submission as well as their merit in being fit for inclusion in our publications, each submission will be subject to a double-blind peer review process by a designated SAE Review Panel. The Review Panel will make the decision to accept or not accept a manuscript for publication to the journal. SAE understands that by submitting the manuscript you agree that SAE reserves the right to publish your papers in one or more of its publications. Should you have any reservations to this understanding, please inform us in writing at or before the date of submission of your paper. To facilitate the publication of your work, it is essential to provide the editor with an appropriately formatted electronic copy of your manuscript. To assure a more professional presentation of the manuscripts as well as to facilitate the publishing of the journal, SAE earnestly requests that all manuscripts submitted should conform to the following moderate standards and guidelines. CONTACT INFORMATION: Please provide a complete mailing address, telephone number, fax number and an e-mail address only on the cover page of the manuscript. Authors’ names should not appear within the document in order to facilitate the double-blind peer view process. All submissions should be emailed in a Word document formatted as per SAE Journal’s recommended format in order for it to be distributed for the peer review process and possible publication. The following individuals can be contacted through email for more information: • Bahaudin G. Mujtaba, Nova Southeastern University. 3301 College Avenue. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida 33314. USA. Phone: (954) 262-5045. Email: [email protected] • Mark Quasem Kadir, Tel: (909) 868-4212 / (909)772-7334. Email: [email protected] TITLE: The title should be commensurate to the theme and title of the SEA Conferences, Mission, or Journal, and should be descriptive of the content. Please type the names of the authors and co-authors under the title on the cover page. Also, type the present affiliation as well as a mailing address of each author and co-author on the cover page of the manuscript. KEYWORDS: Prepare a list of up to seven keywords and place it on the first sheet, or cover page, right below the authors’ affiliations and mailing addresses.


87

ABSTRACT: The paper should start with a 150 to 200 word abstract. The abstract would provide a concise summary of the principle ideas of the presentation as well as the conclusion of the thoughts and arguments. The abstract would be placed before the introduction or body of the paper and after cover page. Authors’ names should not appear after the cover page. LENGTH: The journal expects to receive papers with length ranging from 3,000 to 8,000 words, excluding figures and tables. Up to an equivalent of four sheets of combined tables and figures will be accepted as supplements to the typed manuscripts. However, for papers of exceptional value and contribution to the aims of the conference, a maximum of 10,000 words may be accommodated with an addition of a maximum of six sheets of table and figures combined. Tables and figures should be placed at the appropriate places within the manuscript and they should be referenced properly. Tables and figures may be centered along the width of the sheet, not to exceed the side margins or may be arranged in a two-column format in conformance with the text format. All references and citations must be aligned with APA (American Psychological Association) format and guidelines. TYPESET: Please use a size 12 ‘Times New Roman’ or equivalents Microsoft Word font to type the manuscript. The manuscript should be typed in a one-column format, single-spaced on one side of a 8-1/2 x 11-in. paper with a minimum of 1-in. margin on all sides of the sheet. UNITS: Both the International System of Units (SI) and the American Standard units are accepted. However, consistency should be maintained to assure using only one system of units through ought a manuscript. SYMBOLS: Please make sure to use standard definitions and symbols wherever possible. You can use the lists published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a reference. CONCLUSIONS: The paper should end with a conclusion which would summarize the principle and significant ideas and implications of the arguments and the information presented in the body of the manuscript. REFERENCES: It is highly advised to give credit to the sources used in preparation of the paper. If references are cited in the text, the author-date method should be utilized - listing the last name of the author followed by the year. All references should be listed alphabetically, by last name of the first author, in the Reference section of the paper. If anonymous reports and standards are referenced, alphabetically list the issuing institution. All references and citations must be aligned with APA (American Psychological Association) format and guidelines.

SAE Journal Objectives

• To provide an appropriate forum for Afghan professionals to study, research, write, and discuss appropriate material on the culture and development of the Afghan workforce.

• To provide a forum for Afghan professionals to study and discuss technical problems related to the reconstruction of Afghanistan, the development of Afghan workforce and to suggest appropriate solutions.

• To foster international support and solicit financial and technical assistance for the reconstruction of Afghanistan and development of the Afghan workforce.

• To participate in the implementation of reconstruction and workforce development programs in Afghanistan.

• To develop a network of professionals and advocates to promote the goals of the society and to create a center of guidance and counseling for young Afghans who want to pursue professional careers.

• To provide support and encouragement to Afghan professionals living abroad in order to enable them to accept job assignments in Afghanistan.

Society of Afghan Engineers The Society of Afghan Engineers (SAE) is a private nonprofit and nonpolitical corporation whose purpose is to foster international support and to encourage financial and technical assistance for the reconstruction and prosperity of Afghanistan. This Society was formed in 1993 by a group of Afghan engineers in Northern Virginia and surrounding areas who believe that they have a moral responsibility to help the grief-stricken people of Afghanistan. This Society is not an agency of the Afghan Government or any other government. In addition, they are careful not to encroach upon, bypass, or circumvent the legal authority of the agencies of the Afghan Government in advocating financial and technical aid from donor organizations. Rather, the Society is designed to serve as a catalyst or consultant to governments or institutions interested in receiving or providing financial and technical assistance for the reconstruction of Afghanistan. As a nonprofit, 501(c)(3) organization, the SAE is tax-exempt and is authorized to engage in cultural, educational, literary, and charitable activities.

society of afghan engineers journal · 04/04/2015 · society of afghan engineers journal...

Documents