sna ems

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Social Capital: Success among Observers in Hoboken EMS

Jamil Eric Wilkins

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Table of Contents

List of Figures………………………………………………………p3

List of Tables……………………………………………………….p3

List of Equations …………………………………………………...p3

A) Executive Summary………………………………………………...p4

B) Introduction and Background………………………………………p5

C) Problem Statement (Thesis)………………………………………...p6

D) Literature Review…………………………………………………...p6

E) Preliminary Data Analysis……………………………………….....p8

F) Project Review……………………………………………………....p14

a. Aim………………………………………………………….p14

b. Approach……………………………………………………p14

c. Summary……………………………………………………p14

G) Project Model……………………………………………………….p16

H) Conclusion ………………………………………………………….p16

I) References…………………………………………………………...p17

J) Appendix……………………………………………………………p18

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Ego-centric sociogram

Figure 2: Social capital response model

List of Tables

Table 1: Ego-centric clusters

Table 2: Social network and relations: Brokerage

Table 3: Social network and relations: Closure

Table 4: Overall social capital

List of Equations

f = n/N

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Executive Summary

The study examines the relationship of observers (EMTs, non-EMTS, and drivers) within

particular social networks of Hoboken Volunteer Ambulance Corps (HVAC) and the formation

and maintenance of social capital. In addition to assessing brokerage and closure among the

group, the study investigates the greater social capital of observers by analyzing how their

experiences in social networks can increase commitment to the organization and their ability to

mobilize collective actions -- which is seen as social capital. An analysis conducted on results

from a questionnaire of randomly selected observers (N = 14) suggests a strong association

between social capital and the three independent variables of Personal, Social, and Geographical.

If social capital is related to trust and safety, then observers who have strong relationships and

emotional support in a social network are likely to generate greater social capital. Subsequently,

if an observer’s personal and overall success is related to social capital, then exposing observers

to fresh perspectives and valuable information will result in a variety of positive outcomes.

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Introduction and Background

Social networks among observers (active EMTs, non-EMTs, and drivers) within

Hoboken Volunteer Ambulance Corps (HVAC) allow members to acquire a presence among

support groups, access valuable information and opportunities, and establish and maintain strong

connections with others. The networks can be oriented towards the coordination of trust

(brokerage), the institution of safety based on trust (closure), and the maximization of

information flow. The relationships among the members throughout these networks accumulate

resources used to increase social order, participation in civic activities, and trust among members

that are all ultimately viewed as social capital (Lampe, Ellison, & Steinfield, 2007, p. 1145).

Social capital constitutes a rich opportunity for members, specifically observers,

interested in gaining more—or the most—out of their experiences in the organization based on

the advantages generated by fresh perspectives and accrued information. Social networks within

HVAC, having the potential to support both the maintenance of existing social ties and the

formation of new connections, can bridge “holes” in social structure to facilitate the generation

of social capital. (Ansell, 2007, p. 482; Lampe, Ellison, & Steinfield, 2007, p. 1144). Along with

bridging social capital, which looks at the way loose connections contribute to useful information

and new perspectives, bonding social capital considers emotional support, such as trust and

safety, brought on by tightly-knit relationships. The study investigates the greater social capital

of observers in HVAC by analyzing how their experiences in social networks can increase

commitment to the organization and their ability to mobilize collective actions.

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Problem Statement (Thesis)

The study proposes that observers will be able to produce social capital within their social

networks because they seek to succeed in the role, as well as the safety and trust that accompany

current and future success in the organization, therefore:

If social capital is related to trust and safety, then observers who have strong relationships and

emotional support in a social network are likely to generate greater social capital. Subsequently,

if an observer’s personal and overall success is related to social capital, then exposing observers

to fresh perspectives and valuable information will result in a variety of positive outcomes.

Literature Review

Burt (1992; 2005) provides insight into the way certain structural features in a network

can help improve the actors’ social influence and overall success. With an ego-centric sociogram

at the epicenter of the analysis, a single observer of HVAC can be used to identify how social

capital generates advantages for a specific individual within a social network, as well as the

community (Ansell, 2007, p. 483). As described by Burt’s Brokerage and Closure, the

advantages come about by first using brokerage to coordinate trust and then using closure to

establish safety based on the trust (p. 483). Despite the opposing mechanisms between brokerage

and closure, Burt suggests that both the individual and collective aspects of the social network

can be complementary to generate “structural autonomy,” which is a valuable source of social

capital (p. 484).

Social capital gains the advantage when considering a person’s location in a structure of

relationships, i.e., an ego-centric sociogram (Burt, 1992, p. 4). From this, structural autonomy

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illustrates how networks distribute social capital based on the brokers’ abilities to span and

integrate different clusters of people to access information, ideas, and knowledge of different

groups; and how trust and alignment establish a pipeline to the information (Ansell, 2007, pp.

482-83). Brokers in HVAC span across multiple shifts and, therefore, are likely to have access to

more information, have access to earlier information, and control the information flow. The

brokers also help bridge structural holes to generate fresh perspectives and information (p. 483).

Information mechanisms such as “bandwith” and “echo” describe the direction and intensity of

trust which can be used to evaluate (1) how an individual’s personal network affects the person’s

ability to access certain kinds of resources; (2) the kind of social support that’s available or is

regularly accessed; and (3) how the structure of a given social network affects the formation or

maintenance of social, collective norms when analyzing the influence that social relations and

networks have on observers contributing to the overall social capital within Hoboken Ambulance

Volunteer Corps (HVAC).

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Preliminary Data Analysis

Initial analysis of observer ego-centric network

Note: All names used in the ego-centric analysis were replaced with the characters from the

NATO Phonetic alphabet for confidentiality. For example, the primary actor’s first initial and

last name was replaced with “Alpha" (See Figure 1).

Figure 1: Ego-centric sociogram

The initial analysis is based on the observer, Alpha, who sought to work during shifts

where the EMTs and drivers support growth and are committed to one another. The sociograph

above is divided into four separate clusters. They were organized based on the first four shifts

that Alpha completed during the beginning month of membership. The shifts occurred on four

separate dates from 19:00 until 23:59 and had the potential of accommodating two EMTs, two

drivers, and two observers, including Alpha, of the 186 active members. The analysis excludes

Alpha from the clusters (See Table 1).

Alpha

Bravo, EMT

Delta, EMT

November, EMT

Whiskey, EMT

Sierra, EMT

Lima, EMT

Foxtrot, EMT

Charlie, EMT

Juliett, EMT

Romeo

Echo

Oscar

Mike

Golf, EMT

Victor, EMT

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Table 1: Ego-centric clusters

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4

Driver Bravo, EMT Victor, EMT Foxtrot, EMT Romeo

EMT Delta, EMT Sierra, EMT Delta, EMT Golf, EMT

Driver November, EMT

Charlie, EMT Whiskey, EMT

EMT Golf, EMT Lima, EMT Mike Juliett, EMT

Observer Alpha Oscar Alpha Alpha

Observer

Alpha

Echo

Density 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.4

Clusters 1-3 are made up of four actors and Cluster 4 has five. Two actors, Delta, EMT

and Golf, EMT, occupy two clusters simultaneously – Clusters 1, 3, and 4 (indicated in red).

This means that Alpha has worked with each of them during two separate shifts. If an actor from

any cluster has worked with another outside any of Alpha’s shifts, they are connected with the

purple line. The purple lines also represent the density of each cluster based on the actors’

additional participation throughout the month of October. Cluster 2 ends up being the most dense

in that the actors have signed up for other shifts together more than any other cluster Alpha has

worked with. The dense, cohesive network of Cluster 2 shows that the actors rely on each other

and trust is an attribute of the entire network, specifically with Victor, EMT, Sierra, EMT, and

Lima, EMT. Unlike the clique in Cluster 4 formed by Juliett, EMT, Whiskey, EMT, and Romeo,

Cluster 2 connects with at least two actors from every other cluster. However, the closed network

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illustrated in Cluster 4 shows that since each actor knows the other, Burt argues, the powerful

social conditions promote mutual trust and most likely safety – an adequate network for Alpha’s

survival but not overall growth (Ansell, 2007, p. 482). The actors are also found to have a high

level of motivation to maintain the network since they continue to schedule shifts with one

another. Burt (1992) recognizes the strong interaction between Cluster 2 and the others as a form

of bridging “holes” in social structure to prevent the dense social networks from short-circuiting

information flow as a result of redundancy. The fresh perspectives and information that Alpha or

any other observer would gain from working with Cluster 2 is expected to generate social capital.

The social network analysis considers the perspectives of other observers to reinforce the claim

presented by, and through, the ego-centric analysis.

Social network analysis

The social network analysis (SNA) argues that if social capital is related to trust and

safety, then observers who have strong relationships and emotional support in a social network

are likely to generate greater social capital (as seen in Cluster 4). However, more importantly, if

an observer’s personal and overall success is related to social capital, then exposing observers to

fresh perspectives and valuable information will result in a variety of positive outcomes (as

represented in Cluster 2).

Sampling plan

A simple random sampling (n = 14) was conducted to satisfy 10% of the cases in the

sampling frame (f = n/N) to deliberately set up a quota independent of the population

characteristics for the purpose of including a specific group where each NCn had an equal chance

of being selected. This probability sampling works better than a nonprobability sampling since

the procedure assures that the different units in the population have equal probabilities of being

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chosen, i.e., an electronic survey, in which minimal in-depth field work is needed to gather

information for an intended response.

Overview of Data Collection

A further study will assess the magnitude of the bridging and bonding social capital

within the organization, but this particular analysis was designed to demonstrate if and how they

exist through brokerage and closure. Therefore, regression analyses were overlooked and the

study asked straight-forward questions to achieve the intended responses for satisfying the initial

analysis shown by Figure 2 and Table 1. The respondents identified themselves as observers who

are either EMTs, Non-EMTs, or Non-EMT/drivers who all satisfy the sociogram’s design by

being fully active members (complete at least 4 shifts monthly). The premise behind the design is

that Alpha is assessing the connections of four clusters over the course of four shifts (four

weeks), in which the study demanded from each respondent a relationship with respect to the full

network detail. In other words, they’re involvement as an observer, in some way, should span

across all four clusters simultaneously. The weight of the respondents’ relationship to the

importance of the social ties that are seen in Clusters 2 and 4 are reflected in the results that

follow—each broken up into brokerage, closure, and potential of social capital.

Table 2: Social network and relations: Brokerage (N = 14)

Mean or % (N)

I feel that a strong social network is important for me to succeed as an

observer at HVAC.

71% (10)

I have been able to establish a strong social network of my own within

HVAC.

79% (11)

I feel that safety and trust within my social network are important for me

to succeed as an observer.

79% (11)

My own social network has

Safety and trust

Only safety

Only trust

71% (10)

0.07% (1)

0% (0)

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In having established a strong social network, more than 70% of the respondents felt that a

strong social network is important for success as an observer, in addition to the trust and safety

components that are likely to accompany it (see Table 2 above). Although Clusters 2 and 4

present Alpha with trust and safety, the respondents indicate the importance that closure has in

social capital (see Table 3). Unlike Cluster 4, Cluster 2 spans across multiple groups to, more

likely than the other clusters, access and control information. This helps Alpha become aware of

the options and opportunities available at HVAC (79%) and tap into resources that would enable

contribution to the organization (79%). Additionally, many of the respondents felt that those with

higher ranks add to the wealthy flow of information by being accessible (64%), approachable

(71%), and communicating effectively (71%).

Table 3: Social network and relations: Closure (N = 14)

Mean or % (N)

Based on my social network, I am aware of options and opportunities

available to me at HVAC.

79% (11)

The resources and information gained through my social network can help

me contribute more to HVAC.

79% (11)

My rank within HVAC influences my social interaction with other members

who are or are not part of my social network.

36% (5)

I am able to form strong ties, or connections, with other members who

share similar qualities.

93% (13)

I feel that other observers are essential to the strength of my social

network.

57% (8)

I feel that frequent communication with other observers would benefit my

success.

71% (10)

I would say that my social network provides me with the support to

succeed as an observer.

86% (12)

I feel that those with higher ranks are easily accessible and provide me

with the necessary tools to succeed as an observer.

64% (9)

I feel that those with higher ranks are easily approachable and

communicate effectively.

71% (10)

I relate to others who share the same friend(s) as I do. 79% (11) I do not relate to others who don't share the same friend(s) as I do. 0.07% (1)

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The respondents strengthen the dynamics of Cluster 2 since 79% are able to relate to others with

whom the same friends are shared, thus increasing the ability to form strong ties with other

members who share similar qualities (93%). More importantly, as a result of bridging the holes,

other observers become essential to the strength of a single observer’s social network (57%) in

which frequent communication (the access and control of information) amongst the observers

would benefit success (71%). Given that most of the respondents’ shift selection varies and

depends on availability or aren’t considered much (results from questionnaire), very few—close

to none—don’t see mutual ties as a key component for connection (0.07%). Cluster 2

demonstrates the impact that both brokerage and closure can have on Alpha, or any observer,

contributing to the overall success of the organization (see Table 4).

Table 4: Overall social capital (N = 14)

Mean or % (N) My role as an observer is very clear to me. 71% (10)

I feel that I can get more out of my experience as an observer. 86% (12)

I want to get the most out of my experience as an observer. 79% (11)

I would like to help prospective observers get the most out of their

experiences at HVAC.

86% (12)

There are aspects of HVAC that I'd like to help improve based on my

experiences.

86% (12)

I feel that my experiences as an observer are, or will be, valuable to the

organization.

86% (12)

I feel that succeeding as an observer will lead to my overall personal

success and the success of HVAC.

93% (13)

The respondents who were certain of their place in the network (71%) not only felt that their

observer experiences would be valuable to the organization, but those experiences would help

them obtain more (86%) and the most (79%) positive outcomes, leading up to personal and

overall success (94%). The overall success would be reflected in improving aspects of the

organization (86%) and serving as brokers for prospective observers (86%).

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Project Review

Aim

The purpose of the study is to clearly illustrate the impact of brokerage and

closure within an observer’s social network and then reinforce the social capital

discovery using the findings of additional observers within a broader social network.

Approach

Process

The Realist method suggests that the key informants in the selected population be

identified, the people representative of the types of issues being explored are located, and

then the audience targeted individually. The research instrument was delivered

electronically to give each person an equal opportunity to participate. The same

instrument was also delivered in person during general events (e.g. monthly meeting)

where each person had an equal opportunity to participate.

Research instrument

A questionnaire (print and Web [using Google Forms]) served as the instrument

for tapping the variable model. The questionnaire was piloted tested on members of

HVAC who stood outside the sampling frame, as part of the EMT/non-observer group,

before being administered to the target sample [n=14] (See Appendix A for a sample of

the print version; go to http://goo.gl/forms/Qm775Fe9ZH for a sample of the Web

version). The questionnaire comprises of 35 questions: 5 personal, 19 dealing with social

network and relations, 4 questioning geography, and 7 covering overall experience. The

following model illustrates how the independent [predictor] variables (Personal, Social,

http://goo.gl/forms/Qm775Fe9ZH

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and Geographical) impact the dependent [outcome] variable (greater social capital among

observers in Hoboken EMS) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Social capital response model

Summary

The study was successful in producing the intended response based on the

research instrument and the sample size that turned out to be more than sufficient. Geography

turned out to be a smaller part of the anticipated outcome and may be excluded from any follow-

up study on social capital.

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Project Model

The patterns discovered from the results are few but represent strong attributes of the

study. Overall, more than 50% of the respondents were in favor of the variables that supported

brokerage, closure, and greater social capital, which was a pivotal factor for the study’s positive

outcome. Had the results been below 50% then the initial analysis could not have been

confirmed.

From this, the results related to social network in the Brokerage category (Table 2) that yielded

results above 70% were reflected by a greater average of 79% in the results also related to social

network of the Closure category (Table 3). The respondents were the same (n=11) but a single

response in Brokerage fell short of having both safety and trust in the social network, showing

that safety was more prevalent than trust in accessing opportunities, resources and information

within the social networks. Safety was strongly identified in the Closure category through the

86% of the respondents feeling that their respective social networks provide them with the

support needed to succeed. The particular pattern shown is through the correlation of how the

respondents identify with safety and trust within the social networks.

Conclusion

The results align with the social networks of HVAC being oriented towards the

coordination of trust (brokerage) and the institution of safety based on trust (closure). The strong

linkage between social capital and trust & safety suggests that observers who have strong

relationships and emotional support in a social network are likely to generate greater social

capital. Such connections are likely to bring about an observer’s personal and overall success

when exposed to fresh perspectives and valuable information, which will result in a variety of

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positive outcomes, such as also becoming brokers for prospective observers. Additionally, what

can further be explored are bridging social capital, which looks at the way loose connections

contribute to useful information and new perspectives, and bonding social capital, which

considers emotional support, such as trust and safety, brought on by tightly-knit relationships.

References

Ansell, C. (2007). Brokerage and closure: An introduction to social capital by Ronald S. Burt.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 52(3), 482-485.

Burt, R. S. (2005). Brokerage and closure: An introduction to social capital. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Burt, R.S. (1992). Structural holes: The social structure of competition. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

Kadushin, C. (2011). Understanding social networks: Concepts, theories, and findings. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Lampe, C., Steinfield, C., & Ellison, N. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:” Social

Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer

Mediated Communication, 12, 1143-1168.

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Appendix A

Sample of 4-page SNA questionnaire (print version)

SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS SURVEY

Social capital: Success among observers in Hoboken EMS

The SNA study answers the question: What influence do social relations and networks have on observers

contributing to the social capital within Hoboken Volunteer Ambulance Corps (HVAC)?

Note: Social capital focuses on how certain structural features (such as trust and safety) in a network can help a

person's social influence and overall success.

What the study looks at is the observers (EMTs, non-EMTs, and drivers) benefiting from their learning experiences

to not only be successful in their role, but to effectively contribute to the system's growth when becoming full-

fledged members and/or certified EMTs.

PERSONAL (Questions 1-5 of 35)

The following questions are used to collect general information based on demographics.

Age and identification

Q01. What is your age? (circle one)

16-19 | 20-25 | 25-29 | 30-34 | 35-39 | 40>

Q02. I would describe my HVAC observer status as (circle one)

EMT | EMT/driver | Non-EMT | Non-EMT/driver

Q02a. If you identify as EMT, when were you certified?

a. Within the past 3 months

b. Within the past 6 months

c. Within the past 12 months

d. More than 12 months ago

Q02b. If you identify as EMT/driver or Non-EMT/driver,

when were you cleared to drive?

a. Within the past 3 months

b. Within the past 6 months

c. Within the past 12 months

d. More than 12 months ago

Membership

Q03. Do you plan on becoming more than an observer?

a. Yes, I believe I will be able to contribute more to HVAC

b. No, I don’t see any benefit in doing so

c. Not sure

Q04. I would describe my HVAC membership status as

a. Fully active (complete at least 4 shifts monthly)

b. Partially active (complete less than 4 shifts monthly)

c. Inactive (complete 0 shifts monthly)

Q05. I have been with HVAC for

a. Less than 3 months

b. 3-6 months

c. 6-12 months

d. More than 12 months

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SOCIAL NETWORK AND RELATIONS (Questions 6-24 of 35)

The following questions are used to collect information about social connections.

Q06. I feel that a strong social network is important for me to succeed as an observer at HVAC.

Social network means individuals with close connections

Strongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree

Q07. I have been able to establish a strong social network of my own within HVAC.



Q08. I feel that safety and trust within my social network are important for me to succeed as an observer at HVAC.



Q09. My own social network within HVAC has:


Safety and trust Only safety Only trust Neither safety nor trust Not sure

Q10. Based on my social network, I am aware of options and opportunities available to me at HVAC.

e.g., such as taking on new responsibilities during calls?


Q11. The resources and information gained through my social network can help me contribute more to HVAC.


Q12. My values, or way of thinking, are accepted by my social network.



Q13. My rank within HVAC influences my social interaction with other members who are or are not part of my social network.

Rank is EMT or, non-EMT, or (non-)EMT/driver



Q14. I am able to form strong ties, or connections, with other members who share similar qualities.

Consider geography, shifts, interests, or even habits


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Q15. I feel that other observers are essential to the strength of my social network.


Q16. I feel that other observers and their success are essential to my personal success as an observer.


Q17. I feel that frequent communication with other observers would benefit my success.


Q18. I would say that my social network provides me with the support to succeed as an observer.


Q19. How do you arrange your shifts?

a. Choose the same people for each shift

b. Choose different people for each shift

c. Selection varies and depends on availability

d. Don’t give much attention to the arrangement

Q20. I feel that those with higher ranks are easily accessible and provide me with the necessary tools to succeed as an observer.


Q21. I feel that those with higher ranks are easily approachable and communicate effectively.


Q22. The expectations and standards of the culture influence my success as an observer.


Q23. I relate to others who share the same friend(s) as I do.


Q24. I do not relate to others who don’t share the same friend(s) as I do.


GEOGRAPHY (Questions 25-28 of 35)

The following questions are used to collect information about the impact of geography.

Q25. Where do you live?

Hoboken | Jersey City | Union City | New York City | Other

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Q26. Geography is important to my success as an observer.


Q27. What role does geography play in your success as an observer?

a. A large part, I like being nearby

b. A large part, I want to be closer

c. A small part, my distance is irrelevant

d. A small part, I don’t mind the commute

e. Not sure

Q28. Geography determines a large part of my contribution to HVAC.

Consider shifts, meetings, and events.


OVERALL (Questions 29-35 of 35)

The following questions are used to collect information about your overall experience as an observer.

Q29. My role as an observer is very clear to me.

Standards and duties are understood


Q30. I feel that I can get more out of my experience as an observer.


Q31. I want to get the most out of my experience as an observer.


Q32. I would like to help prospective observers get the most out of their experiences at HVAC.


Q33. There are aspects of HVAC that I’d like to help improve based on my experiences.


Q34. I feel that my experience as an observer is, or will be, valuable to the organization.


Q35. I feel that succeeding as an observer will lead to my overall personal success and the success of HVAC.


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