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FAUNA OF THE MEDITERRANEAN HYDROZOA 283

FIG. 1. – Organogenesis of the subumbrellar cavity in Automedusae. A to G: development of Liriope tetraphilla, Trachymedusae. A andB: planula; C: planula developing the gastric cavity and the oral ectodermal thickening; D: oral thickening forming the tentacles and thevelum; E: differentiation of the manubrium and the subumbrellar cavity, increasing development of the mesoglea; F: fully developed juve-nile medusae, left side: an interradial section; right side: a perradial section; G: young specimen of Liriope e. (A to C, E after Metschnikoff,1886a; D after Maas, 1905; F redrawn from Delage and Herouard, 1901; G after Russell, 1953). Arrows and asterisk: subumbrellar cavity;ect: ectoblastic thickening; gc: gastric cavity; hpt: secondary hollow perradial marginal tentacle; ma: manubrium; me: mesoglea; sta:

statocyst; sit: solid interradial marginal tentacle; te: marginal tentacle of young medusae; v: velum.

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284 J. BOUILLON et al.

FIG. 2. – Organogenesis of the subumbrellar cavity in Hydroidomedusa (Limnocnida tanganyicae). A: diferentiation of the ectoderm andendoderm in ectoblast and endoblast at the beginning the budding processes; B: ectoblastic proliferation and formation of the endoblasticplate; C: origin of the medusary nodule and the endodermal cup; D: growth of the medusary nodule, formation of the ectodermal tentacularmass and origin of the radial canal from the endodermal cup; E: appearance of the subumbrellar cavity within the medusary nodule, forma-tion of the tentacular cavity within the ectodermal tentacular mass and of the radial canals; F: almost fully grown medusae, showing the sub-umbrellar cavity, the manubrium, the radial canals, the circular canal, the gastric cavity, the velum, and the tentacles (from Bouillon, 1957).cc: marginal or circular canal; ecb: ectoblast; enb: endoblast; gc: gastric cavity of the budding hydroid or medusae; ma: manubrium; mn:medusary nodule; rc: radial canal; sc: subumbrellar cavity; teb: tentacular bud; tmc: cavity of the tentacular mass; tme: ectoderm of the future

tentacular mass; v: velum.

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FIG. 3. – Morphology of hydroids. Anthomedusae. A to C: paedomorphic life cycle reduced to hydroid stage and fixed sporosac: A: Euden-drium ramosum; B: Clava multicornis; C: Hydractinia echinata; D and E: life cycle comprising a medusae stage: D: Neoturris pileata; E:Coryne eximia (A and C after Allman, 1871; B after Edwards, 1965; D after Stokes, 1974; E after Russell, 1953). dac: dactylozooid; fsp:female sporosac; ga: gastrozooid; hca: hydrocaulus; hcl: hydrocladium; ht: hydrothecae; hth: hydranth; hyr: hydrorhiza; mb: medusa bud;

msp: male sporosac; pe: pedicel; pht: pseudohydrotheca; she: shell; sp: fixed sporosac; tz: tentaculozooid.

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FIG. 4. – Morphology of the hydroids. Leptomedusae. Paedomorphic life cycle reduced to hydroid stage and fixed sporosac. A: Sertulari-idae (Abietinaria abietina): 1: whole colony; 2: part of hydrocladium; 3: detail of hydrotheca and gonotheca; 4: gonotheca. B and C: Plumu-lariidae: position of nematothecae; B: side view; C: front view. D: part of skeleton of a pedicellate and symmetrical hydrothecae (A afterLeloup, 1952; B, C and D after Millard, 1975). a: annulations; aph: apophysis; d: diaphragm; gt: gonothecae; hca: hydrocaulus; hcl: hydro-cladium; ht: hydrotheca; hyr: hydrorhiza; ino: internode; it: internal tooth; l1: first lateral nematothecae; l2: second lateral nematothecae; mi:median inferior nematothecae; ms1: first median superior nematothecae; ms2: second median superior nematothecae; mt: marginal tooth;

no: node; o: operculum; pe: pedicel; sp: fixed sporosac.

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FIG. 5. – Morphology of hydroids. A, 1 to 8: some of the different forms, arrangement and number of tentacles occurring in hydrozoanhydranths: 1: Coryne with capitate tentacles; 2: Pennaria with semifiliform and capitate tentacles; 3: Tubularia with filiform and monilifili-fiorm tentacles; 4: Hydractinia with filiform tentacles; 5: Proboscidactyla with two filiform tentacles and a hypostomial capitulum of cnido-cysts; 6: Monobrachium with one filiform tentacle and a hypostomial capitulum of cnidocyst; 7: Craspedacusta without tentacles, with onlya hypostomial capitulum of cnidocysts; 8: Cladocoryne with ramified capitate tentacles. A, 9 to 20: various forms of hydrothecae found inhydrozoan hydranths: 9, 10, 11 and 19: tubular; 15 to 18: bell-shaped; 12, 13: adnate; 14: sunk; 20: pseudohydrotheca; 9: Halecium specio-sum; 10: Grammaria stentor; 11: Halecium labrosum; 12: Cladocarpus formosus; 13: Abietinaria abietina; 14: Thuiaria laxa; 15: Campan-ularia groenlandica; 16: Clytia gracilis; 17: Gonothyraea loveni; 18: Hartlaubella gelatinosa; 19: Halecium halecinum; 20: Bougainviliidaeor Pandeidae sp. (all after Naumov, 1969 modified). B, 1 to 11: form and structure of operculum: 1 and 2 Campanulinidae: 1: Calycellasyringa, operculum formed by numerous flaps meeting in the centre, each flap seated in a hinged embayment and demarcated by basal promi-nent crease line; 2: Campanulina panicula, operculum made by many segments which are simple inward folds of the distal part of thehydrothecae meeting centrally. 3: Sertulariidae arrangement of marginal teeth and opercular valves (adcauline side on right): a: four valvesand four teeth; b: three valves and three teeth; c: two valves and two teeth, adcauline larger; d: two valves and two teeth, abcauline larger; e:1 valve, hinge adcauline; f: 1 valve, hinge abcauline. 4 to 8 and 11: Sertulariidae; 9 Lafoeidae; 10 Tiarannidae. 4: Sertularella, 4 valves; 5:Symplectoscyphus, 3 valves; 6: Sertularia, 2 valves; 7: Abietinaria, 1 adcauline valve; 8: Thuiaria, 1 abcauline valve; 9: pseudo-operculumof Lafoea fructicosa; 10: gable-shaped operculum from Stegopoma plicatile; 11: Sertularella: hydrothecal shape and structure (1, 2 and 10after Cornelius, 1995; 3 and 11 after Millard, 1975; 4 to 9 after Naumov, 1969). abs: abcauline side; ads: adcauline side; ap: adnate part; fl:

floor; hp: hydropore; ino: internode; it: internal tooth; mt: marginal tooth; no: node; o: operculum.

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FIG. 6. – Morphology of the hydroids. Schematic longitudinal sections illustrating the structure of different gastrozooids. A: Ectopleura(Tubularia) larynx showing the parenchymatic diaphragm or cushion under the aboral tentacle whorl, proper to most Tubulariidae; B: Euden-drium ramosum pointing out the trumpet-shaped hypostome typical of the family; C: Laomedea flexuosa, outlining the globose hypostome andbuccal cavity distinctive of the Campanulariidae; D: Sertularella crassicaulis, a retracted hydranth showing the mantel and abcauline gastriccaecum; E: Bonneviella enterovillosa with an oral gastric cavity formed by an annular expansion of the tentacular bases; F: Thyroscyphus mar-ginatus presenting the mantel and its annular fold characteristic of the Thyroscyphidae. (A and B after Leloup, 1952; C and D after Kohn, 1913;E after Naumov, 1969; F after Harris, 1990). af: annular fold; agc: abcauline gastric caecum; at: aboral tentacle; btd: basal tentacular diaphragm;coe: coenosarc; d: diaphragm; de: desmocyte; ecd: ectoderm; end: endoderm; gc: gastric cavity; gv: gastric villosities; hb: hydranth bud; hca:hydrocaulus; ht: hydrothecae; hyp: hypostome; isp: internal spine; man: mantel; me: mesoglea; o: operculum; ogc: oral gastric cavity; ot: oral

tentacle; pd: parenchymatic diaphragm; sp: sporosac; sph: sphincter; ssp: suhydrothecal spherule; sto: stolon; te: tentacle.

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FIG. 7. – Morphology of the hydroids. A: Schema of the different types of tentacular structures and their evolution: a: primordial cnidocystsbutton; b: capitate; c: moniliform; d: semimoniliform; e: filiform; f: cateniform; g: ramified-capitate; h: semifiliform; i: acnide; j: monifili-form; k: pseudofiliform. B, 1 to 14: various forms of gonothecae: 1: Campanularia hincksi; 2: Plumularia setacea; 3: Clytia hemispherica;4: Laomedea calceolifera; 5: Obelia sp.; 6 and 7: Halecium sp.; 8: Diphasia alata; 9: Halopteris catharina; 10: Symplectoscyphus tricuspi-datus; 11: Nemertesia sp.; 12: Macrorhynchia filamentosus; 13: Cladocarpus valdiviae; 14: Aglaophenia sp.; C, 1 to 7: various forms ofnematothecae: 1: Lovenella producta; 2: Lafoeina tenuis; 3: Hydrodendron mirabilis; 4: Halopteris catharina; 5: Kirchenpaueria sp.; 6: Plul-mulariidae; 7: Aglaophenia sp. (A after Prévot, 1959; B1-11, B14, C1, C2, C4-7 after Cornelius, 1995; B12-13 and C 3 after Millard, 1975).

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FIG. 8. – Morphology of the hydroids. Leptomedusae. A to D: different types of gonothecae: A: meconodia of Gonothyraea loveni; B: mar-supium of Diphasia rosacea; C: acrocyst of Dynamena pumila; D: gonangium with hydranths from Halecium halecinum. E to I: differenttypes protective organs: E: nematophore and nematothecae of a Plumularia; F: portion of a hydrocladium of Nemertesia antennina showingthe lateral and median nematothecae. G: hydrocladium portion of an Aglaophenia sp. with detail of the nematophores and nematothecae; H:coppinia of Lafoeidae; I: detail of a coppinia (all from Leloup, 1952). acr: acrocyst; cn: cnidocyste; cs: cnidostyle; end: endoderm; hcs: hydro-cladium segment; ht: hydrotheca; hth: hydranth; hyr: hydrorhiza; lnt: lateral nematotheca; mnt: median nematotheca; nt: nematotheca; prt:

tubes of the protective polyps; ps: perisarc; sar: sarcostyle.

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FIG. 9. – A and B: Morphology of the hydroids: A: type of stem and branching: a: geniculate; b: straight; c: alternate; d: opposite; e: whorled;f: spiral; g: dichotomous. B: form of growth and colony formation (A and B after Millard, 1975). C: Morphology of the medusae. Diagramsof marginal tentacles of different medusae: a: Leuckartiara octona (Anthomedusae); b: Sarsia tubulosa (Anthomedusae); c: Corymorphanutans (Anthomedusae); d: Cosmetira pilosella (Leptomedusae); e: Gossea corynetes (Limnomedusae); f: Hybocodon prolifer (Anthome-dusae); g: Bougainvillia britannica (Anthomedusae); h: Clytia hemispherica (Leptomedusae); i: Proboscidactyla stellata (Anthomedusae) (C

after Russell, 1953).

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FIG. 10. – Morphology of the medusae. A: medusae of Zanclea sp. (Zancleidae, Anthomedusae) showing the cnidophores and the exumbrel-lar cnidocyst tracts; B: Leuckartiara octona (Pandeidae, Anthomedusae) showing the apical process, the mesenteries and the rudimentary mar-ginal bulbs; C: diagram defining the radii of a hydromedusae with 4 radial canals. (A and B after Mayer, 1910; C after Russell, 1953). apr: api-cal process; b: tentacular bulbs; cc: circular canal; cp: cnidophore; ecn: exumbrellar cnidocyst tract; ex: exumbrella; g: gonad; li: lip; ma:manubrium; mes: mesentery; mte: marginal tentacle; oc: ocelli; rc: radial canal; rte: rudimentary tentacles; sc: subumbrellar cavity; v: velum.

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FIG. 11. – Morphology of the medusae. Detail of the umbrella, mouth and gonad structures: A: Diagrams of the umbrella shape of differentmedusae: a: Sarsia (Anthomedusae); b: Aglantha (Trachymedusae); c: Bougainvillia (Anthomedusae); d: Phialella (Leptomedusae); e:Aequorea (Leptomedusae); f: Obelia (Leptomedusae); g: Amphinema (Anthomedusae); h: Narcomedusae. B: Diagrams of the mouth form ofdifferent medusae: a: Sarsia (Anthomedusae); b: Clytia (Phialidium) (Leptomedusae); c: Cosmetira (Leptomedusae); d: Eirene (Leptome-dusae); e: Turritopsis (Anthomedusae); f: Hydractinia (Podocoryne) (Anthomedusae); g: Lizzia (Anthomedusae); h: Bougainvillia (Anthome-dusae). C: Diagrams of the gonad forms of different medusae: a and b: lateral view of manubrium: a: Sarsia; b: Dipurena. c and d: cross-sec-tions of the manubrium: c: Bougainvillia muscus; d: B. principis. e to h: types of gonads on radial canals: e: oval; f: linear; g: folded; h: sin-uous. i and j: cross-sections of gonads on radial canal: i: Clytia; j: Tiaropsis. k and l: lateral view of gonads: k: Craspedacusta; l: Aglantha

(all after Russell, 1953).

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FIG. 12. – Morphology of the medusae. A to C: Structure of sense organs: statocysts. A: different types of statocysts: a: open ectodermal velarstatocyst; b: closed ectodermal velar statocyst; c: free ecto-endodermal statocyst; d: enclosed ecto-endodermal statocyst. B: diagram of a radialsection of a closed ectodermal velar statocyst; C: diagram of a radial section of an open ectodermal velar statocyst. D to I: detail of marginalstructures: D: part of the bell margin of Eutima coerulea (Leptomedusae) showing a closed statocyst, marginal warts and lateral cirri; E: mar-ginal open statocyst and marginal cirri of Mitrocomella brownei, Leptomedusae; F: open statocyst of Mitrocoma (Leptomedusae); G: bell mar-gin of the Narcomedusae Pegantha rubiginosa showing the marginal lappets the peronia and the otoporpae; H: portion of the umbrella marginof Cosmetira pilosella (Leptomedusae) showing the marginal flexile cirri; I: part of the bell margin of Orchistoma pileus (Leptomedusae) show-ing the tentaculiform structures. J: detail of the lips of Hydractinia (Podocoryne) areolata (Anthomedusae): 1: outer side, 2: inner side showingthe free gastric endoderm (A, E and H after Russell, 1953; B and C after Singla, 1975; D, G and I after Mayer, 1910; F after Hertwig and Her-twig, 1878; J after Kramp and Damas, 1925). b: marginal tentacular bulb; cc: circular canal; ecd: ectoderm; end: endoderm; enr: exumbrellar orexternal nerve ring; etr: endodermal tentacular root; eve: external epithelium of the statocyst vesicle; ex: exumbrella; fmc: flexile marginal cirri;hmt: hollow marginal tentacle; in: subumbrellar or internal nerve; sta: statocyst; ive: internal epithelium of the statocyst vesicle; k: kinocilium;l: marginal lappet of Narcomedusa; lmc: lateral marginal cirri; lth: lithocyte; me: mesoglea; mte: marginal tentacle; oc: ocellus; ost: open stato-cyst; otp: otoporpae; pc: peripheral canal; per: peronia; rc: radial canal; smc: spiral marginal cirri; stl: statolith; t: tentaculiform structure of the

Orchistomidae; tr: tentacular root; se: sensory epithelium; st: solid marginal tentacle; v: velum; w: marginal wart.

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FIG. 13. – Morphology of the medusae. Structure of sense organs: A to C: statocysts: A: Diagram of a radial section of a free ecto-endoder-mal statocysts of Aegina citrea, Narcomedusae; B: Diagram of a radial section of a free ecto-endodermal statocyst of Solmissus marshalli, Nar-comedusae; C: Diagram of a radial section of an enclosed ecto-endodermal statocyst of Rhopalonema velatum, Trachymedusae. D to G: ocel-li: D: simple ocelli from Neoturris (Anthomedusae); E: complex ocelli from Sarsia (Anthomedusae); F: ultrathin section through a complexocelli of Cladonema radiatum (Anthomedusae); G: open statocyst with ecto-endodermal ocelli from Tiaropsis (Leptomedusae). H and I:cordyli: H: cordylus from Laodicea (Leptomedusae); I: part of the bell margin of Laodicea showing the position of the cordyli (A and B afterSingla, 1975; C after Horridge 1969, D, E and G after Linko, 1900; F after Bouillon and Nielsen, 1974; H after Brooks, 1895; I after Kramp,1919). oph: photoreceptor portion of the ocelli; ax: axon; b: marginal bulb; bc: basal cushion; cc: circular canal; cce: endoderm of the circularcanal; ci: cilia; co: cordyli; cor: cornea; end: endoderm; enr: exumbrellar or external nerve ring; epc: embryonic pigmented cells; ex: exum-brella; inr: subumbrellar or internal nerve ring; k: kinocilium; ln: lens; lnr: lower nerve ring; me: mesoglea; mv: microvilly; ne: nerves; oc:ocelli; opc: pigment cup of the ocelli; pg: pigment; pgc: pigmented cell; pho:photoreceptor cell; rc: radial canal; sce: sensory cells; sci: senso-ry cilia; scl: sensory club; se: sensory epithelium; spa: sensorial papilla; sta: statocyst; ste: stereocilia; stl: statolith; stv: enclosing vesicle of the

statocyst; su: subumbrella; sw: sea water; te: tentacle; unr: upper nerve ring; v: velum; va: vacuole.

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FIG. 14. – Morphology of the Siphonophores. A to C: Agalma elegans (Physonectae): A: general structure of the polygastric stage; B: dis-tal part of a siphosome; C: detail of a side branch of the tentacle or tentilla (all after Totton, 1965). br: bract; cnb: cnidoband; ga: gastrozooid;go: gonophore; n: nectophore; pne: pneumatophore; pal: palpon; pap: palpacle; pnd: pneumadenia; sto: stolon; te: tentacle; ten: tentillium; tf:

terminal filament.

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FIG. 15. – Morphology of the Siphonophores. Various morphological types. A: example of a monophyid calycophoran Muggiaea atlanti-ca, Diphyidae; B: specimen of Rhizophysa, Rhizophysidae, Cystonectae; C: whole polygastric phase of Rosacea cymbiformis, Prayinae, Caly-cophorae, with two opposite nectophores; D: specimen of the genus Stephalia with an aurophore, Rhodaliidae, Physonectae (A and B afterHyman, 1940; C after Totton, 1965; D after Haeckel, 1888). as: air sac; au: aurophore; bgg: branched gas gland; br: bract; bz: budding zone;deb: descending branch; ga: gastrozooid; go: gonophore; gd: gonodendron; gp: gonopalpon; hy: hydroecium; n: nectophore; ns: nectosac; ol:oleocyte; os: ostium; pac: pallial canal; pg: pigment; pne: float or pneumatophore; pnc: pneumatocodon; po: pore; rc: radial canal; s:

somatocyst; sto: stolon; te: tentacle; ten: tentillium.

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FIG. 16. – Life cycles. A: Typical Automedusae life cycle pattern. Life cycle of Aglaura hemistoma; B: Typical Hydroidomedusae life cycle pattern (A after various sources; B after Boero, Bouillon and Piraino, 1992). cy: cyst; fr: frustule; hyd: hydroid; m: medusae; pl: planula.

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FIG. 17. – Life cycles. A: Hydromedusan life cycle with hydroid and medusae stages (Obelia); B: paedomorphic hydroidomesan life cyclewith fixed gonophore (Dynamena); C: schema of the life cycle of a Limnomedusae (Limnocnida tanganyicae), the dashed lines show theparts of the cycle that happens in bad ecological conditions. Stippled areas indicate frustules (normal resistant and dispersive stages); large

dots indicate resistant cysts; hatched areas show medusa budding (A and B after Cornelius, 1995; C after Bouillon, 1957).

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FIG. 18. – Various types hydroidomedusan life cycles. A to F: Life cycle of Eirene hexanemalis, Leptomedusae; the planula develop in apelagic solitary hydranth which transforms itself in a single medusa; G: Life cycle patterns in Laodicea indica (Lepomedusae) from Bismar-ck Sea, Papua New Guinea. During the wet season (left: 1, 2, 3) the planula development produces a hydroid colony which eventually willproduce medusae; during the dry season (right: a to f) the planula produces a gonotheca which will degenerate after producing a single medusa(A to F after Bouillon, 1983; G after Bouillon et al., 1991). ag: adult gonophore; dst: degenerating stolon; gco: gastrulating coeloblastula; go:gonophore; ht: hydrotheca; hth: hydranth; mb: medusa bud; o: operculum; pl: planula; ps: perisarc; spl: settling planula; sto: stolon; te:

tentacle; tp: terminal plate; yg: young gonophore; ym: young medusa ready to be liberated.

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FIG. 19. – Siphonophores life cycle. A: developmental stages of a calycophorid; B: developmental stages of a physophorid (Aa afterMetschnikoff, 1874; Ab, Ac and Ad redrawn from Dawydoff, 1928; Ba, Bb, Bc, Bf after Chun, 1886; Bd after Delage and Hèrouard, 1901).br: bract; bz: primary budding zone; cb: cormidial bud; ecb: ectoblast; enb: primary endoblast; ft: fishing tentacle; ga: primary gasterozooid;gc: gastric cavity; mnn: medusary nodule of the primary bell or nectophore; mo: mouth; n1: primary deciduous nectophore; nb2: bud of thesecondary or permanent nectophore; ol: oleocyte; og: outline of the future gastrozooid; pa: pigmented area; pne: pneumatophore; s: somato-

cyst; ten: tentilla; un1: umbrella of the primary nectophore; v: velum.

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FIG. 20. – Development. Asexual reproduction. Regressive evolution of the medusa: A: fully developed medusa; B: eumedusoid; C: cryp-tomedusoid; D: heteromedusoid; E: styloid (all after Kühn, 1913). ecd: ectoderm; end: endoderm; gc: gastric cavity; ma: manubrium; ov: ovo

cyte; rc: radial canal; sel: subumbrellar endodermic lamella; sc: subumbrellar cavity; te: tentacle; v: velum.

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FIG. 21. – Development. Asexual reproduction. Eumedusoids and swimming sporosacs: A: eumedusoid of Hydractinia carnea, Anthome-dusae having usually a short life-time; B: more regressed an ephemeral eumedusoid of Pennaria (Anthomedusae) with gonads on manubri-um; C: ephemeral regressed eumedusoid of Orthopyxis integra (Leptomedusae) with gonads on radial canals and without manubrium; D:gonophores and free swimming sporosac of Macrorhynchia (Lytocarpus) philippina (Leptomedusae), the gonads are on an eccentric manubri-um; E: free swimming female sporosac of Amphisbetia operculata (Leptomedusae) before spawning; F: idem E but after spawning, note alsoin the two figures the eccentric position of the manubrium (A, B and C after Kühn, 1913; D after Gravier, 1970; E and F after Teissier, 1922).

g: gonad; ma: manubrium; rc: radial canal; sc: subumbrellar cavity; te: tentacle; v: velum.

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FIG. 22. – Development. Asexual reproduction. Cysts; frustules; propagules; podocysts: A: different types of propagules observed in thegenus Obelia, Leptomedusae; B: propagule of Halecium pusillum, Leptomedusae; C: frustule formation in Limnocnida tanganyicae, Lim-nomedusae; D: cyst formation in Limnocnida tanganyicae, Limnomedusae; F: podocyst of Moerisia horii, Anthomedusae. (A after Billard,1904; B after Werner, 1984; C and D after Bouillon, 1957; E after Uchida and Nagao, 1959). cy: cyst; fr: frustule; ht: hydrotheca;

hth: hydranth; m: medusa; p: periderm; pod: podocyst; pr: propagule; sto: stolon.

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FIG. 23. – Morphology of cnidocysts. Different types of cnidocysts described in hydroids and medusa: A: anacrophore; B: acrophore; C:desmoneme; D: spirotele; E: aspirotele; F: atrichous isorhiza; G: basitrichous isorhiza; H: merotrichous isorhiza; I: apotrichous isorhiza; J:holotrichous isorhiza; K: atrichous anisorhiza; L.: homotrichous anisorhiza; M: heterotrichous anisorhiza; N: macrobasic atrichous mesotele;

O: microbasic mastigophore; P: macrobasic mastigophores. (all after Mariscal, 1974; except N after Bouillon et al., 1988).

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