social identity on stereotype threat and academic performance

Running head: THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 1

The Effects of Social Identity on Stereotype Threat and Academic

Performance

Ashley R. Schneider

State University of New York at Cortland

THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 2

Abstract

A review of the present research on stereotype threat reflects the impact

that this threat can have on the individual in several domains. Focusing in on

academics, stereotype threat can influence performance in multiple areas of

academics, specifically for women, mathematics. (Johnson, 2012) The

present research illustrates the influence stereotype threat has over

mathematic performance for women. The gender differences that arise with

stereotype threat are prevalent in relation to mathematics due to the current

stereotype associated with women and mathematics, which implies that

women are inherently not good at math. (Thoman, et al., 2008) This

stereotype produces a threat to the individual associated with the social

group of being a female and this results in performance deficits for math

exams. This paper examines the current research on the use social identity

manipulation as an intervention tool to influence the effect that stereotype

threat has on mathematical performance in women. (Gresky et al.,2005)

Keywords: stereotype threat, academic performance, gender, social identity


The Effects of Social Identity on

Stereotype Threat and Academic Performance

Stereotypes are judgments that are made about another social group,

and gender is one of those groups affected by these judgments. (Thoman,

White, Yamawaki & Koishi, 2008) Gender role stereotypes are prevalent in

western society and can influence the goals or self-schemata of an individual

which can have a direct influence on their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

when presented with the negative stereotypes associated with their gender.

Stereotype threat can result from anxiety felt when faced with a situation

that confirms the negative stereotype of that individual’s social group; in this

case, gender. (Johnson, 2012) A review of the present research indicates that

the influence on this threat can be counteracted with the use of social

identity manipulation. (Rydell, McConnell & Beilock, 2009)

Identity Formation

Formulating an identity deals with the fundamental question of, who

are you? This is a question that is commonly asked in adolescence, when

individuals begin to hold beliefs and search for their purpose in the world.

(Berzonsky, 2011) Throughout this process, adolescents develop different

styles when searching for their identity. The teenagers that are actively

exploring different identities and engage in self-exploration is the

informational processing style, which coincide with an achievement or


moratorium identity style. (Berzonsky, 2011) Adolescents with a normative

identity-processing style do not but as much effort into their self-exploration

and commit to identities without much research into other possibilities.

(Berzonsky, 2011) This type of processing style would be associated with the

foreclosure identity type, where adolescents are committing but not

attempting identity exploration. Lastly, a diffuse-avoidant identity-processing

style can develop in which case no commitment or self-exploration takes

place. (Berzonsky, 2011) The current review will focus on participants who

have an informational processing style and who have formulated the

achievement identity type, in which case they have explored different

identities and successfully committed to the identities that agree with the

belief system they have established.

Stereotype Threat

When adolescent commit to an identity, there is a possibility of a

stereotype being linked with their specific identity or social group that they

choose to associate with. A stereotype is a widely help oversimplified belief

or image of a type of person or group. Stereotypes can be negative or

positive, but in the case of it being negative, stereotype threat can result.

According to Johnson (2012), stereotype threat is defined by the situational

threat that derives from the possible exposure of a negative stereotype

associated with one’s group, causing the individual to act in such a way that

confirms the stereotype. A person can experience stereotype threat when

their group is stereotyped in a negative way, even if the individual does not


believe the negative stereotype assigned to them. (Johnson, 2012) A group

that a person can associate with are based on social categories such as:

gender, ethnicity, race, and more. Any of these groups can be subject to

negative stereotyping by ‘outsiders.’ The problem that arises with stereotype

threat is its potential to hinder an individual’s performance in a range of

domains. (Johnson, 2012) The affected domains are ones that are important

to the individual. If the domain is one that is highly valued, then the

stereotype related to that domain will be valued equivalently. (Johnson,

2012) Stereotype threat can influence intelligence tests, memory tests, math

tests and even mental rotation tests. (Rydell, et al., 2009) These tests will

not accurately measure ones abilities in each domain due to the potential of

stereotype threat playing a role in altering the test takers mental state.

Finding a way to account for stereotype threat will lead to an accurate

measure of the domain being tested.

Stereotype Threat Effecting Academics

Inconsistency between the group an individual associates with, the

concept of the self and the ability domain can lead to the performance being

affected. (Rydell, et al., 2009) If there are conflicting stereotypes in each of

those areas, it will cause inconsistencies which will lead to psychological

processes that impair the person’s chances of success in that domain.

(Rydell, et al., 2009) Woman are subject to this impairment in relation to

mathematics. Rydell, et al., (2009) describe how inconsistency between

being a women, who stereotypically are bad at math, the self which see’s


themselves as intelligent and the domain being mathematics, in which they

feel confident in. These conflicting views lead to the problem that stereotype

threat causes. (Rydell, et al., 2009) Even though they can be confident in

their mathematic abilities as well as their intellect, the social group of being

a female is creating conflict and providing the anxiety that lowers their

performance in math.

Sex Differences

Sex is a social group that can have an association to negative

stereotypes which allows the members of these groups to become victim to

stereotype threat. (Johnson, 2012) Although both males and females are

vulnerable to stereotype threat, both groups do not perform equally under

the same threat. The domain currently being researched is academics; more

specifically mathematics. The current stereotype that is associated with

mathematics and sex is that men have more natural ability than women in

mathematics. (Thoman, et al., 2008) According to Johnson (2012), women

performed worse on a mathematics test under stereotype threat conditions,

while men performed better under the same conditions. Since the current

stereotype states that men are superior to women in the mathematics

domain, women acknowledged defeat before the task began because they

applied the stereotype to their own abilities. (Johnson, 2012) The stereotype

favored men’s mathematical abilities so when the males of the study were


under stereotype conditions they performed better compared to the control

group. (Johnson, 2012) Due to the current stereotype favoring men’s

abilities, the stereotype threat did not have the same effect as it had on

women. To counteract stereotype threat, the individual must be able to

identify with another group that does not have the same negative

stereotyping which can be done through social identity theory. (Rydell et al.,

2009)

Social Identity Theory

Rydell et al., (2009) describe social identity theory as being based on

the motivation an individual experiences to feel good about their self and

this motivation leads to the affiliation with different social groups. An

increase in self-esteem will lead to good feelings about the self, so a person

will likely choose the identity that will increase their self-esteem. (Rydell, et

al., 2009) At any given time a person can be a part of a variety of social

groups which can lead to many social identities. When an individual is a

member of a social group that has a negative stereotype associated to it,

they have the option to leave that group and by doing so, they choose to

associate with an alternate social identity. (Rydell, et al., 2009) If the

individual has an option to choose which identity to activate, they tend to

choose the identity that will contribute to their self-esteem. (Rydell, et al.,

2009) The current research of Rydell, et al. (2009), examined female college

students through the use of an identity accessibility task which showed how

the availability of different social identities, that have conflicting stereotypes,


can impact stereotype threat. By identifying with an available identity that is

not associated with a negative stereotype, the participants were able to

maintain a positive view of the self. (Rydell, et al., 2009)

Present Position

The literature indicates that stereotype threat can have an effect on

whether an individual is able to live up to their full potential, in regards to

academic performance. In relation to this effect, the literature suggests that

through the use of social identity manipulation, these effects can be

lessened. Thus, it is conceivable that social identity manipulation may be

used as a successful intervention when individuals are faced with stereotype

threat in an academic setting. These individuals can make salient an identity

that is not associated with the stereotype being exposed and in turn,

lessening or eliminating the risk all together.

The current review draws on this idea and examines the relationship

between stereotype threat, academic performance and social identity

manipulation. It is hypothesized that stereotype threat will have a negative

impact on the performance of women on a mathematics test when faced

with the stereotype that women are innately bad at math. Using social

identity manipulation or making the identity of being a women less salient,

will ultimately prevent stereotype threat from effecting women’s

performance in these testing situations. The research that is related to these

relationships will now be assessed and discussed.


Research Evidence

The Relationship between Stereotype Threat and Academic

Performance

It has previously been predicted that stereotype threat may lessen or

eliminate the effect it can have on academic performance. Harrison, Stevens,

Monty & Coakley (2006) researched this relationship to examine whether

socioeconomic stereotypes produce stereotype threat among lower, middle

or upper income college students. The purpose of the study was to

determine if socioeconomic stereotypes related to academic performance

would activate a threat and in turn undermine the performance of the

college students who range in different socioeconomic status.

Harrison et al., (2006) used 260 participants from northern California

University, 205 women with a median age of 20.77 and 55 men with a

median age of 21.34. Out of this sample, there were 56 participants that

categorized themselves as lower income, 103 for middle income and 101

upper income participants. (Harrison et al., 2006) A demographic

questionnaire was administered to determine where the participants

categorized themselves in terms of socioeconomic status, gender and

ethnicity. (Harrison et al., 2006) For socioeconomic status the categories

ranged from lower income ($00-$39,000), middle income ($40,000-74,999)

and upper income ($75,000- over $150,000) per year. (Harrison et al., 2006)

Along with the demographic questionnaire, the researchers also


administered an effort exerted scale, a domain identification measure, a test

anxiety scale and a state self-esteem scale. (Harrison et al., 2006) These

were used to examine whether stereotype threat had an influence on

psychological factors related to academic performance.

Each of the participants were randomly assigned to either a diagnostic

or non-diagnostic version of the test. The test contained 19-items measuring

math ability and 19 items measuring verbal ability. The questions were items

taken from an SAT test, which is a standardized test containing tasks

measuring math, writing and reading. (Harrison et al., 2006) In the

diagnostic version of the test, the instructions explicitly stated that middle

and upper income students constantly performed better on standardized

tests when compared to lower income students. (Harrison et al., 2006) This

diagnostic version of the test was the stereotype threat condition. The non-

diagnostic version of the test had different instructions in which the

stereotype, that upper and middle class students outperform lower class

students on standardized tests, was not mentioned.

In relation to math performance, a 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance was

conducted and a man effect for socioeconomic status was found F (2,259) =

7.39, p<0.001, MSE=0.11, n2=0.06. (Harrison et al., 2006) As seen in Figure

1, upper income participants did better on the math test (M = 0.57) when

compared to the results of the middle (M = 0.40) or lower income (M=0.36)

participants in the diagnostic condition. (Harrison et al., 2006) In the non-

diagnostic condition, lower income students (M=.44) did better on the math


test when compared to the scored of both middle income (M=0.38) and

upper income students (M=0.40). (Harrison et al., 2006) These results

coincide with the assertion that stereotype can play a role in affecting an

individual’s performance in an academic setting.

For the verbal test, the results were similar to those of the math test. A

2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance was also conducted for verbal performance and

a main effect was found for socioeconomic status, F (2,259) = 3.47, p=0.03,

MSE = o.o2, n2 = 0.03. (Harrison et al., 2006) Figure 2 shows that in the

diagnostic version of the test, upper income students (M=0.69) performed

better when compared to middle (M=0.60) and lower income participants

(M=0.51). (Harrison et al., 2006) In the non-diagnostic test, lower income

students (M=.60) performed equal to middle income students (M=6.0) and

outperformed upper income students (M=0.57). (Harrison et al., 2006) This

is consistent with the results of the math performance test and is a reflection

of the view that stereotype threat is having an effect on the individuals

taking the test.

The Relationship between Stereotype Threat and Mathematic

Performance for Women

To further investigate the effects of stereotype threat, Quinn and

Spencer (2001) decided to focus their research on the stereotype of women

are bad at math and see the threat deriving from this stereotype would

influence women’s performance on a mathematics’ exam. They conducted


two studies, study 1 hypothesized that women and men would perform

equally on a math test that was strictly numerical and that women would

underperform in comparison to men when the math test contained word

problems. Study 2 hypothesized that the cognitive stress and the emotional

state an individual experiences as a result from stereotype threat would

affect women’s performance on a math test that was composed of all word

problems. Each study had a different goal that will coincide to better

understand how stereotype threat impairs women’s performance on math

related exams.

Quinn and Spencer (2001) conducted the first study with 108

participants from SUNY Buffalo, 54 men and 54 women. The study had a 2 x

2 between-subjects design with gender and the type of test that was

administered; either a word problem test or a numerical test. (Quinn &

Spencer, 2001) The tasks from the word problem test derived from a GMAT

practice book and contained 25 problems total, with five multiple-choice

answers to choose from. The numerical test was created by taking the word

problem test and converting it to its numerical counterpart. (Quinn &

Spencer, 2001) Both tests required the same amount of mathematical

knowledge but the word problem had an additional step, which required the

participants to strategize and convert the problem to its numerical form on

their own. It was implied that due to this extra step, that stereotype threat

would be present for the individuals taking the word problem version of the

exam.


To examine the results of this study, an analysis of variance was

conducted and found a main effect for condition, F= 35.7, p<.001, and

gender, F = 3.76, p=.06; which was qualified by a significant interaction,

F=4.07, p<.05. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) As seen on Figure 3, Men

outperformed women on the word problem t(50)=3.07, p<.01, but men and

women did not differ significantly on the numerical exam t(54)=.25, ns.

(Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Since the numerical problems were converted from

the word problems, the word problem scores should have been similar. Since

they were not, these results show that women have the mathematical ability

to be successful on the test but that something is hindering their

performance on the more difficult word problems. Study 2 hypothesized that

stereotype threat is hindering women’s performance and that the stress and

negative emotional state that results from this threat, is the source of the

problem.

The second study that Quinn and Spencer (2001) conducted involved

36 students from the University of Michigan who had scored between 650

and 700 on the SAT-M exam. This was to control for mathematical ability;

each of the participants had the knowledge and thus the ability to do well on

the math exam that the researcher were administering. The study was a 2 x

2 between-subjects design with gender and high vs reduced stereotype

threat conditions. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) For the reduced stereotype threat

condition, the instructions stated “Prior use of these problems has shown

them to be gender-fair- that is, men and women perform equally well on


these problems.” (Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p. 64) By explicitly stating the test

is gender fair, this would in turn be reducing stereotype threat because it is

counteracting the stereotype of women underperforming when compared to

men.

The participants were given the test individually and told to think out

loud while they answered the questions. Quinn & Spencer used coding

categories that were broken up into three categories, conventional

strategies, unconventional strategies and no strategy. Using transcripts and

notes made by the students, the participant’s strategies were placed into

one of the three categories. This categorical coding had an interrater

reliability of .80. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) This coding strategy was used

along with 18 challenging multiple choice questions from the SAT-M. (Quinn

& Spencer, 2001) They were 18 word problems and had 5 answers to choose

from. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Since each of the participants did fairly well

on their math portion of the SAT, they have the skills to be successful at

solving the problems on this exam.

An ANOVA of the results was conducted and found a marginally

significant interaction, F(1,32) = 3.56, p=.07. As seen in Figure 4, women

underperformed (M=4.64) in comparison to men (M=8.17) in the condition

that was high in stereotype threat. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) For the

condition where the stereotype threat was reduced, women (M=7.05) did

slightly better than men (M=6.03) on the mathematics test. (Quinn &

Spencer, 2001) Although the difference was not statistically significant, these


findings show that without stereotype threat, women are able to do as good

as the men on the same exam. The women in the reduced stereotype threat

condition were able to reach their full potential and perform up to their

ability.

In regards to the strategies that were used, women in the high

stereotype condition were unable to develop a strategy for more of the

questions than the reduced stereotype group, t (32) = 2.19, p<.05. (Quinn &

Spencer, 2001) When stereotype threat is not interfering with the

performance for these women, they are able to formulate the necessary

strategies needed to be successful at the tasks. Furthermore, women were

more likely than men to not develop a strategy for the questions in the high

stereotype condition, t (32)=-1.99,p<.06. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Table 1

displays the percentages of the strategies used by each gender in each

condition and this shows that in the high stereotype condition, women could

not formulate a strategy 14% of the time, while men could not formulate a

strategy 2% of the time. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) In the gender fair

condition, men could not formulate a strategy 9% of the time and women

could not formulate a strategy 4% of the time. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001)

When stereotype threat is reduced, women were able to formulate strategies

more often which indicates that stereotype threat is obstructing their ability

to effectively strategize.

Quinn & Spencer’s (2001), research was able to show that the

knowledge of stereotype’s can change the testing situation for women and


even hinder their performance. According to the results of study 1, women

have the knowledge and skills needed to be successful on a mathematics

exam but they are not able to use those skills due to stereotype threat.

Stereotype threat is interfering with their ability to strategize and correctly

solve challenging problems. Study 2 was able to show that when stereotype

threat is reduced, women and men performed equally and were able to use

similar strategies to solve the difficult tasks. Reducing stereotype threat is

essential for women to be effective at problem solving and strategizing for

the mathematics exams.

The Effects of Social Identity Manipulation on the Relationship

between Stereotype Threat and Academic Performance

The previous research has indicated that stereotype threat does have

an effect on stereotype threat and that in relation to women in mathematics,

it hinders their strategizing abilities which negatively impacts their

performance on math exams. Research conducted by Quinn & Spencer

(2001) illustrated that to counteract these negative effects, stereotype threat

must be reduced. The goal of this review is to show that social identity

manipulation can be used to reduce the negative impact that stereotype

threat has on mathematical performance for women.

Gresky, Eyck, Lord and McIntyre (2005) hypothesized that the

performance deficits resulting from stereotype threat can be reduced when

the individual is reminded of the multiple social identities that they fill. Their


study included 129 participants, 94 women and 35 men who ranged in ages

from 18-22 years old. (Gresky et al.,2005) The participants were told they

were taking two unrelated tasks, one involving concept mapping and the

other being questions from the GRE. Each of the participants were told that

they were studying the GRE to examine the stereotype that men do better

than women on math tests. (Gresky et al., 2005) All of the participants were

exposed to the stereotype threat because the focus of the study was the

intervention and not the threat itself.

A math identification measure was used which contained items such as

“How much do you enjoy math-related subjects?”(Gresky et al., 2005, p.705)

and “How important is it to you to be good at math?”. (Gresky et al., 2005,

p.705) These questions were rated on a scale of 1=not at all to 5=very much

and this measure was given to the participants early in the semester. The

other measure that was used was designed from the Graduate Record

Examination (GRE) in mathematics. Gresky et al., (2005) took 30 difficult

problems from a sample version of the GRE and combined them to create

the math test that would be used to measure math performance.

The participants were randomly assigned to one out of the three

conditions. The first 2 conditions differed based on how many nodes they

drew on their self-concept map. The participants were told that the self-

concept maps allow thoughts to be shown in graphical form. (Gresky et

al.,2005) They were told to draw a central node representing themselves and

to draw pathways with other nodes that branch out from the central node.


(Gresky et al.,2005) The examples for those nodes were “school”, “friends”

or “hobbies”. (Gresky et al.,2005) The experiment explained that only the

most essential information is necessary in completing their map. The second

condition was the many nodes condition where the participants were

instructed to provide multiple connections from their central node and the

example that was given to them contained 46 nodes. (Gresky et al.,2005)

The third condition was the no maps condition and they skipped the task

completely and took the GRE test without completing a self-concept map.

The results, as indicated in table 2, demonstrated that women high in

math identification who drew many nodes on their self-concept map

(M=6.20, SD=2.76) were able to get more items correct, compared to the

results of the few nodes condition (M=4.52, SD=2.82) and the no maps

condition (M=4.52, SD=2.27). (Gresky et al.,2005) Drawing few nodes or no

map proved to be ineffective in lessening the performance deficits caused by

stereotype threat. The many nodes condition was able to counteract the

effects of stereotype threat and perform better than the other two

conditions. These results are consistent with the view that reminding the

individual of the many identities they have can be used as a successful

intervention for the negative effects of stereotype threat.

Conclusion, Alternative Explanations and Future Research

Research has been conducted that exposed the negative impact

stereotype threat has on academic performance. This review validates the


assertion that stereotype threat hinders the performance of women in

mathematical tasks. Current studies (Harrison et al., 2006; Quinn & Spencer,

2001) have shown that women have the skills to perform as well as men at

these math tasks but are not performing to their full potential due to

stereotype threat obstructing their problem-solving abilities for challenging

math problems. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the reduction of

stereotype threat will allow women to reach their full capabilities in a

mathematical testing situation.

The results from the study conducted by Gresky et al., (2005),

demonstrated that social identity manipulation could be used as a successful

intervention to the negative effects of stereotype threat on women’s math

performance. The women in the study were able to illustrate the different

roles they fill, which in turn allowed them to make salient an identity that

does not coincide with the stereotype that women are bad at math. Making

another identity salient, allowed the women in the study to not be effected

by the stereotype threat and thus, reach their full potential in relation to

their math performance.

The present research brought up numerous plausible alternative

explanations as to why women are underperforming in comparison to men in

the domain of mathematics. One being that women are innately bad at

math, which hinders their performance on a math test. This was falsified in

Quinn & Spencer’s (2001) first study when they converted the word

problems to its numerical form. Women were able to perform well on the


numerical form of the task because they have the knowledge and skills to

solve them. The word problem version of the task involved strategizing and

this is where the stereotype threat was present, which hindered their

performance. This study demonstrated that women are just as capable as

men to do well on these math tests and that stereotype threat is the reason

they are underperforming.

Another alternative explanation was that women were self-

handicapping for the challenging tasks and not putting in the necessary

effort to keep from hurting their self-esteem. This alternative was falsified in

Quinn & Spencer’s (2001) second study when the women were able to

perform just as well as the men when the stereotype threat was reduced.

The problems were just as difficult in both the stereotype and reduced

stereotype condition, so if self-handicapping was plausible then the women

would continue to underperform when the stereotype threat was removed.

Further research could look at the positive role that stereotype lift can

have in academic performance. Stereotype lift is the boost in performance

when a stereotype is exposed and the individual is part of the in-group. Many

of the studies demonstrated that men actually did better when under

stereotype threat because the stereotype was working in their favor. The

men in the study conducted by Harrison et al., (2006) did better on both the

math and verbal tests when they were in the stereotype threat condition. It

would be interesting to investigate stereotype life further and how it can

effect academic performance.


Social identity manipulation is only one type of intervention that can be

used to off-set the negative effects of stereotype threat on academic

performance. Future research could investigate different forms of

interventions and how they can be applied in academic settings. Researchers

could look into ways of making different identities salient in different

situations, the self-concept maps are only one way of doing this. Hopefully

these forms of interventions could potentially be mandatory on all testing

situations so that no student will have to be subject to performance deficits

due to stereotype threat.

Figure 1. Accuracy Scores on the Math Test as a Function of Test Type and Participant Income (Source: Harrison et al., 2006, p. 348)


Figure 2: Accuracy Scores on the English Test as a Function of Test Type and Participant Income(Source: Harrison et al., 2006, p.349)

Figure 3: Performance on Word Problem Test and Numerical Test by Gender


(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.62)

Figure 4: Performance on Math Test as Function of Stereotype Threat and Gender(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.65)


Table 1: Percentage of Strategy Use on Math Problems by Gender and Condition(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.66)

Table 2: Mean Number of Items Correct on a Difficult Math Test by Men and Women who had High or Low Math Identification and Drew no Self- Concept Maps, Self-Concept Maps with Few Nodes, or Self-Concept Maps with Many Nodes(Source: Gresky et al.,2005, p. 708)


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social identity on stereotype threat and academic performance

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