SKID RESISTANCE AND THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

MOHD AMIN BIN SHAFII

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering (Civil - Transportation and Highway)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

NOVEMBER 2009

V

ABSTRACT

Skid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from

rotating slides along the pavement surface. It is the most important characteristic of

the road pavement. In the wet conditions, skidding will occur easily when the water

film covering the pavement act as lubricant and reduce the friction between the tire

and pavement. There are several factors that influence skid resistance such as road

pavement texture, aggregate characteristic and surface temperature. Although a

number of researcher have attempted to explain and quantify the effect of

temperature on pavement skid resistance properties, the result are still unclear.

Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the effect of pavement surface

temperature on the pavement skid resistance properties of different type of mixtures.

Besides, this study also wants to investigate whether the type of gradation has a

significant effect on skid resistance based on temperature difference. To accomplish

the objectives of the study, five types of mixture consist of ACW 14, ACW 10,

Porous Mix Grade A, Porous Mix Grade B and SMA 14 were prepared. Then, the

skid resistance test using British Pendulum Tester was conducted. The test was

conducted using heated temperature method and natural temperature method. The

results of skid resistance using heated temperature method were compared with the

result of skid resistance using natural temperature method. In this study, it is found

that temperature has a significant effect on skid resistance value and the relationship

between skid resistance value and temperature can be represent using quadratic

curve. Based on temperature different, type of gradation also has significant effect to

the skid resistance value.

vi

ABSTRAK

Rintangan gelinciran adalah daya yang terhasil apabila tayar kenderaan

dihalang daripada berputar. menggelongsor sepanjang permukaan turapan. Rintangan

gelinciran adalah ciri penting bagi turapan jalan. Dalam keadaan basah, kegelinciran

lebih mudah terjadi apabila lapisan air yang menutupi permukaan turapan bertindak

sebagai pelincir yang mengurangkan geseran antara tayar kenderaan dengan turapan

jalan. Terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi rintangan gelinciran seperti

tekstur permukaan turapan jalan, ciri-ciri agregate dan suhu permukaan turapan.

Walaupun ramai penyelidik cuba untuk menerangkan kesan suhu terhadap rintangan

gelinciran, tetapi hasilnya masih belum jelas. Oleh itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk

mengetahui kesan suhu permukaan turapan terhadap rintangan gelinciran bagi

pelbagai jenis campuran. Disamping itu, kajian ini juga dijalankan untuk mengetahui

samada, pada suhu yang berlainan, jenis penggredan aggregat mempengaruhi

rintangan gelinciran atau tidak. Untuk menyempurnakan kajian ini, lima jenis

campuran terdiri daripada ACW 14, ACW 10, Campuran Poros Gred A, Campuran

Poros Gred B dan SMA 14 disediakan. Ujian rintangan gelinciran kemudiannya

dijalankan dengan meggunakan alat British Pendulum Tester. Ujian dijalankan

menggunakan kaedah suhu pemanasan (heated temperature method) dan kaedah

suhu semulajadi (natural temperature method). Keputusan ujian rintangan gelinciran

menggunakan kaedah suhu pemanasan (heated temperature method) kemudiannya

dibandingkan dengan keputusan ujian rintangan gelinciran menggunakan kaedah

suhu semulajadi (natural temperature method). Daripada kajian ini, didapati bahawa

suhu permukaan turapan memberi kesan kepada nilai rintangan gelinciran dan

hubungan antaranya boleh diwakili oleh lengkung kuadratik. Daripada kajian ini

juga, didapati bahawa, pada suhu yang berlainan, jenis penggredan aggregat

mempengaruhi rintangan gelinciran.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF APPENDICES xiv

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Aim and Objective of the Study 2

1.4 Scope of the Study 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 Factors Influence Skid Resistance 4

2.2.1 Aggregate Characteristic 5

2.2.2 Road Surface Texture 5

2.2.2.1 Micro texture 6

2.2.2.2 Macro texture 6

2.2.3 Temperature Effects 8

viii

2.2.3.1 Air Temperature 8

2.2.3.2 Tire Temperature 9

2.2.3.3 Pavement Temperature 10

2.2.4 Vehicle Factors 11

2.2.5 Driver Factors 11

2.3 Pavement Tire Friction Theory 12

2.4 Skid Resistance Measurement , 16

2.4.1 Locked Wheel Tester 16

2.4.2 British Pendulum Tester 17

2.4.3 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine

Investigation Machine (SCRIM) 18

2.4.4 Grip Tester 19

3 METHODOLOGY 22

3.1 Introduction 22

3.2 Operational Framework 22

3.3 Preparation Material for Mix 25

3.4 Aggregate Test 25

3.4.1 Sieve Analysis 25

3.4.2 Specific Gravity 29

3.4.2.1 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

of Coarse Aggregate (> 5.00 mm) 29

3.4.2.2 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

of Fine Aggregate (<5.00 mm) 30

3.4.3 Theoretical Maximum Density 31

3.5 Bitumen Test 32

3.5.1 Penetration Test 33

3.5.2 Softening Point Test 36

3.5.3 Penetration Index 38

3.6 Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content 40

3.6.1 Asphaltic Concrete (AC) - ACW 10 and ACW 14 40

3.6.1.1 Preparation of Marshall Sample 41

3.6.1.2 Bulk Specific Gravity Measurement 42

3.6.1.3 Marshall Flow and Stability Test 43

3.6.1.4 Voids in Total Mix (VTM)

3.6.1.5 Void Filled with Bitumen

3.6.2 Porous Mix (Grade A and Grade B)

3.6.2.1 Air Void Test

3.6.2.2 Drain-down Test

3.6.2.3 Cantabro Test

3.7 Preparation of Test Sample

3.8 Sand Patch Test

3.9 Skid Resistance Test

4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Aggregate Gradation

4.3 Washed Sieve Analysis

4.4 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

4.4.1 Coarse Aggregate

4.4.2 Fine Aggregate

4.5 Theoretical Maximum Density

4.6 Bitumen Test Result

4.6.1 Penetration

4.6.2 Softening Point

4.7 Optimum Bitumen Content

4.8 Sand Patch Result

4.9 Skid Resistance Result

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Summary of the Findings and Conclusion

5.3 Recommendation

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

XI

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

3.1 Gradation limit for ACW10 26

3.2 Gradation limit for ACW14 27

3.3 Gradation limit for Porous Mix Grade A 27

3.4 Gradation limit for Porous Mix Grade B 27

3.5 Gradation limit for SMA 14 28

3.6 Design Bitumen Content 40

4.1 Gradation limit for ACW10 61

4.2 Gradation limit for ACW 14 61

4.3 Gradation limit for Porous Mix Grade A 62

4.4 Gradation limit for Porous Mix Grade B 62

4.5 Gradation limit for SMA 14 62

4.6 Washed sieve analysis result for ACW 10 63

4.7 Washed sieve analysis result for ACW 14 63

4.8 Washed sieve analysis result for Porous Mix Grade A 63

4.9 Washed sieve analysis result for Porous Mix Grade B 63

4.10 Washed sieve analysis result for SMA 14 64

4.11 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate for ACW 64

4.12 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate for Porous Mix 65

4.13 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate for SMA 65

4.14 Specific gravity of fine aggregate for ACW 66

4.15 Specific gravity of fine aggregate for Porous Mix 66

4.16 Specific gravity of fine aggregate for SMA 67

4.17 Theoretical Maximum Density for ACW 10 68

XI

4.18 Theoretical Maximum Density for ACW 14 68

4.19 Theoretical Maximum Density for Porous Mix Grade A 69

4.20 Theoretical Maximum Density for Porous Mix Grade B 69

4.21 Theoretical Maximum Density for SMA 14 70

4.22 Penetration value for bitumen 80/100 and PG 76 70

4.23 Softening point for bitumen 80/100 and PG 76 71

4.24 Mean texture depth . 72

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Illustration of terms used to describe roads surface texture 7

2.2 Mechanism of Rubber Friction 14

2.3 Locked Wheel Tester 17

2.4 British Pendulum Tester 18

2.5 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine

(SCRIM) 19

2.6 Grip Tester 20

3.1 Flow diagram for methodology 23

3.2 Flow diagram for laboratory work 24

3.3 Penetration test 33

3.4 Penetration test samples 34

3.5 Test samples were immersing in water bath at 25 °C 35

3.6 Penetration reading taken 35

3.7 Apparatus for bitumen Softening Point Test 36

3.8 Test sample for softening point test 37

3.9 Nomograph for bitumen penetration index. 39

3.10 Flow and stability test. 45

3.11 Basket used for drain-down test 49

3.12 Sample basket and metal tray before drain-down test 50

3.13 Samples before Cantabro test 51

3.14 Samples after Cantabro test. 52

3.15 Mould for skid test sample 53

3.16 Roller compactor 54

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3.17 Test sample 54

3.18 The apparatus and elements used on Sand Patch Test 55

3.19 Circular area of the sand cover 56

3.20 British Pendulum Tester 57

3.21 Dryer 58

3.22 Water spray 58

3.23 Infrared temperature gun . 59

4.1 Graph of Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus Temperature

for all types of mixtures using heated temperature method 73

4.2 Graph of Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus Temperature

for all types of mixtures using natural temperature method 73

4.3 Some of the bitumen is pill out from the sample surface

after skid resistance test 74

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Marshall Test Result for ACW 10 82

B Marshall Test Result for AC W 14 86

C Air Void Test Result, Drain-down Test Result and

Cantabro Test Result for Porous Mix Grade B 90

D Skid Resistance Test Result 94

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Road accident is a significant problem and a major concern of most highway

agencies. Statistics from Polis Diraja Malaysia (PDRM) show that the number of

road accidents increased almost every year. The number of road accident increased

from 279711 cases in year 2002 to 363319 cases in 2007. Almost 3% of the road

accident involves the fatal accident.

There are several factors that contribute to the road accidents. One of the

factors is skidding. Skid resistance is the most important characteristic of the road

pavement. Skidding will happen when the pavement surface does not provide

adequate friction to the tire. In the wet conditions, skidding will occur easily when

the water film covering the pavement act as lubricant and reduce the friction between

the tire and pavement.

Skid resistance is monitored using different types of skid testing device. The

most commonly used device is locked wheel trailer and British Pendulum Tester

(BPT). Skid tests are subject to many influential factors, which can be generally

classified into three categories: tire-related factors (rubber compound, tread design

and condition, inflation pressure, and operating temperature); pavement-related

factors (pavement type, microtexture and macrotexture, and surface temperature);

2

and intervening-substance-related factors (quantity of water, presence of loose

particulate matter, and oil contaminants).

A number of researchers have investigated the effect of temperature on

pavement skid resistance properties. One of the problems encountered while

reviewing these efforts is that the type of temperature used in these studies has not

been consistent. For example, Runkle and Mahone (1980) considered the maximum,

minimum and average daily temperatures; Burchett and Rizenbergs (1980)

considered the maximum and minimum air temperature during a four to eight - week

period; and the National Safety Council (1975) used the pavement surface

temperature to correlate with pavement friction. Furthermore, the investigations

conducted so far have not produced consistent results. While some researchers

Runkle and Mahone (1980), Burchett and Rizenbergs (1980), indicated a statistically

significant effect of air or pavement temperature on the skid properties, others

Mitchell et al., concluded that the effect was insignificant.

1.2 Problem Statement

Environmental factor such as temperature is believed to affect the skid

resistance properties of the pavement. Although a number of researcher have

attempted to explain and quantify the effect of temperature on pavement skid

resistance properties, the result are still unclear.

1.3 Objectives of Study

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of pavement surface

temperature on the pavement skid resistance properties of different type of mixtures.

Besides, this study also wants to investigate whether the type of gradation has a

significant effect on skid resistance based on temperature difference. To accomplish

the objectives of the study, several tests were conducted using asphaltic concrete

3

wearing (ACW) mixture, porous asphalt and stone mastic asphalt (SMA). The tests

were conducted at several temperatures.

1.4 Scope of Study

This study only limited to laboratory test and not consider field test. The

temperature variable only considers pavement surface temperature (sample

temperature).

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In general, the highway surface should have some sort of roughness to

facilitate friction between the car wheel and pavement surface. Adequate surface

friction must be provided on a pavement, so that loss of control does not occur in

normally expected situations when the pavement is wet (Huang, 2004). Skid

resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides

along the pavement surface. Skid resistance is a measure of the resistance of the

pavement surface to sliding or skidding of the vehicle. It is a relationship between the

vertical force and the horizontal force developed as a tire slides along the pavement

surface. Therefore, the texture of the pavement surface and its ability to resist the

polishing effect of traffic is of prime importance in providing skidding resistance.

2.2 Factors Influence Skid Resistance

The skid resistance of a pavement is dependent upon a number of factors such

as:

i. Aggregate characteristic

ii. Road surface texture

5

iii. Temperature (air, tire, pavement)

iv. Vehicle factors

v. Driver factors

2.2.1 Aggregate Characteristic

The aggregate properties which have direct influence on skid resistance are

the type, size (gradation), shape and the resistance to the polishing wear (Ludema

and Gujrati, 1973). The texture of the aggregate, especially the coarse aggregate

contributes to the skid resistance of the pavement. The use of varying amounts of

coarse and fine aggregates will influence the skid resistance. For normal bituminous

paving, the larger aggregate sizes govern the skid resistance. The skid resistance of

aggregates is actually the polishing resistance of the aggregate.

High speed and high traffic can polish the aggregate, leading to a smooth

surface and a reduction in the pavement skid resistance. Aggregates specified for

wearing courses for roadways or highways must possess some resistance to

polishing. The polish stone value (PSV) is a measure of the resistance of the coarse

aggregate to the polishing action of a vehicle's tire under conditions that are similar

to those occurring on the pavement surface. The higher the polished stone value, the

more resistant the aggregate is to polishing (Lavin, 2003).

2.2.2 Road Surface Texture

Pavement surface texture greatly contributes to the tire pavement skid

resistance. Pavement surface irregularities are continuous from pavement

macrotexture to pavement microtexture. Skid resistance is highly dependent on the

surface irregularities of individual stone particles used in pavements and upon the

larger irregularities of the overall road surface. The surface irregularity of individual

particles is referred to as "fine-scale" or "microtexture". "Coursescale" or

6

''macrotexture" refers to the larger irregularities found between the particles that

make up the pavement. Microtexture and macrotexture are the heavy hitters for skid

resistance.

2.2.2.1 Microtexture

Microtexture refers to the small-scale texture of the pavement aggregate

component which controls contact between the tire rubber and the pavement surface.

Microtexture depends on surface properties of the aggregate particles contained in

the paving material and is mainly responsible for pavement friction at low speeds.

Therefore, it is produced from the coarse aggregate. When the exposed aggregate

becomes polished due to traffic use, the road surface can become slippery.

2.2.2.2 Macrotexture

Macrotexture refers to the large-scale texture of the pavement as a whole due

to the aggregate particle arrangement which controls the escape of water under the

tire and hence the loss of skid resistance at high speeds. Macrotexture is influenced

by the properties of the paving mixture and the method of finishing or texturing of

the surface. Macrotexture helps reduce the potential for separation of tire from

pavement surface due to hydroplaning and induce friction for vehicles travelling at

high speeds. Therefore, macrotexture is controlled by the shape, size, gap width,

layout, and gradation of the coarse aggregates.

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