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An offprint fromSKYSCAPES

The Role and ImpoRTance of The Sky In aRchaeology

edited byFabio Silva and Nicholas Campion

Paperback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-840-4Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-841-1

© Oxbow Books 2015Oxford & Philadelphia

Published in the United Kingdom in 2015 byOXBOW BOOKS10 Hythe Bridge Street, Oxford OX1 2EW

and in the United States by OXBOW BOOKS908 Darby Road, Havertown, PA 19083

© Oxbow Books and the individual contributors 2015

Paperback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-840-4Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-841-1

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Skyscapes : the role and importance of the sky in archaeology / edited by Fabio Silva and Nicholas Campion. pages cm Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-78297-840-4 (paperback) -- ISBN 978-1-78297-841-1 (digital) 1. Archaeoastronomy. 2. Landscape archaeology. 3. Sky--Social aspects--History. 4. Cosmology--History. 5. Astrology--History. 6. Sacred space--History. 7. Prehistoric peoples. 8. Social archaeology. I. Silva, Fabio (Fabio P.) II. Campion, Nicholas. GN799.A8S54 2015 523.1--dc23 2015002812

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Front cover: Vincent Van Gogh’s Starry Night, 1889. Museum of Modern Art, New York, USA/ Bridgeman Images

Back cover: The huaca of Moray, Peru (photo by Tore Lomsdalen).© Oxbow Books 2015

Oxford & Philadelphia

CONTENTS

List of Contributors vii

Preface: Meaning and Intent in Ancient Skyscapes – An Andean Perspective ixJ. McKim Malville

1. The Role and Importance of the Sky in Archaeology: An Introduction 1 Fabio Silva

2. Skyscapes: Locating Archaeoastronomy within Academia 8 Nicholas Campion

3. An Examination of the Divide Between Archaeoastronomy and Archaeology 20 Liz Henty

4. Skyscapes: Present and Past – From Sustainability to Interpreting Ancient Remains 32 Daniel Brown

5. 30b – the West Kennet Avenue Stone that Never Was: Interpretation by Multidisciplinary Triangulation and Emergence through Four Field Anthropology 42 Lionel Sims

6. Can Archaeoastronomy Inform Archaeology on the Building Chronology of the Mnajdra Neolithic Temple in Malta? 59 Tore Lomsdalen

7. Star Phases: the Naked-eye Astronomy of the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts 76 Bernadette Brady

8. An Architectural Perspective on Structured Sacred Space – Recent Evidence from Iron Age Ireland 87

Frank Prendergast

vContents

9. The Circumpolar Skyscape of a Pembrokeshire Dolmen 106 Olwyn Pritchard

10. The View from Within: a ‘Time-Space-Action’ Approach to Megalithism in Central Portugal 120 Fabio Silva

11. Afterword: Dances Beneath a Diamond Sky 140 Timothy Darvill

1

The Role and Importance of the Sky in Archaeology: An Introduction

Fabio Silva

“sky·scape noun \ˈskīˌskāp\

1 : a part of the skywith outlined terrestrial objects that can be comprehended in a singleview[…]

2:apicturethatincludesanextensiveviewofthesky”(MWD 2004)

TheMerriam-Websterdictionarydefinitionabovestemsfromtheartworld,whereskyscapepaintingssuchas“StarryNight”byVincentvanGogh(Fig.1.1)havebecomefamous.Van

Fig. 1.1: Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night, 1889, oil on canvas, Museum of Modern Art., New York, USA/Bridgeman Images.

2 Fabio Silva

Gogh’soilpainting showsadistantmountainous landscape, a small townnearbywithacypresstreepartiallyrestrictingtheviewtowardstheleft.Above,acrescentmoonandseveralotherlights,depictingstars,illuminatethesettingandaredisturbedonlybyawhirlwindofcloudinthecentreofthecanvas.

VanGogh’sskyscapeisasrealisticasitisfilteredbytheperceptuallensoftheartist:“ThemountainsintheStarryNightarethesameAlpillesthatVanGoghcouldseefromhiscellwindow[…].Fromthatbaseinobservedreality,VanGogh’simaginationtookhold.Butitwasfedbysourcesinbothnatureandart”(Soth1986,303).Severalscholarshavetriedtoidentifythedepictedconstellation,withbothAriesandCygnusbeinglikely,butnotcertain,candidates(Boime1984;Whitney1986).Soth,ontheotherhand,believesthatthedepictedstarsarenotrealisticbutinsteadthattheirmeaningshouldbesoughtintheconceptualandcircumstantialhistoryofthepainting.SheconcludedthatVanGoghunconsciouslymergedhisdesiretobothpaintaskyscapeasanimageofconsolation,andpaintthebiblicalepisodeoftheconsolationofGethsemane,intohis1889painting.“UnabletopaintThe Agony in the Garden,VanGoghprojecteditsemotionalcontentontonatureandcreatedasublimatedimageofhisdeepestreligiousfeelings.[…]TheblueforChristandthecitron-yellowfortheangelbecamethesky,andthestarsandmoon.”(Soth1986,312).AsSothputit,“Atitsmostprofoundlevel,theStarry NightisVanGogh’sAgony.”(1986,312).

This skyscape painted by Van Gogh is no different from those painted, sometimesmetaphoricallyandothertimesquiteliterally,byothercultures,bothpastandpresent.Differentculturesmighthave“access”tothesameskybut“see”completelydifferentskyscapes.Asanexample,astronomershavegroupedthevisiblestarsintoreadilyidentifiableshapesthatareknownasconstellations.ThemodernwesternconstellationsarebasedonthosecataloguedbyPtolemyinthe2ndcenturyCE(Ptolemy,1998),thoughsomemightbeevenolder(e.g.FrankandBengoa2001).However,otherculturesgroupthestarsdifferently:forinstancewhereweseealargebear,abigdipper,orCharles’wain(theconstellationUrsa Major),theInuitofIgloolik(Canada)seeacaribou(Macdonald1998,79).Others,likemostcontemporaryhunter-gatherergroups,nameindividualstarsbuttendnottogrouptheminconstellations(HaydenandVilleneuve2011,340–344),whereasQuechuaspeakersofthecentralAndesseeconstellationsinthe“darkclouds”oftheMilkyWay(Urton1981).RugglesandSaundersproposed threekeyprocesses in the formationofaskyscape:observation,perceptionanduse(RugglesandSaunders1993,2–4).Observationdenotestheabilitytonoticetheskyandits components, eithercasuallyordeliberately.Perception involves“makingsenseofandattachingmeaningtoparticularobservations”(1993,2),whereasusereferstotheemploymentofcelestialphenomenaforanysocial,economic,politicalorideologicalpurpose.MirroringCummings’wordsforthelandscape(2001,82),onecansaytheskyisanaturalphenomenonthatisturnedintoaculturalskyscapethroughhumanagency.

The study of the relationship between the sky and human societies has become thepurview of CulturalAstronomy. Under this umbrella term fall the study of the historyof astronomy and astrology, ethnoastronomy and archaeoastronomy, each with its ownmethodologiesandprimarysources.Archaeoastronomyisthekeyconcernofthisvolumealthoughfromtimetotime,authorsleapintohistoryandethnoastronomyandbackagain.Archaeoastronomyis thestudyofhowpeoplehaveunderstood,conceptualizedandusedthephenomenaintheskyandwhatroletheskyplayedintheircultures,byanalysingtheirmaterialremains.Itinhabitsthatinterdisciplinary“noman’sland”betweenastronomyand

31 The Role and Importance of the Sky in Archaeology: An Introduction

archaeology,andthereforedrawsonestablishedknowledgeandtechniquesfrombothfields.Ithasaconsiderablyyoungerhistorythanitstwobigsisters,butinthepastfewdecadesithasfounditsfeetbybecomingdeeplyrootedinfieldworkandstatisticaltestsforvalidity(e.g.Ruggles1999).Archaeoastronomyhasbecomeanacademicdiscipline,withitsownconferences and journals, but in the process of (re)defining itself towithstand scientificscrutinyitlostitslinkstothewiderarchaeologicalandanthropologicalcommunities.Thereasonsforthisarenowhistoricalbuttheconsequencesareclear:thedifferentapproachesarenotbeingintegratedintoholisticinterpretationsofthearchaeologicalrecord.

Whythenuseanewterm–skyscape–totalkabouttheuseoftheskyinculture?1Theskyhasbeenneglectedwithinthearchaeologicalworld,butethnographyandarchaeoastronomytellusofitsimportanceandroleformost,ifnotall,cultures(Campion2012).Inusinganewwordoldassumptionsarenotcarriedoversoeasily,andnewconnectionscanbecrafted.Thereareprecedents forusingnewterms to re-thinkoldnotions in theestablishmentofconceptssuchaslandscape,taskscapeandseascapeinarchaeology.Thestudyofthelandscapeisnowwellestablishedinarchaeology(e.g.Tilley1994;Cummings2001).Seascapesandwaterscapesextendtheseapproachesintotheseasandrivers(e.g.Wehlin2010),whereastaskscapeslookattheexecutedtasksandthe‘temporalityofthelandscape’(Ingold1993).Skyscapesextendthisupwardstoencompasstheheavensandthecelestialbodiesandhowtheyrelatebackdowntohumanbeliefsandpractices,totheirnotionsoftimeandplace,totheirstructuresandmaterialremains.Thethreadthatunitesallofthese“–scapeconcepts”is that they refer to an ensemble of interlocked components, each taking “its meaningfromitspositionwithin”theensemble(Ingold1993,158).Thelatter,referringbacktothedictionarydefinitionofskyscape,“canbecomprehendedinasingleview”.Thedisciplinesthatstudy these“–scapes”share“a theoreticalconcernwithhowpeopleconstructedandusedtheenvironmentsaroundthem”(Ruggles2011,7),aswellasavarietyofuniquefieldtechniques andmethods that range from thequantitative to thephenomenological.Theyaresisterdisciplines:archaeoastronomylooksup,whereaslandscapearchaeologyandtheotherslookdownandaround,althoughtheyalwaysmeetatthehorizon.

Thecasestudiesinthisvolumeillustrateseveralofthecharacteristicsofaskyscapethatmirrorsthoseusedtodescribelandscapes.KeepingtoCummings’extensivelistoflandscapetraits(2001,75–80)itwillbeshownthat:theskyscape“playsanactiverole,structuringandstructuredbyhumanagency”(chapters3,4,6,10);mythsmayshapeandbeshapedbythesky(chapters7and10);theskyscape“isanidealcanvasfortheapplicationofmetaphors”(chapter 7); people’s “ideologies form and are formed by” the skyscape (chapters 5, 7and10);likelandscapes,skyscapes“areopentocontrolandthusbecometiedtopoliticalstrategyandstructuresof inequality” (chapter5);and that theskyscape“structures timeandtimestructuresthewayweexperience”it(chapters7,8and10).Thesimilaritiesarenotmerelyacademicas severalculturesdoconceptualize theskyasa landscape,or seethe twoasequivalentondifferent levels,sometimesformingaholistic representationofthecosmos(e.g.Urton1981,63).Inthisway,thehorizonalsogainsanewstanding:thatofmediatorbetweenthelandscapeandtheskyscape,betweentheearthandthesky.Itisthusnowonderthatsun,moonandstar-risesand-setsarethemostwidespreadcelestialphenomenaencodedinalignmentsofstructures.Anunderstandingofthedynamicsofrisesandsets,informallyknownas‘horizonastronomy’,isonethemostimportanttoolsofanarchaeaostronomer.

4 Fabio Silva

Thisvolumeisbasedonahalf-daysessionorganizedbytheeditorsatthe2012meetingoftheTheoreticalArchaeologyGroup(TAG),whichtookplaceattheUniversityofLiverpool.Thatsession’stitleisnowthetitleofthisintroduction.Theaimofthatsession,assetoutintheproposaltotheorganizers,wasto“extendthediscussionoftheroleandimportanceofthewiderenvironmentintoconsiderationofthesignificanceofthecelestialenvironment–the‘skyscape’,topastsocietiesandtotheunderstandingandinterpretationoftheirmaterialremains”.Thisvolumestrivestoachievethatsameaim.Itshowshowitisnotonlypossiblebutevendesirabletolookattheskyscapetoshedfurtherlightonhumansocieties.Thisisdonebyfirstexploringthehistoricalrelationshipbetweenarchaeoastronomyandacademiaingeneral,andwitharchaeologyinparticular.Thevolumecontinuesbypresentingcase-studiesthateitherdemonstratehowarchaeoastronomicalmethodologiescanaddtoourcurrentunderstandingofpastsocieties,theirstructuresandbeliefs,orhowintegratedapproachescanraisenewquestionsandevenrevolutionisecurrentviewsofthepast.

Following this introductory chapter, Nicholas Campion looks at the history ofarchaeoastronomy,particularlybytracingthekeyscholarsonbothsidesofthearchaeology/archaeoastronomydivide,aswellastheevolutionofarchaeoastronomicalmethodologies.The contested nature of prehistory is seen to have been paramount in the relationshipbetween the twodisciplinesbut,more recently, the twohavebegun toconverge in theirmulti-disciplinarity.

Chapter3continuestoexploretherapportbetweenarchaeologyandarchaeoastronomybutnarrowsitsfocusdowntothestudyoftheRecumbentStoneCirclesofnortheastScotland.LizHentyexploresthehistoryofworkdoneonthesefourthousandyear-oldmonuments,aswell as her ownfieldwork, to highlight themanydifferences between the disciplinesthathaverendered their interpretations incomplete.Bycontrast,Hentysuggests that ‘theprehistoricskyisasmuchanartefacttobeexaminedasapolishedstoneaxe’andthatthecombinationofmethodologiesstemmingfromthetwofieldsprovidefullerexplanations.

Todayfewpeopleknowwhatphasethemoonisonanygivenday,orhowhighabovethehorizonthesunisgoingtobeatagivenseason.Themodernworldhasdisengagedwiththesky,partiallyduetoitsobfuscationbytheaptlynamedskyscrapersandthelightpollutionstemmingfromtheurbancentres.Thisisoneofthereasonswhyacademiahassidelinedarchaeoastronomy, because the modern skyscape itself is neglected and misunderstood.Daniel Brown, in chapter 4, explores the challenge of overcoming themodern period’sdisengagementwiththesky,throughthecurrenttopicsofsustainabilityandlightpollution.“DarkSkies”projectsextricatepeoplefromtheever-presenturbanglowintoareas,suchasthePeakDistrictnationalpark,whichhavepreservedtheintegrityoftheirskies.Suchexperiences demonstrate that the movements of sky, although presently the domain ofastronomyandphysics,areperceivedbyeveryonewithouttheneedtorecurtoequationsand other modern contrivances. This presents unique opportunities to understand howindividualsnegotiatemeaningandembracetheexperienceofplace,whichwill‘allowonetojudgetheimpactaskyscapewouldhavehadinancienttimes’.

Inchapter5LionelSimstakesamulti-disciplinarylookatsomepeculiarfeaturesoftheAveburycomplex(Wiltshire,England).Theauthorshowshowthetraditionalarchaeologicalnarratives leave much of the material evidence surrounding theWest KennetAvenueunexplained.These,heargues,canbeunderstoodwithrecoursetoculturalastronomy,“an

51 The Role and Importance of the Sky in Archaeology: An Introduction

additionaltooltorecovertheancientpast”.Simsnotesthecarefulplacingoftheavenue’sstonessothatcelestialalignmentstothesunand/ormoonarevisiblewhenlookingfrombehindonestonetoanother.Inaddition,theevidencesurroundingstonepair30,liketheabsenceofastone30b,mightbeexplainedbyamaterializationof thelunarphasecycleof29.5days.Usingthehypothetico-deductivemethod,andanthropologicalmodelsfortheNeolithictransition,Simssuggestsamodelfor“malecattle-herdermonopolisationoflunar-solarritualconfiscatingancientegalitarianmatrilineallunarrituals”thatdemonstrateshowtheskyscapescanbeappropriatedbyaneliteforpoliticaluses.

Jumping to themiddleof theMediterranean,chapter6 takesus to theLateNeolithictemplesof theMaltese islands.Thesemegalithic structuresareunique in style and theirpurpose is aspoorlyunderstoodas their origins.Oneof the last andmost extraordinarycomplexes, that ofMnajdraon the islandofMalta, consists of three templesof varyingdimensionsand style.Thechronologyof their constructionhasbeengaugedbyceramicshards found in several rooms of the temples,whose typology can only suggest a veryroughsequence.Tothetypologicalevidence,ToreLomsdalenaddshisarchaeoastronomicalfieldworkandnotesthatthemaintemple’smostspectacularfeature–theilluminationofkey internal elementsat sunrise throughout theyear–hasbeenencoded in the temple’searlier incarnations.As the templewasexpandedso toodid theastronomicalalignmentsbecomemorepreciseandsophisticated,mirroringtheincreaseinarchitecturalcomplexity.Based on the combination of typological and archaeoastronomical evidence, Lomsdalenproposesawell-definedbuildingsequenceforthemonumentalcomplex,illustratinghowarchaeoastronomycanbeusedformorethantheidentificationofcelestialalignments.

Egyptianreligion’srelationshipwithastronomy, in thefour thousandorsoyearsof itshistory,iswelldocumented(e.g.BelmonteandShaltout2010).Buttheearliestknownreligioustexts,carvedontheinnerwallsofthepyramidsoftheFifthDynastyarepoorlyunderstood.Inchapter7BernadetteBradyre-examinesthePyramidTextsinlightofanunderstandingoftheyearlycycleofthestars.ThesestellardynamicswereclassifiedbyPtolemyinthefirstcenturyCE,butpresent-dayacademiaisyettopayattentiontothisaspectofhiswork.Tohelpdealwiththisoversight,Bradyproposesasetofunambiguoustermswhichacknowledgeandseparate thestarphasesofArisingandLayingHiddenandCurtailedPassage.Armedwiththisknowledge,thereligiouscontentofthePyramidTextsisseentodescribenaked-eyeastronomicalphenomena.Inthisway,theveryoriginsofsomeofEgypt’slong-lastingreligiousconcepts,suchastheKing’safterlifeamongtheImperishableStars,canbeseentoultimatelyderivefromanunderstandingofstellarastronomy.Furthermorethischapter,because it demystifies the stellarphases, is amajor contribution for theunderstandingofhowotherpastsocietiesmighthaveengagedwith,andused,theyearlycyclesofthestars.

Chapter 8 looks at the IronAge enclosure of Lismullin, Co.Meath (Ireland). FrankPrendergast conducts a geospatial analysis of the site, including its archaeoastronomicalproperties.Hearguesthatits“avenuemayhavebeenintentionallyorientatedsoastoalignupontheautumnalappearanceofthePleiades”,whichwouldhavecoincidedwiththeendofharvestandthebeginningofwinter.Thishypothesisis,astheauthorpointsout,oneofmanypossibilities.Toexplorehowthesitecouldhavebeenusedasastructureforpublicgatheringand ceremonies, Social NetworkAnalysis is applied to the data. Prendergast concludesthattheenclosurecontains“thehallmarksofatemplesite–largescale,formalentrance,

6 Fabio Silva

processional space, threshold, depositional space, viewing space, openness and plannedorientation”.Thischapterisoneofthefirstpublishedapplicationsofthismethodologytoarchaeology,amethodologythatisbecomingincreasinglypopular,asattestedbythejournalspecialissuebyEvansandFelder(2014).

Olwyn Pritchard then takes us across the Irish Sea into Pembrokeshire (Wales). InManorbierauniquedolmen,theKing’sQuoit,restsonaslopethatallowsforanunobscuredviewtowardthenorth.FromthispositiontwoEarlyBronzeAgeroundmoundsareseenonthehorizon,lyingalmostexactlyequidistantlyfromtruenorth.Toreconstructtheprehistoricskies,andassesstheirimportance,oneneedstohaveadateforthearchaeologicalsite.TheKing’sQuoitdolmenisnotdirectlydated,howevertheauthormakesacaseforanEarlyBronzeAgedate,makingitcontemporaneoustothemoundsseenonthehorizon.Duringthisperiodaparticularlybrightstar,Deneb,wouldhavebeenseentosetinthewesternmoundandrise,fourhourslater,abovetheeasternmound.Atthesametime,theevenbrighterstarVega,wouldhavegrazedthehorizon,nevertrulysetting.Ifthepositioningofthedolmenandmounds relative to these northern starswas intentional, it demonstrates thatBronzeAgeBritonswereawareofthestellarphaseofCurtailedPassageandcertainlythiswouldhavebeenmeaningfultothem,justasitwasfortheAncientEgyptians.

Inthelastcasestudy,anapproachthatintegrateslandscapeandskyscapearchaeologyistakentore-assessthelocationandorientationofthedolmensofaparticularrivervalleyinthenorthwestofIberia.FabioSilvafindsapatterncommontoallknownstructuresinthisregionthatemphasizestheviewfromwithinthedolmens’chamber.ThispatternhighlightstheregionofthehorizonwhereAldebaran,thebrighteststarofTaurus,wouldhavebeenseentorise,directlyaboveaconspicuousmountainrange.Theheliacalrisingofthisstar,attheendofApril,couldhavebeenusedasaseasonal,ceremonialandeconomicalmarker,asitisknownthatthedolmenbuilderswould,atsomepointduringthespring,movefromtherivervalleyintotheverymountainrangeabovewhichthestarisseentorise.Thispatternraisesnewquestionsonthemegalithismofnorth-westIberia,particularlyastowhatrelatestothedolmens’meaningandpurpose,whichareexploredinchapter10.

Finally,inanafterword,TimothyDarvillreinforcesandhighlightstheimportanceofthestudyofskyscapestopresent-dayarchaeology.Keymethodologicalissuesthatwillhavetobeovercomeinthefuture,andcrucialresearchthemesthatwillsurelydrivethearchaeologyofskyscapesforthenextdecadesareidentified.Inparticular,Darvillemphasisesthepositionoftheskyscapesinasociety’scosmology,theimportanceofpattern-recognitioninthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenskyscapesandmonumentsandissuesoftime-depthandcontinuity.

IndeferencetoLévi-Strauss,whosaid“animalsweregoodtothink”(Lévi-Strauss1973,162),thesechaptersillustratethatskyscapestooare“goodtothink”with.ForVanGogh,his“StarryNight”wasanimageofconsolation,relatedtothebiblicalepisodeofthegardenofGethsemane.Forpastsocietiestheskywasanimportantresourceandanequallysignificantcomponentoftheirworld-viewsandsociallives.Forpresent-dayscholarswhotrytoshedlightonthepast,archaeoastronomycomplementsotherapproachestotheinterpretationofthematerialrecord.Thisvolumeshowsthatmoreempiricalandtheoreticalworkstillsneedstobedonetodealwiththeinterpretativesubtletiesoftheintegrationofthedisciplines,butitisnolongerpossibletoneglecttheroleandimportancethatskyscapeshaveplayedinthesocial,economic,religiousandpoliticalspheresofculturesaroundtheworldinthepast.

71 The Role and Importance of the Sky in Archaeology: An Introduction

Note1 Although the term ‘skyscape’wasfirst, and seemingly only, used byHardinget al.

(2006),itsdefinitionandimplicationswerenotexploredbytheseauthors.

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