Social Psychology

Objective

• I will be able to apply the concepts of Social Psychology on individual and group assignments and tests

Essential Question

How, and to what extent,is our behavior influenced byour interactions with others?

*Social Psychology

Is concerned with the way individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others

First, how do we form impressions of others?

Forming Impressions• We assign people to ready made categories

called schemata (*)• What functions to schemata play?Helps us to process and store information about

peopleWe have schemata for events (picnics, dates,

meetings, etc) and people (doctor, teacher, whimp, etc..)

Forming Impressions-Schemata

Forming Impressions

• What label would you give him? Schema• What sport(s) does he play?• What are his hobbies?• What does he do in his free time?• Does he have any bad habits?• What kind of car does he have?

Forming Impressions

• What about her?

Forming Impressions-Schemas• We add more information to our mental files

about people over time**Primacy effect-our earlier impressions of

people influence us more then our later experiences with them-first impressions are powerful (we may refuse to believe new evidence that a person is good)

*primacy effect can be weakened if people are warned to be weary of first impressions

Forming ImpressionsFirst impressions can lead to aSelf-fulfilling prophecy-when a person’s expectations about

another person causes behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation-why does this happen?

Behavioral confirmation The process by which people behave in ways that elicit from others specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs(I believe you are a disrespectful because of the way you dress; so, every time you walk in my class, I find a reason to yell at you. You begin to respond back in a disrespectful way)

Forming Impressions

Rosenthal and Jacobson Study (1968):All children in a California elementary school given

a test at the start of the school yearTeachers given a list of “bloomers,” children who

would have significant intellectual growth in the school year

Result: children in the “bloomers” group made greater gains in test scores and were rated as better students then the control group WHY???

Forming Impressions

Teachers expectations of students affect students’ classroom performance-referred to as the Pygmalion Effect

“Bloomers” –were given more positive feedback and challenging work, teachers warmer/friendlier towards them

Forming Impressions

• Some schemas we have of others may be about their cultural background

*Stereotypes- set of characteristics believed to be shared by all members of a particular group (gender, age, occupation, ethnic groups, etc…)

Typical New Jersey Italians

Forming Impressions

What are some of your stereotypes?

Forming Impressions

Stereotypes, like schemas, can become the basis for self-fulfilling prophecies

Stereotypes rationalize inequalities

I may treat someone according to my stereotypical belief- German people are mean; all _________students are “trouble makers”

Interpreting Behavior

You are walking to lunch and two students are standing still talking, blocking the hallway

Why are they doing this?

Interpreting BehaviorInternal attribute (depositional) =a personal

factor, such as being mean, inconsiderate or lazy

External attribute (situational)=a situational factor, such as there was an emergency, they were thinking of ways to help a friend, there was a traffic jam

We usually contribute someone’s behavior to one or the other, but not to both at the same time

Interpreting Behavior

Biases/errors in Attributions:Fundamental attribution error-the tendency to

attribute the behavior of others, especially strangers we observe in one situation, to causes within themselves

Actor-observer bias-the tendency to explain the behavior of others as the result of internal/dispositional factors while attributing our behavior to external/situational factors

East Asians tend to attribute their behaviors and other’s behaviors to external factors

Interpreting BehaviorBiases/errors in attribution:Defensive attribution-we are motivated to

present ourselves well to impress others and to feel good about ourselves

Examples 1. self-serving bias-tendency to attribute personal failures to external factors and personal successes to internal factors (you earn an A in my class because I am a good teacher; you earn a D in my class because you are a bad student)

Interpreting Behavior

• Biases/errors in attribution:Defensive attribution 2. Just world hypothesis-

bad things happen to bad people, and good things happen to good people-this gives us the comforting illusion that the bad events couldn’t happen to us

She was raped because of the way she dressed-that will not happen to me because I cover myself up

Interpersonal Attraction

Why are you attracted to someone?

Personal Attraction-Opposites Attract?

Personal Attraction

Don’t opposites attract?*No, people who compliment each other do. Shy woman/outgoing man Dominant woman/passive man

Usually these people have similar values/beliefsThey are not opposites

Personal AttractionSocial psychologists say that being attracted to and liking someone is linked to several

factors1. Proximity is the most important factor-see more often, feel more comfortable

and safe with familiar people-relates to mere exposure effect (read about on page 678)

2. Physical attractiveness-we associate this with good personality, intelligence, happiness, kindness, healthier, more successful (attractiveness influences both sexes for first impressions when speed dating)

Side notes: attractive people get the jobs more often and have more job success; attractiveness not related to personal self-esteem and happiness, possible due to the mere exposure effect-few people view themselves as unattractive; less attractive more likely to view praise as sincerer than more attractive; men across cultures view youthful women as more attractive; women attracted to healthy looking men, esp. men who are mature, dominant and affluent

3. Similarity-more similar the stronger the attraction (birds of a feather do stay together)

4. Exchange-the reward theory of attraction is based on this-we both give and get an equal amount-give and take is balanced, called equity5. Intimacy-through two-way self-disclosure/communication

AttitudesAttitudes are your beliefs, feelings and behaviors

towards something or someone

Attitude is not the same as rudeness Do you like rap music? Do you agree with same sex marriages? What do you think about the student sitting next to

you?Your answer will show me your attitude Attitudes predict behavior for some people more than

others . It depends on the strength of your attitude-how strong you feel about something

How Attitudes are Formed

-Classical or Operant Conditioning (ex. Exposed to pairing negative words with political party) and modeling

-Mere Exposure Effect=shaped by repeated exposure (ex. Advertising)-Persuasive messages through 1. central route (what about this potato chip is so much better than the

others)-occurs mostly when people are analytical or involved in the issue- or 2. peripheral route (other characteristics of the message-such as the deliverer of

the message-this is why athletes are used)Central route is more lastingWhat types of messages are effective?-one sided message for uninformed audience-acknowledge then refute opposing arguments for more sophisticated audience

Attitudes

Self-monitoring- the tendency for a person to observe the situation for cues about how to react

I won’t tell you how much I dislike one of your friends who came out with us-I will override my attitude so we can have a good time (high self monitor) or

I will say it in front of everyone and ruin the night* (low self- monitor-shows little regard for social cues)

Coercive Persuasion

How do you think people are brain washed?

Coercive Persuasion

Brain Washing=coercive persuasion: tactics that try to force people to change their minds

For example getting POWs to denounce their country or joining a cult

How does it happen

1. Person is under physical or emotional distress2. Person’s problems are reduced to one simple

explanation3. Leader offers unconditional love and

acceptance4. A new identity based on the group is created5. Person is subjected to entrapment6. Person’s access to information is seveley

controlled

Attitudes

What happens when your attitudes/beliefs/convictions conflict with your behavior, when you act in a way that is contrary to what you believe?

You strongly believe that a person should stay true to one girlfriend. You are a one girl kind of guy.

You cheat on your girlfriend a few times with the same girl

Because of this, you feel conflict or tension inside

What do you do to resolve this?

Attitudes

Here is where a concept by Leon Festinger (1957)comes in:

**Cognitive Dissonance What is the meaning of dissonance?disagreement, conflict, discord, controversy,

disharmony, inconsistencyCognitive refers to thought processes

Attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger (1957):-Discomfort that results when beliefs and

behaviors don’t match (as was the case with the cheating boyfriend).

-We can’t live with the conflict-it causes tension- so we are more likely to rationalize/make excuses to get rid of the conflict, than to change the behavior

Attitudes-Cognitive Dissonance

How you rationalize: I didn’t really cheat three times since we

didn’t kiss until the last timeBut, that wasn’t really a kissI went out with this other girl more as a friendShe really needed me to drive her somewhereI was just being the nice guy that I am

Cognitive DissonanceWhich of the following would result in cognitive

dissonance?1. Dresses are girly-my boyfriend wears dresses2. Smoking is bad-I stopped smoking five years ago3. Jose and Kim oppose abortion-for money ($400 for

Jose and $3 for Kim) they agree to write an essay for a researcher that agrees with abortion

4. Orange juice is healthy-I drink OJ 5. Dresses are girly-Miley Cyrus wears dresses6. Cheating on school work is bad-you give me one of

your homework answers

Prejudice (a negative attitude)Prejudice-a positive or negative belief about a group of

people; refers to prejudging a person because he belongs to a specific group

Prejudice beliefs are almost always stereotypes Prejudice is associated with strong emotions such as

dislike, hatred or fear• The frustration-aggression theory =discrimination and

prejudice result from displaced anger-blaming societies problems, or your own problem, on the group-they are the scapegoat (high crime rate because of them, no jobs because of them)

Prejudice

Prejudice is linked to an authoritarian personality-(follow rules, abide by tradition, hostile towards those who go against norms, respect authority, preoccupied with power and toughness)

Discrimination (negative behavior)-act taken toward one group that is unfair when compared with behavior toward other groups

Discrimination

Racism

Belief that members of certain racial groups are born inferiorSocial categorization: we categorize or put others and ourselves

into groups-is someone like me or not?It is easy to show negative attitudes towards people who do not

belong to our groupIn-group Out-group (we perceive out-group to be homogenous-

ex. All whites, or all Hispanics, are the same)In-group bias=members see themselves as superior to the out-

group Cubans verses DominicansOther Race Effect-recognition for own race faces (emerges during

infancy)

Reducing Prejudice

Muzafer Sherif’s-Robbers Cave Study:22 Oklahoma City boys, ages 11-12Placed in separate parts of the campEagles and RattlersIntroduced to each other through a set up

competitive activitiesBoys became proud of their group and hostile (flags

burned, cabins ransacked) toward the other groupHad to work together to restore water

Reducing Prejudice

*How to Reduce Racial Prejudice

Increased personal, one on one, contact changes people’s opinions-not just in the same place at the same time

Superordinate Goals (Cooperation -working on shared goals) works best to reduce racial prejudice

Competition is not effective

Conformity and Compliance Social influence-the process by which others affect our

perceptions, attitudes and actions

chameleon effect-unconsciously mimicking others expressions, tones, posture etc. helps us to feel what they feel-why we feel happy around happy people, and sad around sad (called mood linkage)-a part of empathy

Our culture (our shared way of life) has a large influence on how we behave

-dress, what we eat, how we eat, our personal space, and moreWe may be influenced by our culture throughInstruction (parents tell us how to and not to behave) but more

often throughModeling and imitation-a result of this is unquestioning

acceptance of cultural truisms

Conformity and Compliancecultural truism=beliefs that most members of a society

accept as self-evidend /trueWe are rewarded for doing what other citizens do in

the same situations (a little girl/boy)To conform is to yield to social norms, or to a group

standardConformity is needed if society is to function effectivelyA social norm is a shared idea about how to or not to

behave based on society’s expectationsWhat wouldn’t you do in a classroom?Social Scripts-mental tapes, for how to act, provided by

our culture (media included, for dating, sex, etc..)

ConformityConformity is a response to pressure of norms,

usually unstated pressureSolomon Asch did experiments on the effects of

group pressure on conformity:

Conformity• 7 confederates-Confederates of the experiment gave

the same wrong answers• Participants conformed and gave the wrong answer

1/3 of the time• Asch also found that the likelihood of conformity

increased with the group size until four confederates were present-adding more did not matter

Unanimity mattered- having an allyConformity, in general, is higher when a task or

situation is ambiguous because we don’t have our own opinion so we go with the majority view

Conformity

• People from collectivist, agricultural cultures (members rely on each other more for survival) are most likely to conform to group norms

• In general, people conform more when their culture encourages respect for social standards

Conformity

• Why do we laugh at a joke that others laugh at but we don’t understand?

What’s the Cost of Ignoring a Social Norm?

Conformity

• Normative social influence-conforming to the group norms because the price we pay for being different may be severe

• Informational social influence-accepting other’s opinions about reality or truths; this is positive-changing our minds when we need to

Compliance• Compliance is a change in behavior due to a

specific request, many times unstatedWhat strategies influences compliance?Foot in the door effect-getting a person to agree

to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a big request

Can I have $75 for the prom ticket?Can I have a few friends over?With foot in the door, the person may feel

obligated to comply to the larger request

ComplianceLow ball procedure-getting someone to agree to an

attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

Car dealers Driving a friend home

Door in the face technique-asking for a large request first, knowing it will be turned down, and following it with the smaller, true request

Mom, can I have $60? NOWell, can I then have $20. YES

Compliance

Scarcity effect-people dislike feeling that they can’t have something; people like to have things that others can’t

I am more apt to buy an item or enjoy an item that I think is scarce

“This is the last one I have” You feel you’re missing a critical opportunity

Obedience

Obedience is compliance to a direct order, usually from someone in authority-it is compliance with a command

Obedience is social influence in its most direct and powerful form

• Hitler• Stanley Milgram’s experiment

Milgram’s Experiment

ObedienceWhy did people go on and obey an authority

figure? Believed the experiment would be safe and

the experimenter was trustworthy-so they perceived the situation incorrectly

They saw themselves as agents of other people’s wishes-so they are not responsible

When responsibility was shared so that the person was only one of many doing it, obedience was greater

The victim was depersonalized or at a distance

Obedience*People are most likely to obey orders

when a great amount of power is vested in the leader

Milgram concluded:“ordinary people, simply doing their jobs,

and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in terrible destructive processes”

Zimbardo’s Prison Study

Obedience and The Power of The Situation

Zimbardo’s Prison Study (1972 Stanford U)-Agreed to two week stay Either a guard or a prisonerGiven no instructionsAbusive guards were not reportedHumiliation by guards helped to end studyLasted six daysConclusion: situations and roles are powerful and

will influence behavior

Social Influence

• Combines:The power of the situation (aka-social control)AndThe Power of the Individual (personal control)We are not always sheep and can assert freedom

when feeling pressuredMinority Influence-power of one or two to sway

majority (Rosa Parks, Gandhi) by holing consistently to a position

Organizational Behavior –Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Hawthorne Experiment (Elton Mayo-1920s)-testing to see if better lighting would increase worker output in the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant in Illinois

The findings: productivity increased with better, too much and too little lighting

Hawthorne Effect: people will alter their behavior because of researchers’ attention and not necessarily because of any treatment condition

Hawthorne Effect in Action

Deindividuation-Group Behavior

Mob Behavior-why? Violent ralliesLoss of personal responsibility in a group, esp. in groups

subject to intense pressures and anxiety-people respond not as individuals, but as anonymous part of a larger group

Deindividuation-loss of the sense of being an individual, but act as part of the crowd, only partly explains mob behavior.

Snowball effect-in a mob, one dominant, persuasive person can convince people to act by convincing a few people, who then convinces others, resulting in an unthinking mob

Helping Behaviorprosocial behaviors-behaviors that are carried

out with the goal of helping othersaltruism-helping behavior that is not linked to

personal gainreciprocal altruism-concept suggests that

people perform altruistic behaviors because they feel that others will do the same for them

I will save you from drowning now, you will save me from drowning in the future

“What goes around, comes around.”

What makes you decide to help someone in need?

What would cause you not to help someone in need?

Norms of Helping Behavior

• Social exchange theory=aim in helping behavior is to maximize benefits (reduce guilt, increase approval, feel good) and minimize cost (time, discomfort, and anxiety)

• Reciprocity norm=we should help those who help us (not hurt them); in relationships with others we tend to give as much as we receive (in favors, gifts, invitations, etc..)

• Social responsibility norm=we learn we should help those who need our help even if we can’t get back, or costs outweigh the benefits

Helping Behavior

What morally motivated rescuers of Jews during WWII?

Intense anti-Nazi attitudesSaw their behaviors as normal, not heroicReligious beliefs were important

Bystander Effect

A person’s helpfulness in an emergency situation decreases as the number of bystanders increases

Darley and Latane study-college students were more likely to help a peer they overheard having a seizure when they thought they were the only ones

One reason may be **diffusion of responsibility-Believing that others are intervening/responsible

because other are around-they also feel they will not be held accountable for the same reason

Helping Behaviors Across Cultures

• There is no single personality trait that determines who is helpful and who is not

• People from collectivist cultures are more likely to help others when minor assistance is needed and are equally likely to help others in extremely urgent situations

• Most consistent finding in all psychology: happy people are helpful people

Group Influence on Decisions

Do groups make better decision? Sometimes groups arrive at riskier decisions.

Groupthink: In a close-knit group, the tendency for all members to think alike and to suppress disagreement for the sake of harmony

The problem-critical thinking is not used, risks are not assessed, alternatives are not fully explored

Groupthink

Examples:Friends want to go to a wild party; you want to

go to a movieThroughout history, groupthink has led to

disastrous decisions:Kennedy’s Bay of Pigs1986 NASA launches the Challenger-isolated

themselves from dissenting engineers

Group Influence on Decisions

Groupthink – WHY:An illusion of invulnerabilityDissenters keep quite rather than make trouble,

offend friends, risk being ridiculed-you think that maybe you are wrong and don’t go by your “gut”

Pressure on dissenters to conform (may tease or humiliate them)

illusion of everyone agreeing-may deny dissenters the chance to speak

Groupthink

Influences on Group DecisionsGroup Polarization-tendency for individuals to

become more extreme (either more cautious or more risky) in their attitudes a a result of group discussion

The group talks itself into extreme positions; they get so energized and focused that they move faster than intended

EXAMPLE: You attend a PETA meeting (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals)

Influences on Group Behavior

Social loafing-the tendency for people to exert less effort on a task when working in a group than when working alone (more comom with men from individualist cultures)

This is worse in larger groups-the person does not feel personally responsible

Examples: -school group work -team sports-carwash

Leadership

Every group has a leader-How do they come forward?

**Great person theory—leaders are extraordinary people who attain leadership positions because of their great qualities; *they were born leaders and would have lead any nation at any time

Psychologists see this theory as naïveOne alternative theory is that it is the right person,

in the right place, at the right time (Martin Luther King, Jr)

Other Stuff-Parenting Styles1. Authoritarian-impose rules and expect unquestioned

obedience (“too hard”)-results: less social skills and self-esteem, poorer decision makers

2. Permissive-parents submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use little punishment (“too soft”)-results: more aggressive and immature

3. Authoritative-parents are both demanding and responsive, set rules and enforce them but explain reasons for rules, encourage open discussion, esp. with older children, and allow some rule exceptions (“just right”)-result: highest self-esteem, self-reliance, social competence

There is a correlation. Correlation is not causation.

Other “Stuff”-Leadership StyleLeadership style is the manner and approach of providing

direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership:

• Authoritarian or autocratic- “I want you to…. “• Participative or democratic- Let’s work together to solve this.” • Delegative or Free Reign- “You two take care of the problem

while I go. . .” This is also known as laissez faire (or lais·ser faire), which is the noninterference in the affairs of others.

• Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style.

Other “Stuff”-Sandra Bem/Gender Schema-People develop gender schemas of masculine and

feminine very early on through social learning and reinforcement.

-This is true even for children whose parents are not stressing gender roles. For young children, “Gender looms large.” This is due to our:

-Self-socialization of gender rolespeople cognitively process and categorize new

information in their environment based on its maleness or femaleness. “Girls have long hair; boys have short hair. ” This is true because we continue to figure this out on our own. We self-socialize.

Social Impairment Social Facilitation- (especially when skilled, and with a friendly audience)

Other Stuff (esp. true in conflict situations)

• Mirror- image perceptions=mutual views held by each side when people/groups have conflict

• Social trap=conflicting parties, when pursuing their own self interest, are caught in mutually destructive behavior (think of divorcing couples)

• Self-fulfilling prophecy=belief that leads to its own fulfillment (I think you are rude, I ignore you, you act rude; I think you are mad at me, I ignore you, you become mad at me)