social skills training in juvenile detention: a rationale

Social Skills Training in Juvenile Detention: A Rationale

By David W. Roush, Ph.D.

The opinions expressed are those of the author and do not necessariIy represent the ofliial views of the National Juvenile Deten- tion Association or the K K. KelIogg Founda- tiOtk

Introduction Five year sago, the CalhounCounty(Michi-

gan) Juvenile Court, with the assistance of the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, introduced an experiential social skills training program into the daily operations of the court-operated juvenile detention facility. Evaluations and progress reports by multiple evaluators indicate that the program has had an immediate and positive impact on detained youth. Programs of this nature are rarely used in pre-adjudicatory settings. However, using a social skills training program in juvenile detention makes sense for several reasons:

First, the national emphasis on a social competency model to explain delinquent behaviors includes a social skills training strategy to COKeCt these problems. Second, there is a consistent refer- ence to social skills training as a component of effective treatment interventions in recent outcome evaluations. Third, social skills programs are easy to incorporate into the daily operations of juvenile detention.

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0 Finally, detained youth enjoy social skills training, and they participate fully and quickly.

Social skills training programs provide an appropriate outlet for emotions and lead to fewer behavior problems. The following pre- sents both a rationale for the expanded use of social skills programs and a case study to serve as a resource to juvenile corrections practitio- ners interested in developing a social skills component.

Juvenile Justice Overview: A New Perspective

Juvenile justice has been described as being a! a crossroads. The direction taken by juvenile justice will be shaped by political factors and the quality of information available to decision-makers about "what works" in JU-

vcnile justice. The Ofice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) provides both information and considerable leadership regarding effective juvenile justice programs The past decade has seen a remarkable change in the type of information available to juvenile justice decision-makers. In addition to the improved quality and quantity of statistical infomation about juvenile justice programs. special research programs have identified m y of the causes and correlates of juvenile delinquency (Howell, 1992). This OJJDP research supplies empirical evidence about factors in delinquency that can be used as the bars for program development.

David W. Rourh, Ph.D., is the director oftha NJDACentcr fix Rervrrch rnd Rofcuiocul Development at the School of Cnmirul Jurtlco, Michiern Slats Univmity. Ha sawed as rupcnntcndcnt oftha Cdhoun County Juvmilo Homo from 1975-1997 md IS a put prordent of NJDA. Ha IS the 1994 mcipimt o f h Nation4 Council of Juvmilo a d Funily Courr hd@d awud for Mentonour Sornco to tho Childran of Amencr.

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Social Skills Training in Juvenile Detention

OJJDP has developed a “Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Of- fenders” (Howell, 1995; Wilson & Howell, 1993) which is designed to prevent and reduce juvenile crime and provide a system-wide approach for managingjuvenile delinquency. The OJJDP Comprehensive Strategy employs these principles to prevent and reduce at-risk behavior and serious, violent, and chronic juvenile delinquency:

1.

2.

3 .

4.

5.

6.

We must strengthen families in their role to provide guidance and discipline and instill sound values as their children’s first and primary teachers. We must support core social institutions, including schools, churches, and other community-based organizations, to alleviate risk factors and help children develop to their maximum poten tid . We must promote prevention strategies that reduce the impact of risk factors and enhance the influence of protective factors in the lives of juve- ni les at greatest risk for delinquency. We must intervene with juveniles immediately when delinquent behavior first occurs. We must establish a broad spectrum of graduated sanctions that provide stability and a continuum of W c e s to respond appropriately to the needs of juvenile offenders. We must identify and control the small segment of serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders (Howell, 199513).

Along with a comprehensive plan, there is a new framework for juvenile justice best expressed as a “balanced and restorative” model (Bazemore & Umbreit, 1995; Bazemore & Washington, 1995; Maloney, Romig & Armstrong, 1988; Umbreit, 1995). The lessons learned from the recent decades of juvenile justice practice are that no particular ideo- logical approach to delinquency contains all the answers to effective interventions; that success must be distilled fiom an objective assessment of all strategies; and that there are identi- 2 Juvenile & Family Courf Journal I 19%

fiable principles of successful interventions. A balanced and restorative approach means that all the particufar circumstances of the delinquent act, the offender *s culpability, and other social and psychological factors of the youth will play a role in determining how the system will respond. Like the OJJDP Comprehensive Strategy, a new and more rational thinking about juvenile delinquency symbolizes thts decade’s policy and practices.

Public opinion about delinquency, the juvenile court, and treatment has been studied very carefully. Research by the University of Michi- gan indicates that a substantial majority of the public (75%) agrees that juveniles should be tried like adults with the same legal rights; however, the same percentage believes that whenjuvenilesare to be incarcerated as a result of criminal behavior, the incarceration should be for treatment or rehabilitative purposes (Schwartz, 1992). Despite claims to the con- trary by media experts and some politicians, the public still very strongly endorses the belief that the incarceration of children should be for treatment purposes.

Research and Social Skills Training As research methodologies and practices

improve, the quantity of reliable and empirical evidence about delinquency program effectiveness also improver. There now exists a greater confidence in “what works” because o f a sizable amount of objective data to support treatment outcomes. Reviews of the research reveal several clear patterns about what typa of interventions are consistently effective. I t i s no surprise that the OJJDP Comprehensive Plan includes many ofthese findings, makine it a research-based strategy. Because the plan focuses broadly on prevention and intervention issues, some of the research findings are discussed in general terms. One of these researc h outcomes is the impact of social skills training. Besides being acentral component of intervention strategies based on a social competency model, social skills training is cited as a corn- mon thread in effective institutional intewen- tions.

One of the significant assessments of effec-

David H’ Roush. P h 3

tive delinquency intervention strategies is the comprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Lipsey ( 1 992). In his evaluation of effectiveness ofjuvenile delinquency programs, Lipsey notes that the most successful treatments are more structured and specific, especially ones emphasizing behavior or social skill training approaches. These findings draw attention to a skill development strategy for delinquency prevention that is compatible with the social developmental model recommended by OJJDP.

Agee (1995) developed and directed several effective delinquency intervention programs. Her analysis of what works is based on her experience and on many of the components of effective juvenile treatment in correctional settings as described by other leading juvenile justice researchers (Andrews et al., 1990; Gendreau, 198 1,1993; Gendreau & Ross, 1979; Greenwood, 1986; Greenwood & Zimring, 1985; Ross & Fabiano, 1985). Agee identifies eight components of effective interventions with juvenile delinquents: (1) effective assessment, (2) comprehensive cognitive behavioral programming, (3) positive peer communities, (4) anger management, (5) empathy training, also known as victim awareness, (6) a clear, firm, consistent, and potent discipline system, (7) pro-social skills training, and (8) drug and alcohol abuse counseling (1 995: 177- 18 1).

Gendreau ( 198 1, 1993; Gendreau & Ross, 1979), an advocate of juvenile treatment, developed eight general principles of effective programming for juvenile offenders. The central principles of effective programming are concrete problem-solving and systematic SO- cial skill training to increase reward levels in noncriminal settings (Gendreau, 1991). The concrete probkm-sdving and systematic skill training include social skills, and the skills identified by Gendreau parallel thosecontained in most adolescent social skills curricula, especially Skills for Adolescence (SFA).

with the assumption that a well-run boot camp program could recognize and meet the various needs of juveniles. To accomplish this goal, however, a boot camp for juveniles would need more programs, especially remedial education and counseling.

The Juvenile Project conducted a national survey of correctional boot camp programs in juvenile agencies. Two common characteris- tics of youth in these programs are very poor social skills and low self-concept. In particular, poor social skills are tied to a lack of problem-solving skills and to a diminished sense of personal responsibility for behavior. The Juvenile Project recommended a model for successful boot camps for juveniles that includes a special emphasis on an intensive social skills training component through values clarification, problem-solving, and conse- quential thinking (Taylor, 1992).

Social Skills Training and Primary Prevention

The Commission on Violence and Youth of the American Psychological Association ( 1993) addressed the question, “How can we intervene effectively with violent youth?” The Commission’s research affirmed that primary prevention programs offer the greatest potential. In particular, early interventions through preschool programs, early childhood programs, and elementary schools can have the greatest impact. The Commission concluded:

Primary prevention programs ofthe type that promote social and cognitive skills seem to have the greatest impact on attitudes about violent behavior among children and youth. Skills that aid children in learning alternatives to violent behavior include social perspective-taking, alternative solution generation, self- esteem enhancement, peer negotiation skills, problem-solving skills training and anger management. (p. 56)

The continuity of intervention is enhanced when strategies are integrated into other child- serving agencies, especially the j uvenile court. Juvenile court involvement is one indicator that primary prevention programs have not

Social Skills and Boot Camps The Juvenile Project ofthe American Car-

rectional Association (ACA) studied the question of whether boot camp programs can be effective for juvenile offenders. ACA began

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been totally successful in changing violent behavior. Just as children learn at different rates they also change attitudes, values, and behaviors at different rates. Therefore, the use of social skills training within all aspects of juvenile court interventions, particularly juvenile detention, serves to extend the impact of primary prevention programs.

Social Skills Training and Community Leadership

As the problems facing American communities become more and more troublesome, Checkoway and Finn (1 992) propose that youth must become a vital part of community-based solutions. In other words, youth must play a part in developing a strong community. There- fore, children and young people must be groomed to assume leadership roles in the community. Checkoway and Finn review several case studies and extract 14 themes of successful practice. Five of these themes (participation of youth, leadership development, building an organization through youth, view- ing adults as allies, and inner-generational involvement) presume that youth participating in these programs have good social skills. In other words, Checkoway and Finn make social skills a prerequisite for successful youth involvement as community builders.

Summary The rethinking of the juvenile justice sys-

tem and the re-examination of programs and practices has led to:

A new approach to juvenile justice which (a) is inclusive rather than ex- clusive of effective concepts, programs, and ideas, (b) recognizes the holistic nature of delinquency prevention by a greater emphasis on the family, community, meaningful employment, and aftercare services (Huskey, 1994), and (c) includes program development that is more age- appropriate, emphasizing the substantial differences between children and adults;

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An increase in the quantity and quality of research seeking to reliably Iden- tify critical factors associated wlth juveniledelinquency and effective delinquency prevention; The development of a continuum of services to more accurately meet the offender’s needs while ensuring community protection and providing more cost-effective services (Dunlap & Roush, 1995); and A shift to a social competence model that includes (a) developmental, eco- logical, and skill-based approaches to working with juvenile offenders, (b) an emphasis on the identification of sets of skill-deficits associated with delinquency, and (c) the effective matching of programs to remedy these deficits. While social skills training is not the panacea, it is included as a central component of effective interventions.

Social Skills Training A social competence theory proposes that

some individuals behave anti-socially because they lack proper social skills. A skill-deficit approach assumes that wide and varied skill deficiencies are related to delinquency and that the patterns of particular deficiencies vary among individuals and between groups. How- ever, the easily identified patterns reveal some regularities and consistencies for some types of delinquents. The discovery of specific patterns of skill deficits forms the basis for a treatment or intervention plan which matches remedial services with specific skill deficits (Veneziano & Veneziano, 1989).

Social Skills Training Experts in juvenile delinquency and at-risk

youth agree that no single factor determines adolescent misbehavior; rather, a host of factors contribute. For example, the National School Safety Center (1989) developed a pro- file of promising approaches for working with

high-risk youth. Successful programs have provided positive opportunities, relevant skills, appropriate rewards for accomplishments, and responsible behavior. These programs also have a distinct focus on parenting education, involvement of concerned adults, early childhood education, peer support counseling, social influences, the environment, and personal choice.

Brendtro and Ness (1983) use social skills training to explain how the juvenile offender’s many emotional and behavioral problems result from faulty learning or inadequate social- ization opportunities. Social skills training assumes that most of the problems of juvenile offenders exist because the offender lacks skills to build relationships, handle interpersonal conflicts, and manage their own emotions in a constructive way. Using this model, intervention includes the teaching of more acceptable ways to behave, to express feelings, to respond to others, and to meet the demands and expec- tations placed by the youth’s environment. As a re-education strategy, social skills training assumes that the skills needed for improved social adjustment can be taught with many of the same methods used to teach any kind of academic or behavioral skill.

Social skills training has long been recog- nized as a particularly effective intervention strategy with juvenile offenders. Sarason (1 968) maintained that systematic exposure to rein- forcing adults who model socially appropriate behavior could have a powerful influence in modifying the aggressive and acting-out behavior of adolescents. His strategy focused on an observational leanring approach to both social behaviors. Measures of behavioral and attitudinal changes were sustained over athree- year follow up.

LeCroy ( 1983) reviewed the literature and reported on numerous social skills research projects involving juvenile offenders. Social skills training demonstrated effectiveness with a wide range of inappropriate behaviors. Even though there were a few studies where social skills training demonstrated no significant differences in comparison to control groups, LeCroy’s review powerfully argued for the effectiveness of social skills training with

juvenile offender populations, Ollend1ck a d Hersen (1 979) reported secondary gains =SO- ciated with social skills training. In addition to improvement in verbal and nonverbal behaviors, the social skills group earned more points on the institution’s token economy while sI- mult~eously engaging in fewer disruptive behaviors. Social skills training may be a successful adjunct to existing programs by reducing peer and staff conflicts (LeCroy, 1983: 112). Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, and Sheldon-

Wildgen ( 1 983) explored the theoretical and programmatic issues in the development of a social skills training programs for court- adjudicated youth. They cite numerous studies that link poor social skills among adolescents with delinquency. Based on their own experience with social skills programming, the authors map out a usable set of criteria to evaluate social skills programs. They raise a critical point in classifying social skills programs, noting two groups that they call the problem specific approach and the general skills approach. The problem specific approach identifies an individual or specific problem and then develops an effective social response to it. The general skills approach identifies a set of general skills problems common to a specific group, i.e., juvenile offenders, and creates a more global intervention strategy.

Brendtro and Ness (1983) give particular attention to social skills training and describe it as an important component of their psycho educational framework for re-educating troubled youth in a private, residential setting. They use a 2 x 2 matrix for identifying problems and matching effective interventions. On one dimension, problems are identified as ranging from the “behavioral” to the “emotional” levels, with emotional problems defined as the more deep-seated and difficult to resolve. On the other dimension, the intensity of problems is defined as “situational” versus “pervasive.” Social skills training fits into the assessment scheme as an appropriate strategy for dealing with behavioral level problems that are situational and pervasive. In other words, social skills training is an effective strategy to deal with a wide range of behavior problems in a

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short period of time. The Brendtro and Ness classification matrix supports the argument for using social skills training programs in short- term institutions such as juvenile detention.

Problem Specific Approach Fox (1990) applies social skills training to

juvenile populations. His definition of social competence theory states that all youth possess a collection of more or less adaptive behaviors. The greater the competence in the social domain, the more likely juveniles are to be able to meet the demands their culture places upon them. The purpose of an intervention is to identify skill deficits associated with failure and develop a plan to generate skills that lead to effective functioning (Fox, 1990:42). Fox identifies six components of the problem specific approach to social skills training. Social skills training is a function of a direct instnrctional approach that teaches: (a) modeling, (b) role playing, (c) comments, (d) positive correction, (e) reinforcement, and ( f ) generali- zat ion training.

Rubenstein (1 993) implemented a problem specific social skills training program in a state juvenile training school setting. The program revealed significant positive behavior changes in students, increased staff competence and confidence, and increased m o d e and feelings of teamwork among staff. Rubenstein expanded the general problem specific criteria by demonstrating that effective social skills training must be a coordinated effort by the entire staff in the correctional facility. The social skills curriculum must be supported through modeling and reinforcement of appropriate behaviors by all staff members. The shift toward a social competence theory receives support from the efforts of numerous social skills programs, such as ones described by Rubenstein and the works of Goldstein and Glick ( 1987).

General Skills Approach The general skills approach includes a wide

variety of experiential learning. Conrad and Hedin ( 1982) reviewed experiential education 6 Juvenile & Famiiy Court Journal I 19%

and provided this definition: Educational programs offered as an In- tegral part ofthe general school curriculum, but taking place outside the con- ventional classroom, where students are in new roles featuring significant tasks with real consequences, and where the emphasis is on learning by doing with associated reflection (p. 58). They concluded that experience-based edu-

cation programs have a significantly positive impact on adolescents’ psychological, social, and intellectual development. For example, the 27 studies included in their review revealed the positive impact on adolescent development in the areas of self-esteem, moral reasoning, social and personal responsibility, attitudes toward adults, attitudes toward others, attitudes toward community involvement, career exploration, and problem-solving skills. Conrad and Hedin contend that experiential education is more effective than traditional classroom instruction in these particular areas. A very popular combination hru been the “wilderness experience” or an Outward Bound program in conjunction with a social skills training curriculum (Taylor, 1992).

The High Scope Educational Research Foundation identified key strategies to increase the effectiveness of experiential education programs. They are (a) active learning, (b) student leadership, and (c) divergent questioning. Pri- marily concerned with early childhood education, High Scope conducted the Perry Pre School Project (Barrueta-Clements et al., 1984) which exposed relationships between early childhood education and experiential learning to create resistance to delinquency in adolescents (Supanich & Weikert, 1988). The High Scope model is a positive approach to reducing skill deficits by stressing the early acquisition of a general set of appropriate social skills.

Social Development Theory The central premise of juvenile justice is

that children should be treated differently from adults (Sheridan, 1986). Basic assumptions are that juveniles are not simply small adults, that physical size and offense seriousness do

David H’ Roush . P h D

not equate to adult-level maturity, and that juveniles are somewhat less responsible than adults for their actions and behaviors. The developmental model focuses on the differences between adults and juveniles. OJJDP places a high priority on the social development theory by Hawkins and Weis (1980) as the most significant theoretical contribution to understanding the onset and maintenance of delinquent careers, and more importantly, delinquency prevention and intervention. The prevention model is “Communities That Care,” based on the work of Hawkins and Catalano (1 992). Hawkins’ social development theory is the clearest and most useful model within the social competence framework (Hawkins, Lishner, Catalano, & Howard, 1986; Hawkins & Weis, 1980).

Skills for Adolescence (SFA) Model This rationale for social skills training

programs in juvenile detention is an out- growth of the successful experiences of the Holistic Environmental Life-Skills Project (HELP), a public-private venture between the Calhoun County Juvenile Court and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation to strengthen the programs and services at the Calhoun County Juvenile Home (Roush & Roush, 1993). HELP will be described in thecase study section. The SFA curriculum (Lions Club International and Quest International, 1992) appealed to HELP staff because it combines a general skills approach with Hawkins’ social development model (Hawkins & Catalano, 1992; Hawkins, Lishner, Catalano & Howard, 1986, Hawkins & Weis, 1980), an approach recommended in the OJJDP Comprehensive Strategy (Wilson & Howell, 1993).

There are many other social skills training programs that are adaptable to juvenile detention, but HELP selected SFA for three reasons; (1) as just mentioned, it is based on the same theories of delinquency prevention used by OJJDP, (2) it has been evaluated for compat- ibility with juvenile court populations and en- dorsed by the National Council ofJuvenile and Family Court Judges, and (3) SFA has wide- spread use in the public schools and can serve

as a bridge from detention to the public schools The theoretical basis for SFA programs are the works of Hawkins, plus Bandura ( 1973, 1977) and Glenn (Glenn & Nelson, 1987). The SFA model identifies the external and internal conditions that must be in place for young people to demonstrate positive social behaviors and develop commitments to family, school, pow tive peers, and the community at large

The SFA model is represented graphically in Figure I . The diagram can be seen as a basic algebraic formula: A + B = C + D It conveys that if certam (A) external and (B) internal conditions are met, young people will exhibit (C) social behaviors and will develop (D) commitment and bonding. When these two goals are accomplished, young people are more apt to lead productive, healthy, drug-free lives

Case Study: Calhoun County Juvenile Home

Background Located in rural South-Central Michigan,

Calhoun County has a population of about 140,000 distributed between farmland and ur- ban-industrial areas. Interstate 94, the main corridor between Detroit and Chicago, bisects the width of the county. Referred to as a “multiple problem” county, industrial and economic declines have contributed to per capita ratesofwelfare, unemployment, divorce, illegitimate births, and infant mortality which rank among the highest in Michigan. Cur- rently, drug and gang involvement in two cities has produced an increase in violence, an in-

crease in drug-related offenses, and an increased concern for public safety. In essence, Calhoun County is very typical of the range of problems facing contemporary society.

The Calhoun County Juvenile Court provides a continuum of services to address the needs of juvenile offenders. In addition to a wide range of probation services, the Calhoun County Juvenile Home (CCJH) serves as the mainstay of Juvenile Court services. With capacity for 42 juveniles, the Juvenile Home operates two separate programs. The Deten- tion and Evaluation (D & E) program is a

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Social Sh l l s Trainrng in Juvenile Detention

Figure 1

Conceptual Model for Program Development

Conditions

Environment

Expectation Opportunity Caring Predictability Reciprocal

interact ion Safety Reinforcement

Skill Instruction

Thinking skills Social skills

In fonna tion

Changes and chal-

Self-Percep tioa

Capability Worth Control

Motivation

Need Interest Relevance

Cognition

Memory lenges of growth Understanding

substances Health, chemical Reasoning

Self-Discipline

Self-Respect Perseverance Postpones

gratification Expresses feelings

appropriately

Res pon s i bility

Makes and keeps commitments

Acts with integrity

Is honest

Good Judgment

Says "No" Considers alter-

natives and consequences

Gets Along with Othen

Helping Sharing Listening Cooperating Resolving

conflicts

- Family

School

Peen

Community

Work Community

Neighborhood

Service groups

organizations

POUPS

8 Jnvrnrlr & Family Court Journal I 19%

David rc' Roush. Ph D

traditional pre-adjudicative secure detention unit with capacity for 15 juveniles, and the Intensive Learning Program (ILP) is a post- dispositional residential treatment program with capacity for 27 juveniles.

Approximately 350 juveniles per year are admitted to the D & E program. The average length of stay is 17 days. The ILP provides treatment services to approximately 70 juveniles per year with an average length of stay of 140 days. All youth receive educational services within 24 hours of admission. Under the supervision of the local intermediate school district's special education department, the school program provides instruction in remedial reading, language arts, math, social studies, vocational and career development, physical education, and personal adjustment.

Three major problems affect the future for troubled youth in Calhoun County. While each ofthese problems is very serious, they combine to create an impending crisis for the local juvenile justice system. These problems are: (a) the increased rate of referrals to the Court for serious juvenile crime, including drug crimes, (b) the growing numbers of youth at- risk who require specialized mental health and educational programs and services, and (c) the decreased financial resources available to public institutions which address the problems of youth.

Serious Juvenile Crime For the past decade, citizens in Calhoun

County have been aware of the juvenile crime problem. In addition to reports by the local and national news media, several facts call attention to this problem:

The FBIUnifonn Crime Reports show that national juvenile arrest rates for violent crimes are double the rate for adults, and Calhoun County data are similar. ChildEn in Custody reported an 8% increase nationally in violent crimes by juveniles over the past two-year period, and Calhoun County data are similar.

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Since 1983, referrals to the Calhoun County Juvenile Court increased 32% More alarmingly, felony referrals in-

creased 130% over the same time period. A series of local citizens forums on community concerns conducted by the Albion Civic Life Project reported that problems ofyouth crime and youth drug-involvement are the top priori- ties for juvenile court intervention as identified by these public opinion sur- veys.

A review of existing studies and research O n serious juvenile offenders by the National Council on Crime and Delinquency identified four factors contributing to serious juvenile crime (Hartstone & Hansen, 1984): (a) the age of the juvenile at the first referral to the juvenile court, (b) the lack of commitment by youth to school and the corresponding existence of educational deficits, (c) family disorganization and abuse (the absence of love and the presence of physical violence), and (d) drug involvement. Each of these factors represents distinct problems for juveniles under juvenile court juris- diction.

Age. Since 1985, the number of juveniles whose first referral to the juvenile court is for a felony offense has nearly doubled. For 16 consecutive years, the average age of the juvenile offender in ILP has decreased or stayed the same. Statistically, the Juvenile Court contin- ues to provide services to a younger population.

Commitment to School. Juvenile Home teachers reported a continual increase in the number of educational problems facing youth. The numbers of youth who qualify for state aid for special education increased annually. Juve- nile Home residents demonstrated academic levels an average of three years below their grade levels. Some students functioned as much as eight years behind their expected grade level.

Family Disorganization. Probation OEC- ers and counselors reported that virtually every juvenile committed to the Juvenile Home described some degree of family disorganization. Each youth experienced rejection within the

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family, and approximately half of the youth reported incidents of physical abuse.

At-risk young people do not experience the kind of care, concern, and nurturing that fuels motivation. According to a 1985 report from the Business Advisory Council of the Educa- tion Commission of the States, most at-risk youth have the intelligence to succeed; but they lack important skills, family support, self- discipline, and motivation. The report states that these youth could become more productive citizens but probably will not unless something out of the ordinary happens.

Substance Abuse. When young people see themselves as worthless, they show little self- control in resisting such temptations as drugs. If healthy and constructive challenges are not available, youth find challenges in such peer group related behaviors as poor school perfor- mance, aggressiveness, social withdrawal, to- bacco, alcohol, and substance abuse.

Childmn in Custody reported a 4oo/r increase in alcohoVdrug offenses over the past two-year period. Over 90% of the youth in the treatment program reported being “high” (under the influence of alcohol or drugs) at the time they committed their crimes. Over 10% of the youth reported direct involvement in the sale and distribution of cocaine in Calhoun County.

Education Education remains one of the vital compo-

nents of any intervention strategy for juvenile offenders. Even though several studies have questioned the effectiveness of various institutional treatment models, the National Academy of Sciences uniformly includes an educational component as the foundation for interventions with troubled youth. A comprehensive study of intervention models for serious juvenile offenders conducted by the University of Chicago and the National Insti- tute of Justice includes education as a central component of the model. These educational programs are both structured and remedial in the areas of reading and math, and they include vocational education and social or life-skills development. 10 Juvenile & Family C o w Journal I 19%

Educational programs must address the many different aspects of a juvenlle‘s social development which complement cognitive skdl development. The skills which need to be addressed include learning to appreciate one’s own talents and potential, learning to set goals, learning to postpone gratification, learning to accept responsibility for one’s behavior, developing a personal investment in the well-being of others, learning to interact and communicate effectively, and learning to resolve conflicts and solve problems. Together, these skills represent the fourth “R” in education: responsibility(Sprunger& Pellaux, 1989). The fourth “ R concept has also included four democratic principles in education which promote more effective learning. In addition to responsibility, the principles are respect, resourcefulness, and responsiveness (Evans, Corsini & Gazda, 1990).

If these educational problems go unre- solved, today’s troubled youth will fulfill the futurists’ prophecies that: (a) the new discrimination will be against the illiterate, (b) jobs will increasingly require post-secondary education and training, and (c) the combined effects of intellectual discrimination and unemployment will provide youth with fewer successful adult role models. The forecast is for a downward spiral of effects unless an extensive effort is made to re-educate troubled youth.

Retrenchment Even in good times, programs for troubled

youth have rarely been funded at an adequate level. Given the current national economic situation, Michigan’s juvenile justice systems, including Calhoun County, are experiencing the need to reduce budgets. Because saIaries and benefits constitute over 85% of most institutional budgets, the requirements for additional significant money-saving efforts forebode a reduction in staff. In light of the increasing seriousness ofthe problems associated with troubled youth, the University of Michigan notes that the agencies charged with the responsibility for providing services to these youth are unfortunately unable to expand the

David I+’ Roush. Ph D

quality and quantity of programs necessary to meet their growing needs (Center for the Study of Youth Policy, 1991).

Project Summary In December 1989, the Calhoun County

Juvenile Court received funding from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation to implement the Holistic Environmental Life-skills Project (HELP). This project was conceived as a collaborative response to these major problems affecting the future of Calhoun County’s troubled youth (Roush & Roush, 1993). While the court provides a continuum of treatment services to its youth, the combination of increasingly more difficult offenders at a time of fewer financial resources created a need for a stronger, better integrated, and expanded treatment strategy. Evaluations of the project resulted in two national distinctions for HELP 0- the 1992 Gould Wysinger Award for exceptional programming from the Ofice of Juvenile Justice and Delin- quency Prevention, and the 1992 Exemplary Program Award from the National Association of Counties (NACo).

What is HELP? HELP is divided into four components: (a)

parenting skills education, (b) social skills training, (c) computer assisted instruction, and (d) creative arts education.

Panwting Skills Education. Because family breakdown is a major correlate of juvenile delinquency, parenting skills education was integrated into the plans for HELP. This segment of the project involves detained juveniles and their parent3 in both the Active Parenting of Teens curriculum and in lively activities that promote interaction between youth and their parents.

Computer-Assisted h t r c t i o n . The second component of HELP is computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Inadequate computer skills were identified as a liability for juvenile offenders, and it was hoped that exposure to computers would not only improve academic skills but also improve self-esteem. Now, each youth in the HELP program spends an average

of 6.7 hours per week in the CCJH’s new computer lab. Student responses to computers have also been overwhelmingly positive. AC- cordingly, research datashow that CAI is a very effective component: time spent in the corn- puter lab generated statistically significant im- provements in reading levels and appr \priate classroom behaviors.

C m m e Arts. The third component of HELP is creative arts education. This element wiis designed to provide youth with alternative forms of expression to help build self-esteem. Various fine arts are taught, such as drama, art, dance, and music. Through links with SFA materials and topics, the fine arts arc also used to emphasize cultural diversity and ethnic sen- sitivity. Students average five hours of creative arts instruction per week, and numerous local artists have generously volunteered their time to assist in creative arts instruction.

Social Skills. The fourth and final component of HELP is designed to teach social skills and self-esteem, two attributes oAen shown as lacking in research on juvenile offenders. Ju- venile Court and W.K. Kellogg Foundation staff selected the Skills for Adolescence (SFA) curriculum (Lions Clubs International and Quest International, 1992; Sprunger & Pellaux, 1989) as the social skills intervention, and SFA classes were integrated into both the ILP and the D & E programs at the Juvenile Home. When the project was initiated in 1989, there were some concerns that SFA might not be ideally suited for an intervention setting such as a juvenile detention center. SFA was designed as a prevention strategy for use in the classroom; and because it had never been implemented in a detention setting, some doubts existed about what its effectiveness might be.

AAer five years of operation in the HELP project, and following numerous observational visits by evaluators from Quest International, the implementation of SFA in the Calhoun County Juvenile Home has been deemed a success. The students in the program, for one, enjoy their time spent doing SFA activities; they frequently request SFA when given an option; and they participate enthusiastically. In fact, the level of participation in SFA activities is higher in the HELP setting, than in the majority of classroom settings, according to

19% i Juvenile & Family Court Journal 1 I


Quest experts. On top of that, the experts recommend that HELP be considered as a model for future use of social skills in detention settings. Regarding the replication of HELP, the section below outlines the critical implementation issues (Roush, Christner, Lee, & Stelma, 1993).

The Challenge SFA is a nontraditional educational pro-

gram for adolescents that emphasizes life skills, such as effective listening, decision-making, and positive personal relationships. SFA has been part of public school curricula for many years, but until recently it had not been introduced in a detention center. While it works quite well in the public schools, many doubts remained about whether SFA could be successful in a detention environment:

SFA is designed as a prevention tool while juvenile detention is an intervention setting. SFA stresses involvement with the family, but detention separates youth from their families. SFA is designed to build a sense of community over the long-term, yet many residents are detained in juvenile detention for only a brief time. SFAmaterialsassumethatlifeisgood and that people are worthwhile. Therefore, youth will make sound decisions to insure their long-term well-being when an atmosphere of trust and support exists. However, many residents in detention do not come fiom an environment which re- inforces these assumptions. Many are victims of abuse or neglect, many have a family or personal history of substance abuse, and many suffer from physical, mental, or emotional dis- abilities.

Can a comprehensive and systematic program such as SFA be successfully adapted to short-term detention with its transient population without drastically compromising either the underlying concepts and principles of SFA 12 Juvenrlr & Famrly Court Jomrnal I 19%

or the detention center or both? If such a program can be adapted to detention will the generally short involvement in the program haveany meaningful impact on detained youth’

Implementation

Program Development Three HELP staff members were respon-

sible for implementing SFA programs at the Juvenile Home. This “implementation team” met with Quest representatives to discuss both implementation and evaluation strategies The adaptation of SFA materials to a juvenile detention setting and the modification of the lesson sequence to address the needs to a transient population were the topics discussed. The implementation team reviewed HELP goals, selected a series of units and lessons to use as a model, and submitted a proposed curriculum to Quest. From this interaction, the implementation team and Quest representatives recommended a sequence of lessons and units (Roush, Christner, Lee, & Stelma, 1993).

Advisory Committee. Concurrently, an advisory committee was established to provide advice and direction from community members who had extensive experience with SFA programs. The committee met three times prior to the implementation and discussed several critical topics: possible impact of deviating from the prescribed SFA sequence of lessons, use of the parent workbook for staff development purposes, integration of computers into the SFA curriculum, possible means of evaluating the impact of SFA, and ways to mainstream. The advisory committee gave unqualified support to the modified selection of units and lessons for use with the detention population.

Climate Committee. A critical component of Skills for Growing (SFG) - the Quest social skills program for elementw school students - is the positive school climate committee. The plan for developing positive school climate committees is a regular component of the SFG training, and participants explore various ideas and activities for improving staff morale and expressing appreciation for one

another. Prior to HELP, the positive school climate concept had not been used with SFA training. HELP staff recommended that a climate component be added to the SFA training for juvenile detention staft: During both training sessions, the SFA trainer used the climate committee concept as one portion of the staffassignments. Everyone concurred that the climate committee experience would be extremely relevant to juvenile justice and staff.

The committee meets weekly to discuss various incentive programs which have been implemented throughout the building, such as birthday recognition, d o u t i n g s , motivational posters, certificates for completion of training, and “the d e t en t i o n - worker- o f- t h e- m o n t h ” program. The climate committee strategy is probably the single most effective method of neutralizing the objections and cynicism expressed by negative staff and by those who believe that SFA programs add an additional burden to an already overworked job.

Trial Implementation. Prior to scheduling the staff training, the implementation team, all of whom were trained and certified in SFA, conducted a two-week trial implementation. Classes ran for 50 minutes, four days a week, Monday through Thursday. All detention staff in the area were encouraged to participate and follow the ground rules established by the group. The residents’ responses were overwhelmingly positive. They requested SFA every day and were openly disappointed when the two-week trial period ended.

One benefit derived from the trial period was that the use of SFA energizers waa more clearly understood. Energizers can be very stimulating, and many staff believed that this stimulation would create disruptive problems among detained youth. Since the majority of youth are eager to participate in these activities, energy levels are usually quite high; and an administrative decision was made that at least two staff members would be present to lead an SFA group to increase the effective use of energizers and other activities.

The trial implementation period provided an opportunity to test other concepts. As a result, staffwere convinced of three things: (1) the initial modification of the SFA curriculum

was an effective adaptation for detention population; (2) experiential learning can occur in a j uven i le detention fac i I i ty w i thou t d i sm p t i n g the daily operation; and (3) almost wlthout exception, detention residents love the SFA experience. Armed with this information, the st& training was scheduled, and SFA was formally implemented in the detention education program at the beginning of the 1990- 1991 school year.

Staff Ttaining Obstacles were actually quite numerous

from the beginning. Sending the entire s t a f f away from the premises for three days of training was no small feat. Eventually, teachers, administrators, court personnel, child care workers, cooks, maintenance and clerical staff were divided into two groups and attended separate training sessions SIX months apart The reasons for sending all the staff are threefold: (a) to familiarize everyone with the content of the SFA curriculum so that SFA principles can be reinforced in every staff interaction with residents, (b) to provide a team-building experience, and (c) to increase each person’s individual skill base

Concerns wereexpressed about the middle- class values of the materials, about SFA’s potential to create an extra burden on child care staff to implement one more program component, and especially about the growing salary disparity between detention teachers and child care workers. This distinction was un- derscored at the training by several qualifying comments from the SFA trainer indicating that Quest could not certify non-degreed staff (staff‘ who did not possess a bachelor’s degree or equivalent) 83 SFA instructors. It was a problem because most child care workers did not possess a bachelors degree, Finally, several male detention workers expressed their oppo- sition to any program that places importance on the expressionoffeelingsand devalues a tough, para-militaristic and authoritarian role of staff These concerns were addressed, in part, through the establishment of the climate committee, which was charged with the responsibility to make positive changes in the work environ-

19% 1 Juvenile B Family Court Journal 13

Social Ski f f s Trarnrng in Juvenile Deteniion

ment. The most effective neutralizers of staff cynicism were the residents’ tremendously positive reactions to SFA classes.

Initial negative reactions by some staffwere further neutralized because of the advantages that all staff realized when they implemented such a program. For example, control of resident behavior improves in a program where the materials are systematic, thorough, and well- organized. Comprehensive programs usually provide time for the staff to relax and get to know one another better. Finally, most staff agree that juvenile offenders need social skills training .

New Admissions As new students enter detention, they are

involved immediately by having residents who participated in the previous days’ sessions review what was done so that new youth are aware of what to expect. New residents are given a chance to feel comfortable and observe some of the lessons before they are asked to participate. Pressure to participate is rarely put on new students on the first day, even though new residents usually feel comfortable enough to participate by the end of the first session.

Repeat Residents The population in a detention facility is

very transient, and from time to time, most detention populations include repeat residents. This did not present a problem because the repeat residents were already familiar with the material and were very helpful by participating in discussions. In fact, repeat students also had the tendency to experience prior material as if it were their first time, and they enjoyed lessons just as much when repeated. SFA staffspecu- late that this perception of a new experience is due to the new or changed group of students.

The fact that SFA materials can be repeated and still maintain a high impact on both first- time and repeat residents was one of the pleasant surprises encountered by staff. While program staff expressed initial reser- vations about the high levels of resident tum- over in detention, the transient nature of the 14 Juvenile & Family Court Journal I 19%

population may actually strengthen the impact of repeat lessons because the group of youth in the SFA class becomes new and dynamic wlth each admission or release.

Within a detention population, there IS a varied range of age, social skills, and intellectual skills. This has not been a major problem as long as a majority of the residents are approximately the same age. When there IS a wide range of ages, a minor problem exists in trying to find lessons appropriate for the entire age group. Some materials are too advanced for the younger residents and some are too immature for the older residents. This has only been a minor problem, since older residents are usually very patient with the younger residents by following the ground rules and by allowing younger residents to participate on an equal basis.

Sequential Use While the SFA staff training emphasizes

the sequential use of programmed materials, experience indicates that there is no need for sequencing of lessons The residents seem to view most units with great interest, to work cooperatively with session activities and materials, and to have meaningful discussions on the topics.

Student Responses During the initial stages of implementa-

tion, student and staff responses to SFA lessons became an important tool for receiv- ing immediate feedback. Two questionnaires were developed, one for student responses and one for instructor’s reactions. Both asked for evaluations regarding each lesson’s enjoyment, usefulness, interest, contribution to a safer environment, and opportunity for expressing feelings. Detained youth were very positive about the SFA classes. Equally popular were the energizers (Roush, Christner, Lee, ,4 Stelma, 1993).

Anecdotal and other qualitative sources consistently describe student responses in positive terms. Detained youth enjoy structured group discussions about important issues in

David Roush. Ph D

their lives. They are respectful of others in this environment, and the appropriate release of the emotional stress associated with adolescence and secure confinement has a positive effect on behavior in other parts of the detention program. The pattern that has emerged regarding student responses is very positive, and it strongly supports the assumption that troubled youth in juvenile detention centers will respond very favorably to a systematic and structured approach to helpful programming.

An Example During the initial implementation period,

the detention unit contained a rather unusual mix ofyouth, ranging in age from 12 to 16 years old. In particular, Troy, one of the more fre- quent residents of the detention program, was awaiting what would turn out to be a waiver hearing which would result in his placement in the county jail and his trial as an adult on felony charges. Even though he was not historically a troublemaker while in detention, this time he was visibly agitated, irritable and uncooperative. One evening, in the presence of the entire detention unit, he confronted staffwith aggressive behavior and verbally abusive comments. He had to be physically restrained and was confined to his room for the remainder of the shift. The event had an unsettling effect on residents and staff because of the uncharac- teristic violence and anger expressed by Troy.

The following morning, the SFA class opened with an exploration of the feelings the other residents had about the incident. As Troy listened to the vivid accounts of fear and terror expressed by the youngest resident, his eyes filled with t m as he recalled similar feelings in his childhood when adult violence and profanity in his home had frightened him into feelings of insecurity. He apologized to the group, and there were no further incidents of uncooperative behavior during the remainder of his stay in detention. While not every un- pleasant situation can be resolved as well this one, it is clear that the SFA class provided a way to resolve problems through appropriate expressions of feelings. Without the discussion that morning, staff are convinced that the

acting-out behaviors would have continued

Outside Evaluations From the beginning of HELP, Quest Inter-

national assigned an SFA expert to conduc,t on- site evaluations of the program in the detention unit. Bob Steinbach was the evaluator, a d he visited the detention program on two occa- sions. After extended periods of observation and discussion with both residents and staff, he submitted two evaluation reports. Even though the evaluations were very positive, Steinbach raised two very important concerns. First, SFA is successful when combined with a strong, existing daily program; and second, the role of direct care staff should be translated into SFA materials as that of a surrogate or institutional parent. These two issues are undergoing continued evaluation.

First and foremost, Steinbach ( 199 1 a) concluded that the level of student participation in SFA in juvenile detention was far greater than the level found in a public school classroom. He also noted that students were contributing good answers which demonstrated that they knew the values SFA is teaching. The students also appeared genuinely interested in the class and the topic. Steinbach mentioned that the students responded well to the SFA positive climate strategy of “no put-downs,” energizers, and classroom guidelines despite the sup- posedly negative and criminal nature of today’s juvenile offenders. Finally, according to Steinbach, when a new student was introduced to the class, there was no noticeable effect on the SFA group; and the social skills intervention continued to function smoothly.

By the end of his second evaluation visit, aher numerous classroom observations and meetings with students, teachers, and administrators, Steinbach ( 199 1 b) was openly very impressed and pleasantly surprised. His final conclusion was that SFA &used at the Calhoun County Juvenile Home is very successful despite the myriad of initial concerns. In addition, Steinbach recommended that the Calhoun County Juvenile Home be the model for implementing SFA in detention centers nationwide.

1996 I Juvenile dr Family Court Journal 15

Social Skills Trorning in Juvenile Detention

Summary report was extremely positive about irnplernen- - The evaluation data support a positive re-

sponse to the implementation questions at the beginning of this section. Modifications to the sequenced lessons did not compromise SFA principles. The transient nature of the detention population did not adversely affect the ability to establish groups or instill new values. Finally, residents’ responses to SFA programs indicated clearly that the experience is enjoy- able and beneficial. Even though these evaluation strategies are primarily qualitative, they argue strongly for the beneficial impact of experiential social skills programs which do not result in chaos or loss of control in a detention center.

HELP is not the first program to demonstrate the advantages of group procedures in juvenile detention. Social skills programs and group-based interventions are ideas that have enjoyed limited support for decades. However, until the juvenile detention profession views these approaches as viable components of daily programs, projects such as HELP must con- tinue to reiterate the advantages of group strategies for detention residents and staff. If these interventions do not make sense logically, some other external and significant event, such as litigation or chaos, may be necessary to prompt their full exploration. The juvenile detention community has widely embraced the custodial model of supervision in response to public and political pressures to treat juveniles more like adults. This model is devoid of social skills training and group-based interventions, and many detention administrators are critical of its inability to control resident behavior and pro- tect staffsafety. Currently, several ofthe nation’s largest juvenile detention centers are quietly adopting a care giver model, i.e., an interactive and helping strategy, to replace the custodial model.

The superintendent of a large state-operated juvenile detention facility remarked recently that implementation of aparticular group strategy on one of the most troublesome units had significantly decreased actingout behaviors. Then sharing her experience, the discussion identified the common phenomena from both programs. It was not surprising that her 16 Juvenile & Family Court Journal I 1996

tation of a group strategy with some of the state’s most troublesome juvcnile offenders, but her closing comments were quite reveal- ing. She expressed appreciation for the pa- tience shown to her while she had adamantly resisted group strategies. This IS typical of other detention administrators because no middle ground seems to exist on the use of groups in detention.

Critical Factors The experiences and findings from the

implementation of SFA in ajuvenile detention facility affirm a fairly common set of underlying assumptions which constitute the critical factors for justifying group processes in detention. First, the effective implementation of groups is paradoxical. Groups require sta f f to loosen institutional controls which ultimately lead to greater controls over youth. Control in this instance should not be equated with the concepts of structure, order and regularities, because effective group processes contain suf- ficient order, structure, and regularities to provide safety and security within the process. Control issues in juvenile detention refer to the ability to influence a youth’s behavior. The outcome of the group process is a stronger relationship between staff and residents; and the stronger the relationship between staff and youth, the more control staffhave over a youth’s behavior.

Second, in situations of shrinking resources and overcrowding, correctional institutions face very difficult times. Public demands for punishment, accountability, and reduced gov- ernment expenditures may contribute to a situation in which an inadequate number of staff are pitted against a large group of angry and aggressive detainees. Groups can counter- act this phenomenon. Within this scenario, it is important to empower residents to create and maintain appropriate behaviors within the institution. To accomplish this feat, residents must be included in the decision-making processes of the institution; and inclusion begins with structured opporhlnities for expression.

Third, thecurrent anger expressed by today’s

David H‘ Roush. P h D

young people can be partially linked to societal reinforcement of portrayals of youth as gang- sters, worthless, dangerous, and incorrigible. Self-esteem may be at an all time low for most adolescents, and the transition from feeling bad about yourself to anger is very easy. Insti- tutions that reinforce this language of despair arc only asking for problems Structured group processes serve to dispel these types of stereo- types about young people, provide a release for emotional stress and anxiety, and provide a forum for exploring hopeful and encouraging perspectives on life.

Fourth, group processes with a helpful or social skills orientation reinforce the importance of stafF who advocate programs and services in juvenile detention. Many detention administrators describe two classifications of stat€ members, those who do things “to” kids and those who do things “for” kids. Institu- tional problems generally arise from the inter- actions between detained youth and the first category of staff. Group experiences help break down many barriers held by staffmem- bers who wish to implement rigid and punitive programs.

Future Issues Three general areas for continued program

development require attention. First, SFA materials are very general in their approach to skill acquisition. When the detention experience extends beyond a couple of weeks, detained youth should experience more comprehensive social gkills programs. For these reasons, the SFA program should explore the incorporation of more behaviorally specific skill acquisition programs. Second, a better use of direct care staffcould be accomplished if staff assumed the role of surrogate parent. Develop- ment of this concept is contingent upon the translation of SFA parent materials to the various peculiarities of a juvenile detention or corrections facility. Finally, the model needs to be tested in several different sites, especially in institutions without a substantial program al- readv in place.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank Mike Bolt: for h a

helpfil comments and suggestions on this paper and for his support of the HELP pmJect.

Author’s Address David W. Roush, Ph.D. Director, Center for Research and Professional Development

Michigan State University School of Criminal Justice -Baker Hall East Lansing, MI 48824-1 1 18

19% I Juvenile & Family Court Journal I 7


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social skills training in juvenile detention: a rationale

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