sizing in clothing: developing effective sizing systems for ready-to-wear clothing

Sizing in clothing

The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing

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Sizing inclothing

Developing effective sizing systems for

ready-to-wear clothing

Edited by

S.P. Ashdown

Cambridge England

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile InstituteWoodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, AbingtonCambridge CB21 6AH, Englandwww.woodheadpublishing.com

Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA

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Contents

Contributor contact details xi Preface xvii

1 History of sizing systems and ready-to-wear garments 1

W. Aldrich, Nottingham Trent University, UK

1.1 Introduction 11.2 The emergence of sizing systems 21.3 The beginning of systematic pattern construction

and sizing 61.4 The impact of fashion on the development of standard

sizing for women’s ready-to-wear garments 211.5 Methods of sizing for the emerging mass production

of clothing for men 331.6 Sizing for the mass production of clothing in the fi rst half

of the twentieth century 381.7 Sizing for the mass production of clothing in the second

half of the twentieth century 431.8 Refl ection 481.9 Further reading 481.10 References 48

2 Creating sizing systems 57 A. Petrova, Cornell University, USA

2.1 Introduction 572.2 Basis of existing international sizing systems: state of

sizing systems in the industry and unifi cation of sizing 60

v

2.3 Proposed methods for creating sizing systems 632.4 Changing and adjusting sizing systems 802.5 Future trends 832.6 Sources of further information and advice 842.7 References 84

3 Sizing standardization 88 K.L. LaBat, University of Minnesota, USA

3.1 Introduction 883.2 Standardization of sizes 913.3 Standardization of size designations 983.4 International sizing standards 1003.5 Future trends 1023.6 Sources of further information and advice 1033.7 References 104

4 Sizing systems, fi t models and target markets 108 J. Bougourd, University of the Arts London, UK

4.1 Introduction 1084.2 The apparel product development and production

processes 1084.3 Marketing 1094.4 A priori segmentation 1144.5 A posteriori segmentation 1264.6 Target marketing 1294.7 Fit models 1304.8 Fitting futures 1434.9 References 146

5 Pattern grading 152 N.A. Schofi eld, University of Wisconsin–Stout, USA

5.1 Introduction 1525.2 Historical background 1535.3 Grading process 1575.4 Examination of the relationship between grade rules and

associated body measurements 1715.5 Grading assumptions that are the actual basis for grade

rules 1795.6 Comparison of standard graded bodice with regression

fi ndings 1845.7 Goals of grading 189

vi Contents

Contents vii

5.8 Conclusions and implications 1925.9 Future trends and possibilities 1945.10 Sources of further information and advice 1975.11 References 198

6 Function, fi t and sizing 202 H. Daanen and P. Reffeltrath, TNO Defence,

Security and Safety, The Netherlands

6.1 Introduction 2026.2 Human performance in clothing systems 2036.3 Fit 2066.4 Thermal aspects of fi t 2146.5 Conclusions 2176.6 Sources of further information and advice 2176.7 Acknowledgements 2186.8 References 218

7 Communication of sizing and fi t 220 J. Chun, Yonsei University, South Korea

7.1 Introduction 2207.2 Communications from manufacturer to consumer 2217.3 Communications from consumer to manufacturer 2337.4 Impact of new technologies 2387.5 Future trends 2397.6 Sources of further information and advice 2407.7 References 243

8 Mass customization and sizing 246 S. Loker, Cornell University, USA

8.1 Introduction 2468.2 Strategies and technologies for mass-customized sizing 2498.3 Body measurement selection and application 2568.4 Future trends 2588.5 Sources of further information and advice 2608.6 References 262

9 Materials and sizing 264 D. Branson and J. Nam, Oklahoma State University, USA

9.1 Introduction 2649.2 Fit judgment framework 2659.3 Non-stretch materials 267

9.4 Stretch materials 2689.5 Effect of material properties on fi t and sizing 2709.6 Fit assessment 2729.7 Future trends 2739.8 Sources of further information and advice 2759.9 References 275

10 Sizing for the military 277 W. Todd, Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, USA

10.1 Introduction 27710.2 Fit and sizing for protection of the military wearer for

the mission threat 27810.3 Military sizing systems 28910.4 Sizing for military populations 29210.5 Getting the right size at the right time and right place 29610.6 Future trends 30110.7 Acknowledgements 30310.8 Sources of further information and advice 30310.9 References 305

11 Sizing and clothing aesthetics 309 Van Dyk Lewis, Cornell University, USA

11.1 Introduction 30911.2 Fashion 30911.3 Size and scale 31011.4 Fit, size and re-forming the body 31311.5 Size as a spectacle 31411.6 Menswear and scale 31611.7 The perfect body 31911.8 Beauty, the individual and the fashion image 32011.9 Conclusions 32511.10 References 326

12 Sizing for the home sewing industry 328 S. Ashdown, L.M. Lyman-Clarke and P. Palmer,

Cornell University, USA

12.1 Introduction 32812.2 The development of the home sewing pattern industry 32912.3 The development of sizing for the home sewing pattern 33212.4 Measurements and sizes of paper patterns 33512.5 Altering patterns to fi t 342

viii Contents

Contents ix

12.6 Summary and future trends 34312.7 Sources of further information and advice 34512.8 References 346

13 Production systems, garment specifi cation and sizing 348

S. Ashdown, L.M. Lyman-Clarke, J. Smith and S. Loker,


13.1 Introduction 34813.2 Quality control and specifi cations 34913.3 Preproduction: design and pattern making 35013.4 Preproduction: prototypes and development of size

specifi cations 35313.5 Preproduction: fabric testing and approval 35413.6 Preproduction: marker making 35613.7 Spreading 35813.8 Cutting and bundling 36013.9 Interfacings and sewing 36213.10 Finishing and labeling 36613.11 Prevention of errors 36713.12 Distribution 36813.13 Future developments 37013.14 Sources of further information and advice 37213.15 Acknowledgements 37413.16 References 374

Index 377

Contributor contact details

(* = main contact)

EditorProfessor Susan P. AshdownDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human EcologyCornell University327 Martha Van Rensselaer HallIthacaNY 14850-4401USA

Email: [email protected]

Chapter 1Dr W. Aldrich10 The PingleQuornLeics LE12 8FQUK


Chapter 2Adriana PetrovaDepartment of Fiber Science and Apparel DesignCollege of Human EcologyCornell UniversityE405 Martha Van Rensselaer HallIthacaNY 14853USA


xi

Chapter 3Professor Karen L. LaBatCollege of DesignUniversity of Minnesota240 McNeal Hall1985 Burford AvenueSt PaulMN 55455USA


Chapter 4Jennifer BougourdLondon College of FashionUniversity of the Arts London20 John Princes StreetLondon W1G 0BJUK


Chapter 5Dr Nancy A. Schofi eldEngineering and Technology DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin–Stout331 Fryklund HallMenomonieWI 54751USA

Email: schofi [email protected]

Chapter 6Professor Hein A.M. Daanen* and Peter A. ReffeltrathDepartment of Human PerformanceTNO Defence, Security and SafetyPO Box 233769 ZG SoesterbergThe Netherlands


xii Contributor contact details

Chapter 7Professor Jongsuk ChunDepartment of Clothing and TextilesCollege of Human EcologyYonsei University134 Sinchon-DongSeodaemun-GuSeoul 120-749South Korea


Chapter 8Professor Suzanne LokerDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human EcologyCornell University326 Martha Van Rensselaer HallIthacaNY 14853-4401USA


Chapter 9Professor Donna H. Branson* and J. NamDepartment of Design, Housing and MerchandisingInstitute of Protective Apparel Research and TechnologyOklahoma State University431 HESStillwaterOK 74078-6142USA


Contributor contact details xiii

Chapter 10Wendy L. ToddDepartment of the NavyNaval Air Systems Command48110 Shaw RoadAttn Nawcad 4681 Bldg 2187 Suite 2240Patuxent RiverMD 20670-1906USA


Chapter 11Dr Van Dyk LewisDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human Ecology323 Martha Van Rensselaer HallCornell UniversityIthacaNY 14850-4401USA


Chapter 12Professor Susan P. Ashdown* and Lindsay M. Lyman-ClarkeDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human Ecology327 Martha Van Rensselaer HallCornell UniversityIthacaNY 14850-4401USA

Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Pati PalmerPalmer/Pletsch Publishing1801 N.W. Upshur, Ste 100Portland, OR 97209USAwww.palmerpletsch.com


xiv Contributor contact details

Chapter 13Professor Susan P. Ashdown* and Lindsay M. Lyman-ClarkeDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human Ecology327 Martha Van Rensselaer HallCornell UniversityIthacaNY 14850-4401USA

Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Jack Smith5707 Hagen CourtDallasTexas 75252USA

Professor Suzanne LokerDepartment of Textiles and ApparelCollege of Human EcologyCornell University326 Martha Van Rensselaer HallIthacaNY 14853-4401USA


Contributor contact details xv

Preface

Since the time of the industrial revolution and the fi rst widespread introduction of mass-produced clothing the apparel industry has struggled with the inherent contradictions of providing well-fi tted clothing within the constraints of economical and practical sizing systems for the variety of people in a population. People vary along many dimensions, resulting in a multitude of sizes, proportions and postures to be accom-modated. All these differences have an impact on the fi t of the constructed tailored silhouettes of clothing that are prevalent in much of the world today.

Sizing issues are further confounded by differences in material proper-ties and design features of clothing, manufacturing variations, cultural and individual fi t preferences, variations in the way that sizing is communicated to the consumer, and diffi culties in assessing fi t and the effectiveness of sizing systems overall. The complexity of sizing for clothing is unmatched by any other consumer product. Most consumer goods from chairs to bicycles can be designed to be ergonomically correct for a wider range of variations in the population or can easily incorporate a level of adjustability that is not an option for most popular clothing styles.

The extent of the problem of providing good fi t through effective sizing systems has been further confounded by the lack of useful data to address the creation and testing of sizing systems. Anthropometric studies to collect body measurement data of representative samples of civilian populations are expensive, time consuming and invasive for subjects of the studies. Data on the properties of good fi t for various clothing types, the effective-ness of grading systems, fi t preferences of the population, and preferred size designation codes are not readily available.

The result of this lack of data has been the proliferation of sizing systems developed by individual companies. These systems are primarily based on intuition and common pattern grading practices, perhaps modifi ed by data on returns and feedback from their customers. These independent sizing systems are confusing to the consumer and do not accomplish their

xvii

goal: to fi t effectively the range of people to whom the apparel fi rms wish to market their clothing.

New technologies available to apparel researchers and the apparel indus-try, primarily the three-dimensional body scanner, are making it possible to collect, analyze and apply data in entirely new ways that can contribute to the development of improved sizing systems. The ability to capture and save three-dimensional images, to collect anthropometric data automati-cally from these images, to record and analyze fi t in new ways and to com-municate sizing and fi t in the marketplace using new virtual tools under development promise to revolutionize sizing research.

The ideas presented here by experts in the apparel fi eld represent the broadest collection of papers on sizing systems to be published in one place. The aim of this book is to review the state of sizing research and practise at this critical point in the history of ready-to-wear clothing, and to propose new directions for sizing research as new technologies emerge. We do not attempt to cover all aspects of the question of sizing worldwide, but to discuss a variety of pivotal or essential concepts and issues. The book is intended for a broad audience, including students at every level, researchers and industry professionals from the apparel industry.

The topics in this book were chosen based on a conceptual framework that I developed illustrating the complex interactions of factors that impact sizing to guide research into sizing and fi t (Fig. 0.1). Starting from the top of the model down, the history of the development of sizing systems from traditional tailoring processes is traced in Chapter 1. The various processes of creating sizing systems from population measures, and the resulting sizing systems proposed by standards are described in Chapters 2 and 3. Industry development of sizing systems is discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and 12. Starting from the left and proceeding counterclockwise around the model, functional issues, both from military and civilian perspectives are reviewed in Chapters 6 and 10, together with issues related to materials and sizing in Chapter 9. Impacts of production and distribution methods on sizing are introduced in Chapters 8 and 13. The complex issue of aes-thetic choices and how they impact sizing are discussed in Chapter 11. The important topic of communication of sizing is introduced in Chapter 7. The fi nal set of issues from the right side of the conceptual framework relating to fi t analysis are not addressed in this book; the reader is referred to the excellent book Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology by J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter (Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge) for a thorough discussion of these important concepts.

My heartfelt thanks go to all the authors and co-authors of the papers in this book. In compiling a book of this nature, one wishes to involve the best and most creative people working in the fi eld – those people who are also involved in a multitude of projects and have many demands on their

xviii Preface

Traditional tailor’s measures

Population measures

Traditional anthropometry

Functional needs

Materials

Production

Distribution

Aesthetic choices

Fittesting

Weartesting

Quantification of fit

Perception of fit

Subjectopinion

Satisfactionor returns

Communication of sizing and fit

Design and distribution

issues Fit issues Sizing

systems

Garmentselection

Consumer

Size andfit labeling

Expertopinion

Three-dimensionalbody scanning

0.1 A conceptual framework showing the topics and relationships of sizing research

time. Each chapter author and co-author has contributed excellent work to this effort, and I thank them all sincerely.

I would also like to acknowledge the following: my co-researcher in body scan research, Suzanne Loker, for her understanding and support of this project; the body scan research project manager and former student, Lindsay Lyman-Clarke, for her help with writing, fi nding images and formatting Chapter 13, miscellaneous help with other chapters, as well as her graphic skills in creating the format for the conceptual framework and the cover illustration; Chris Stoia and Robert Garner for their review of Chapter 13 on production systems, and their many insightful and useful comments; editors Emma Starr and Francis Dodds for their patience, support and understanding in the development of this book over the last 4 years.

Professor Susan Ashdown

Preface xix

This book is dedicated to Nancy Staples, friend and mentor, whose visionary work in sizing research inspired many of us. Her work in the technical aspects of sizing and fi t was tragically cut short by her death at a young age.

1History of sizing systems and

ready-to-wear garments

W. A L DR IC HNottingham Trent University, UK

1.1 Introduction

From the middle of the nineteenth century, ready-to-wear clothing began to be available to the mass of the growing urban populations. The growth of the trade has been attributed to the development of the sewing machine and other industrial machine tools, but the expansion of the industry depended on a more vital factor, the development of standard clothing sizes.1 This chapter charts the complexities of applying body measurements to mass clothing construction through the previous centuries.

Section 1.2 briefl y describes the social, scientifi c and technical conditions that shaped the way that clothing was constructed before the nineteenth century and the emergence of standard units of measurement. Section 1.3 covers in some detail the early attempts to provide viable tables of body measurements and explains the growth of systematic pattern construction and early methods of grading, principally for men’s garments. Section 1.4 explains the factors that inhibited the growth of the mass production of womenswear. It describes the adoption and modifi cation of tailor’s methods of sizing and pattern drafting for domestic use and the dressmaker trades, and also the growth of the commercial paper pattern trade. In Section 1.5 the more sophisticated methods of sizing and pattern construction for the growing ready-to-wear menswear trade and of the late nineteenth century are described and illustrated. Section 1.6 looks at the growing acceptance of ready-to-wear clothes as being of acceptable quality. It also discusses the social and fashion infl uences of the early twentieth century that not only changed the cut of women’s clothes but also facilitated the process of standard sizes and industrialised clothing methods to be established for the majority of the population. Section 1.7 describes efforts initiated in the latter part of the twentieth century, to develop some standardisation in sizing through body measurement surveys and the use of statistical methods. Finally, the chapter ends with a short refl ective piece.

1

2 Sizing in clothing

1.2 The emergence of sizing systems

1.2.1 Clothing construction before the nineteenth century

The origins of measurement standards can be traced back to the Middle Ages, and also to the enlightenment of the eighteenth century and the great interest in all fi elds of science and mathematics. However, systems of body sizes for clothing require more than stable units of measurement; they also have to be directly linked to methods of pattern construction. Little evi-dence of early attempts to systemise measurements and to apply them to pattern drafts can be found before the nineteenth century. During this period, men’s and women’s outdoor garments were generally similar; bespoke garments (made for individual customers) of varying quality were provided by tailors, who independently or with assistants completed the whole pattern-making, cutting and construction process in their shop. Ready-made garments of varying quality could be bought from clothiers who contracted work out to an emerging sweated labour force. In both trades only the foreman cutter was skilled and had regular employment.

‘In a Taylor’s Shop, there are always two Sorts of Workmen. Firft [First] the Foreman, who takes the Measure when the Mafter [Master] is out of the Way, cuts and fi nishes all the Work. . . . The next clafs [class], is the mere working Taylor; not one of them know how to cut out a Pair of Breeches; They are employed only to few [sew] the Seam to caft [cast] the Button Holes, and prepare the Work for the Finisher. . . . They are as numerous as Locufts [Locusts], are out of Bufi nefs [Business] about three or four Months of the Year; and generally poor as rats. The House of Call runs away with all their earnings, and keeps them constantly in debt and want.’2

The need to produce batches of similar garments arose from the clothing of the army and the navy. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, regimental organisation began to take place; noblemen or wealthy land-owners provided bodies of men for armed service to the Crown. They were paid ‘coat and conduct’ money, a levy for each man raised.3 Wars across Europe and colonial unrest during the eighteenth century resulted in the growth of standing armies and the need for large quantities of uniforms. These were provided by the clothier contractors; between 1769 and 1784, Richard Lowe, a sole supplier to the marines, delivered 127 245 garments.4 Lemire argued that, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, large numbers of men and women were very accustomed to buying clothes ready made up. Most of the clothes were bought from slop sellers who dealt in second-hand clothes, but who also sold cheap new ready-made clothes.5

Clothes before the nineteenth century were often created by taking a pattern shape directly from the body or were loose-fi tting simple garments. Most of the patterns were made by mantua makers (women who made the

History of sizing systems and ready-to-wear garments 3

simple garments) and were constructed by copying existing garments and adapting the shape. Tailors made the more complicated garments for men and women of means, such as breeches, coats and riding habits. Almost all tailors’ patterns were based on garment measurements. These were not units of measurement; the tailor used notched parchment strips, which were referred to as ‘the measure’ or ‘mefures [mesures] en papier’, to record the lengths and widths of a previous coat (Fig. 1.1); he then altered a pattern based on these notch markings. Creating well-fi tting patterns by these means was diffi cult; they were seen as valuable and tailors were loath to divulge their practices. Few eighteenth-century tailors published pattern manuals. Two examples by French tailors that have survived illustrate small pattern shapes that a tailor would have to trace, to enlarge and then to adapt for different sizes. The tailor, De Garsault, included a pattern scale on the plates.6

There is no doubt that tailors and dressmakers were attempting to use geometric shapes and ideas of proportion and scale in developing patterns during the eighteenth century, particularly for sizing cheaper clothing. The earliest British garment pattern book that appears to have survived was written for the benefi t of Sunday school children at Hertingfordbury in 1789. The book contained plates of small-scale patterns for simple gar-ments worn by the poor: ‘Patterns directions and Calculations, whereby the moft [most] Inexperienced may readily buy materials, cut out and value each Article of clothing of every Size, without the leaft [least] diffi culty, and with the greateft [greatest] exactness’.7 The pattern book included illustrated plates of patterns, some of which had scaled sizes. In 1796 the introduction of a British tailor’s book on simple drafting by measurements claimed that ‘Patterns can be of little Service to any but Slop makers, where they have them from the fmalleft [smallest] Size to the largeft [largest] Figure upon proportional Scales’.8 It is the opinion of this author that the adoption of standard units of measurement by tailors at the beginning of the nineteenth century was the critical factor that generated the new ideas of applying measurements to theories of cutting.

1.2.2 Units of measurement

There are records of man attempting to standardise length in ancient civilisations in the Middle East where the manufacture of goods and commerce was developing. Small measurements were mainly related to the human body, the fi nger, palm, span, foot, cubit, step and fathom. In early Britain, the foot was the base for larger measurements, the pole, rod or measuring stick. As the length of the human foot varied, measuring sticks would differ from village to village. The Roman foot (pes), divided further into 12 unciae, was a different measurement from the ‘northern foot’ of the Saxons.9 In 1611, the French foot (pied) had eight different


1.1 Positions on the coat to be measured with a notched parchment measure giving the marked body positions (De Garsault, F.A. (1769), L’Art du Tailleur). (By permission of the British Library, 67.i.l.(4).)

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measurements. However, a measuring stick was a useful tool in that it could be divided into halves, quarters and thirds. As trading and commerce grew, the need for some standardisation of measurements was required. The inch (ynce) was known to the Saxons and, in Britain, the yard became an offi cial standard of length in the twelfth century. Connor quoted from a thir-teenth-century document: ‘It is ordained that three grains of barley dry and round do make an inch; twelve inches make a foot; three feet make a yard’.10 Standardisation of measurement did not occur in France until 1799; the unit, the metre, was based on the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian. Although old measures continued to be used in many of the common trades, France declared in 1840 that it was against the law to use anything other than the decimal system. The metre became accepted as a standard measure across most of Europe but, despite recommendations in 1852 from a select committee of the House of Commons that Britain should also adopt the metric system, the imperial unit, the yard, pre-vailed.11 This British system of measurement had also been adopted by the American colonies and persisted in the USA.

One of the earliest technical tailoring books, which illustrated pattern shapes but was mainly concerned with the amount of cloth of different widths required for garments, was written by a Spanish tailor, Juan de Alcega in 1589.12 He used the measuring unit of a bara, also known in Europe as an ell (approximately 11–4 yards). All his measurements were then given in fractions of the bara. Other smaller units used by European tailors or dressmakers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the nail ( 1–16 yard), the dedo ( 1–48 yard), and the pulgada (approximately 1 inch). The French pied (foot) was divided into pouces (1 1–16 inch); it was then divided into 12 lignes (Fig. 1.2).

Although Groves claimed that needlewomen were using inch-marked ribbons taken from their yardsticks as early as the seventeenth century and were writing fi gures on them in the eighteenth century,13 two tailors are recorded as the inventors of the tape measure, but this is not until 1799 and 1809.14 Tailors and clothiers were also using yardsticks in the seventeenth century, but this was for measuring cloth. They were also calculating cloth

1.2 A section of a craftsman’s square, showing the pouces and lignes


amounts in inches during the eighteenth century. The tailor, M. Cook, sug-gested to his customers in 1804 that they used a string as a form of crude tape measure: ‘For gentlemen to give the Author instructions to make their clothes, after mentioning the height, fafhion [fashion], &c., muft [must] be meafuring [measuring] themfelves [themselves] around the breaft [breast] under the arms with a ftring [string]; and to mention the number of inches that they are round . . .’.15 This practice appeared to be unusual; most tailors still used the notched parchment strip (see Fig. 1.1) to record garment dimensions and to create their patterns, thus avoiding the need to calculate in units of measure-ment. The notched strip continued in use for many further decades.

However, the establishment of small units of measurement, the inch and the centimetre, and the adoption of the inch tape measure and metre ribbon provided tailors with the means to create tables of body measure-ments and to use algorithms to create pattern drafts. In the early part of the nineteenth century, tailors began to publish their methods and to argue about the merits of the different systems.

1.3 The beginning of systematic pattern

construction and sizing

1.3.1 The growing demand for ready-made clothing

Most of the pattern drafts that were provided by the tailors in books, pam-phlets or plates were for men’s garments, and women’s redingotes and riding habits. From the beginning of the nineteenth century, tailors experi-mented with methods of applying mathematical theories to pattern con-struction. The few systems provided by the clothiers offered simple drafts and grades for working garments. The need for army clothing increased during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the simple systems of sizing and grading provided by the clothing contractors were insuffi cient. There was also a demand for tailored livery from an aristocracy enriched by their colonial interests and new industrial development on their estates, and also a growing demand for formal clothing from an increasingly urbanised and administrated society. During the 30 years from 1841 to 1871, the numbers employed in banking, insurance and public administration rose from 93 991 to 598 579.16 Consequently, the number of tailors rose signifi cantly during this period. The growth in demand for ready-made clothing had a strong link with retailing, not only in the growth of small shops, but also in the clothiers, merchants, slop sellers and some tailors expanding their trade by opening clothing emporia and warehouses.17 It appears that the number of tailor’s drafts published in Britain during the fi rst half of the nineteenth century was greater than in the second half of the century.18 These early drafts are very important, because their ideas and methods of approaching


the problems of sizing for pattern making formed the basis for the later more sophisticated methods and created the technical means to provide the mass-produced clothing of the twentieth century.

1.3.2 Measurements and systematic pattern construction by tailors

The purpose of collecting measurements was to draft patterns and to cal-culate the amount of cloth required for an individual garment. Three dis-tinct methods of theoretical cutting can be identifi ed: divisional systems which used proportions of the breast or a combination of the breast (by the middle of the nineteenth century this was taken under the coat) and back length to calculate point positions; direct measurement in which points on the draft were identifi ed with direct reference to body and garment measurements; combination systems which combined the two methods. The latter is still the principal method of constructing basic garment pattern blocks today. Although the majority of the drafting systems were written for making coats to measure, many included size tables. This meant that other tailors and the clothiers’ cutters could use the drafts to produce patterns in size ranges, especially those that were based on elements of proportion.

Benjamin Read in 1815 published one of the earliest size tables, The Proportionate and Universal Table; he used inches and listed ten propor-tionate measurements (Fig. 1.3). He proclaimed it to be ‘A compendium of Arithmetical Calculations, for fi nding the principal and only leading points in the Art of cutting to Fit the Human Shape; which is so accurately executed that it may be relied on with the utmost safety’.19 Cook and Golding, also in 1815, devised a combination system, the divisions being based on theories of proportion. They set up a ‘School of Instruction in the Art of Cutting upon True Scientifi c Principles’. They declared that ‘The use of the inch measure has become so general, that we need not attempt a description of its superiority of the exploded method of measuring by slips of parchment’.20 They listed eight measurements in inches for a man’s coat and breeches and included tables of proportion for men from 6 feet 2 inches to 4 feet 10 inches and also cloth quantities. Bailey’s list of garment measurements in 1815 extended to 13; he constructed a direct measure-ment draft which required more measurements.21 The positions identifi ed by these tailors have remained as some of the basic control points in tailor-ing. At this time, tailors took all the measurements, including the breast, from their customer’s coats and not their bodies (see the diagram in Gold-ing’s later (1817) book (Fig. 1.4)). Many tailors began to expound theories and to publish them based on the three methods: divisional, direct and combination systems.22 An example of the geometric complexity that was


1.3 One of the earliest size tables (Read, B. (1815), The Proportionate and Universal Table, The Author, London): 1, breast, waist, thigh; 2, half-back; 3, back neck; 4, side seam hollow; 5, armhole; 6, half-front or top of the outside thigh; 7, fork width; 8, armhole for pelisses; 9, front edge to shoulder point; 10, diameter for a cloak. (By permission of The British Library, 712.g.12.)

beginning to develop by 1836 can be seen in Fig. 1.5. As inches became accepted, measuring aids began to be developed and inventions for taking measurements were patented (Fig. 1.6). Some of these harnesses and devices were directly related to systems of drafting, such as Thomas Oli-ver’s shoulder measure invented in 1840. However, in 1884 Giles et al. commented:

‘Numerous, however, as have been the mechanical contrivances that have from time to time been introduced to the notice of the trade, and


1.3 cont’d

notwithstanding the cleverness and ingenious adaptability of some of them to effect their destined object, none of them have found any favour or secured a footing, and, if any are still in existence, their use is confi ned solely to those who went through the thankless task of inventing them.’23

1.3.3 Early methods of graduation

By 1820, tailors who had access to a table of proportionate body measure-ments for different sizes could use their direct measure or combination systems of drafting to produce ready-to-wear standard sized clothing. However, systems based on the breast or body proportions, and which used tables of aliquot parts, were more useful to tailors producing sized ready-to-wear clothing for the clothiers. McIntyre, the Glasgow tailor, who Couts


1.4 One of the earliest plates showing measurements and also using inches (Golding, J. (1817), The Complete Tailor’s Assistant, London (printed for the author)). (By permission of The British Library, 7744.b.34.)

claimed as the inventor of the tape measure, offered a table of aliquot parts designed ‘to fi nd the Proportions according to the Breast-width for Cutting Garments, and to give the man that knows the Inches on the Inch-Measure an equal chance with the man expert in arithmetic’.24 Tailors began to

H

istory of sizing systems and ready-to

-wear garm

ents 11

1.5 A direct measurement draft of a man’s coat (Walker, G. (1836), The Tailor’s Masterpiece (sold by the author)). (By permis-sion of The British Library, RB23.a.17302.)


1.6 A patented measuring device (Leslie, J. (1839), Measuring the Human Figure). (By permission of The British Library, Patent No. 8306.)

develop combination systems which accommodated both height and breadth, such as Adams’s variable system of drafting that was linked to a table which used divisions of heights and breast sizes.25 The graduated square, marked with divisions of the breast measurement,26 simplifi ed the construction of different sizes and eliminated the need for tables of aliquot parts. The fractional measure was a parchment strip folded into halves, quarters, thirds and fractional parts; then it was marked. This allowed


those tailors who did not want to use the inch tape measure to create sized patterns by divisional systems.27 These fractional measures were still in use as late as 1833. Hadfi eld gave tables of divisions for breast and height and, although stating his preference for the ‘inch line measure’, he declared that by using the fractional strip ‘a person comparatively unacquainted with fi gures will be able to form a garment with the greatest precision . . .’.28 The provision of garments for the military required large quantities of stan-dard-size garments; therefore, military tailors were almost certainly the original source of systemised grading. In 1816, Christian Beck produced a system of mathematically calculated graduated measures in pouces and lignes. Le Costumomètre was based on half of the breast measurement (Fig. 1.7). These were marked with the pro portional points that related to lettered control points on the drafts; proportions of varying lengths could also be applied from his longimètre measures.

Many tailors and clothiers did not master or develop drafting systems, but they were able to continue in profi table business. They could copy or purchase full-size patterns; some of these came with marked rules at the

1.7 The very early drafting and graduation system of a military tailor, which was based on drafting with horizontal and vertical lines (Beck, C. (1815), Costumometre and Longimetre, Paris). (By permis-sion of The British Library, 1231.i.26.)


relevant grading points. The drafts were sold in heavy parchment and perforated with holes to allow the pencil to mark the point; the earliest chart that has survived is by John Woods dated 1820 (Fig. 1.8), but tailors were still producing them in 1846.29 Tailors could also buy sets of graded patterns from very reputable sources; Barde, in 1834, offered tailors 14 plates of graded styles for men, women and children on pull-out sheets.30 A crude but simple means of extending patterns can be seen in Wyatt’s draft from 1822 (Fig. 1.9); more complex variations of this technique are the basis of most modern grading systems. Byfi eld’s very basic system published in 1825 was based on enlarging the ‘square’ by the length and width measurements provided in his tables, and using the balance lines to identify points (Fig. 1.10). Byfi eld stated: ‘To the TAILOR, the SLOP-SELLER, and the DRAPER it will be a great help and sure guide’. His system of graduation enabled him to offer a wide range of sizes for an extraordinary number of garments for the slop trade. These included clothes destined for ‘Plantations in the West Indies, or in America, where

1.8 Grading by marking points through punch holes on a card sheet. There was also a four-page pamphlet of instructions (Woods, J. (1825), Wood’s Improved Scale of Inches for Cutting Coats or Jackets to Fit the Human Shape from 22″ to 50″ Breast Measure, The Author, London). (By permission of The British Library, Tab 597.b.(62).)


1.9 Grading by extending points (Wyatt, J. (1822), The Tailor’s Friendly Instructor, London (sold by the author)). (By permission of The British Library, 1560/1201.)

16 S

izing in clothing

1.10 Grading by enlarging the square (Byfi eld, R. (1825), Sectum: Being the Universal Directory in the Art of Cutting, H.S. Mason, London). (By permission of The British Library, 1044.k.3.)


Owners possess many Slaves, the quantity of clothing for them will be readily found’.31 Byfi eld included fabric quantities for each garment in every size and also provided lay plans.

1.3.4 Graduation systems based on anthropometry

European tailors appear to be the fi rst to be interested in anatomical body measurements and their relationship to proportion and pattern drafts, although these drafts were still based on garment measurements. One of the earliest records of a diagram of measurements on naked bodies used for pattern making can be found in a tailoring book by J.G. Bernhardt of Dresden 1810–1820;32 the measurements are also related to pattern drafts. Another early record is a system patented by the French tailor Michel Bailly in 1826 (Fig. 1.11). The breast measurement was the prime measure-ment on which many proportionate drafts were based; Lindsay in 1828 realised its importance: ‘I think a measure taken under the coat, the most correct way to get the true size, rather than taking it over the coat, where there are lapels canvas, padding and sometimes wadding. . . .’33 Although many tailors continued in the old method of taking all measurements over the coat, the practice of measuring the breast and waist under the coat and the remaining measurements over the coat, became an established practice by midcentury.34

It was the study of anatomy, the mathematics of body proportion and its application to pattern drafting that was to bring about the most important contribution to the development of standard sizing. Based on an under-standing of anatomical measurements, two different European tailors, Compaing and Wampen, constructed proportionate methods of drafting and also invented systems of graduated tapes. Guillaume Compaing was a French tailor who studied anatomy and mathematics; his system of gradu-ation was based on a method used by architects who divided rectangles into squares to make drawings of a different scale.35 He realised that, if a strip of paper of a different breast size was divided into the same number of units, any basic pattern construction could be then scaled larger or smaller. The system, originally offered in pouces, was later used in centi-metres and inches by tailors across Europe and America. Some tailors and dressmakers offered patterns with measurements marked at the control points and graduated strips; only simple instructions were then required to copy the pattern in any size. This meant that a variety of styles could be offered. Following these simple drafts was within the capabilities of most tailors and dressmakers and was of particular use to the clothier–tailors who could now produce their ready-made clothes with a less-skilled workforce (Fig. 1.12). A German professor of mathematics, Henry Wampen, fi rst published his ideas of fi gure proportions and garment cutting


1.11 Measuring the unclothed human fi gure (Bailly, M. (1826)). (By permission of The British Library, French Patent Part XXII, No. 1921.)


1.12 Cutting patterns by graduated tapes of the breast measurement (Liverpool Cutting Society (1855), A Collection of Rules for Cutting: Comprising Forty Different Systems Selected and Approved by the Liverpool Cutting Society, Liverpool Cutting Society, Liverpool, Plate 8). (By permission of The British Library, 1269.e.35.)

in England in 1837. For the next 30 years, he continued to refi ne and develop his ideas on anatomy, anthropometry and body proportions (Fig. 1.13). His system of graduated tapes took into consideration differing heights as well as breadths, but they were too complex for many tailors to understand.36

British tailors adopted the inch tape, the square and the graduated scale with enthusiasm, particularly those engaged in the ready-made garment trade and the expanding mass-customised garment trade. In the latter, customers provided a few basic measurements and received a garment of approximate fi t. The clothing entrepreneurs such as Leslie Hyam and Elias Moses offered both types of garment at a wide range of prices. Hyam, in 1844, had establishments in seven provincial cities as well as London.37


1.13 Wampen’s analysis of fi gure proportions (Wampen, H. (1864), Anthropometry or Geometry of the Human Figure, Messrs Boone Publishers, London). (By permission of The British Library, 7407.i.14.)

Moses extended his London ready-to-wear clothing warehouse in 1846 and created showrooms for the public. In 1860, writing about his business progress, Moses claimed that 80% of the population were now wearing ready-made clothes:38

‘The smartest tailors in the olden time were as slow in their workmanship, as the old stage coaches in their progress from town to town. A new suit could not be then be had at a few hours’ notice. Tailoring is as rapid these days as


railway travelling . . . We saw at once what was needed and promptly supplied the public want. We fi lled large store-rooms with cheap and new Ready-made clothes, quite as well fi nished as those made to order. . . .39

By the middle of the nineteenth century, the pressures of a changing society generated fashions that sharply defi ned the different body shapes of women and men; these differences affected the pace of development of ready-to-wear garments and sizing systems for the different sexes. As menswear ready-to-wear clothing began to become more industrialised, women’s wear became centred in the domestic sphere or dressmaker’s workrooms. For more than half a century, until 1910, this divergence affected the construction and production of garments.

1.4 The impact of fashion on the development of

standard sizing for women’s ready-to-wear

garments

1.4.1 The problems of developing mass-produced garments for women

By 1860, four elements were available to enable the development of mecha-nised ready-to-wear mass production of garments. These were as follows: stable units of measurement, practical theories of cutting, simple but viable systems of grading patterns based on body measurement proportions, and the emerging new production technologies. The latter were generated by the development of machine tools and engineering skills that produced new machinery for the clothing industry, such as the band knife cutter that could cut through multiple layers of cloth, the steam press and the sewing machine. The development of textile machinery for spinning and weaving also reduced the price of cloth. Mechanised production began to take the place of the multitude of independent tailors as the ready-to-wear and mass-customised menswear trade began its advance into organised produc-tion. There was a comparable demand by women for affordable fashionable clothing. This author suggests that it was the style of fashions in the second half of the nineteenth century that dictated the cutting practices and deter-mined the lack of development of the ready-to-wear trade for women.

Whilst superfi cially fashions for women changed from 1830 to 1910, there was a common feature throughout: the extremely close body fi tting of garments (Fig. 1.14). This was in contrast with men’s garments which, although still quite close fi tting, included some ease for movement. Women demanded fashions that created a major problem for the production of mass-produced clothing that aimed to fi t a large proportion of them. The problem was further aggravated by the artifi cial body shape changes that


(a) (b) (c)

1.14 The tight-fi tting bodice survives changes of fashion and corset shapes. (a) ‘Fashions for May 1841’, from a fashion plate, personal collection. (b) (1872), ‘Indoor toilets’, The Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine, 12. (c) (1894), ‘Dress and fashion’, The Woman at Home, 1.

were effected by the corset. New mechanised processes had reduced the cost of the production of these corsets and the use of lacing made the sizing more fl exible, thus allowing the current fashionable body shape to be avail-able to more women.40 A further problem was the popularity of the body-fi tting jacket in all its forms, but particularly the ‘tailored jacket’, which for a perfect fi t required the personal services of a bespoke tailor.41 This garment was favoured by a growing number of smart urbanised women, but it was a complicated garment to construct and, more importantly, to fi t. The demand for garments with custom-made close-fi tting bodices was fulfi lled from a number of sources. Women of means could have their clothes made by bespoke tailors or high-class dressmakers; women of lesser means had access to the product of a new form of commercial enter-prise, the garment pattern industry. This stimulated the growth of the dressmaking trade and domestic production. The clothing warehouses and new retail shops, although offering ranges of ready-to-wear garments, found that their growth in trade was in mass customisation (mass-produced made-to-measure clothes). This process is described in Section 1.4.4.

1.4.2 Customised clothing for women: the dressmakers and dressmaker’s garment patterns

The skill of the personal dressmaker was in the creation of a ‘body’; this was a lining or pattern shape that fi tted the body. The dress bodice or jacket was then mounted on top of it to create a perfect fi t. By 1860, with the


1.15 Taking measurements for drafting a ‘body’ ((1875), ‘Dressmak-ing at home II’, The Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine, 19)

growth of literacy, dressmakers began to write pattern-drafting books, these reached a peak from 1880 to 1900.42 Some of these were very simple, based on copying shapes drawn out on squares, or simple drafts for a basic bodice pattern created by measuring the body. Most gave written instruc-tions on how to do this, but an early draft by Myra included a diagram43 (Fig. 1.15). However, more literate dressmakers began to use tailor’s drafts; by the end of the century, many dressmakers published books and pam-phlets using the principles of tailor’s made-to-measure drafting methods.44 Later publications began to use tailor’s proportionate methods, the 1894 manual Dresscutting and Making on Tailors’ Principles by Mrs John Hicks, a London Board School teacher, used this method of drafting patterns using the tailor’s graduated square.45 A few dressmaker’s manuals began to include a list of standard measurements for one example bust size. It appears that it was almost the end of the century before dressmaker drafts included tables of proportionate measurements.46 Most British tailors swung the centre front line forward on their basic drafts in order to create extra suppression for bust shaping; some dressmakers adopted this pro-cedure which was a more constricted method of styling and sizing (Fig. 1.16). The rise in drafting books and systemised cutting by dressmakers in England was stimulated by the decision of the City and Guilds of London Institute to include domestic subjects in its examinations in 1892, but the


1.16 A dressmaker uses the tailors’ forward swing of the front edge to create bust dart shaping; see the difference in pattern shape from Fig. 1.17 (Hicks, Mrs J. (1894), Dress Cutting and Making on Tailors’ Principles, John Williamson Company, London)

rise began much earlier in America; many of the drafts developed by the ‘man dressmakers’ used the systematic mathematics of tailors’ cutting but adapted the French and English dressmaker method of working within a rectangle, (see Fig. 1.23 and Fig. 1.24 later).47

The problem of producing exact body-fi tting garments for women led to the production of all kinds of drafting aids (Fig. 1.17). Templates and cutting machines were invented that provided the shape of a ‘body’ in a range of sizes. They were modifi ed versions of devices that were originated by tailors.48 The earliest examples of women’s cutting aids appeared in America;49 they were imported into European countries where dressmak-ers (particularly in Britain) began to create their own versions.50 They were

1.17 A more complex system for drafting and grading garments by direct measurement and templates ((1883), Dressmakers A.S. System of Square Measurement for Cutting Ladies and Children’s Wearing Apparel. The American Scientifi c System). (By permission of The British Library 1801.d.1 (79).)


advertised with slogans such as ‘scientifi c dressmaking made easy . . . no calculations’.51 However, many of the tools were based on proportionate measurements and would only fi t proportionate fi gures. Also, the tem-plates, which aimed at personal fi tting, were style specifi c and were useless when the current fashionable body shape was changed by new corsetry. Some of the drafting methods were based on the idea of obtaining a simple basic pattern, which provided a body or lining that could then be adapted to various styles. This idea of producing a well-fi tting basic pattern for adaptation is the origin of the block patterns used in the clothing industry today. The process of adapting patterns or achieving a perfect fi t was beyond the skill of most home dressmakers; so the drafting aids, templates and charts were used principally by professional dressmakers, or they were sold as part of dressmaking lessons, ‘dress fi tting reduced to a certainty’.52 Professional dressmakers, particularly in America, also had access to trade periodicals such as the The National Garment Cutter Instruction Book and The Voice of Fashion which offered a variety of styles that they could cut using tailors’ proportionate methods or graduated scales and then person-ally fi t their customers.

Dressmaker patterns had been sold by dressmakers and were available in women’s magazines for home dressmakers as early as the 1830s. They appear to be common by 1855 as Mrs Whiteley advised: ‘In making up mantles you must procure a pattern . . . as they vary so much in style and you will always require a pattern to cut by.’53 Patterns were also available from fashionable dressmakers such as Madame Demorest, who published her own magazine, and Madame Goubard who created the loose patterns inserted in The Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine. The patterns were cut in the soft dressmaker method described above, or customers could purchase the ‘bodies’ of the style cut out in calico. The great expansion of the paper pattern industry began in 1860. These were commercial patterns sold by companies such as Buttericks, McCall and Weldons. They were cut by using proportional systems and graded by graduation. They published catalogues of simple styles; their target was the women at home or, more importantly, the small dressmaker who could not cut patterns but had the skill of fi tting garments. This desire for fashionable body-fi tting garments and personal fi t sustained the rise in dressmakers until the closing decade of the nineteenth century.

1.4.3 Customised clothing for women: the tailors

In the fi rst half of the nineteenth century, the main garment provided for women by the tailors was the riding jacket for which they had developed drafts and some forms of primitive sizing. The fashion for the tailored jacket amongst women provided tailors with extra trade, but it meant that


they had to adapt their current methods of measuring and cutting to an increasing and changing range of outerwear for women. Tailors began to devote sections or whole books to the cutting of women’s garments.54 Although these were meant for fellow tailors working in the bespoke trade, they also provided information for clothiers and the growth of the mass customisation trade, particularly as most were based on the proportional scales of the breast and height (Fig. 1.18). Alternatively, drafts of new fashionable shapes were offered that simply displayed measurements, but which could be cut to any breast size using graduated tapes (Fig. 1.19). Drafting techniques were also spread by the growth of trade journals; the British journal The Tailor and Cutter which was founded in 1867 produced a draft for a woman’s jacket 2 years later.55 It used graduated tapes, a system ‘in daily use at The Tailor and Cutter Offi ce – the System by which we cut all our Patterns, Model and Special’.56 The publisher found the demand for jacket patterns for women so high that in 1884 it began to publish The Ladies’ Tailor, a journal of tailors’ measuring and cutting techniques specifi cally for womenswear (Fig. 1.20).

The best solution to the creation of producing the many different fashion styles for women in different sizes was to use the dressmaker method of using a basic pattern and modifying it. As described in the previous section, this was often a body fi tted directly on a customer or a purchased simple calico body or a simple styled pattern. This developed into what became known later as a block pattern. Although The Tailor and Cutter used the block pattern method for cutting men’s garments and was selling basic block patterns in 1869, it is generally recognised that the American tailor Charles Hecklinger in 1881 developed the fi rst systematic methods of block adaptation for women to create new styles;57 his later manual in 1891 included a table of fi ve proportionate measurements (Table 1.1). A British tailor, P. J. Vetter, published a similar proportionate tables of measure-ments 6 years earlier in 1885, but this was for a specifi c combination draft for a riding habit (he used graduated tapes for his styled garments).58 A more extensive table of proportionate measurements was published in 1897 by the American Charles J. Stone (Table 1.2). It is clear from his diagram of the fi gure and his draft ‘Proportions in Practice’59 that the measurements in the table were body measurements, but they appear to be theoretical proportions rather than empirical knowledge. This approach was the start of the process of creating size charts and applying them to drafts for womens -wear. They were very important for clothiers, who were expanding their ranges of ready-to-wear garments and also producing made-to-measure garments based on a few basic measurements. Their greatest problem was the bust shape. Most tailor’s drafts (and many of the dressmakers who had adopted tailor’s methods) swung the centre front forward to allow a front dart for shaping. The forward swing led to the devising of complex grading


1.18 A tailor’s draft for a woman’s jacket based on proportions of the breast measurement (Giles, E.B., Mogford, J., et al. (1884), The West End System; a Scientifi c and Practical Method of Cutting all Kinds of Garments, F.T. Prewett, London)


1.19 A tailor’s draft for a woman’s jacket using graduated tapes (Vetter, P.J. (1885), The Art of Practical Cutting, G. Pullman, London). (By permission of The British Library 7743.bbb.14.)


1.20 Tailors’ measurements for a jacket; compare the different measurement positions with those of the dressmaker (Fig. 1.15) ((1884), The Ladies’ Tailor, (May), 1, Plate 4)

instructions related to the style. The popular ‘shifting the pattern’ grading of the later wholesale industry relied on vertical and horizontal planes.

1.4.4 Customised clothing for women: ready-to-wear garments and mass customisation

The rapid expansion of some drapery and tailoring shops into department stores offered women access to clothing in a number of ways. Ready-to-wear garments of uncertain fi t had been available for more than a century. The new formalities of mourning in the second half of the nineteenth century created a demand for garments that could be fi tted quickly. Vast alteration workrooms in the stores became essential in order to provide an acceptable fi t for these and other ready-made garments.60 The elaboration and extension of the earlier tailors’ drafting techniques created a technical body of knowledge of cutting for womenswear that the ready-to-wear trade could use for outer garments. The clothiers and mantle makers (small workshops using tailoring methods that began to make women’s outdoor garments), who dominated the early ready-to-wear trade, used propor-tional systems that did not allow for the three-dimensional changing shape


Table 1.1 A list of measurements adapted from the later drafting book on cutting by Hecklinger, C. (1891), The ‘Keystone’ System, New York. The height of the back is the depth of the armhole. He stated that the length of the back is usually the same as the inside length of the sleeve

Breast Waist Height of back Height of front Length of waist(inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches)

30 22 73–4 8 141–431 221–2 77–8 81–8 141–232 23 8 81–8 14 3–433 231–2 81–4 81–4 14 3–434 24 8 1–2 81–2 1535 241–2 8 3–4 8 3–4 1536 25 9 9 151–437 25 1–2 91–4 91–4 15 1–238 26 9 1–2 9 1–2 15 3–439 26 1–2 9 3–4 9 3–4 1640 27 10 101–8 161–441 28 101–8 101–4 16 1–242 29 10 3–8 10 1–2 16 3–443 30 10 1–2 10 5–8 1744 311–2 10 5–8 10 7–8 1745 33 10 7–8 11 1746 341–2 11 111–4 1747 36 111–8 113–8 1748 371–2 111–4 115–8 1749 381–2 111–2 12 1750 39 113–4 121–2 17

of the breast in larger sizes, and the proportional differences between waist and bust measurements amongst different women. This problem was addressed by the development of mass customisation (mass made-to-measure garments) that began to take place. The trade developed fi rst in America. Although some stores set up their own factories,61 most of the garments were supplied by wholesalers and contractors who contacted small workshops or employed homeworkers. Many of the garments were tailored, and these skills existed in the small workshops; McCreesh states that by 1890 the American contractors had assumed 90% of the cloak and suit trade.62 Up to 11 body measurements could be requested for a mail-order ‘made-to-measure’ suit. Mail-order suits and coats were also offered by many of the new department stores for a better quality of clothing but were contracted from the workshops and mantle makers, some of which developed into small factories. A few department stores, e.g. Strawbridge and Clothier of Philadelphia, set up their own factories. However, for most mass-customised tailored garments the garment patterns were constructed by using proportionate sizing, which were then altered to a few supplied

32 S

izing in clothing

Table 1.2 A comprehensive list of body measurements adapted from Stone, C.J. (1897), Cutting Ladies’ Garments, Chas. J. Stone Cutting School, Chicago, Illinois

Height Circumference (inches) Natural Inside Full Side Depth Blade(feet waist length length length of scyeinches) Breast Bust Waist Neck Scye

length of arm sleeve

to elbow

4 0 24 24 20 11 11 12 61–4 121–2 6 1–2 5 1–2 72–34 2 25 25 201–4 111–4 111–2 121–2 6 1–2 13 6 3–4 5 3–4 84 4 26 26 20 1–2 111–2 12 13 6 3–4 131–2 7 6 81–34 6 27 27 20 3–4 113–4 121–2 131–2 7 14 71–4 61–4 8 2–34 8 28 281–4 21 121–2 13 14 71–4 141–2 71–2 6 1–2 94 10 29 29 1–2 211–4 12 3–4 131–2 141–2 71–2 15 73–4 6 3–4 9 1–35 0 30 30 3–4 211–2 131–8 14 15 73–4 15 1–2 8 7 9 2–35 1 31 32 22 131–2 141–2 151–4 77–8 15 3–4 81–16 73–16 105 2 32 331–4 221–2 13 7–8 15 15 1–2 8 16 81–8 73–8 10 1–35 3 33 341–2 231–4 141–4 15 1–2 15 3–4 81–8 16 1–24 8 3–16 79–16 10 2–35 4 34 35 3–4 24 14 5–8 16 16 81–4 16 1–2 81–4 73–4 115 41–2 35 37 24 3–4 15 16 1–2 161–8 8 5–16 16 5–8 81–4 77–8 111–35 5 36 38 25 1–2 15 3–8 17 161–4 8 3–8 16 3–4 81–16 8 3–16 112–35 5 1–2 37 39 261–4 15 3–4 171–2 16 3–8 8 7–16 16 7–8 81–16 8 5–16 125 6 38 40 27 161–8 18 16 1–2 81–2 17 81–16 8 7–16 121–35 6 1–2 39 41 273–4 16 1–2 181–2 16 5–8 8 9–16 171–8 81–16 8 2–18 12 2–35 7 40 42 281–2 16 7–8 19 16 3–4 8 5–8 171–4 8 8 3–4 135 71–4 41 421–4 291–4 171–4 191–4 1613–16 811–16 173–8 715–16 8 7–16 12 2–35 71–2 42 431–2 30 175–8 19 1–2 16 7–8 8 3–4 171–2 77–8 9 131–25 73–4 43 441–2 30 3–4 18 19 3–4 1615–16 813–16 175–8 713–16 91–8 145 8 44 45 1–2 311–4 18 3–8 20 17 8 7–8 173–4 73–4 91–4 141–4


measurements and were therefore an approximate fi t. By the end of the nineteenth century, women’s mass-produced clothing production in America began to outstrip the production of the dressmakers.63 Green stated: ‘the idea that garments could be made en-masse – for anonymous bodies, according to a limited set of predetermined sizes – began to take hold’. She claimed that ‘Large numbers of women were measured at women’s schools, starting with the Vassar College in 1884’.64

Whilst America was embracing mass production techniques of the sectional construction of garments and other industrial methods, these developed more slowly in a more conservative Europe. Here, the smaller workshops and the independent tailors and dressmakers in the small urbanised towns both adopted the technology of the sewing machine and adapted the early tailors’ drafting techniques. This made them uniquely able to service the demand for the close-fi tting fashionable garments of the latter half of the century and to offer a personal service. These factors inhibited the growth of European mail order and large-scale factory production of womenswear.

1.5 Methods of sizing for the emerging mass

production of clothing for men

1.5.1 The rise of mass-produced clothing for men

By the mid-nineteenth century, the mass production of men’s clothing began to accelerate. The requirement became so great for military uni-forms for the Crimean War and the American Civil War that governments became much more directly involved in uniform procurement. The French and Prussian governments were directly involved in the procurement of uniforms early in the nineteenth century.65 The British government took over the purchase of army clothing from the colonels of the regiments in 1857 and even set up its own factory to become directly involved in some of their production.66 Clothing the Union Army during the American Civil War was accomplished with government contracts with suppliers; military inspectors demanded uniformity and speed of production.67

In civil life, rising incomes and white-collar occupations increased the demand for the suit by the middle classes. It became a symbol of confor-mity and class mobility. The expanding retail outlets and new department stores offered access to quality stylish clothing; its affordability was the key to the expansion of the trade. In Britain the growth of clothing production became centred in a few areas such as London, Leicester and Glasgow but more especially in Leeds which was close to its woollen textile source. In the USA, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia and New York were the major areas of expertise but, by 1880, ready-to-wear production centred in New


York. Both countries benefi ted from the emigration of Jewish tailors and workers from eastern Europe who settled in these areas, set up workshops and injected their skills into all sectors of the trade.68 Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, men’s suits were produced in both workshops and factories. In Britain the fi rst factory in Leeds was opened in 1856.69 Whilst some ready-made clothing was factory made, the produc-tion gained momentum at the turn of the century, as wholesale bespoke tailoring (a British term for mass customisation for men which began in workshops and later became factory based; see Section 1.5.2) became affordable and popular. The number of wholesale clothing companies in Leeds rose from 21 in 1881 to 145 by 1911 and workers in the trade increased from 964 in 1851 to 23 542 by 1911.70 In the USA it was different. By 1880 there were 160 000 registered clothing workers, and most were bespoke tailors; by 1900 this total rose to over 360 000 but bespoke tailor-ing was only patronised by the rich, and so these clothing workers were now mainly centred in the ready-to-wear trade.71 Both methods of produc-tion, wholesale bespoke and ready-to-wear, were realised from the bespoke tailors’ technical sizing and pattern-cutting expertise which were published not only in manuals, but in weekly and monthly journals.72 John William-son, publisher of The Tailor and Cutter set up The Tailor and Cutter School of Art Cutting Academy where many of the contributors to the journal taught classes and also published manuals. These publications were aimed principally at the individual tailor; the methods as well as size charts of proportionate measurements (Table 1.3 and Fig. 1.21), were built from

Table 1.3 Relative measures to be used as a guide (Humphries, T.D. (1884), ‘The art of measuring’, The Tailor and Cutter, 19 (3 April))

Breast Height of Natural Side Front Top of Bottom Shouldermeasure shoulder waist of scye back of waist (inches)

16 2 3–4 16 1–2 5 10 5–8 20 1–2 221–2 2416 1–2 3 16 3–4 51–4 11 211–2 23 24 3–417 3 17 5 1–2 111–2 21 24 25 1–2171–2 3 17 5 3–4 111–2 231–4 241–2 261–418 3 17 6 12 24 25 27181–2 3 171–4 6 121–4 241–2 25 1–2 273–419 31–4 171–2 61–4 12 3–4 25 1–2 261–4 281–219 1–2 31–4 171–2 6 1–2 13 261–4 27 291–420 31–4 173–4 6 3–4 131–2 26 1–2 273–4 3020 1–2 31–4 173–4 6 3–4 131–2 27 281–2 30 3–421 31–4 18 7 14 28 291–4 311–2211–2 3 18 7 14 3–8 281–2 30 321–422 3 18 71–4 14 5–8 29 30 1–2 33221–2 31–4 181–2 71–4 15 29 1–2 31 33 3–423 31–4 19 71–2 15 3–8 30 321–2 341–2


1.21 The relationship between measurements and pattern drafting or alterations (Humphries, T.D. (1884), ‘The art of measuring’, The Tailor and Cutter, 19 (3 April))

practical experience. Nevertheless, they were invaluable to the wholesale bespoke tailor. Humphries suggested that ‘For disproportionate forms and for those customers whom the cutter never sees, nor has the opportunity of measuring, the table of relative measures will be found very useful, as a guide to the adaptation of sizes by the process of comparing one part with another.’73


1.5.2 Wholesale bespoke tailoring in Britain

Wholesale bespoke tailoring is a term widely recognised in Britain and sometimes referred to as factory measure cutting. It was a process by which the retailer took the customer’s measurements and the suit was produced in the factory or outsourced to a workshop. The early outsourc-ing by retailers or wholesalers of the production of suits to the Jewish tailor’s workshops has a link to the term. However, the garments were not cut to individual sizes; they were cut from model patterns in various styles. These were then drafted in various basic sizes or graded by using tables of proportionate measurements; Vincent in The Cutter’s Practical Guide to Cutting by Model Patterns,74 published instructions for grading trousers and coats (Fig. 1.22). To make up the customer’s ‘bespoke’ order for a jacket, the nearest breast size pattern was selected and alterations made to the pattern where the customer’s measurements differed from standard measurements.

The value of good patterns to many small wholesale bespoke manufac-turers has always been recognised in the clothing trade. The cutter held the key position; the cutting of patterns to size has been described as ‘among the fi rst of sciences; but unlike geometry, it is a liberal science with few natural phenomena reduced to natural laws’.75 Some manufacturers survived without this level of expertise; in these fi rms it was an accepted practice to buy a good jacket and to rip it apart to obtain a basic model pattern that could be graded and altered to fi t.

1.5.3 Ready-to-wear tailoring in America

Whist some ready-to-wear factory-made garments were produced in Britain, it was American manufacturers who began to apply standard sizing techniques to produce higher-quality ready-made garments. Some of the foundations for this were set in the middle of the nineteenth century. Green claimed that more than a million conscripts were measured for chest and height during the American Civil War.76 Scranton explained that mili-tary contracting meant that manufacturers had to respond with speed and effi ciency. They developed the process of subdivision of the labour process and regimented the workers. He stated that ‘Federal agents measured the body dimensions of thousands of recruits and discovered linked patterns in chest, waist and leg measurements that formed the basis for a single set of sizes that was soon generalized to civilian menswear’.77 To refi ne their cutting techniques of civilian clothing, manufacturers also had access to the many publications written by the bespoke tailors at this time, some of whom also offered proportionate size charts. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the number of works published by American tailors


1.22 A method of grading a full set of patterns for a jacket (Vincent, W.D.F. (1916), The Cutter’s Practical Guide to Cutting by Model Patterns, John Williamson, London)

almost doubled in number compared with those published before 1850; its growth during this time was greater than in England.78 Godley quoted from an American manufacturer who estimated in 1890 that ‘perhaps nine tenths of the men and boys of the country were wearing clothes ready to put on’.79 This was arrived at by making average-size suits that were also available with variations in length and fi ttings. By the beginning of the twentieth century, it was claimed that ‘the average American suit from the “peg” is better fi tting and more generally satisfactory than any quasi-wholesale bespoke’.80


1.6 Sizing for the mass production of clothing

in the fi rst half of the twentieth century

1.6.1 The expanding systems of factory production

The changes from outworker production of ready-made clothing to factory-based production in Britain benefi ted hugely from the import of machinery from America and its methods of production such as the ‘progressive bundle system’, in which similar pieces for sets of individual garments are cut and bundled together. From the 1920s, other factors also encouraged its growth, such as the need to redeploy the factory facilities used for the production of military uniforms for the 1914–1918 war, and the use of motor transport which brought people and goods into more centralised areas of wholesale and retail supply.81 Factory production in both America and Europe became more concentrated in the areas of expertise that had developed in the previous century.82

However, the types of mass production differed. The bulk of menswear and womenswear mass production in the USA continued to be based on ‘off-the-peg’ retail sales. In Britain the wholesale bespoke trade for men developed further due to the growth of multiple tailors. Factories in Leeds retailed their own product on the high street; they brought factory bespoke tailoring to the mass of working-class men. The older established fi rms that did not follow this route found another market in high-quality ready-to-wear tailored outerwear for women.83 They competed with the growing number of small Jewish immigrant factories operating in the East End of London.84 Manchester, another area of European immigration, became the centre for the production of factory-made blouses, dresses and childrenswear.

1.6.2 Sizing for women’s garments

However, although the expertise and methods of mass production had been available for decades, it was the change in women’s fashions that was the largest single factor that allowed the development of cheap ready-made clothing for women.85 The impact of Paris fashions from 1908 to 1913 changed the corseted distorted fi gure of nineteenth-century women into a more natural form. The new fashion was a ‘soft cylinder’ that could be fl attened and translated into a basic rectangular block shape (Fig. 1.23).86 In the ready-to-wear trade, the block could be modifi ed into copies of Paris styles and graded into sizes (Fig. 1.24). Women’s attitudes to buying ready-made clothing also began to change; it became a smarter form of dressing than wearing ‘home-made’ clothing.

It was in the USA that the fi rst drafting manuals were written for the women’s wholesale manufacturers, although they were also useful for the


1.23 The new fashion shape; this type of style could be derived from a rectangular pattern construction. (Williamson, J. (1926), Ladies’ Garment Cutting and Making, John Williamson Company, London)

small workshops dealing with the retail trade. These included combination drafting systems with size tables of measurements taken as close to the body as was thought ‘seemly’, and simple systems of grading.87 Many British manufacturers of womenswear used American size charts and adopted their coding system of using the bust size as size markings, and also their practice of offering different fi ttings, such as length or junior miss. The use of these American data was not surprising; most of the size charts available in Britain were confl icting and many quite obviously inaccurate.88 This was because in Britain most size charts were produced by bespoke tailors and they were the results of their practical experience. Many of the tailors were


1.24 Rectangular pattern construction which could be adapted into many styles and graded into sizes (Williamson, J. (1926), Ladies’ Garment Cutting and Making, John Williamson Company, London)


also teachers of cutting, and the body positions prescribed for taking mea-surements were selected to fi t their particular theoretical drafting systems. There was a further problem, because some charts were using the tailor’s practice of measuring the breast and waist under the coat and the remain-ing measurements over the coat, whilst others were adopting the ‘dress-maker’ method (which was also the American practice) of taking corseted body measurements over dresses.89 Even the cutters who took the measure-ments close to the corseted body still had different drafting theories and therefore measured different parts of the body.90 Finally, fi tting problems were caused by the tailor’s practice of drafting patterns that included seam allowances of varying widths, which were often not referred to in the drafts. Thornton, one of the fi rst tailors to work with nett patterns (pat-terns without seam allowances), stated that the inclusion of seam allow-ances ‘is a prolifi c cause of many unnecessary alterations, even in men’s garments. In ladies’ garments, owing to an increased and varied number of seams, the evil is still more pronounced.’91

Early British sizing was often organised by 2 inch divisions in the bust, waist or hip size (chest size for children) in the dress and blouse trade. Sets of codes, such as SW, W, OS, XOS and other codes which included EOS, XXOS and SOS were in standard use by the wholesale mantle trade;92 these were sometimes also adopted by manufacturers of other garments. The confusion in the size charts made it apparent why some British manu-facturers adopted American methods of number coding for sizes.93 Conti-nental sizing based on centimetres differed yet again; attempts to introduce cutting and sizing based on European methods had little success in Britain.94 Bridgland’s table (Table 1.4) is important; it appears to be the earliest that gives manufacturers a choice of measurement (36–38 inches) where they could place their ‘average’ women’s size. The fi rst large-scale anthropomet-ric survey of women and children for use in sizing ready-to-wear garments took place between 1939 and 1941 in America.95 It was sponsored and

Table 1.4 Bridgland also included 11 measurements in a size table of ‘relative proportions for females’; his diagram (not shown) indicated that some of these measures refer to measurements taken over the jacket. (Bridgland, A. S. 1928, ‘Measuring for ladies’ garments’, in The Modern Tailor Outfi tter and Clothier (Ed. A. S. Bridgland), Caxton, London)

SW W OS XOS

Breast (inches) 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46Hips (inches) 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 50Length (inches) 40 41 42 43 44 45 45 45Back sleeve (inches) 6 1–2 6 3–4 7 71–4 71–2 73–4 73–4 8Forearm length (inches) 16 1–2 17 171–2 18 18 18 18 18


supervised by the Bureau of Home Economics and the data were published in order to be widely available: ‘These reports became models on which measurement surveys were conducted on behalf of clothing industries throughout the world.’96

1.6.3 Sizing for men’s garments

A large number of size charts for men were published by the bespoke tailors; these charts correlated far better than those provided for women. A comprehensive chart covering chest sizes from 21 inches to 36 inches was provided by Vincent for juveniles and youths as early as 1890.97 The 1914–1918 war not only gave a boost to the factory manufacture of clothing but also was a means of obtaining large quantities of men’s body measure-ments, as youths to middle-aged men were called up to fi ll the gaps left by the huge casualty rate. Different methods have been developed for using the body measurements from surveys to create ready-to-wear sizing. Poole criticised the use of simple averages of large quantities of anthropometric measurements; his textbook, The Science of Pattern Construction for Garment Makers in 1927, was infl uential. 98 His theory ‘form growth’ relied on anthropological divisions of the fi gure to develop his theory of cutting, but he included depth as well as breadth and height in his proportions of the fi gure and his calculation of average sizes. In Britain, two types of coded sizing emerged: Leeds sizing and London sizing.99 They were both based on chest or waist sizes; it was the former that predominated amongst the major manufacturers of mass-produced clothing.

1.6.4 Early grading systems

As the manufacturing of clothing grew during the fi rst half of the century, different methods of grading systems began to be published. Vincent’s 1908 system of point to point through ‘nesting’ has proved to be probably the most reliable system. Although originally constructed for menswear, it became particularly useful for grading complex women’s garments. The smallest size, the largest size and the medium size are drafted and then placed in a ‘nest’ (see Fig. 1.22). Diagonal lines are drawn through the main points; this allows the other sizes to be marked off these lines. Sheifer, also in 1908, published a system of grading that began with the basic pattern, ‘shifted’ it up and out a specifi c amount according to lists of instructions and then redrew the line. This ‘shift’ method became a stan-dard practice for many dress manufacturers, because a semiskilled worker, who could not draft patterns, could be trained to grade them.100 More complex systems that were closely linked to Sheifer’s drafting construc-tions were also published. Many of these operated by identifying specifi c


positions on a pattern from which radial lines were extended through pattern points and then marking out other sizes along the radial lines.101

1.7 Sizing for the mass production of clothing in

the second half of the twentieth century

1.7.1 British efforts to improve the sizing of clothes

After the Second World War there was a drive for industries to recover and for the social and physical improvement of the general population. The aim of obtaining a better sizing system for clothing sizes was assisted by interest in body measurements and the application of statistical methods from other fi elds such as health, education, social science and ergonomics. Standardised anthropometric equipment began to be used for measure-ment studies, and most studies and statistical data were offered not only in mean values but also in centiles. The important feature of the new work taking place was that clothing sizing was now to be based on body measure-ments and not confused with clothing measurements.

In addition to the department stores there were thousands of small ‘madam’ shops and gent’s outfi tters all over the country. They were supplied by wholesale houses who bought from different small manufacturing com-panies who each had their own sizing systems. In 1951 the Clothing Indus-try Development Council was concerned about the losses in labour and material, particularly in the ladies’ section of the industry, and the scale of alterations to clothing that was taking place. It saw the primary cause as the absence of reliable sizing systems, and the remedy was a measure of standardisation and the preparation of size charts. It commissioned a survey. In its First Annual Report it stated that ‘The survey is being con-ducted on a scientifi c basis’.102 By the fi rst half of 1951, 17 measurers in fi ve teams covered the country, carrying out the work in retail establishments, factories, offi ces, women’s organisations, colleges and schools, according to its Second Annual Report.103 Its Third Annual Report in 1953 stated:

‘Five thousand women in sixty organisations between the ages of 18 and 70, and thirty-seven measurements were taken. . . . 200 000 measurements were recorded. The magnitude of this research can be gauged, not only in the practice of taking the measurements but the analysis involved 2000 hours of machine work on Hollerith punch cards and a week’s monopoly of an ‘electronic brain.’104

In 1953, the British Standards Institution (BSI) established a set sched-ule of code sizing related directly to basic body measurements. This was not successful with manufacturers, as they wished to retain their own size charts that they had developed by experience for their specifi c niche


markets. Therefore, compromises were made and fi nally an imperial system of size marking emerged, namely BS 3666: 1963, in which the label clearly marked the principal body measurements that the garment should fi t and a coding scheme was adopted that gave manufacturers some tolerances. This was made obsolete when Britain fi rst mandated a shift to metric measurements in 1965. The Clothing Institute commissioned a report in 1968 on the effects of metrication across all sectors of clothing.105 The result was a modifi cation of BS 3666: 1974, in which the code table was now offered in metric sizes. The standard was re-issued yet again in 1982 (Table 1.5 and Fig. 1.25).106 Between the major sizing survey of 1953 and the SizeUK survey (2001–2002),107 only small-scale surveys were conducted by manufacturers or retailers for their niche markets and many were kept confi dential to the individual company.

Although the BSI received its Royal charter in 1929, its fi rst standard that provided body measurements was BS 1445: 1951. This was for girls and was based on an American survey report of 1941. The British Standard BS 3728: 1970 published a system of labelling for children’s wear similar to that provided for women’s wear. It recognised the impending metrica-tion by including height, a response to the centilong system that sized and coded children in height measurement intervals that had been introduced into European countries. It also included size tables in both imperial and metric units. However, the need for a sizing survey of children was recog-nised. The project was initiated by a consortium of manufacturers, retailers

Table 1.5 Size codes and associated body measurements from BS 3666:1982 (By permission of BSI)

Size Body measurements (cm)code

Hips Bust

From To From To

8 83 87 78 8210 87 91 82 8612 91 95 86 9014 95 99 90 9416 100 104 95 9918 105 109 100 10420 110 114 105 10922 115 119 110 11424 120 124 115 11926 125 129 120 12428 130 134 125 12930 135 139 130 13432 140 144 135 139


1.25 An example of labels for women’s outerwear (jackets) from BS 3666: 1982. (By permission of BSI.)

and the National Childrenswear Association (NCWA) but, because of the delays in funding, it was undertaken in different sex and age groupings at different times. It was published in 1990 as BS 7231: 1990. Loughborough University, who provided a comprehensive set of data and size charts based on the centilong system, undertook the survey. The conversion of the data to basic size charts proved problematic; the conversion process distorted the raw data and contained anomalies between the different sex and age groupings.108

The Leeds sizing system for men’s and youth’s outerwear had been accepted by ready-to-wear and wholesale bespoke manufacturers for the major part of the twentieth century. In 1973, The Clothing Manufacturers Association addressed the impending metrication of the trade. Their main recommendations were to ensure ‘that the public do not become confused’, that manufacturers had maximum freedom of choice as to when it was introduced into the factory and that there should be no physical changes in the dimensions of the garment. The report stated that size designation on the labels should be as follows: in the short term, imperial size designa-tion of 2 inch intervals should remain and be converted to the nearest whole centimetre; in the medium term, sizing intervals should be in 4 cm intervals followed by the imperial conversion; in the long term, only metric sizes should remain. It also included an emphatic statement: ‘However, this should not be done until it has become quite clear that the public fully


understand metric measurements and are able to recognise their chosen size in metric terms with facility’.109 The British Standard BS 6185: 1982 was based on the assumption that the ‘long-term’ aims would be fulfi lled as its pictograms and labelling examples were in 4 cm intervals. However, surveys of major retailers that took place in 1997 and in 2005 revealed that British manufacturers, retailers and wholesalers were still operating within the ‘short-term’ aims. Main labelling on almost all garment stands and the visible tickets on the menswear garments from British manufactur-ers or wholesalers were still shown in imperial measurements and in 2 inch intervals, the metric conversion labels placed inside the inside breast pocket.110

Some sizing surveys for men took place during this time. In 1970, The Aeronautical Research Council of the Royal Airforce (RAF) commis-sioned Loughborough University to carry out a study of 2000 aircrew. It is interesting to note that, whilst the RAF study published the percentile values in metric and imperial measurements, the size charts were published in imperial measurements. The data were available to the public and gave valuable sizing information for the young men’s market.111 In 1980 The Wool Industries Research Association (WIRA) also published its metric sizing survey of 1045 men across a wider spread of age groups.112

1.7.2 International standards

The setting up of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1946 was a response to the desire by a number of countries for interna-tional harmonisation of standards. Founder members included many Euro-pean countries, Russia, Australia, China and India. By 1972, 55 countries were menbers. The aim of the ISO was that each country should attempt to take account of international standards in their national standards. Consideration started to be given to developing international sizing systems for clothing in 1969. The UK’s fi rst reaction was not to participate in the work because of the view that even national systems of sizing could not be implemented, let alone an international system. Britain also pointed out that a standard sizing system across so many different ethnic body shapes would prove to be impossible. ISO began by concentrating on the develop-ment of size designations for garments, i.e. the labelling. The system devel-oped was so fl exible that the BSI in 1975 decided to incorporate the work into its standards. 113

1.7.3 International surveys

Within Europe, France, Germany and Sweden have carried out major surveys of its civilian population. Winks offered a comprehensive overview


of sizing surveys carried out during the last half-century.114 The common use of the metric system and the common fi gure types of northern Europe (with some variation in bust–hip relationships) has made possible the publication of European Standards by the European Committee for Stan-dardization (Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN)). BSI has adopted these as their new Standards. BS EN 13402-1: 2001 defi nes the positions and methods of taking body measurements; BS EN 13402-2: 2002 defi nes the primary and secondary measurements to be used in garment labelling; BS EN 13402-3: 2005 offers body measurement ranges for use in size charts and pictograms for use on garment labels. BS EN 13402-4, that was planned for release in late 2005, to designate a size coding system that would iden-tify the primary control measurement (e.g. bust for blouses, and waist for men’s trousers) for the particular garment. British and American coding uses size code numbers in womenswear, e.g. 12, 14, 16, etc., that are quite different from the primary control measurements that are used in European coding; so the discussions have been diffi cult. The standards are voluntary and therefore the resistance of manufacturers in a number of countries has resulted in the standard being referred for further considerations.

Whilst America was the fi rst country to undertake large civilian surveys in 1939–1940, Winks stated that its last major survey was in 1960–1962.115 Smaller-scale surveys have taken place but, as these are usually funded by commercial bodies and unpublished, it is mainly research organisations that publish data.116 America has been isolated from European sizing developments by its adherence to the imperial system of measurements. Very extensive surveys of American military personnel have taken place, and many of the data from these have been made available to the public.117 The survey by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for astronaut’s space suits was probably the most comprehensive; it not only listed the previous American sizing surveys but also took 29 body measure-ments.118 A 1988 survey of Army men and women also provided a database available to the public.119

Le Pechoux and Ghosh discussed an article in Bobbin that claimed that 70–80% of garments on the rack did not correspond to the reported size, and that mail-order houses had a 30% return rate. The researchers argued that scanner technology and a redesign of the statistical models that recog-nise wide variations in fi gure shape could substantially improve the situa-tion.120 The history of sizing during the latter half of the twentieth century can be described as a drive from mass customisation to sizing standardisa-tion. The results of this great impetus to provide methods to measure and categorise populations are proving to be contradictory in a number of different ways. Although more information is produced, in the retail stores there is now less sizing information on the garments, particularly in


womenswear. Most of them only display the code size, i.e. 12, 14, 16, etc., or Sml, Med, Lge and Xlge. The new developments in three-dimensional scanning for body measurements, which are directly related to the produc-tion of garments driven by computer-aided design, can be seen as a return to nineteenth-century mass customisation.

1.8 Refl ection

Body dimensions in clothing surveys are interesting not only for the produc-tion of clothing. As Roebuck stated: ‘Body dimension survey reports serve as benchmarks against which new survey data can be compared. In a sense they are technical “fossils” that help us trace and predict the microevolution of groups of humans.’121 They are also social commentaries. There was the delay in the systemisation of women’s clothes in the late nineteenth century caused by women’s demands for fashionable garments of complicated con-struction. As twentieth-century mass production techniques began to work in concert with the fashionable shape, it has been argued that a new tyranny has emerged, namely that of women attempting to change their body shape to fi t not only the new standard sizing of basic ready-to-wear clothes but the contemporary fashion proportions of the latest fashionable garments.122 The drive towards the customisation of garments to fi t personal body shapes has often ignored this factor of fashion design.

At the start of the twenty-fi rst century, there is evidence of an emerging change in American and European body shapes, that of obesity. Future refl ections on body sizing could attribute this to another form of mass production – food. The high pressure marketing of mass-produced pre-pared foods and the obesgenic environments of modern industrial society have resulted in large sections of the population becoming outsize.

1.9 Further reading

This chapter has used illustrations and drawn heavily from research undertaken for two previous articles written by the author, but in this chapter the work on the history of sizing has been expanded. For further reference see the following.

Aldrich, W. (2000), ‘Tailor’s cutting manuals and the growing provision of popular clothing 1770–1870’, Textile History, 31 (2), 163–201.

Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the woman’s tailored jacket 1800–1927’, Textile History, 34 (2), 134–170.

1.10 References

1 Godley, A. (1997),‘The development of the clothing industry: technology and fashion’, Textile History, 28 (1), 3–10.

2 Campbell, R. (1747), The London Tradesman, T. Gardner, London, pp. 192–193.


3 Bruce, A. (1980), The Purchase System in the British Army 1660–1871, Royal Historical Society, London, p. 8.

4 Smith, D.J. (1983), ‘Army clothing contractors and the textile industries in the 18th century’, Textile History, 14 (2), 159.

5 Lemire, B. (1984), ‘Developing consumerism and the ready-made clothing trade in Britain, 1750–1800’, Textile History, 15 (1), 21–44.

6 Boullay, B. (1671), Le Tailleur Sincere, Chez Antoine de Raffl e, Paris. De Garsault, F.A. (1769), ‘De l’art du tailleur’, in Description des Arts et Metiers, Acadame Royale des Sciences, Paris.

7 For the Industrial School and Sunday School of Hertingfordbury (1789), Instructions for Cutting Out Apparel for the Poor, J. Walter, London, frontispiece.

8 The Society of Adepts in the Profession (1796), The Taylor’s Complete Guide; or a Comprehensive Analysis of Beauty and Elegance in Dress, London, p. vii.

9 Scammell, S. (1995), Roman, Saxon and Norman Measurements in Domes-day Book, Crosby Ravensworth, Cumbria.

10 Connor, R.D. (1987), The Weights and Measures of England, HMSO, London, p. 89. Connor offered a comprehensive history of English measures.

11 Kerr, J. (1863), The Metric System: its Prospects in This Country, London. 12 Most authors reference De Alcega, J. (1589), Libro de Geometria, Pratica, y

Traca, Cafa de Guillerme, Madrid, as the oldest tailor’s pattern book, but there is a reference to Nidermayr, H.D.J. (1544), Schnittbuch und Meister-stuckbuch, Innsbruck, in Nieman, O.C.J. (1986), Der Zuschnitt im Wandel der Zeiten, Braunschweiger Kasse, Hamburg, p. 42.

13 Groves, S. (1966), The History of Needlework Tools and Accessories, Country Life Ltd, London, p. 42.

14 Giles, E.B. (1887), The Art of Cutting-and-History of English Costume, T.H. Holding, London. Giles gave some evidence that it was George Atkinson who invented the tape measure in 1799, but he also noted, (p. 155) that Couts, J. (1848), A Practical Guide for the Tailor’s Cutting-Room, Blackie, Glasgow, claimed that he and Duncan McAra introduced the tape in 1809, although it was graduated fi rst by McIntyre of Glasgow.

15 Cook, M. (1787), A Sure Guide Against Waste in Dress, or the Woollen Draper’s, Man Mercer’s and Tailor’s Assistant, The Author, London, 1787, p. vi.

16 Lee, C.H. (1979), British Regional Employment Statistics 1841–1971, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

17 Sharpe, B. (1995), ‘ “Cheapness and economy”: manufacturing and retailing ready-made clothing in London and Essex 1830–1850’, Textile History, 26 (2), 203–213. Chapman, S. (1993), ‘The innovating entrepreneurs in the British ready-made clothing industry’, Textile History, 24 (1), 5–25.

18 Aldrich, W. (2000), ‘Tailor’s cutting manuals and the growing provision of popular clothing 1770–1870’, Textile History, 31 (2), 144.

19 Read, B. (1815), The Proportionate and Universal Table, The Author, London, pp. 17–20.

20 Cook, M., and Golding, J. (1815), The Tailor’s Assistant or Unerring Instruc-tor, J. Rush, London, p. 13.


21 Bailey, A. (1815), The Complete Tailors Assistant: or a Treatise on the Art of Cutting, The Author, London, p. x.

22 Seligman, K. (1996), Cutting for All, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois. Seligman catalogued tailors’ cutting books with brief descriptions of methods.

23 Giles, E.B., Mogford, J., et al. (1884) The West End System; a Scientifi c and Practical Method of Cutting all Kinds of Garments, F.T. Prewett, London, p. 17.

24 McIntyre, A. (1819), The Taylor’s Ready Reckoner, The Author, Glasgow. He produced a set of tables of aliquot parts giving different proportions of the breast measure.

25 Adams, J. (1843), Anatomical Self-varying System of Cutting Coats, Thomas Philip Baily, Cirencester. Although claiming to be ‘anatomical’, the measure-ments were still based on garment sizing.

26 Kidwell, C.B. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, p. 10. Kidwell showed an illustration of a tailor’s graduated square which was patented by James G. Wilson in 1827.

27 Peele, I.S. (1823), A Treatise on the Art of Cutting, in All its Various Branches, on a Quadrangular System, by Geometrical Proportions, J Freeman, London. Peele included instructions for making a fractional measure.

28 Hadfi eld, H. (1833), The Tailor’s Preceptor, Erskey Hadfi eld, Manchester, pp. 7–8.

29 Hannam, E. (1846), Tailor’s Chart or Practical Guide for Cutting Coats, The Author, London. This was also a large card sheet with punch holes.

30 Barde, F.A. (1834), Traite Encyclopedique de L’Art du Tailleur, The Author, Paris. Barde also mentioned that the ribbon had been used by tailors for 20 years; see p. 13.

31 Byfi eld, R. (1825), Sectum: Being the Universal Directory in the Art of Cutting, H.S. Mason, London, pp. v and vi.

32 The diagram is an illustration in Niemann, O.C.J. (1986), Der Zuschnitt im Wandel der Zeiten, Braunschweiger Kasse, Hamburg, pp. 16–17.

33 Lindsay, W. (1828), Begs Leave to Submit to Tailors in General, his New and Improved System of Cutting, London, p. 3.

34 Moses, E. (1849–1857), Spring and Summer Manuals, London. Moses pro-duced small almanacs advertising his ready-to-wear and bespoke service. He displayed diagrams for customers to measure themselves. The early manuals required measurements of the breast under the coat, later manuals required the breast and the waist to be measured under the coat.

35 Compaing, G. (1828), L’Art du Tailleur: Application de la Geometrie a la Coupe de L’Habillement, Paris. His son Charles Compaing, together with Louis Devere, refi ned the system and published a number of drafting manuals later in the century.

36 A selection of titles from the books published by Henry Wampen are as follows: Wampen, H.D. (1837), Instruction in Mathematical Proportions and Construction of Models for Gentlemen’s Dresses, The Author, London, (1853), Mathematical Instruction in Constructing Models for Draping the Human Figure, Messrs Boone Publishers, London, (1864), Anthropometry or Geometry of the Human Figure, Messrs Boone Publishers, London. Many


articles were written in the journal The Tailor and Cutter by Darwyn Humphreys explaining Wampen’s complex system of graduated tapes.

37 Hyam, L. (1844), The Pantechnetheca Tailoring and Outfi tting Establish-ment, Pantechnetheca Press, London.

38 Moses, E. (1860), The Growth of an Important Branch of British Industry (The Ready-made Clothing System), The Author, London, p. 6.

39 Moses, E. (1860), The Growth of an Important Branch of British Industry (The Ready-made Clothing System), The Author, London, p. 5.

40 Steele, V. (2001), The Corset, a Cultural History, Yale University Press, New Haven Connecticut, p. 46.

41 Aldrich, W. (2002), ‘The evolution of the women’s tailored jacket’, in Pattern Cutting for Women’s Tailored Jackets, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 8–26.

42 Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the woman’s tailored jacket 1800–1927’, Textile History, 34 (2), 144. Kidwell, C.B. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, p. 100.

43 Myra (1877), Dressmaking Lessons, Mesdames Marie and Adolphe Goubard, London. This book appears to be one of the earliest dressmaker manuals that gave clear instructions on measuring the body, plus a diagram. A later similar diagram (see Fig. 1.15) can be found in a number of publications associated with Samuel Beeton and Ward Lock. It also appeared in a French book of cutting by graduated tapes by the German tailor Klemm, H. (1878), Traite Pratique de l’Habillement, Libraire de Firmin-Didot, Paris.

44 Henry, S. (1894), The ‘Paragon’ System of Drafting Dress Bodice, Collar and Sleeve, (Tailor Measurement System), John Heywood, Manchester.

45 Hicks, Mrs J. (1894), Dresscutting and Making on Tailors’ Principles, John Williamson Company, London.

46 A list of measurements for one bust size can be found in Guerre, A. (1886), Nouvelle Methode de Coupe et Manière de Faire ses Robes Soi-même, The Author, Paris, and Poynton, Mrs (1905), ‘Practice measurements’, in Hints on Dress-Cutting, John Heywood, Manchester, Diagram 1. The earliest table of proportionate measurements that I have found is by de Slepowron, Madame J. (1898), Lehrbuch fur Massnehmen, Schnittzeichnen und Kleidermachen, Im Selbstverlage der Herausgeberin, Vienna.

47 Griffi n, C.H. (1879), Self-teaching Perfect Fitting French System for Cutting Ladies’ and Children’s Garments, The Author, Massachusetts. Moschcowitz and Roussel, (1882) French and English System of Cutting, Fitting and Basting, James McCall, New York.

48 Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the women’s tailored jacket 1800–1927’, Textile History, 34 (2), 145–147.

49 Kidwell, C.B. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Kidwell’s research explored the history of American dressmaking aids.

50 The British Library holds very many examples of templates with either per-forated holes or scales of measurements for sizing garments. See the following examples: Furniss, Mrs C. (1889), The Burton on Trent Excelsior, Burton on Trent; Forrester, Mrs (1888), The Crescent: a Simple and Reliable Method of Dress Cutting, A.H. Atkins, London.


51 Boehmer, M. (1887), French Scientifi c Dressmaking, Glasgow. 52 Tate, A. (1886), The Eureka Guide to Dressmaking, Eureka School of Dress-

cutting, London. 53 Whiteley, Mrs T. (1855), A New, Simple and Complete Method of Dressmak-

ing in All its Branches, Manchester, pp. 12–13. 54 Giles, E.B., Mogford, J., et al. (1875), The West End System; a Scientifi c and

Practical Method of Cutting All Kinds of Garments, F.T. Prewett, London. The West End System ran for decades in many new editions. Vetter, P.J. (1885), The Art of Practical Cutting, G. Pullman, London. Davies, J.F. (1881), The Pioneer System of Cutting Ladies Fashionable Garments, John Williamson, London. Tomlin ventured into dressmaking with the fol-lowing book. Tomlin (1892), ‘The tailors’ perfect system of dress-cutting’, Tomlin’s Dressmakers’ Guide, Dress-cutting Made Easy, The Author, London.

55 The Tailor and Cutter (1869), John Williamson, London, p. 42. 56 Williamson, J. (1872), The ‘Tailor and Cutter’ Offi ce System of Coat Cutting,

John Williamson, London. 57 The Tailor and Cutter (1869), John Williamson, London; see their advertise-

ment in October 1869 for block patterns in standard breast sizes. Hecklinger, C. (1881), The Dress and Cloak Cutter, Boot & Tinker, New York.

58 Vetter, P.J. (1885), The Art of Practical Cutting, G. Pullman, London, p. 137.

59 Stone, C.J. (1897), Cutting Ladies’ Garments, Chas. J. Stone Cutting School, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 13–15.

60 Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the women’s tailored jacket 1800–1927, Textile History, 34 (2), 157.

61 Aldrich, W. (2002), ‘The evolution of the women’s tailored jacket’, in Pattern Cutting for Women’s Tailored Jackets, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 18–19.

62 McCreesh, C.D. (1885), Women in the Campaign to Organize Garment Workers, Garland Publishing, New York, pp. 5 and 9.

63 Between 1890 and 1900 the number of factory establishments increased by 120.7%, whilst custom dressmaking establishments decreased by 26.1%. May, A. (1916), Dressmaking as a Trade for Women in Massachusetts, US Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, p. 23. Scranton, P. (1994), ‘The transition from custom to ready-to-wear clothing in Philadelphia 1890–1930’, Textile History, 25 (2), 243–273.

64 Green, N.L. (1997), Ready-to-wear Ready-to-work, Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina, p. 30.

65 Schick, I.T. (Ed.) (1978), Battledress: The Uniforms of the World’s Great Armies, 1700 to the Present, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London.

66 The Tailor and Cutter (1868), ‘Government clothing factory’, 3 (16 January), 61–63.

67 Scranton, P. (1994), ‘The transition from custom to ready-to-wear clothing in Philadelphia 1890–1930’, Textile History, 25 (2), 245.

68 A great deal has been written about immigration and the clothing trade in both Britain and America; a few books and an article are listed. Green, N.L. (1997), Ready-to-wear Ready-to-work, Duke University Press, North Carolina, pp. 185–250; Pope, J.E. (1905), The Clothing Industry in New York, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Stewart, M., and Hunter, L.


(1964), The Needle is Threaded: the History of an Industry, Heinemann, London; Godley, A. (2001), Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in New York and London 1880–1914, Palgrave, Basingstoke.

69 Honeyman, K. (2000), Well Suited: a History of the Leeds Clothing Industry 1850–1990, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 21.

70 Honeyman, K. (2000), Well Suited: a History of the Leeds Clothing Industry 1850–1990, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 24 and 29.

71 Godley, A. (1997), ‘Comparative labour productivity in the British and American clothing industries 1850–1950’, Textile History, 28 (1), 69.

72 Seligman, K. (1996), Cutting for All, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois, pp. 9–12.

73 Humphries, T.D. (1884), ‘The art of measuring’, The Tailor and Cutter, 19 (3 April), 152.

74 Vincent, W.D.F. (1916), The Cutter’s Practical Guide to Cutting by Model Patterns, revised edition, John Williamson, London, p. 80. The fi rst edition was published in 1908.

75 Poole, B.W. (1920), The Clothing Trades Industry, Sir Isaac Pitman, London, p. 29.

76 Green, N.L. (1997), Ready-to-wear Ready-to-work, Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina, p. 30.

77 Scranton, P. (1994), ‘The transition from custom to ready-to-wear clothing in Philadelphia 1890–1930’, Textile History, 25 (2), 245.

78 Seligman, K. (1996), Cutting for All, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois, p. 9.

79 Godley, A. (1997), ‘Comparative labour productivity in the British and American clothing industries 1850–1950’, Textile History, 28 (1), 70.


81 Wray, M. (1957), The Women’s Outerwear Industry, Gerald Duckworth, London, pp. 19–21.

82 Honeyman, K. (2000), Well Suited: a History of the Leeds Clothing Industry 1850–1990, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 53–90; Green, N.L. (1997), Ready-to-wear Ready-to-work, Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina, p. 48. Green claimed that, by 1925, 78% of American-made women’s wear came from New York.

83 Honeyman K. (2000), Well Suited: a History of the Leeds Clothing Industry 1850–1990, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 79.

84 Kershen, A.J. (1997), ‘Morris Cohen and the origins of the women’s wholesale clothing industry in the East End’, Textile History, 28 (1), 39–46.

85 Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the woman’s tailored jacket 1800–1927, Textile History, 34 (2), 144.

86 Aldrich, W. (2003), ‘The impact of fashion on the cutting practices for the woman’s tailored jacket 1800–1927, Textile History, 34 (2), 162–165.

87 Berkowich Designing Academy (1904), Manual of Grading and Proportions, Berkowich Designing Academy, New York. Sheifer, N.S. (1908), N.S. Sheifer’s System of Designing and Grading Ladies’ Misses and Children’s Garments, N.S. Sheifer, New York, 1908.

88 Kunick, P. (1984), Modern Sizing and Pattern Making for Women’s and Children’s Garments, Philip Kunick, London, pp. 1–11. Kunick gave many


more examples of size charts by well-known tailors and teachers of cutting and compared and analysed their differences.

89 Major tailoring publishers sold journals and books which directed the taking of measurements quite differently. Vincent and Bridgland used the tailor’s practice of only taking the breast, waist and hips. Vincent, W.D.F. (1924), The Cutters’ Practical Guide to the Designing, Cutting and Making of Ladies’ Garments, John Williamson Company, London, pp. 13–14; Bridgland, A.S. (1928), ‘Measuring for ladies’ garments’, in The Modern Tailor Outfi tter and Clothier (Ed. A.S. Bridgland), Caxton, London, p. 136. The dressmaker method was used by Hodgkinson, T.W. (1923), The Director System for Cutting Ladies’ Garments, Minister, London, p. 3.

90 Diagrams of close body measurements can be found in the following. Engelman, G. (1904), The American Garment Cutter for Women, American Fashion Company, New York, p. 13; Hodgkison, T.W. (1923), The Director System for Cutting Ladies’ Garments, Minister, London p. 3; Thornton, J.P. (1915), The International System of Ladies’ Garment Cutting, Thornton Institute, London, Plate 2.

91 Thornton, J.P. (1915), The International System of Ladies’ Garment Cutting, Thornton Institute, London, p. 15.

92 Bridgland, A.S. (1928), ‘Measuring for ladies’ garments’, in The Modern Tailor Outfi tter and Clothier (Ed. A.S. Bridgland), Caxton, London, p. 138; Poole, B.W. (1927), The Science of Pattern Construction for Garment Makers, New Era Publishing, London, p. 16.

93 Hulme, W.H. (1948), Women’s and Children’s Garment Design, National Trade Press, London. Hulme wrote many books on cutting and also wrote a series of articles on the history of tailoring in England which was published in The Tailor and Cutter during 1926–1927.

94 Minter, D.C. (1935), Pattern Drafting for Dressmakers: Adapted from the Hirsch System, Berlin, Blackie, London, p. 6. Minter included the European method of coding.

95 O’Brien, R., and Shelton, W.C. (1985), Women’s Measurements for Garment and Pattern Construction, Miscellaneous Publication 454, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

96 Kunick, P. (1984), Modern Sizing and Pattern Making for Women’s and Children’s Garments, Philip Kunick, London, pp. 9–10.

97 Vincent, W.D.F. (1890), The Cutters Practical Guide to Making Every Kind of Garment: Part One, Juvenile’s and Youth’s Garments, John Williamson, London.

98 Poole was Head of The Department of Clothing Trades in Leeds. Poole, B.W. (1920), The Clothing Trades Industry, Sir Isaac Pitman, London, p. 21.


100 Sheifer, N.S. (1938), The New American–Mitchell Text Book of Designing, Pattern Making and Grading, American–Mitchell Fashion Publishers, New York, pp. 100–129. This textbook explained the principles underlying the use of this method and offered examples of grading different styles.

101 Grading women’s wear by a ‘radial’ method. Berkowich Designing Academy (1904), Manual of Grading and Proportions, Berkowich Designing Academy,


New York; Thornton, J.P. (1915), The International System of Ladies’ Garment Cutting, Thornton Institute, London. Grading menswear by the radial method. Poole, B.W. (1920), The Clothing Trades Industry, Sir Isaac Pitman, London, pp. 89–95.

102 Clothing Industry Development Council (1951), First Annual Report of the Clothing Industry Development Council, Clothing Industry Development Council, London, pp. 10–11. The survey was carried out in association with the Medical Research Council, Ministry of Health, British Standards Institution (BSI), Department of Scientifi c and Industrial Research, Central Offi ce of Information (COI) and the National Institute of Economic and Social Research.

103 Clothing Industry Development Council (1952), Second Annual Report of the Clothing Industry Development Council, Clothing Industry Development Council, London, pp. 20–21.

104 Clothing Industry Development Council (1953), Third Annual Report of the Clothing Industry Development Council, Clothing Industry Development Council, London, pp. 7–8.

105 Clothing Institute (1970), Making the Point, A Report of the Clothing Institute Working Party, Clothing Institute, London. Rodwell, W. (1968), ‘Towards metric sizing’, reprinted from The Clothing Institute Journal, 16 (2–3).

106 Woodward, C.D. (1972), BSI: the Story of Standards, British Standards Institution, London. Kunick, P. (1984), Modern Sizing and Pattern Making for Women’s and Children’s Garments, Philip Kunick, London, pp. 12–13.

107 The survey was supervised by University College London and fi nanced by the Department of Trade and Industry and major retailers.

108 See some criticisms and a discussion of the survey given by Aldrich, W. (1991), Metric Pattern Cutting for Children’s Wear, Blackwell Scientifi c, Oxford, p. 15.

109 Clothing Manufacturers of Great Britain (1973), Metrication, A Report of The Clothing Manufacturers of Great Britain, Clothing Manufacturers of Great Britain, London.

110 Aldrich, W. (1997), Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear, 3rd edition, Blackwell Science, Oxford, p. 8; (2006), Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear, 4th edition, p. 8.

111 Loughborough University (1973), An Anthropometric Survey of 2000 Royal Airforce Aircrew 1970/1971, HMSO, London.

112 Wool Industries Research Association (1980), Report on a Survey of Body Measurements of Men in Great Britain Carried Out by Wira Clothing Services, Wira Clothing Services, Leeds.

113 French, G.W. (1975), ‘International sizing’, Clothing Institute Journal, 23, 155–157.

114 Winks, J. (1997), Clothing Sizes: International Standardization, Textile Institute, Manchester.

115 Winks, J. (1997), Clothing Sizes: International Standardization, Textile Institute, Manchester, p. 8.

116 ASTM Institute for Standards Research (1993), Development of Body Measurement Tables for Women 55 and Older and the Relationship to


Ready-to-wear Garment Size, ASTM Institute for Standards Reasearch, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

117 Winks, J. (1997), Clothing Sizes: International Standardization, Textile Institute, Manchester, p. 8.

118 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1978), Anthropometric Source Books, Vols 1–3, Reference Publication 1024, Scientifi c and Technical Offi ce, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC.

119 Gordon, C., Churchill, T., Clauser, C.E., Bradtmiller, B., McConville, J.T., Tebbetts, I., and Walker, R.A. (1989), 1988 Anthropometric Survey of US Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics, Technical Report Natick-TR-89-044, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts.

120 Le Pechoux, B., and Ghosh, T.K. (2002), ‘Standard sizing and fi t testing applied to women’s hosiery’, Textile Progress, 32 (1), 1.

121 Roebuck, J.A. Jr (1993), Anthropometric Methods: Designing to Fit the Human Body, Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, California, p. 3. From tailor’s records we know that the ‘average’ man at the beginning of the nineteenth century was 5 feet 6 inches tall and had a 36 inch chest, measured over his coat.

122 Gamber, W. (1997), The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades 1860–1930, University of Illinois Press, Chicago Illinois, p. 197. Daves, J. (1967), Ready-Made Miracle, G.P. Putnam, New York, p. 52.

2Creating sizing systems

A. PET ROVACornell University, USA

2.1 Introduction

Ever since clothing was fi rst produced for an unknown customer rather than for a specifi c person with known body dimensions and clothing fi t preferences, manufacturers of ready-to-wear clothing have attempted to estimate the dimensions of the garments that they must produce in order to sell them successfully (assuming correct prediction about the popularity of garments’ styles has already been established), i.e. customers will be satisfi ed with the fi t of the garments, will not return them and will consider making other purchases from the same manufacturer. When a ready-to-wear garment must be made to fi t a body closely, the problem of estimating garment dimensions leads to the problem of analyzing the population in terms of those body dimensions that are important for clothing construc-tion. The observed wide variation in body dimensions in the population inevitably raises the necessity of garment and body sizing. Dividing the population in groups with similar body measurements (size groups) so that all individuals in a size group can use a garment with dimensions specifi c to that size group is the objective of body sizing for the clothing industry. Combining two or more dimensions to describe a body begins to describe that body’s shape. When body size groups are defi ned by more than one dimension, they describe body shape as well. Body shape is also referred to as body type.

A sizing system is a table of numbers which presents the value of each of the body dimensions used to classify the bodies encountered in the population for each size group in the system (for an example of a sizing system see Table 2.1). In constructing a sizing system a manufacturer faces a major dilemma: into how many size groups should the population be divided? Obviously, if the number of size groups is large, each group will have a small number of individuals who will be similar to one another in body measurements. The garments made for this size group will then provide a very good fi t for all individuals in that size group, ultimately

57

58 S

izing in clothing

Table 2.1 Comparison between the preferred numbers and size scales recommended by ISO/TR 10652:1991 (International Organization for Standardization, 1991) for setting national sizing standards (the example is for women’s outerwear covering the upper or whole body, excluding underwear and swimwear) and the implementation of these recommendations in the national sizing standard of Japan JIS L 4005:2001 (Japanese Standards Association, 2002) (the example is for two of the four established body types at height 150 cm)

Standard Scales

JIS L 4005:2001 Type A 3AP 5AP 7AP 9AP 11AP 13AP 15AP 17AP 19AP 21AP Controls Bust (cm) 74 77 80 83 86 89 92 96 100 104 Hip (cm) 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 Height (cm) 150

JIS L 4005:2001 Type Y 5YP 7YP 9YP 11YP 13YP 15YP 17YP Controls Bust (cm) 77 80 83 86 89 92 96 Hip (cm) 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 Height (cm) 150

ISO/TR 10652:1991 Controls Bust (cm) . . . 96 100 104 110 116 . . . Hip (cm) Integral values (defi ned by the drop for the body type) Height (cm) . . . 156 164 172 . . . or . . . 160 168 176 . . .

Creating sizing systems 59

increasing customer satisfaction and therefore the number of returning and new customers. However, the benefi t of having more customers by producing a very large number of sizes is counteracted by the increased production and distribution costs. Further, it is conceivable that a large number of size groups may actually cause customers to be dissatisfi ed with the shopping experience. Confusion about size selection and the necessity to try on too many garments in order to fi nd the right size may lead to frustration and a decision to look for garments elsewhere (Reich and Goldsberry, 1993; Cheng et al., 1995; DesMarteau, 2000). On the other hand, if the population is divided into very few size groups, each group will include a very large number of individuals with a great variation in body dimensions, making it impossible for the garments produced for a size group to fi t all the individuals in that group well. Dissatisfaction with garment fi t will lead to loss of customers. Evidently, the number of sizes cannot be too few or too many because consumer dissatisfaction may arise in either case, causing possible fi nancial losses to the manufacturer in the long run.

The goal of creating a body-sizing system is to fi nd the optimum number of size groups that will describe as many shapes and sizes encountered in the population as possible and to accommodate as many individuals in each shape and size group as possible with a well-fi tted garment while allowing the manufacturer to make a profi t (Koblyakova, 1974; Winks, 1997; Brown and Rice, 1998; Yu, 2004). However, even the perfect sizing system cannot be successful if it is not communicated properly to the consumer (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1993, 1995, 1996; Wen, 1999; Kinley, 2003). If a customer is not able to identify their size, dissatisfaction will result even if the garment that fi ts the customer perfectly is available. Size designation is the method of labeling a garment to indicate the dimensions of the body for which the garment was constructed. Size designations are considered to be a part of a sizing system.

Devising a sizing system means making the following series of decisions:

1 With respect to the type of garments under consideration, how many and which body measurements must be used to classify the population (control dimensions).

2 What portion of the range of the values occurring in the population for each body dimension must be covered (size range).

3 How the range of values along each dimension must be divided into groups and how size groups must be formed (size, intersize interval or size step).

4 How many sizes must be produced and how many garments must be produced of each size (size roll).


5 Which other dimensions are important for garment construction (secondary dimensions).

6 How a garment must be labeled so that the body size for which it was designed is unmistakably identifi ed by the consumer (size designation).

2.2 Basis of existing international sizing systems:

state of sizing systems in the industry and

unifi cation of sizing

Most often manufacturers either copy already developed size charts or use size specifi cations which they have developed on the basis of knowledge about their current and former customers. Sizing systems are often created and adjusted by trial and error, relying on feedback from small consumer surveys and analysis of sales and returned merchandise reports. Changes in the dimensions of garments of specifi c sizes are made gradually, often without changing the size designation. As a result, clothing sizes may differ so much from one company to another that garments indicating the same size do not have nearly the same dimensions and, conversely, garments with the same dimensions may be labeled with quite different size numbers. In fact, often it is not clear whether the size code printed on the label refers to garment or body measurements or to which area of the garment or body in particular. Size designations can also be code numbers that do not refer to either body or garment measurements. This state of miscommunication between the consumer and the clothing industry not only renders the customer greatly confused and dissatisfi ed with his or her clothing shop-ping experience but also may induce negative feelings towards one’s own body (LaBat and DeLong, 1990). In order to benefi t both the industry and the consumer, standardization organizations (usually affi liated with a country’s government) develop and suggest the use of a sizing system designed for that country’s population by using data from anthropometric studies and applying more or less elaborate statistical methods to create a national sizing system. These systems identify the sizes and shapes in the majority of the population and for each size group tabulate the body mea-surements that are to be used in clothing construction. The size designation (label) would be in some way indicative of these body measurements so that consumers can quickly fi nd the garments designed to fi t them. For specifi c target markets with body proportions not covered by the standard sizing systems, companies may develop and use their own body-sizing systems.

Standard sizing systems are usually voluntary, and manufacturers are reluctant to adopt them. Most companies feel that they would compromise


their ‘signature’ clothing fi t if they adopt sizing systems that are the same for every clothing producer (Feitelberg, 1998; DesMarteau, 2000; Workman and Lentz, 2000). It is then necessary to stress the difference between body sizing and garment sizing: the amount of fabric added above and beyond the body dimension at various body locations, or what is called garment ease, determines the fi t of the garment and is dictated exclusively by the designer. The garment-sizing system tabulates the dimensions of the garments that will fi t the bodies in the body-sizing system after ease amounts have been set by the designer. The company-characteristic garment fi t is therefore independent of the way that the body dimensions are grouped in sizes and is completely in the hands of the designers of the company. The ease variation from one garment style to another may partially explain why garments designated with the same size may have different dimensions.

With the increasing globalization of trade the importance of size designation of clothing has increased signifi cantly (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1993; Winks, 1997). The international success of a business depends on the ability of its customers across the globe to identify the garment that will fi t them best. Responding to the changing state of the garment industry, in 1968 the Swedish member body of the International Organiza-tion for Standardization (ISO) proposed that a Technical Committee should be established (ISO/TC 133 established 1969) to develop an international sizing system for clothing (Winks, 1997). More than 30 countries participated either actively or as observers in the meetings of the committee. Despite the original intentions of the committee, the preliminary work and reports from various countries determined that the development of an international sizing system was not feasible because of the great variability among the populations. Creating a single sizing system to accommodate the world’s population would be ineffective as only a portion of the sizes would need to be used in any particular country owing to anthropometric variation linked to ethnic-ity. Consequently, the work of ISO/TC 133 focused on standardization of the elements of a sizing system and the provision of guidelines for creating a sizing system rather than establishing international standard sizes. The control and secondary dimensions that could form the basis of a size set for each garment type were established and a pictogram method for size designation of various clothing items was agreed upon (Winks, 1997).

The series of ISO standards Size Designation of Clothes specify the control body dimensions and regulate size designations for various types of garments – for men, boys, women and girls. For example, accord-ing to ISO 3637:1977 Size Designation of Clothes – Women’s and girls’ out erwear garments and its corrections ISO 3637:1977/Cor 1:1990, women’s


garments other than swimwear and knitwear that cover the upper or the whole body are to use body bust girth, body hip girth and body height as control dimensions. Each size will be designated with the control dimen-sions in centimeters of the person for whom the garment was designed. The standard label will include either a pictogram (illustration of a genderless human fi gure with the numerical value in centimeters of each control dimension printed in a bubble pointing to the position of the control dimension on the body) or, when the use of a pictogram is not practicable, the values of the control dimensions will be given following the names of the control dimensions (International Organization for Standardization, 1977).

In 1991, ISO/TC 133 published Technical Report ISO/TR 10652:1991 (International Organization for Standardization, 1991) establishing the preferred key dimensions, the preferred values and intersize intervals for each dimension, and laying out the procedure for creating a sizing system based on anthropometric data of a particular population. The report pro-vides guidance on construction of sizing systems from anthropometric data gathered in accordance with the standard ISO 8559:1989 Garment Con-struction and Anthropometric Surveys – Body Dimensions. The sizing systems provided in ISO/TR 10652:1991 are not to be regarded as a stan-dard but only as an example of carrying out sizing system construction (International Organization for Standardization, 1991). With the publish-ing of this document the goal of the ISO/TC 133 was considered to have been reached, the necessary standards for size designation, determination of control dimensions for each garment type, and the procedures for build-ing a sizing system have been provided and it was ‘now the responsibility of each country – or group of countries, such as the EU – to implement the system’ (Winks, 1997).

Several countries including England, Japan, South Korea and Hungary (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1993) have revised their size designation systems in accord with the size designation standards published by ISO. An example of a sizing system developed in accord with the procedures laid out in ISO/TR 10652:1991 is the sizing standard JIS L 4005:2001 Sizing Systems for Women’s Garments published by the Japanese Standards Association (2001). The series of standards EN 13402 Size Designation of Clothes developed by the European Committee for Standardization (http://www.cenorm.be/cenorm/index.htm) defi nes the body measurement defi nitions and procedures, the dimensions defi ning the sizes for various types of clothing, and the clothing size determination. These standards imple-ment the pictogram developed by the ISO and for size designation use a code that is to be extracted from the numerical values of the control measurements.


2.3 Proposed methods for creating sizing systems

2.3.1 Defi nitions

In the course of its work to prepare international sizing standards ISO/TC 133 compared some 100 standard size charts from about 30 countries in an attempt to establish the correspondence of sizes and to discover the common base of construction of the various sizing systems. Some major observations following this work are contained in Document 133N110 ‘Secretariat’s Report on Sizing Systems’ ISO/TC 133 (Secretariat 72) December 1976, published as Appendix 2 in the book by Winks (1997). The fi rst fi nding of this evaluation was that there is a discrepancy in the terminology used in sizing documents. To facilitate the work of the international community on sizing, the common terms and their meanings were established. Following is a description of those terms and their rela-tionship in the construction of a sizing system (for demonstration see Table 2.1 and 2.2).

The structure of a sizing system is based on the division of the population into groups with similar body measurements. The body dimensions that are used to classify the population in groups are called control dimensions or key dimensions. The primary control dimension separates the population into major size groups along the body measure-ment that is considered to be the most important control dimension for a specifi ed type of garment. For example, if height is selected as the primary control dimension, people will be separated fi rstly into height groups. Next, each size group is separated into subgroups according to a secondary control dimension – the second important control

Table 2.2 Example of a sizing system for women based on stature and bust girth (based on the work by O’Brien and Shelton (1941))

Measurement Value of measurement for Value of increase/decrease fi gure with a stature of 64 of measurement when inches and a bust girth of 36 inches Stature Bust girth increases increases by 4 inches by 2 inches

Weight (lb) 137.56 8.74 12.05Bust height (inches) 45.71 3.31 −0.20Waist girth (inches) 29.43 −0.53 2.11


dimension for the construction of the specifi ed type of garment. For example, if hip girth is selected as the secondary control dimension, the people in each height group will be separated into subgroups along their hip measurement. Determining a subgroup means setting the values of each of the control dimensions, thus defi ning a body of specifi c proportions, called body shape or body type. Subgroups can be further divided by means of a tertiary control dimension, etc. Each further subdivision of the groups defi nes in more detail the body shape of the size group.

Each control dimension is connected to a specifi c body measurement, whose values in the population vary between some minimum and some maximum; the set of values to be covered in the sizing chart is called the size range along that control dimension. If the size range is smaller than the population range (as is usually the case), some individuals will be left out of the sizing system and will not be provided with ready-to-wear gar-ments. The portion of the population provided for by the sizing system is called the accommodation rate of the sizing system. The range of each control dimension is then divided, thereby forming a set of sizes known as the size scale. The size scale depends on the increment between adjacent sizes. The increment, called the size interval, size step or size grade, can have a fi xed or variable value.

The complete set of combinations of sizes provided for each of the control dimensions determines the maximum possible number of sizes in the system. However, the sizing system does not include all possible sizes: only those sizes (i.e. combinations of the control dimensions) that are most populated and collectively achieve the predetermined accommo-dation rate are included in the size charts. The accommodation rate is typically between 65% and 85% depending on the type of garment. The accommodation rate can be estimated using the number of control dimen-sions (and thus the number of sizes) and the correlation coeffi cients between them (Koblyakova, 1980). Once the size groups are determined (i.e. the value for each control measurement in each size group is set) the values of several additional body measurements needed in the garment construction are calculated and tabulated together with the values of each control measurement in the size group. These additional body measurements are called secondary dimensions.

The relationship between two dimensions that are used to identify body type is called the drop of the sizing system. This relationship may involve either control or secondary dimensions and may be defi ned in any way that will lead to discrimination of common body shape groups in the population – different body shapes will correspond to different values of the system’s drop. For example, often the drop is defi ned by the difference between hip and bust girths for women and between chest and waist girths


for men. A sizing system may include sizing charts for each of the common body shapes encountered in the population.

The coding system for the sizes that will allow the wearer to identify the body dimensions for which the garment was produced is called size desig-nation (or labeling). The size designation method together with the size charts (which include the values of the control and secondary dimensions of each of the size groups that collectively supply a certain accommodation rate of the specifi ed population) constitute the sizing system, size roll or tariff system of the specifi ed type of garment.

2.3.2 Sizing system construction methods

There are two major systematic methods for creating sizing systems found in the literature:

1 Methods in which regular values for the intersize intervals are set according to convenience, common practice, fi t and style considera-tions, cost, etc., and the other parameters of the system are based on statistical analyses of anthropometric data.

2 Methods in which the parameters of the system are determined auto-matically through a statistical procedure set to optimize some parame-ter of the sizing system, such as the number of sizes, the accommodation rate or the intersize interval, or some function associated with the per-formance of the system, such as profi tability or garment fi t.

In the fi rst case the size groups form a predictable regular pattern along each key dimension, while in the second case the size groups may be spaced quite randomly in the space defi ned by the key dimensions.

Traditional methods

Setting up a sizing system generally begins with the collection of anthro-pometric data about the population in question. Because it is impossible to measure every single person of interest, special care must be taken to select a sample that is statistically representative of the population by fol-lowing proper statistical procedures. Sometimes anthropometric data collected for other purposes may be adapted and used for construction of apparel-sizing systems, providing the body measurements that are specifi c to clothing construction have been taken. The procedures for taking cloth-ing specifi c measurements are regulated with standards such as CS 215-58 or PS 42-70, ASTM D5219-02, ISO 8559:1989 or EN 13402-1. After body


data have been collected (Koblyakova, 1980; International Organization for Standardization, 1991) the construction of a sizing system goes through the following major steps:

1 Selection of control and secondary dimensions with respect to garment type and defi nition of body types in the population.

2 Choice of intersize intervals and defi nition of scales for control measurements.

3 Establishment of the optimal number of sizes.4 Calculation of the values of secondary dimensions.

The exact procedures during the execution of these steps may vary a little from one sizing system to another but the general process remains the same.

Selection of control dimensions

Control dimensions should be chosen so that they are able to describe the body shape of the individual for whom a garment is being made. The number of sizes is connected to the number of control dimensions and the scale of each control dimension. Since the variation in body shapes in the population is large (and continuous) the number of control dimensions needed to describe the details of the encountered body shapes increases, increasing tremendously the number of sizes needed to accommodate the population. One way to reduce the number of necessary sizes is to subject to classifi cation only the part of the body that will be covered by a garment. If a garment is intended to cover only the upper body (shirts and jackets) or the lower body (skirts and pants), or only the head (hats) the classifi ca-tion of the shapes will be easier and fewer sizes will be necessary. Thus sizing charts are prepared with consideration for the relevant garment type. Describing the shape of the body segment covered by only a specifi c garment type means that only the body dimensions involved in the con-struction of that garment should be considered for either control or second-ary dimensions.

Further, the style and fi t of the garment are also important for the selec-tion of the number and type of control dimensions. For example, ISO 3637:1977 recommends for upper- or whole-body garments to use three control dimensions (bust girth, hip girth and height) unless the garment is knitwear, or swimwear, in which case only two body dimensions are recom-mended (bust girth and height for knitwear, and bust and hip girths for swimwear) (International Organization for Standardization, 1977).

Koblyakova (1980) requires that the control measurements must have the largest (or as large as possible) absolute value in order to be representa-


tive of the basic shape of the body. This requirement can be understood if one imagines a group of objects from a great distance: the fi rst trait by which the objects’ shapes may be distinguished will be their largest dimen-sion as it will be the one that allows the objects to be detected (e.g. tall and short objects). As one gets closer to the group, the second-largest dimension will come into play in discriminating the objects and their shapes (e.g. wide and narrow objects). Still, the selection of the dimensions needs to be made with respect to the garment being designed. Koblyakova (1980) also notes that the selected control dimensions need to ‘lay in dif-ferent planes’, referring to the fact that measurements have been shown to be correlated to other measurements in the same or a parallel plane. Anthropometric studies generally show that horizontal body measure-ments (girths) correlate well with each other, that vertical measurements (lengths) correlate well with each other, but that horizontal and vertical measurements do not correlate well (see, for example, O’Brien and Shelton (1941) and Koblyakova (1974)). Therefore, having the control dimensions lie in different planes ensures, fi rstly, that the shape of the object is being described in more than one dimension geometrically (key dimensions set the margins of the grid onto which the garment draft can be developed) and, secondly, that the control measurements are not correlated with each other. Further, the control dimensions need to be selected so that each secondary dimension can be correlated well to at least one of the key measurements (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941; Koblyakova, 1980; Winks, 1997; Fan et al., 2004); this relationship will be used to construct the full set of body measurements in each size group. The full set of measurements will provide information for the creation of the patterns of the garment for each size.

Finally, it is also practical if the selected control measurements are con-venient to take (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941; Fan et al., 2004). This recom-mendation is mostly concerned with the ease and accuracy of measuring the customer in order to determine his or her size. For example, crotch length is not a good candidate for a control measurement because it is dif-fi cult and imprecise to take on a clothed person (especially on a woman who wears a skirt) and the procedure may be considered quite invasive. Furthermore, if the sizing system will use size coding based on the control measurements, the selected measurements should be familiar to the customers.

Statistical analysis of anthropometric data has been performed a number of times over the past 100 years (for historical overview of anthropometric surveys see Yu (2004)). The results of various surveys may vary from one population to another, and from year to year, but the main results about body proportions (on which the construction of sizing systems is based)


are not very likely to vary, or at least not as much as the values of single dimensions may vary. The fi ndings of anthropometric surveys together with practical and clothing-related considerations have led clothing prof essionals to adopt certain control dimensions for each major type of garments. These agreed-upon control dimensions can be found in the documents on clothing sizing and size designation published by the ISO.

In the ‘fi rst scientifi c study of body measurements used in the construc-tion of women’s clothing’, O’Brien and Shelton (1941) collected 59 body measurements from 10 042 women in the USA. Data analysis began by calculating basic statistics (such as averages, medians, modes and standard deviations, etc.) for each measurement taken. Next, bivariate distributions (for pairs of two measurements) were prepared together with their corre-sponding joint frequency distributions (how many people had a certain combination of measurements). Bivariate distributions visually hint at pairs of measurements that may be correlated. For example, the spread of the stature to weight distribution indicates that there is almost no correla-tion between these two measurements (Fig. 2.1). The distribution of bust girth to weight, however, is tightly packed around an imaginary line (Fig. 2.1), which indicates a high correlation between the two measure-ments. To establish the association between the variables a correlation coeffi cient can be computed. Comparing the correlation coeffi cients between pairs can lead to those variables that correlate with many vari-ables at the same time. O’Brien and Shelton established that the best predictors of female body shape were stature for the length measurements and weight for the girth measurements. These results were checked with further statistical analyses, such as principal-component analysis and partial correlations.

Principal-component analysis is a statistical procedure whereby a set of variables (that are expected to be correlated to some degree) is reduced to a new set of variables called principal components. The relative inclusion of the old variables into a component tends to indicate grouping of similar variables. Those variables that are included heavily in one of the principal components and excluded from another tend to have something in common. Partial correlation is calculated between two variables when one or more others are held constant.

Even when the choice of control measurements involves statistical analy-sis, the fi nal decision still may be made on the basis of practical and cloth-ing-related considerations. While O’Brien and Shelton (1941) found weight to be the best choice for constructing a sizing system, this measurement was considered problematic from a practical point of view. It was pointed out that stores and homes often do not have available scales, making the weight measurement impossible to take. It was also conceivable that women


would object to giving their weights but not their bust or waist measure-ments. So, O’Brien and Shelton thought it was necessary to consider combinations of stature with other measurements as control dimensions. The measurements that most correlated with weight were four trunk girths – bust, waist, abdomen and hip, and two limb girths – maximum thigh and upper-arm girths. The two limb girths were eliminated for practi-cal reasons; the thigh girth was impossible to measure on a clothed woman in a skirt, and the upper-arm girth did not vary enough to provide stable sizing system (a very small error in the measurement would lead to incor-rect size identifi cation). The comparison of the other four alternatives (stature–bust, stature–waist, stature–abdomen and stature–hip) with the

2.1 Bivariate distributions of (a) height by weight and (b) bust girth by weight for 6308 women in the 2004 SizeUSA study, showing a low correlation between height and weight and a high correlation between bust girth and weight

Weight (kg)

Hei

ght (

cm)

240

220

200

180

160

140

12020 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

(a)

180

160

140

120

100

80

6020 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Bus

t girt

h (c

m)

Weight (kg)

(b)


stature–weight system showed that, for example, the stature–hip system was good for lower-body shape description but not for upper-body shape description, whereas stature–waist or stature–bust gave better results for the upper body but not for the lower body (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941). These results give support to the practice of selecting different control dimensions when designing sizing systems for different types of clothing.

The choice of girths as opposed to weight had one more serious disad-vantage. Comparing the sizing systems constructed with the different com-binations of control dimensions, O’Brien and Shelton (1941) showed that the increases along the major dimensions are not proportionate overall – the increase in the control dimension corresponds to a variety of different increases in other dimensions. For example, in the stature–bust system a bust increase of 2 inches (5.1 cm) is associated with waist, abdomen and hip girth increases of 2.11 inches (5.4 cm), 2.15 inches (5.5 cm) and 1.39 inches (3.5 cm) respectively; in the stature–hip system a hip increase of 2 inches (5.1 cm) is associated with bust, waist and abdomen girth increases of 1.90 inches (4.8 cm), 2.21 inches (5.6 cm) and 2.49 inches (6.3 cm) respectively. At the same time, in the stature–weight system, this lack of balance is not observed; a weight increase of 10 lb (4.54 kg) leads to bust, waist, abdomen and hip girth increases of 1.40 inches (3.6 cm), 1.60 inches (4.1 cm), 1.71 inches (4.3 cm) and 1.20 inches (3.1 cm) respectively. The numerical dissimilarity of the weight increase is not important, fi rstly, because weight is not measured in the same units and should not be com-pared with the measurements of length in any way and, secondly, because weight is not connected to any dimension in the garment construction. O’Brien and Shelton (1941) proposed that, in order to remedy this imbal-ance of the stature–girth systems, an additional girth dimension be used as a third control dimension. For example, in the stature–bust system, separation by stature will defi ne ‘regulars’, ‘longs’, and ‘shorts’, and an additional separation by abdomen and hip will defi ne branching of people with specifi ed stature and bust girth in ‘stouts’ if abdomen and hip are larger, and ‘slims’ if abdomen and hip are smaller.

An interesting combination of hip and abdomen girths constitutes a measurement called ‘hip with account for abdomen protrusion’ used as a control dimension for anthropometric sizing in former COMECON member countries (Koblyakova, 1980; Gindev and Petrov, 1992). The mea-surement of the hip girth is taken at the level of the hip but over a vertical surface that hugs the protruding abdomen (Fig. 2.2). This represents the girth of the smallest vertical cylinder that will fi t the lower female body, i.e. the width of the fabric necessary for a straight skirt that will hang properly from both the largest protrusion in the back (hip) and in the front (abdomen). In addition, this measurement was shown to be correlated to other girth measurements better than the traditional hip measurement. It is evident that the results of the performed statistical analyses for the selec-


2.2 A measurement of the hip that takes account of the protrusion of the abdomen is used as a control dimension in the women’s sizing systems in several countries that were members of the former COMECON

tion of control or secondary dimensions must be interpreted while taking into account garment-related issues and practicality.

Once the control measurements have been defi ned, analysis of the popu-lation data is performed to establish the presence and frequency of char-acteristic body types that are defi ned by some combination of two or more dimensions (control or secondary), such as a drop value. In the example of the sizing systems proposed by O’Brien and Shelton (1941), body types were introduced into the stature–bust system by the drop value between the bust and hip (or abdomen) girth, forming ‘stout’ and ‘slim’ categories. A clear example of the way body types can be determined is presented by the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4005:2001 which follows closely the recommendations described in ISO/TR 10652:1991. The Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4005:2001 determines that the female popula-tion in Japan has predominantly four body types defi ned in the following way: type A is the body type with hip girth exhibited most frequently in a size cell with specifi ed height and bust measurements, where heights take the values 142 cm, 150 cm, 158 cm and 166 cm, and busts range from 74 cm to 92 cm at 3 cm intersize interval and from 92 cm to 104 cm at 4 cm intersize interval; type Y is the type with hip girth 4 cm smaller than that of type A; type AB is the type with hip girth 4 cm larger than that of type A (but with busts not larger than 124 cm); type B is the type with hip girth 8 cm


larger than that of type A. For each combination of body type and height the standard includes the most frequently populated size groups and defi nes them by bust and hip girths; additionally for each of seven age groups (covering the range from 16 to 79 years of age) the standard provides the average waist girth of the individuals in each bust–hip size group.

Choice of intersize intervals

After the control and secondary dimensions of a sizing system are selected and the body types encountered in the population are determined, the next step is to form size groups. Selecting the intersize interval along each key dimension and dividing the range of a measurement by this number also determines the number of sizes. So, the value of the intersize interval together with the desired accommodation range defi nes the number of sizes. Considering that all parameters of the sizing system interact with each other, several iterations of this step may need to be tested until the optimum number of sizes is reached. First, a decision is made about the range of coverage, or the accommodation rate that the sizing system will provide. By examining the spread of values in the population along some measurement, one can calculate the percentile values of the measurement. The percentile represents that cut-off value of the measurement below which lie the measurement values of the specifi ed percent of the popula-tion. For example, if the forty-fi fth percentile for male stature is 1.43 m, then 45% of the men in the population are 1.43 m or less tall. Percentiles can be used to determine the percentage of the population that will be accommodated if the minimum and the maximum values of the covered range are specifi ed. For example, in order to accommodate 80% of the population, one may design the size range to cover values between the fi fth and the eighty-fi fth percentiles or between the tenth and the ninetieth percentiles. In this case, 20% of the population will be excluded from the sizing system.

Theoretical considerations about the selection of the intersize interval relate to the concept of the ‘interval of indifference’ (Koblyakova, 1974, 1980). The interval of indifference is defi ned as that interval between sizes along some dimension that does not make a difference to the wearer. The interval of indifference is considered to be twice the average tolerance level, which is defi ned as the largest increment along a dimension that will not be recognized by the wearer. The value of the interval of indifference depends on various factors. For example, body dimensions with larger absolute values (such as stature or hip girth) will have larger intervals of indifference than dimensions with smaller absolute values (such as arm length or neck girth). Another factor affecting the interval of indifference is the property of the fabric used for the garment: greater fl exibility and


stretch of the fabric would increase the levels of tolerance, therefore increasing the interval of indifference and hence the necessary intersize interval. As an example, Koblyakova (1980) suggested a set of size steps depending on the type of garment with provision for common fabric use as follows: 6 cm for outerwear, up to 10 cm for men’s shorts, and up to 12 cm for knitwear, underwear and some special types of garments. Further, it is conceivable that the tolerance levels change with size, calling for larger size steps for the larger dimension values and smaller size steps for the smaller dimension values. Examination of the preferred size scales recommended in ISO/TR 10652:1991 shows that for height for outerwear covering the upper part of the whole body excluding knitwear the size step indeed changes when the absolute value of the dimension increases – the height step is 8 cm for women and 6 cm for girls. Similarly, one can observe that the size step for knitwear at the bust is only 2 cm for bust circumferences below 84 cm, but 4 cm above 84 cm.

Intervals of indifference are diffi cult to establish. Ashdown and DeLong (1995) conducted series of perception fi t tests and concluded that the threshold level (tolerance level) for pants may be 0.5 cm for the waist and 1.5 cm for the hip and the crotch length, although the size of the study was too small to establish statistically valid confi rmation of these values. As perception fi t tests are diffi cult and laborious to conduct, they are generally not performed for the purposes of creating sizing systems. The size steps are defi ned on the basis of practical experience, tradition and convenience. Preferably, size intervals of the key dimensions are defi ned as integer numbers, which introduces problems when converting directly between metric and imperial sizing systems (Anon., 1975). Even when different sizing standards use the same control dimensions and the same units, the use of different steps and scale starting points makes sizing systems impos-sible to compare. That is the reason why the ISO published a set of pre-ferred size intervals, sizes scales and matching points along the scales (International Organization for Standardization, 1991). If preferred numbers are used, different sizing systems can be easily aligned and their correspondence established.

Establishing the number of sizes

Determining the size interval and the range of each dimension to be covered determines a set of sizes that will accommodate the whole popula-tion. This set of sizes is determined by combining all possible values that the control dimensions can assume. From this set of sizes, only those which describe a portion of the population above a preset percentage will be selected for manufacturing, hence defi ning the number of sizes in the sizing system. Provided that the size step is fi xed, there are two ways to solve the


2.3 Geometric partitioning of weight and stature distributions to form size groups. The full range is from 30 kg to 170 kg for weight and from 130 cm to 210 cm for stature. The size interval is 5 kg by weight and 10 cm by stature

problem: one method is to look for the optimum number of sizes given the accommodation rate, and the second method is to look for the accommoda-tion rate given the number of sizes. To solve the problem one needs to analyze the anthropometric data of the population and to obtain the joint frequency distributions for the size groups defi ned by the selected control dimensions and their corresponding size steps. Determining the number of cells that will include a preset percentage of the individuals will solve the problem by the former method, while determining the percentage of people that are included in a specifi ed number of size cells will solve the problem by the latter method. The example in Fig. 2.3 shows the partition-ing of the population in size groups by stature and weight.

The number of sizes included in a system will most probably not be the same for each body type. For example (see Table 2.1), the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4005:2001 provides ten sizes for body type A with height 150 cm, busts ranging from 74 cm to 104 cm (size step 3 cm for busts below 92 cm, and 4 cm for busts above 92 cm) but only seven sizes for type Y with height 150 cm, busts ranging from 77 cm to 96 cm only (size steps being the same). This means that there were not enough individuals of type Y with height 150 cm and bust girths larger than 96 cm to justify creating a size for them.


Calculation of secondary dimensions

The secondary dimensions describe a body in the detail necessary to construct a garment to fi t that body. Analyses of the body data of the population dictated the selection of control dimensions so that they are highly correlated with the rest of the measurements, providing them with ‘predictive power’. Expressing a dimension as a function of the control dimensions allows prediction of its value reasonably well (with known error) for any specifi ed set of values of the control dimensions. The con-tribution (weight) of each key dimension into the combination representing a certain measurement is calculated by the means of multiple regression analysis using the population data. The result of the multiple regression procedure is a set of coeffi cients associated with each measurement (except the key measurements).

If the regression of a measurement on the key dimensions is linear (the relationship between that measurement and the key dimensions is best approximated with a line), there will be only one coeffi cient in the set of regression coeffi cients for each key dimension. Then the measurement is proportional to the key dimensions and the resulting sizing system will be termed a proportional sizing system. For example, O’Brien and Shelton (1941) used linear multiple regression to determine the increments of each measurement between sizes in a sizing system determined by two key measurements. In one of their examples, the authors compactly tabulated the values necessary to construct a sizing system using stature and bust girth as key dimensions. They also provided the average values of all body measurements of a ‘standard woman’ with a height of 64 inches (162.5 cm) and a bust of 36 inches (91.5 cm); this data column can be regarded as the starting point of the size scale (see an example in Table 2.2 of three of these body measurements). Two-way linear regression on stature and bust girth is used in order to determine the regression coeffi cients for each measurement. Using these coeffi cients, O’Brien and Shelton calculated the change in each measurement that will be caused, fi rstly, by a change of 4 inches (10.2 cm) in stature if the bust girth is held constant and, secondly, by a change of 2 inches (5.1 cm) in bust girth if stature is held constant. Every measurement of a woman of given stature and bust girth can be found by applying the increment for that measurement to its value for the ‘standard woman’ as many times as is the difference in stature and/or bust girth between the ‘standard woman’ and the woman in question. For example, the waist of a woman with a height of 68 inches (172.7 cm) and a bust girth of 41 inches (104.1 cm) can be found by the taking the following two steps using the values in Table 2.2:

1 The required height increase of 4 inches (from 64 to 68 inches) calls for the waist increment due to height change (−0.53 inches) to be added


(or in this case subtracted) only once to the waist of the standard woman (29.43 inches or 74.8 cm), i.e. a woman with a height of 68 inches (172.7 cm) and a bust of 36 inches (91.44 cm) will have a waist of 28.90 inches (73.4 cm).

2 The required bust girth increase of 5 inches (from 36 to 41 inches) calls for the waist increment due to bust change (2.11 inches or 5.4 cm) to be added two and a half times to the calculated waist of the woman with a height of 68 inches (172.7 cm) and a bust of 36 inches (91.44 cm) or, fi nally, a woman with a height of 68 inches (172.7 cm) and a bust girth of 41 inches (104.1 cm) will have waist of 34.175 inches (86.8 cm).

It should be noted that the success of such a sizing system depends largely on the true linearity of the regression. If the regression is not linear over the whole range of the variables, the extrapolation of the measurements from the standard point (the starting point of the table) up and down may not be accurate.

Analysis of anthropometric data for the development of the sizing systems used in the member countries of the former COMECON (Koblyakova, 1980) revealed that calculation of secondary measurements are better approximated using a quadratic rather than a linear regression function of the control measurements. A secondary measurement M was calculated as M = a + bX1 + cX2 + dX 2

2 + eX3 + fX 23, where a, b, c, d, e, and

f are the regression coeffi cients for the control measurements Xi : X1 is stature, X2 is bust girth or chest girth for men and, X3 is the hip girth with account for abdomen protrusion (see Fig. 2.2) or hip girth for men. For measurements that are approximated suffi ciently well with a linear regres-sion the coeffi cients d and f will be zero. In some cases the best approxima-tion may include cross-products of the key dimensions. For example, calculation of the secondary measurements for children’s sizing systems utilized a regression function of the type M = a + bX1 + cX2 + dX 2

2 + eX1X2, where X1 is stature and X2 is chest girth (Koblyakova, 1980).

Other approaches to constructing sizing systems

An entirely different approach to determining the parameters of a sizing system (number of sizes, size scales, size interval, etc.) is the use of opti-mization methods. The idea behind these methods is that the number of sizes is set as a parameter in the problem of minimizing or maximizing some function connected to the sizing system that is being constructed. For example, by expressing mathematically the probability that a customer makes a purchase in a given size (Tryfos, 1986), a mathematical function can be constructed to represent the expected sales of garments produced in certain sizes (Tryfos, 1986; Vidal, 1994). If the probability of making a purchase is based on the difference between the customer’s measurements and the nominal values of the body measurements provided by that size,


a function based on it may be interpreted as aggregate discomfort that builds up owing to large distances between the individuals in the popula-tion and their closest sizes (Tryfos, 1986). Minimizing the function of aggregate discomfort may be used to fi nd the optimal number of size groups and the values of the dimensions that defi ne each size group.

A novel approach for optimizing sizing systems from the point of view of garment fi t rather than profi tability was introduced by McCulloch et al. (1998). The method is set to maximize the collective clothing fi t for a fi xed number of sizes and accommodation rate. The method is based on a func-tion of distance, or dissimilarity measure, which represents how different the measurements of an individual are from the measurements of the person (let us call him or her the ‘size person’) for which the garment of a given size is designed. Garment fi t will depend on the dissimilarity of each individual and the closest size person. A loss function is introduced in order to penalize poor fi t for each individual. An aggregate loss function essentially estimates the goodness of the sizing system. Minimizing the loss function solves the problem for the location of the sizes in the space of the body dimensions. Note that the involved dimensions do not have the func-tion of control dimensions. Practically any number of dimensions may be included in the optimization procedure. As a result of the optimization the sizes are not separated by regular intervals in the dimension space (as is customary for sizing systems) unless some constraints are imposed on the process. Using this optimization approach, Ashdown (1998) compared three sizing systems with the same numbers of sizes but with different constraints (linear, two-tiered and unconstrained) and showed that the unconstrained process produces ‘scattered’ sizes that best cover the space occupied by the subjects. Figure 2.4 presents two of these sizing systems: the unconstrained system and the two-tiered system, where two sets of sizes (fi ve sizes in each) were set in such way as to keep the grade within each set proportionate to the dimensions of the system (not necessarily the same proportion). Each tier is essentially a linear system and resembles a sizing system constructed in a traditional way.

While the method ensures that the preset accommodation rate is achieved and maximum fi t is reached, the irregularity of the dimension values from one size to the next may be considered as a disadvantage mainly because of diffi culties with size designation and identifi cation. The measure of dis-tance, i.e. fi t, assumes a mathematical expression specifi ed by Paal (1997). The measure considers fi t to be perfect within some range around the ‘size person’s’ measurements (which corresponds to the concept of interval of indifference discussed previously) and to deteriorate at different rates above and below that range. It is considered as an advantage of the method that in the process of the calculations, the group of individuals not accom-modated by the system is optimized as well as identifi ed and the individuals accommodated by the system are automatically assigned their proper sizes.


However, attention should be drawn to the following problem with the disaccommodated group: in a traditional sizing system the individuals who are left out of the sizing system have some control body measurement that is either too low or too high, i.e. they are either outliers or in the tails of the population distribution. Such individuals are aware of the fact that they rarely fi nd garments in regular commercial sizes and therefore purchase custom-made clothing, alter ready-to-wear or turn to companies that

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2.4 Three-dimensional plots of (a) an unconstrained and (b) a two-tiered optimized sizing system by hip circumference, crotch length and crotch height (from Ashdown (1998))


provide special sizing. In the optimization approach the persons left out of the system may have measurements closer to the average along the control dimensions but may have been excluded from the system because no com-bination of the dimensions used in the optimization was close enough to their body measurements as a set. This means that there will be some people who despite their expectations will not be able to fi nd a garment that fi ts them.

Another method of constructing sizing systems developed by Salusso-Deonier (Salusso-Deonier (1983); Salusso-Deonier et al. (1985–1986)) – uses principal-component analysis – a statistical procedure that reduces the number of variables in the analysis (numerous body measurements) by combining those that are similar in some way into new composite dimen-sions called principal components. The nature of the extracted principal components and the association of a variable with one principal component or another varies depending on the set of variables (body measurements) selected for the analysis. The affi liation of a variable with a component is determined by looking at the loading factors of that variable on each com-ponent (i.e. the correlation between a variable and a component); the variable is associated with the component on which it loads the highest. The meaning of each grouping of variables, i.e. of each principal com-ponent, has to be interpreted by the researcher. The value of each principal component can be calculated for each subject using the loading factors of the variables. Each subject is then assigned a set of scores, one for each principal component that can be used to categorize the subject’s body shape and size. Not all extracted components need to be used: typically only one or two components that explain the bulk of the data variance are retained for classifi cation. In her analysis, Salusso-Deonier extracted 15 principal components but the fi rst two principal components PC1 and PC2 accounted for roughly 60% of the variance. PC1 was interpreted as lateral-ity (associated chiefl y with body girths, arcs and widths) and PC2 as linear-ity (associated with body heights and lengths). Salusso-Deonier used laterality and linearity to build a new alternative sizing system, namely the Principal Component Sizing System (PCSS), in the same manner that control dimensions are used for a conventional sizing system construction. The PCSS was based on partitioning geometrically the distribution range of each of the principal components PC1 and PC2 and combining the intervals to arrive at size cells of the new sizing system. The intersize intervals were selected to refl ect the slope of the regression line of the relation between PC1 and PC2. The relative proportion between PC1 and PC2 scores was used to defi ne the body type, or body frame: within each of the fi ve linearity (height) sizes, several laterality (thickness) sizes were identifi ed. The height-by-weight distribution of PCSS size cells was used to identify PCSS sizes. Given the height and weight of an individual the


corresponding PCSS size could be determined; for borderline heights and weights, bust and hip girth could be added to the dimensions used for size selection.

Salusso-Deonier applied her methodology for creating sizing systems based on Principal Component Analysis to an anthropometric study of women over 55 years of age (Reich and Goldsberry, 1993; Salusso et al., 2006) to create a recommended sizing system for this group. In 1991 and 1992, Reich and Goldsberry conducted a US nationwide study of 6786 women aged 55 years and older, taking 58 body measurements. By sorting the data by bust, weight, and height into the size cells of the current (in 1992) voluntary sizing standard PS 42-70 (National Bureau of Standards, 1970), the researchers showed that the over-55 sample was signifi cantly different from the 1940 sample (described by O’Brien and Shelton (1941)) on which PS 42-70 was based. It was recommended that new standards be introduced for the age group of 55 years and older. Using the data of the 1992 study collaborators Salusso-Deonier and Borkowski (Salusso et al. (2006)) proposed a PCSS for women 55 and older using three principal components, namely thickness, length and torso length, and tabulating 32 body measurements in 25 size cells by PC1 and PC2. Reich and Goldsberry (1993) proposed that the developed sizing system be introduced to the industry for fi t and wear testing. The new sizing standard ASTM D5586 (ASTM International, 2001b) published in 2001 tabulated body measure-ments for women aged 55 years and older using the anthropometric data of the 1991–1992 study by Reich and Goldsberry (1993) but using the fi gure types and size categories of the existing standard PS 42-70 rather than the PCSS size categories proposed by Salusso-Deonier and Borkowski (Reich and Goldsberry, 1993); Salusso et al. (2006), and was based on average values.

2.4 Changing and adjusting sizing systems

Setting up a body-sizing system begins with the analysis of the anthropo-metric data of the population for which the system was designed (called target population, or target market). The execution of every stage of the construction of the body-sizing system depends on the accuracy of the body data from the anthropometric study. Body data are used to fi nd the correlations between measurements that will uncover the best candidates for control dimensions and later to determine the values of all secondary dimensions for each size. Body data are used to obtain the values of the size intervals and the number of sizes that will provide most coverage over each dimension range in the population and to determine the joint distribu-tions that will allow for optimizing the number of sizes. It is clear that all parameters of a sizing system depend on the data on which the system was


based and consequently on the group of people who were measured. If a system is to be used by a population other than that measured originally, the system will need to be adjusted. Body data of the new population need to be gathered and compared with the original data set. The differences that are found to be statistically signifi cant need to be incorporated into the new body-sizing system. Tweaking the sizing system could include shifting the size scales in order to include individuals with measurements concentrated on either ends of the original sizing system, adding or remov-ing size groups depending on the new joint distributions, changing the size intervals to tighten the system or open it up, introducing new body types and eliminating others, etc. The problem in this case uses the same proce-dures as setting up a completely new sizing system and theoretically should not be diffi cult.

The case when the population body data of the original body-sizing system are not available for comparison is more diffi cult. Then the problem of tweaking the original system to make it serve the new target population may be solved using the ideas behind the optimization methods. The values of the control and secondary measurements for each size can be used as an initial state for the new body-sizing system. The distance from each individual in the new population to the closest size of the original sizing system can be used to construct the function that will be minimized while the set of sizes is allowed to ‘oscillate’ in the dimension space. Different constraints can be set on the iteration process. For example, the sizes may be required to move together as a set, preserving the proportions between the control measurements within a size (i.e. preserving the body type of the system), or the scales along each dimension can be allowed to vary with respect to each other if it is suspected that the body proportions need to be changed in order to accommodate the new population, etc. The proce-dure will converge onto a new adjusted set of sizes.

Sometimes it is suggested that a body-sizing system is fl awed if it is observed that the manufactured garments consistently provide poor fi t to the targeted population. Conclusions about the causes of bad fi t should be drawn with caution. Poor fi t may indeed be a consequence of an unsuitable sizing system but it can also be due to problems with garment construction.

The assumption that garment sizing replicates body sizing has channeled research in the direction of describing the human body and creating body-sizing systems, which are then transferred onto apparel to create garment-sizing systems. Garment fi t, however, depends on the amounts of ease added above and beyond the body measurements for comfort and style and these amounts are not necessarily equal for all sizes. In an ideal fi t test scenario in order to refi ne a sizing system a garment pattern can be created for each size and fi t tested and adjusted on a person that is representative


of that body size group. Once the garment patterns are adjusted for all sizes, the garment-sizing system including appropriate experimentally derived ease values will be apparent. Created in this way, the garment-sizing system will not necessarily replicate the intersize intervals of the body-sizing system that it fi ts (Watkins, 1995).

Problems with garment fi t may arise from the current industry practice of setting sizing systems, namely sizing up and down the measurements of a garment fi tted perfectly to a single person, called a fi t model, by applying the grades of a standard body-sizing system. In this way the garment-sizing system is set equal to the body-sizing system and the garment is fi tted to one individual only instead of to a group of subjects representative of the whole target population. Factors that infl uence garment fi t in this scenario include the fi t model, who essentially sets the starting point for the size scale and might not be representative of the target population, and the body size grades, which might not be appropriate for the targeted popula-tion. Also, the assumption that garment grades equal body grades might be false, i.e. ease might be size dependent and therefore the comfort and/or style ease chosen may be inadequate across different sizes, etc. In such cases the only way to evaluate the original body-sizing system is through indirect evaluation of the garment-sizing system. A closely fi tted style of garment manufactured in all sizes of the sizing system can be fi t tested by a representative sample of the target population to evaluate how well it will provide garments that fi t the population as a whole. Effectively, what is being assessed is the garment-sizing system but, since the ultimate goal of body-sizing construction for apparel is to provide well-fi tted clothing, garment-sizing evaluation is preferable. During this evaluation, one is identifying that group of subjects whose bodies fi t the created set of garments well. As a result, one will fi nd the true body-sizing system, i.e. the one that corresponds to the tested garment-sizing system. The deviation of the true body-sizing system from the theoretical body-sizing system of the target population in combination with the records of the fi t testing can be processed and the tested garment size grades adjusted to fi t the target population better.

Adjusting sizing systems for a specifi c population should provide better fi t of clothing for that population but, as with any other sizing system, the problem with size designation and identifi cation should be addressed. A clear way of communicating the dimensions of the person for whom a garment of certain size has been designed is necessary and standardization of size designation, such as that proposed by the ISO, is a highly desirable solution. In cases when the tweaked and the original sizing systems coincide by the values of the control dimensions and differ only in the values of some secondary dimensions, the label may, in accord with the recommendations of the ISO, include this additional information in order to prevent misunderstanding of the sizes.


2.5 Future trends

As the construction of sizing systems depends largely on the availability of anthropometric data, it is expected that the fast advance of body-scanning technology will have a great impact on the development of sizing systems. Body scanners not only provide realistic three-dimensional visualization of the scanned object but also allow for taking reliable measurements along and across the scanned surface using appropriate software. Whole-body scanners are developed for rapid data extraction: the scanning process takes only 5–15 seconds depending on the type of scanner and generation of a set of body measurements from the scan can take less than a minute. The ability to capture a complete replica of the body shape of a person in such a short time is very appealing for anthropometric surveys (Istook and Hwang, 2001; McKinnon and Istook, 2001; Yu, 2004).

Several anthropometric surveys utilizing three-dimensional scanning technology have already been completed: the Civilian American and Euro-pean Surface Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR) (http://www.hec.afrl.af.mil/HECP/Card4.shtml); the UK National Sizing Survey (SizeUK) (http://www.sizeuk.org/); the US National Sizing Survey (SizeUSA) (http://www.sizeusa.com/); the Japanese body size data survey (http://www.hql.jp/project/size2004/eng/); the Australian Defence Anthropometric Per-sonnel Testing (ADAPT) (http://www.unisa.edu.au/adapt/default.asp). It is convenient that taking body measurements from a scan can be achieved long after the scan is taken. If necessary, measurements can be repeated or changed if an interest in some new type of measurement arises. When measurement extraction is automated, measurements can be much more detailed than those in a traditional anthropometric study. New types of measurement can be taken that might contribute to the creation of sizing systems in the future: besides circumferences, arcs, surface areas, slice areas, volumes and angles can be extracted from the scan with great preci-sion (Yu, 2004; Loker et al., 2005).

The new ways of measuring the body and analyzing the fi t of garments from three-dimensional scans may prove useful in developing three-dimensional clothing-specifi c measures that may indicate clothing fi t better and help researchers improve clothing construction methods (Ashdown et al., 2004). Using body scan data the variability of body shapes can bestudied with more scrutiny, allowing more precise and valid body classifi cations (Connell et al., 2003; Simmons et al., 2004a, 2004b). The availability of three-dimensional scanning may open the possibility of developing sizing systems based on the new kinds of measurement gathered by three-dimensional scanning, and it may be possible to fi nd better ways of determining size grades (Ashdown et al., 2003; Newcomb and Istook, 2004; Loker et al., 2005).

Based on the number of sizes provided by a sizing system, Ashdown categorized sizing systems by placing them on a continuum from ‘one size


2.5 Sizing systems model developed by Ashdown which categorizes sizing systems along a continuum of number of sizes offered by a sizing system

fi ts all’, where a sizing system has only one size intended to fi t all individu-als by means of special garment design or material properties, through the conventional ready-to-wear sizing systems that have a limited number of sizes, through mass-customized sizing systems that offer any combination of a large number of sizes along each of many control dimensions, thus resulting in an exponential number of possible sizes, and fi nally to the ‘made-to-measure’ sizing system targeting the individual customer (see Fig. 2.5). From the viewpoint of this categorization, the future develop-ment of sizing can be seen in each category. In the ‘one-size-fi ts-all’ cate-gory, sizing will be addressed through the innovations in material technology as well as garment design. In the conventional sizing systems category, we shall probably see more development of sizing for target markets of smaller, more homogeneous populations where the variation is less and sizing systems can provide better fi t with larger accommodation rates. The future of the mass-customized and ‘made-to-measure’ sizing systems will depend on the ability of the production complex to create and distribute rapidly quality garments and on the acceptance of new models of garment purchase by the consumer, which in turn will depend on the advances and development of technologies such as body scanning, com-puter-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing systems, virtual try-on, etc.

2.6 Sources of further information and advice

Numerous references including several bibliographies about sizing and fi t can be found on the following website: http://sizingsystems.human.cornell.edu

2.7 References

Anon. (1975), Plan Ahead . . . Metrication and the U.S. Apparel Industry, Techni-cal Advisory Committee, American Apparel Manufacturers Association, Arlington, Virginia.

One size fits all

Standard size ranges

Ready-to-wear sizing systems

Made-to-measure

Masscustomization

One size perindividual

Expandedsize ranges


Ashdown, S. (1998), ‘An investigation of the structure of sizing systems. A com-parison of three multidimensional optimized sizing systems generated from anthropometric data with the ASTM standard D5585-94’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 10 (5), 324–341.

Ashdown, S., and DeLong, M. (1995), ‘Perception testing of apparel ease varia-tion’, Applied Ergonomics, 26 (1), 47–54.

Ashdown, S., Loker, S., and Adelson, C. (2003), Use of Body Scan Data to Design Sizing Systems Based on Target Markets, National Textile Center Publication S01-CR01, Retrieved from http://ntcresearch.org/pdf-rpts/Bref0603/S01-CR01-03e.pdf.

Ashdown, S.P., Loker, S., Schoenfelder, K., and Lyman-Clarke, L. (2004), ‘Using 3D scans for fi t analysis’ (electronic version), Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (1), 1–12.

ASTM International (2001a), ASTM D5585. Standard Table of Body Measure-ments for Adult Female Misses Figure Type, Sizes 2–20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2001b), ASTM D5586. Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Women Aged 55 and Older (All Figure Types), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

Brown, P., and Rice, J. (1998), ‘Sizing and fi t: the keys to competitive advantage’, in Ready-to-Wear Apparel Analysis, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, pp. 131–156.

Cheng, C.C., Chan, C.K., and Yeung, K.W. (1995), ‘A question of size: the conceptual architecture of clothing design’, ATA Journal, (April–May), 60, 62.

Chun-Yoon, J., and Jasper, C.R. (1993), ‘Garment sizing systems – an international comparison’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 5 (5), 28–37.

Chun-Yoon, J., and Jasper, C.R. (1995), ‘Consumer preferences for size description systems of men’s and women’s apparel’, The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 29 (2), 429–441.

Chun-Yoon, J., and Jasper, C.R. (1996), ‘Key dimensions of women’s ready-to-wear apparel: Developing a consumer size-labeling system’, Clothing and Tex-tiles Research Journal, 14 (1), 89–95.

Connell, L.J., Ulrich, P., Knox, A., Hutton, G., Woronka, D., and Ashdown, S. (2003), Body Scan Analysis for Fit Models Based on Body Shape and Posture Analysis, Retrieved on 15 September 2004 from http://www.ntcresearch.org/pdf-rpts/AnRp03/S01-AC27-A3.pdf.

DesMarteau, K. (2000), ‘Pre-production and CAD: Let the fi t revolution begin’, Bobbin, 42 (2), 42–56.

Fan, J., Yu, W., and Hunter, L. (2004), Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge.

Feitelberg, R. (1998), ‘Industry debate: Are sizing standards needed?’, Women’s Wear Daily, (23 February).

Gindev, G.M., and Petrov, H.M. (1992), Modelirane i Kostruirane na Oblekloto, Tehnika, Sofi a.

International Organization for Standardization (1977), ISO 3637:1977 Size Desig-nation of Clothes – Women’s and Girl’s Outerwear Garments, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.


International Organization for Standardization (1991), Standard Sizing Systems for Clothes, (Technical Report ISO/TR 10652:1991, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

Istook, C., and Hwang, S.J. (2001), ‘3-D body scanning systems with applications to the apparel industry’, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 5 (2), 120–132.

Japanese Standards Association (2002), JIS L 4005:2001, Sizing Systems for Women’s Garments, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Kinley, T.R. (2003), ‘Size variation in women’s pants’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 21 (1), 19–31.

Koblyakova, E.B. (Ed.) (1974), Razmernaya Tipologijya Naseleniya Stran – Chlenov SEV, Legkaya Industriya, Moscow.

Koblyakova, E.B. (Ed.) (1980), Osnovi Konstruirovaniya Odejdi, Legkaya Indus-triya, Moscow.

LaBat, K.L., and DeLong, M.R. (1990), ‘Body cathexis and satisfaction with fi t of apparel’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 8 (2), 43–48.

Loker, S., Ashdown, S., and Schoenfelder, K. (2005), ‘Size-specifi c analysis of body scan data to improve apparel fi t’ (electronic version), Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (3), 1–15.

McCulloch, C.E., Paal, B., and Ashdown, S.P. (1998), ‘An optimization approach to apparel sizing’, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 49, 492–499.

McKinnon, L., and Istook, C. (2001), ‘Comparative analysis of the image twin system and the 3T6 body scanner’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 1 (2), 1–7.

National Bureau of Standards (1958), Commercial Standard CS 215-58: Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Bureau of Standards (1970), Product Standard PS 42-70: Body Measure-ments for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

Newcomb, B., and Istook, C. (2004), ‘A case for the revision of U.S. sizing standards’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (1), 1–6.

O’Brien, R., and Shelton, W. (1941), Women’s Measurements for Garment and Pattern Construction, Miscellaneous Publication 454, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

Paal, B. (1997), Creating Effi cient Apparel Sizing Systems: an Optimization Approach, Unpublished Master’s, Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Reich, N., and Goldsberry, E. (1993), Development of Body Measurement Tables for Women 55 Years and Older and the Relationship to Ready-to-wear Garment Size, ASTM Institute for Standards Research, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Salusso, C.J., Borkowski, J.J., Reich, N., and Goldsberry, E. (2006), ‘An alternative approach to sizing apparel for women 55 and older’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 24 (2), 96–111.

Salusso-Deonier, C.J. (1983), A Method for Classifying Adult Female Body Form Variation in Relation to the U.S. Standard for Apparel Sizing, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota.


Salusso-Deonier, C.J., DeLong, M.R., Martin, F.B., and Krohn, K.R. (1985–1986), ‘A multivariate method of classifying body form variation for women’s apparel’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 4 (1), 38–45.

Simmons, K., Istook, C.L., and Devarajan, P. (2004a), ‘Female fi gure identifi cation technique (FFIT) for apparel. Part I: describing female shapes’ (electronic version), Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (1), 1–16.

Simmons, K., Istook, C.L., and Devarajan, P. (2004b), ‘Female fi gure identifi cation technique (FFIT) for apparel. Part II: development of shape sorting software’ (electronic version), Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Manage-ment, 4 (1), 1–15.

Tryfos, P. (1986), ‘An integer programming approach to the apparel sizing system’, The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 37 (10), 1001–1006.

Vidal, R.V.V. (1994), ‘On the optimal sizing problem’, The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 45 (6), 714–719.

Watkins, S. (1995). Clothing. The Portable Environment, 2nd edition, Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Wen, P. (1999), ‘Size matters and women are tired of guessing’, Chicago Tribune, (7 January), 11.

Winks, J.M. (1997), Clothing Sizes. International Standardization, Textile Institute, Manchester.

Workman, J.E., and Lentz, E.S. (2000), ‘Measurement specifi cations for manufacturers’ prototype bodies’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 18 (4), 251–259.

Yu, W. (2004), ‘Human anthropometrics and sizing systems’, in Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology. J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter (Eds), Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, Chapter 9, pp. 169–195.

3Sizing standardization

K.L . LA BATUniversity of Minnesota, USA

3.1 Introduction

Standard sizing is a method of classifying body shapes and providing size increments for the production of apparel. The goals of standard sizing are to ensure consistency and clarity in clothing sizes and size labels offered to the consumer and to fi t adequately a large segment of a target popula-tion. Two major types of sizing standard are tables of body measurements and size names or designations. The fi rst provides tables of body measure-ments for a segment of consumers such as women, men or children. For instance, one Canadian standard was developed for ‘the majority of Cana-dian women regardless of age’ (Campbell and Horne, 2001, p. 185). The second type provides standard language for size designations such as ‘misses size 6’. Body measurement standards are generally based on anthro-pometric studies conducted to collect in-depth information on body mea-surements of a sample representative of a population of people. The resulting body data are then segmented into sizes. Each size is a set of body dimensions that profi les a representative person within the entire size range. The resulting set of sizes is a sizing system. There can be many methods of segmenting the data into sizes. It is the task of representatives of a standards setting organization to agree on the data collected and the method of segmenting the data into sizes.

The terms ‘standard’, ‘sizing system’ and ‘specifi cation’ are often used interchangeably; however, they are different but related terms. A ‘standard’ is a published document that has been developed and established within the consensus principles of a governing standards organization. In the USA, ASTM International provides a structure for developing and updat-ing voluntary clothing sizing standards that may be used by clothing producers.

According to Cooklin (1992, p. 4) a ‘sizing system’ describes the total range of size and fi tting combinations available in ready made garments, with each system containing a number of size ranges, each catering to the

88

Sizing standardization 89

sizing requirements of a specifi c group of the population. So, a sizing system may be documented, validated and offi cially presented as a stan-dard. A standard may then be used as the basis for developing a specifi ca-tion. Specifi cations are often used by a company to specify the exact product dimensions that they want a manufacturer to use in producing a specifi c garment style. So, the company must translate the body measure-ments given in the standard into garment dimensions. The garment dimen-sions must accommodate the body but also incorporate the style of the garment including style ease.

The Annual Book of ASTM Standards (2004, p. iv) states that a speci-fi cation is ‘an explicit set of requirements to be satisfi ed by a material, product, system, or service’. To ensure that a specifi cation is followed, test methods are included for determining whether each of the requirements is satisfi ed. A fi t specifi cation typically includes a technical sketch of the garment, dimensions of parts of the garment for each size and a description of the method of measuring garments for compliance to the specifi cation. Typically clothing size specifi cations are not published by standards orga-nizations but are developed by a company to ensure quality and consis-tency in sizing of clothing that they have manufactured.

Presumably standardization can help to attain consistency by providing scientifi cally derived reliable information on body shapes and sizes that can then be used by clothing producers in developing patterns to manufac-ture clothing. The theory is that clothing produced using a standardized sizing system based on scientifi cally derived anthropometric data will provide consumers with a product that they can rely on to fi t in the same way, purchase to purchase. This consistency should reduce dissatisfaction with the fi t of apparel, increase purchases, reduce returns and heighten profi ts for producers. The inability of many consumers to fi nd good fi t in mass-produced clothing has long been recognized as a major problem in providing quality apparel products to consumers. Many studies have indi-cated that consumers are dissatisfi ed with the fi t of clothing. In fact, it is often the most important complaint about ready-to-wear clothing. A survey conducted by Kurt Salmon Associates (1998) found that 70% of women and 50% of men in the USA stated that they cannot fi nd clothing that fi ts well. Of these consumers, 39% of the women and 34% of the men were so dissatisfi ed that they were willing to pay more for custom-fi t clothing. Standardization of clothing sizing systems and size labeling has often been recognized as a possible solution to the problem; however, developing standards and encouraging use of standards are not easy tasks.

Standardization is used successfully by many industries and, indeed, is a necessity for many. An early example of an industry that had to standard-ize is the railroad industry. As railroad tracks spread across the USA, joining of segments of track required that the industry adopt the same


gauge rail and rail spacing, together with matching train wheels so that all trains could travel on tracks that were being laid across the country at great expense. Standardization for the apparel industry does not require manda-tory compliance for producers of domestic apparel across a country, as lack of a standard sizing system will not result in failure of the entire system. There is no urgency for government involvement in enforcing clothing sizing standards for companies producing domestic apparel. This may be demonstrated by the fact that the US government is no longer involved in clothing sizing standards oversight and development for domestic apparel as it was in the 1930s and 1940s.

Clothing sizing standardization may be necessary in some cases. Beyond enforcing standardization as a broad sweep requirement for the apparel industry, there are instances when standardization is essential. A standard sizing system is a necessity for some large organizations needing to supply clothing that is consistent in dimensions and in the size labels indicating physical dimensions. These organizations include the military, protective clothing manufacturers and clothing companies using numerous manufac-turing facilities.

Governments are typically involved in developing and implementing standards for military clothing. Outfi tting troops in well-fi tted garments, from work fatigues to protective clothing for combat to dress uniforms is a necessity. The military develops standard sizing for men and women in the armed services, translates the body measurement standards into specifi ca-tions to provide to manufacturers who produce the uniforms and monitors the manufacturers for compliance. Military supply stores need a reliable system to issue uniforms in an effi cient and timely manner relying on the accuracy of size labels and consistency of the dimensions of the uniforms to fi t soldiers. Military standards are typically developed from anthropo-metric studies conducted on large samples of military personnel. An example of a large-scale anthropometric study is the 1987–1988 Anthropometric Survey of US Army Personnel (Gordon et al., 1989). This survey collected extensive data on 3982 male and female soldiers. The body data are used in developing sizing systems for uniforms and protective apparel.

Protective clothing presents a special case that could benefi t from man-datory standards for the sizing of clothing. In the early 1990s the protective apparel industry was working with the American National Standards Insti-tute (ANSI) and the Industrial Safety Equipment Association (ISEA) to institute sizing standards to limit sizing problems (Kochar, 1996, p. 22). Some members of the industry were concerned that inconsistency in pro-tective coverall sizing is dangerous to the wearer. A suit that is too small may split exposing the wearer to hazards and a suit that is too large may interfere with work of the wearer. ASTM International (2002) administers one protective clothing sizing standard, ASTM F1731 Standard Practice


for Body Measurements and Sizing of Fire and Rescue Services Uniforms and Other Thermal Hazard Protective Clothing. This standard was devel-oped by ASTM’s Committee F23 on Protective Clothing. As the protective clothing industry continues to grow, additional standards for specifi c use garments will no doubt be developed.

A signifi cant issue for companies is ensuring consistency in the sizing of clothing provided by contracted manufacturers. Large companies such as Nike, Target and Federated have products manufactured by contractors all around the world. The problem for these companies is to ensure that products manufactured in China provide the same size dimensions as products manufactured in Mexico. Companies are expending great effort to control the consistency of their manufactured goods. They realize that a customer will be more satisfi ed if he or she can go to the retail store, select a size and be reasonably certain that the brand of garment will fi t the same as previously purchased merchandise. A major retailer has recently established a ‘global fi t team’ to address issues of standardizing the fi t of the apparel that the company has produced in factories around the world.

Understanding development and use of the two major types of standard is important. There are standards that defi ne body dimensions that provide a basis for standard physical size dimensions of clothing and there are standards that defi ne the nomenclature that communicates the dimensions (size) of the clothing.

3.2 Standardization of sizes

3.2.1 Purpose of standardization of sizes

Clothing sizing standards that prescribe body dimensions for production of domestic clothing are voluntary. Moore et al. (2001) stated that few apparel manufacturers actually use available publicly published standards; producers can specify in writing their acceptance of a voluntary standard, but they often depart from the standard when it is expedient. So, how are standards useful? Within the text of Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, 1970) superseded by ASTM D5585 (ASTM International, 2001a), several uses are given. The docu-ment, which presents standards for women’s clothing, states that the purpose of a voluntary product standard is as follows (National Bureau of Standards, 1970, p. 1):

‘. . . to provide standard classifi cations, size designations, and body measure-ments for consistent sizing of women’s ready-to-wear apparel. This informa-tion is provided for the guidance of those engaged in producing or preparing specifi cations for patterns and ready-to-wear garments. It is also intended to


provide the consumer with a means of identifying her body type and size from the wide range of body types covered, and to enable her to be fi tted properly by a single size regardless of price, type of apparel, or manufacturer of the garment.’

This is a very broad claim, but the NBS gave more specifi c information on the usefulness of voluntary product standards. They encouraged coop-eration in the adoption of standards by purchasers and sellers stating that manufacturers and distributors may ‘refer to the standards in catalogs, advertising, invoices and labels on their products’ (National Bureau of Standards, 1970, p. iv). This documentation of the use of a standard may provide assurance to consumers that the products offered provide consis-tent sizing based on regulation. More specifi cally a voluntary product standard can be used effectively in conjunction with legal documents such as sales contracts and purchase orders. When a standard is included in such a document, the purchaser can enforce compliance with the standard (National Bureau of Standards, 1970, p. iv). Presumably the purchaser has some type of commercial inspection or testing program that monitors compliance with the agreed-upon standard.

ASTM International, organized in 1898, is one of the largest voluntary standards development systems in the world. The ASTM standard for men’s sizes (D6240) states that the use of the standard’s body measurement information will ‘assist manufacturers in the development of patterns and garments that are consistent with the current anthropometric charac-teristics of the population of interest’ (ASTM International, 2004, p. 1059). The standard also asserts that use of the information should reduce or minimize consumer confusion and dissatisfaction related to apparel sizing.

ASTM explains standardization by giving defi nitions for the noun and the adjective ‘standard’. According to ASTM a standard (noun) is a ‘docu-ment that has been developed and established within the consensus prin-ciples of the Society and that meets the approval requirements of ASTM procedures and regulations’, while the adjective form of ‘standard’ is ‘a descriptive used in titles of test methods, specifi cations, and other docu-ments to indicate consensus approval in accordance with ASTM proce-dures and regulations’.

Reich and Goldsberry (1993, p. 3) stated that standards embody the current technical information necessary to conduct the business of indus-try in a concise, easily referenced format. Standards organizations such as ASTM and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publish standards in printed form, on computer disks, and may make them available via the Internet. Volumes of standards are issued annually to try to provide the most up-to-date information to interested industries and to the public.


3.2.2 How standards are developed

Standards are typically developed under the auspices of not-for-profi t orga-nizations, either privately run or government entities. According to ASTM International (2004, p. iii), standards are ‘developed by groups of produc-ers, users, ultimate consumers, and those having a general interest (repre-sentatives of government and academia)’. The goal of forming a ‘group’ is to have balanced representation from all areas of interest, so that one producer, for instance, may not push through a standard that places it at an advantage. In the case of ASTM, the groups are called technical com-mittees. The committees address specifi c areas; ASTM’s Subcommittee D13.55 on Body Measurements for Apparel Sizing, under Committee D13 on Textiles, writes and reviews clothing sizing standards. ASTM specifi es review of a standard every 5 years to assure that it is current in basic infor-mation and procedure. New draft standards and standards to be reviewed are sent to members of the technical committee. In voting on the standards, committee members may abstain, abstain with comment, vote affi rmative, vote negative, or vote negative with comment. The standard may go through several rounds of voting before it is accepted. ASTM International (2004, p. iv) states that technically competent standards result when a full con-sensus of all concerned parties is achieved and rigorous due process pro-cedures are followed. Once a standard is accepted, ASTM publishes it in its annual book of standards. Before ASTM oversaw US sizing standards, the NBS, a government body, was responsible for supervising US clothing sizing standards. A similar process was used under NBS which was very specifi c as to its role in developing standard PS 42-70, a standard for women’s clothing stating that its role was as follows.

1 To provide editorial assistance in the preparation of the standard.2 To supply assistance and review to assure the technical soundness of

the standard.3 To act as an unbiased coordinator in the development of the standard.4 To see that the standard is representative of the view of producers, dis-

tributors, and users or consumers.5 To seek satisfactory adjustment of valid points of disagreement.6 To determine the compliance with the criteria established in the depart-

ment’s procedures cited above.7 To publish the standard.

The National Bureau of Standards (1970, p. iv) specifi ed the role of industry as ‘initiating and participating in the development of the standard’ with further responsibility for promoting the use of the standard. The members of the NBS committee who wrote and approved the standard for women’s clothing included producers such as Jonathan Logan and


Simplicity Pattern Company and distributors including J.C. Penney Company and Sears Roebuck and Company. Consumers were represented by educators from universities and high schools. General interest from the public was represented by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the US Army Uniform Division, and the Agricultural Research Service. Representatives from these groups worked to draft the standard. After they completed a draft, the document was sent to what the NBS called ‘acceptors’, including associations, additional producers such as Levi Strauss and Company, a wider scope of distributors, and additional univer-sity and high-school educators.

3.2.3 Anthropometric studies as the basis for standards

Cooklin (1992) stated that women’s sizing systems have been based on large-scale anthropometric studies, while men’s sizing has been based on data collected for military uniforms and from years of practical experience with men’s sizing. Basing a sizing system on ‘good’ data is a necessity but the acquisition and interpretation of valid data can present problems. Most standard sizing systems available today are based on old data that do not represent current consumers. In many cases the methods used to collect the data were fl awed.

In early days of women’s ready-to-wear garments, manufacturers devel-oped their own sizing methods, leading to great variation in sizes and confusion for the consumer. Garments were often ordered through cata-logs or ladies’ magazines; thus in the 1930s the Mail Order Association of America (MOAA) provided the impetus for a large-scale study. In 1939–1940 the US Department of Agriculture sponsored an anthropometric survey that was to provide the basis for a sizing system for women’s apparel. O’Brien and Shelton, Bureau of Home Economics specialists, designed and implemented the study. With the cooperation of personnel at several universities and federal and state work project administrations they mea-sured 10 042 women in eight states.

The women measured in this study provided a large but unrepresentative sample. The women were volunteers, white and concentrated in the age range 18–30 years (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941). Relying on volunteers of one race and limited age range, this study did not represent the population of consumers at the time and is even less representative of the population today. The results of this survey were published by the US Department of Agriculture as a miscellaneous publication titled Women’s Measure-ments for Garment and Pattern Construction (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941). This publication did not provide a standard, but recommendations for use of the data. The MOAA encouraged the government to produce a standard using the data. In 1958 a standard was endorsed and published


by the government as Voluntary Product Standard CS 215-58 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel (National Bureau of Standards, 1958). The members of the MOAA used the standard to produce clothing sold through their catalogs, however, they found that the standard did not reduce returns due to poor fi t. The MOAA felt that outdated data, a sample then 20 years old, did not represent current female body proportions. The organization requested a revision of the standard.

The NBS instituted a revision of CS 215-58, but did not conduct a new anthropometric study for the basis of the new standard. Data from the old study were massaged using several sources to justify the revision. Health surveys from 1960–1962 were used as an indication that women in the 1960s were slightly taller and heavier than women in the 1940s (Stoudt et al., 1965). The revision included the use of a regression equation devel-oped by the US Air Force which determined weight per size from body dimensions to update the sizing system for apparel for female personnel (National Bureau of Standards, 1970). The revision, Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, was instituted in 1970. The revision was not a major change, but a shift in size designations as bust girth was increased by one grade interval per size code for all fi gure types, based on the information that women had become larger.

Today a version of the standard is administered by ASTM International (2001a) as ASTM D5585 Standard Table of Body Measurements for Adult Female Misses Figure Type, Sizes 2–20. This standard is believed to be the primary basis for women’s clothing produced by US companies today, although there is little documentation to prove this. ASTM D5585 was not based on a new anthropometric study but was created by comparing common practice of a number of apparel companies and some data from military anthropometric studies. One reason that a new standard based on anthropometric data has not been implemented is the major cost of con-ducting an extensive anthropometric survey using manual methods to collect data. Conducting a scientifi c survey involves careful design of the survey, identifying a representative sample including a range of ages and ethnicities from a wide geographic area, soliciting volunteers and perhaps paying them to participate, training people to collect data, pooling the data, developing a method to analyze the data that will result in useful information, analyzing the data and distributing the data to interested parties. It is not surprising that few anthropometric studies with applica-tions to clothing sizing have been conducted. Cooklin (1992) described four major anthropometric surveys conducted from the 1930s to 1968. He listed the 1930s USA survey as the earliest. England conducted a survey of 5000 women in 1951. The Hohensteiner Institute in West Germany


conducted a survey of 10 000 women in 1970 and a repeat survey in 1981–1982. The Centre Technique des Industries de l’Habillement in France conducted a survey of 8000 women in 1968 for the Federation of Clothing Manufacturers. Fan et al. (2000) listed surveys of varying scope conducted in other countries: Poland in 1955–1959, the USSR in 1957–1965, France in 1965–1966 and 1969, Japan in 1966–1967 and 1978–1981, Sweden in 1972, South Africa in 1981, and People’s Republic of China in 1987.

In addition to the surveys described by Cooklin and by Fan et al., Reich and Goldsberry (1993) coordinated a survey of 6692 American women over 55 years of age in 38 states to address fi t and sizing needs of older women. Their study resulted in the publication of ASTM D5586 Standard Tables of Body Measurements for Women 55 and Older (All Figure Types) (ASTM International, 2001b). This standard portrays body dimensions that are different from the PS 42-70 (superseded by ASTM D5585). Golds-berry (1995, p. 50) stated that most of the measurement differences in women aged 55 years and older and the PS 42-70 database related to dif-ferences in posture (spinal curvature), body carriage, height, weight and change in fl esh–muscle relocation which occur as the human female ages. These surveys were very large expensive undertakings and it took several years before published results of the surveys were available.

The cost and time involved in large-scale surveys may now be reduced owing to the increasing availability and improving technologies of body scanning. Body-scanning technologies have been developed to collect anthropometric data quickly, accurately and effi ciently. Body scanning uses white light or laser light to collect thousands of data points from the surface of the body in seconds. Surface and volume measurements can be extracted and analyzed very quickly. These new technologies have the potential of improving the fi t of clothing either through custom fi t of a garment made to the dimensions provided by the scan of one person or through large-scale body scan anthropometric studies. Body scanning eliminates some of the costs of the large-scale survey by reducing the time that it takes to ‘measure’ one person. Scanning also eliminates some of the error inherent in relying on technicians with inconsistent skills to measure subjects.

Several large-scale anthropometric surveys using scan technology have been conducted in recent years. Fan et al. (2000) credited Japan with con-ducting the fi rst anthropometric survey using scan technology in 1992–1994 when 34 000 subjects were scanned. The Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometric Resource (CAESAR) project (Society of Automo-tive Engineers, 2005) was initiated in 1997 with data collection in the USA starting in 1998, The Netherlands in 1999, and Italy in 2000. In the USA the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and automotive companies pro-vided funding for the survey, together with several clothing industry partners


including Gap Inc., Jantzen, Inc., Lee Co., Levi Strauss and Company, Sara Lee Knit Products, Sears Manufacturing Company, and Vanity Fair. Data from the study were provided to the project’s investors and are also available commercially to others. Deliverables from the study include three-dimen-sional landmarks, a data extraction tool, demographic data, documentation summaries, electronic three-dimensional scans and univariate measure-ments (http://www.sae.org:standardsdev/tsb/cooperative/caefact.htm, 2005). The company purchasing the data is responsible for determining how to apply the data to a sizing system useful for their purposes and incorporating the body information into patterns and garments.

The Textile Clothing Technology Corporation ([TC]2), a not-for-profi t organization formed to enhance efforts of the US apparel industry, pro-vided the body scan equipment and size extraction software to conduct several international sizing surveys, including SizeUSA, SizeUK, Size-Korea and SizeMexico ([TC]2, 2006). These surveys were also sponsored by apparel industry partners (Bodymetrics, 2005; [TC]2, 2006) who pro-vided funding and have access to data such as market research, standard statistical analysis of body measurements (mean, maximum and minimum, and frequency), three-dimensional shape analysis of models of selected population subsets, and cross-tabulation charts of measurements and three-dimensional body shapes (http://www.bodymetrics.com, http://www.tc2.com/news/news_mexico.html, http://www.sizeuk.org, 2005).

The new anthropometric studies are being used to prove that current standards do not represent real bodies found in populations today and could provide the basis for new sizing standards. Newcomb and Istook (2004) hypothesized that US standards for junior, missy and over 55 are based on body shapes not predominately found in the USA. They advo-cated use of SizeUSA data to revise US sizing standards stating (Newcomb and Istook, 2004, p. 2): ‘the SizeUSA sample is representative of the popu-lation of the U.S. – so results may be extrapolated to describe the entire U.S. population’. They used software that translates body measurements (bust, waist, hip, high hip, abdomen and stomach) into nine body shapes that they described as hourglass, bottom hourglass, top hourglass, rectan-gle, diamond, oval, spoon, triangle and inverted triangle (Devarajan, 2003). They found that fi gure types represented in the US standards were not the predominate shapes found in the SizeUSA data. While ASTM D5585 (ASTM International, 2001a) is characterized by the ideal hourglass shape, SizeUSA data for this size category show that 80% of the women are rect-angle, spoon or inverted hourglass shapes and only 8% are hourglass fi gure types. They also found that none of the seven size categories (junior, junior petite, miss petite, misses, misses tall, half-size and womens) in ASTM D5586 (ASTM International, 2001b) was representative of body shapes found in the SizeUSA data.


Clearly there is much work to be done if standards of representative body measurements are to be useful tools for manufacturers with the goal of leading to more satisfi ed consumers.

3.3 Standardization of size designations

Before consumers purchase a garment, they determine how a garment might fi t them by reading a size label either on the garment or given in a catalog or on a website. The label gives a designator or code that should relate to the physical dimensions of the garment or the body dimensions that are the basis of sizing the garment. The label should communicate useful information to the consumer, assisting in selecting a garment that fi ts well. The goal of standardization of size designations is consistency and accuracy in labeling so that the consumer is spared the frustration of trying on many garments to fi nd one that fi ts. This is especially crucial for catalog and internet sales. Schofi eld (2000) stated that a sizing label (such as size 12) for a specifi c garment is a form of coding that represents an enormous amount of information including the following.

1 The expected physical dimensions of the woman’s body.2 The proper amount of ease (of all kinds).3 The standards of fi t for that garment and that style (Schofi eld, p. 35).

Do current size designation methods communicate useful information to the consumer? In the USA, a system that is not based on body measure-ments and that has evolved over time leads to confusion and frustration for consumers. Size designators for USA produced women’s apparel origi-nated in early sizing charts that included suggested age (Workman, 1991). The 1894 Ladies Standard magazine defi ned four sizes and labeled them for ages 10–16, while The 1902 Edition of the Sears, Roebuck Catalog (1969, p. 1062) defi ned misses garments, giving age and weight and stating that they were for ‘ages 12 to 18 years only’. Through the decades, these sizing designators have changed so that today there is no relationship to the age of the person wearing the garment. Yoon and Jasper (1994) found that the 1900s body measurements for misses size 14 and juniors size 13 were very close to 1991 body measurements for misses size 2 and juniors size 1. Size designators used for US women’s standards have changed with each revision slipping the size code down a notch, so that the body dimen-sions related to a size code for the current ASTM standard are larger than they were for the fi rst NBS standard. For example, the NBS 1958 sizing standard designated a 31.5 in bust for a misses size 8; in the NBS 1970 standard the same bust dimension was a misses size 6; and in the current ASTM standard a 32 in bust is a misses size 2.


European size designations also do not relate directly to body size. Cooklin (1992) explained how size designations were developed in Europe. The French company, Stockman Ferries, made workroom stands or forms to exact measurements of each of their clients. At the end of the nineteenth century they started to make standard workroom stands using years of knowledge about clients’ body shapes and sizes. They determined that a bust size of 88 cm was the most common. Forms were made in two sections; so they labeled the 88 cm bust as a size 44. A 4 cm increment for the half-bust measurement size to size resulted in an even-number size designator system: 42, 44, 48 and so on.

The British have worked to improve and clarify size designators. BS 3666 for womenswear, reproduced in the book by Taylor and Shoben (1990) stated that ‘the primary purpose of British standards is to establish a size designation system that indicates (in simple, direct and meaningful manner) the body size of the person that a garment is to fi t’. A disclaimer of sorts is given as the document also states that the system will facilitate the choice of garments that fi t, if the shape of the woman’s body (as indicated by appropriate dimensions) has been accurately determined (Taylor and Shoben, 1990, p. 21). The British size designations are based on body mea-surements. The standard specifi es a size code and then relates the code to a set of body measurements. For instance a size 8 represents hip circumfer-ence from 83 cm to 87 cm and bust circumference from 78 cm to 82 cm. However, the standard does not promote the use of size codes, but the use of pictograms (simple fi gure drawings with measurement placements indi-cated) and body measurements. The standard provides examples of picto-grams with suggested key measurements for women’s garments: jacket, coat or dress, slacks, cardigan, skirt, brassiere, pyjamas, girdle and sports shirt.

The opening of the European Common Market in 1992 prompted further work on sizing standards to eliminate confusion of sizing nomenclature between European countries (Mellian, 1991). The ISO became involved in trying to develop an international standard for labeling clothing (Winks, 1997). In fact, attempts at developing an international sizing system started much earlier. French (1975), of the Clothing Manufacturer’s Federation, detailed a long history of trying to develop international standards with the involvement of the ISO. He stated (French, 1975, p. 155) that a sugges-tion of developing an international system was made in 1969 by Sweden. His explanation of the efforts of many people from many countries, the diffi culties that they encountered in reconciling differences and the result-ing suggestions for standardization shed light on just how diffi cult the process is. French stated (1975, p. 160): ‘It seems quite incredible to many of us that it has taken six years to develop these standards and I suspect that it will be some time in 1976 before any international standards are refl ected by British Standards in the United Kingdom’.


The Japanese Industrial Standards Committee, as part of the Japanese Standards Association (1990), developed a standard size-labeling system (JIS L 0103: 1990) that describes garment size according to measurements of the garment, and not with body measurements (Japanese Standards Association, 1990). In 1990 the Korean Standard Association (1990) devel-oped a size-labeling system (KS K 0051) that gives three key body measure-ments that relate to the garment size; for example ‘88–90–165’ translates to a bust of 88 cm, a waist of 90 cm and hips of 165 cm.

Despite the efforts to provide standards for labeling clothing sizes, apparel companies often use their own unique methods of indicating sizes to the consumer. US apparel companies use different body dimensions for the same size designator (Gioello and Berk, 1979; Delk and Cassill, 1989; Fellingham, 1991) and companies change measurements over time. Apparel researchers and manufacturers are quite aware of the use of ‘vanity sizing’, downsizing the numerical size label to play to the consumer’s vanity or sensitivity about body size and the desire to be trim and slim. Chico’s, a 400-store chain based in the USA that markets to women aged 35–55 years, has developed a size designator system that is distinctly different from designations given in the ASTM standards. Chico’s labels garments from 0 to 3, with a 3 equivalent to a misses 14–16. The loyal Chico’s customer is accustomed to the size label system and may prefer this variation of ‘vanity sizing’ offering very small numbers unrelated to other apparel sizing systems to indicate the clothing dimensions.

As with standards development for the physical dimensions of clothing, labels indicating the sizes of garments are not ‘standard’ and are not regu-lated. In fact, companies developing labeling methods unique to them and possibly used as marketing tools may become more common as clothing companies develop new methods to provide well-fi tting clothing to a diverse population. There are many indications that this is already happening, as more companies develop sizing systems based on the new data available from body scan anthropometric studies such as SizeUSA (Morris, 2006).

3.4 International sizing standards

International trade is continuing to expand, with the result that apparel companies around the world produce clothing and market beyond their borders. Adopting a worldwide clothing sizing standard, especially for body size dimensions, is diffi cult if not impossible, given the wide variation in body dimensions and cultural diversity in shopping and product expecta-tions. However, being aware of and understanding sizing systems used in other countries is important, and the development of methods of communicating the size of a garment whether at the local, national or international level would benefi t both the industry and consumers. A


company marketing to a country other than its own would benefi t from having access to data that describe body sizes and shapes of the target market population in as much detail as possible.

Beyond the standards of countries described above, other countries have also worked toward developing sizing standards. While this chapter does not provide a comprehensive overview of all countries with standards, a sampling of standards developed around the world provides some insight into the complexity of developing an international standard. In Germany, DOB-Verband (1983) (the women’s outer garment association) published a sizing system in 1983 which identifi ed nine fi gure types with height by hip as the key dimension. Hungary developed its sizing system using height and body build with three key body measurements to further defi ne the system (Offi ce of Hungarian Standards, 1986). The Korean Standards Association (1990) uses fi ve height groups to describe its sizing system. Wacoal, a lingerie manufacturer, collected anthropometric data in Thai-land in 1981 and 1987 and published size standards for women in Thailand that includes information on women’s preferred sizes (Martin, 1987). As apparel is manufactured and marketed around the globe, the complexities of developing standards increases.

The People’s Republic of China, with trade revenues exceeding US $1.1 trillions, is the third-largest trading partner in the world, behind the USA and Germany (Zhang, 2005). China’s increasing participation in world trade, especially in apparel and textile products, means that China’s understanding of the fi t, sizing and standardization issues of other coun-tries is crucial and, as other countries want to market apparel to this huge new consumer market, there is need to have reliable data on body shapes and sizes of the Chinese people. Zhang (2005, p. 42), vice director of the division of standardization at the Shanghai Municipal Bureau of Quality, stated: ‘Today in China, standards are valued by the government and society as a whole and will most likely be the next hot area in China’s exchange with the world’. However, Zhang also stated that there are a number of problems in the development of standards by China; exces-sively long development times, a low number of standards in place, and a poor rate of standards implementation, coupled with a lack of research in standardization efforts (Zhang, 2005, p. 42). She encouraged China to became involved in standards development to be in tune with their participation in the world market. China began to develop apparel sizing standards in 1974 and implemented a standard (GB 1335-81) in 1981 that was updated in 1991 after a 1987 anthropometric survey of 14 000 subjects (Fan et al., 2000). Making these standards readily available to apparel producers around the world will be crucial. There is some effort in this direction as ASTM International and the Standardization Admin-istration of China signed a memorandum of understanding in 2004 that


pledges the organizations will cooperate in the development of respective standards.

Two standards-setting organizations are vying for the opportunity of coordinating worldwide standards. The ISO has long been recognized as an arbiter of standards development and acceptance in many countries. ISO is readily recognized with widespread implementation of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 management system standards being used by many compa-nies around the world. ISO currently publishes several size designation standards for men’s, women’s and children’s clothing in categories such as outerwear, underwear and nightwear. The International Organization for Standardization (1991) also published Standard Sizing Systems for Clothes, Technical Report ISO/TR 10652: 1991, which classifi es body types into A type (drop value of at least 9 cm), M type (drop value of 4–8 cm) and H type (drop value of 3 to 4 or more cm), providing yet another method of organizing sizing data.

ASTM International is also striving to become the recognized world leader in international standards development. ASTM has 132 standards-writing committees and publishes standards for diverse products from iron and steel to textiles. ASTM currently administers eight standards related to clothing sizing standardization. All these standards are based on US body data and data collection methods. While current ASTM sizing stan-dards are based on US anthropometric data, the push to become interna-tional in scope may mean that ASTM will more fully participate in developing international sizing standards.

The need for an international standards organization is not in developing a worldwide standard with a one-size-fi ts-all agenda, but to coordinate and make available body measurement data from all the countries wanting to participate in world trade of apparel.

3.5 Future trends

While standards may be developed as guides for manufacturers, compli-ance to any one standard for clothing sizing will be diffi cult if not impos-sible to achieve. Staples (1994) reported on a study that was conducted to compare US Army women’s body dimensions with sizing systems used by apparel manufacturers; 40 companies provided their sizing charts for the study. Staples stated (1994, p. 1): ‘It became very clear, very quickly, that there is no ‘standard’ commercial practice’. She stated that sizing is most often used as a marketing tool, especially evident with companies selling at higher price points using ‘vanity sizing’ labeling with lower-numbered size labels.

The apparel industry has not been successful in standardizing sizing systems, although there have been numerous attempts. There is controversy


as to the benefi ts and drawbacks of standardization. Clearly consumers are frustrated trying to fi nd clothing that fi ts, but mandating a uniform system may actually decrease satisfaction for consumers who do not fi t a scientifi cally derived sizing profi le. Many consumers have identifi ed apparel brands that represent their body size and type and rely on that brand to provide apparel that consistently fi ts them. For example, as an apparel consumer shopping for jeans I may know that Liz Claiborne jeans will fi t me better than Levi jeans. I can narrow my search and save time by shopping for labels that have fi tted me in the past. A successful strategy for apparel companies may be identifying their customer, develop-ing sizing systems and labels that target the customer, clearly communicat-ing the sizing system and maintaining consistency in labeling and sizing of products.

New technologies such as body scanning facilitate anthropometric studies with the compilation of huge data sets. New methods are being developed to analyze the data from the scans, which could lead to improved sizing systems. As more countries participate in anthropometric studies using scan technology, methods could be developed to share information quickly across borders, facilitating developing sizing systems that will provide better fi t of apparel for people in all countries. Although the promise of mass customization to provide custom fi t for the individual has not yet materialized as predicted many years ago, technologies continue to evolve and become more sophisticated. Some companies are fi nding success in providing custom fi t of apparel which could eliminate the need for sizing standards. However, a better understanding of differences and similarities of human bodies and standards to defi ne sizing systems for specifi c target markets and to simplify communication of sizing will facilitate improved design and production of apparel.


ASTM International100 Barr Harbor DriveWest ConshohockenPA 18428-2959USATel: 610/832-9585Fax: 610/832-955Web: http://www.astm.orgTechnical committees and subcommittees: Committee D13 on Textiles, Commit-

tee F15 on Consumer Products, Committee F13 on Pedestrian/Walkway Safety and Footwear, Committee F23 on Protective Clothing

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)ISO Central Secretariat


International Organization for Standardization (ISO)1 rue de Varembé, Case postale 56CH-1211 Geneva 20SwitzerlandTel: +41 22 749 01 11Fax: +41 22 733 34 30Web: www.iso.orgPublishes standards under the categories of ‘clothes’ and ‘clothing industry’

[TC]2

211 Gregson DriveCaryNC 2751USATel: 919.380.2156Toll Free: 800.786.9889Fax: 919.380.2181Web: www.tc2.orgProvided organization and body-scanning technology for SizeUSA

BodymetricsTel: 0870 0542052Web: www.bodymetrics.comDistributor for SizeUK data

SizeUKWeb: www.sizeuk.orgWebsite for UK sizing survey

Shape Analysiswww.shapeanalysis.comDelivered the scanning infrastructure for the National Sizing Survey (SizeUK)

Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometric Resource (CAESAR)Web: www.sae.orgThe SAE provides a fact sheet on the CAESAR anthropometry project

3.7 References

ASTM International (2001a), ASTM D5585 Standard Table of Body Measure-ments for Adult Female Misses Figure Type, Sizes 2–20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2001b), ASTM D5586 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Women 55 and Older (All Figure Types), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.


ASTM International (2002), ASTM F1731 Standard Practice for Body Measure-ments and Sizing of Fire and Rescue Services Uniforms and Other Thermal Hazard Protective Clothing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2004), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 07.02, Tex-tiles, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

Bodymetrics (2005), Welcome to the UK National Sizing Survey by Bodymetrics, Retrieved on 24 September 2005 from http://www.bodymetrics.com/TeamText-FrameDotCom.htm.

Campbell, L., and Horne, L. (2001), ‘Trousers developed from ASTM D 5586 and the Canada standard sizing for women’s apparel’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 19 (4), 185–193.

Cooklin, G. (1992), Pattern Grading for Men’s Clothes, Blackwell Scientifi c, London.

DOB-Verband (1983), Women’s Outer Garment Size Chart, DOB-Verband, Cologne.

Delk, A.E., and Cassill, N.L. (1989), ‘Jeans sizing – problems and recommenda-tions’, Apparel Manufacturer, 1 (2), 18.

Devarajan, P. (2003), Validation of Female Figure Identifi cation Technique (FFIT) for Apparel Methodology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina.

Fan, J., Yu, W., and Hunter, L. (2000), Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge.

Fellingham, C. (1991), ‘Whose body is this for anyway? The secrets of a perfect fi t’, Glamour, 89 (August), 159–160.

French, G. (1975), ‘International sizing’, The Clothing Institute Journal, 23, 155–162.

Gioello, D.A., and Berk, B. (1979), Figure Types and Size Ranges, Fairchild Pub-lications, New York.

Goldsberry, E. (March 1995), ‘Improving apparel sizing for older consumers’, ASTM Standardization News, 23, 48–50.

Gordon, C., Clauser, C., Churchill, T., Bradtmiller, C., McConville, J., Tebbetts, I., and Walker, R. (1989), 1987–1988 Anthropometric survey of US Army Per-sonnel: Methods and Summary Statistics, Technical Report Natick/TR-89-044, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts.

International Organization for Standardization (1991), Standard Sizing Systems for Clothes, Technical Report ISO/TR 10652, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

Japanese Standards Association (1990) JIS L 0103: 1990, General Rule on Sizing Systems and Designation for Clothes, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Kochar, P. (1996), ‘The impact of standardization on limited-use coveralls’, Occupational Health and Safety, 65 (7), 22–24.

Korean Standards Association (1990), KS K 0051 Sizing System for Women’s and Girls’ Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Kurt Salmon Associates (1998), Annual Consumer Outlook Survey Results, Kurt Salmon Associates, New York.


Martin, R. (1987), Size Standards of Thai Women, Brochure, Wacoal Human Science R&D Co. Shanghai.

Mellian, S. (1991), ‘Uni-sizing Europe’, Apparel Industry Magazine, 52 (9), 82–87.

Moore, C.L., Mullet, K.K., and Young, M.P. (2001), Concepts of Pattern Grading, Fairchild Publications, New York.

Morris, K. (2006), ‘Changing shape of an industry’, Newsday, Section A, 1 May, 32–34.

National Bureau of Standards (1958), Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, Voluntary Product Standard CS 215-58 National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Bureau of Standards (1970), Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

Newcomb, B., and Istook, C. (2004), ‘A case for the revision of U.S. sizing standards, Journal of Apparel, Technology, and Management, 4 (1), 1–6.

O’Brien, R., and Shelton, W. (1941). Women’s Measurements for Garment and Pattern Construction, Miscellaneous Publication 454, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

Offi ce of Hungarian Standards (1986), MSZ 6100/1-86 Sizing System for Women, Hungarian People’s Republic State Standards, Budapest.

Reich, N., and Goldsberry, E. (1993), ISR (Institute for Standards Research) Project for the Development of Body Measurement Tables for Women 55 Years and Older and the Relationship to Ready-to-wear Garment Size, ASTM Insti-tute for Standards Research, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Schofi eld, N. (2000), Investigation of the Pattern Grading Assumptions Used in the Sizing of U.S. Women’s Clothing for the Upper Torso, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota.

Sears, Roebuck (1969), The 1902 Edition of the Sears, Roebuck Catalog, Crown, New York.

Society for Automotive Engineers (2005), CAESAR fact sheet, retrieved on 14 September 2005 from http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/tsb/cooperative/caefact.htm.

Staples, N.J. (1994), A Comparison of U.S. Army and U.S. Commercial Misses Anthropometric Body Dimensions, Report DAAK 60-94-p-014, Clemson Apparel Research, Pendleton, South Carolina.

Stoudt, H., Damon, A., McFarland, R., and Roberts, J. (1965), National Health Survey 1962: Weight, Height and Selected Body Dimensions of Adults, United States 1960–1962, Public Health Service Publication 1000, Series 11, No. 8, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

Taylor, P.J., and Shoben, M. (1990), Grading for the Fashion Industry, 2nd edition, Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.

[TC]2 (2006), ‘Body scanning in Guadalajara, Mexico’. [TC]2 Newsletter, retrieved on 20 March 2006 from http://www.tc2.com/newsletter/arc/061505.html#tc2.

Winks, J. (1997), Clothing sizes: International Standardization, The Textile Insti-tute, Manchester.

Workman, J. (1991), ‘Body measurement specifi cations for fi t models as a factor in clothing size variation’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10 (1), 31–36.


Yoon, J. and Jasper, C. (March 1994), ‘The development of size labeling systems for women’s garments’, Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, 18, 71–83.

Zhang, L.H. (2005), ‘Standards: the new focus in China’s exchange with the world’, ASTM Standardization News, 33 (8), 42–45.

4Sizing systems, fi t models and target markets

J. BOUGOU R DUniversity of the Arts London, UK

4.1 Introduction

Clothing is one of the larger retail sectors, representing £30 billion (*42 billion) in the UK, and US$173 billion in the USA in 2004. Experts estimate that global textile and apparel consumption reached US$984 billion in 2002. There are many challenges in this sector. One is a long-term shift of infl uence from producer to consumer; another is the high level of garment returns. The prime reason for this return of goods by dissatisfi ed customers is poor fi t. It is important to grasp the opportunity offered by new tech nology if industry is to address these challenges. In this chapter we explore the contribution made by the fi t model to the cycle of product development, production and customer service. A variety of new technologies are begin-ning to provide accurate size and shape data throughout that cycle. The result is improvements in existing sizing practice, the selection of fi t models and the fi t of garments. However, at present, large segments of the population are regularly unable to fi nd the right fi t for the products that they like, because many fashion designers, retailers and manufacturers tend to build their products around stereotypical consumers. In doing so they neglect sig-nifi cant and expanding consumer segments with differing morphologies: ethnic groups with different morphologies, consumers aged over 60, and extra-large sizes which are increasingly common in affl uent societies. What becomes evident is that, with the information provided by new technologies, the industry not only has the opportunity to avail itself of accurate anthro-pometric data to characterise consumer morphologies, but also to relate that information to well-defi ned and specifi c target markets.

4.2 The apparel product development and

production processes

In order to understand the relationship between a target market, sizing systems and the fi t model it is necessary to take note of the key activities

108

Sizing systems, fi t models and target markets 109

involved in the apparel development and production process (Table 4.1). This process typically consists of a number of iterative stages, each with an evaluative outcome that informs and shapes the next. In this discussion, emphasis has been placed on a temporal sequence of apparel evaluation within the process and the implication for the fi t model, but it is important to recognise that the process is in fact both cyclical and iterative, and also that the activities listed may vary according to the size of the company and the nature of its products.

The fi nal stage, consumption, is essential; if the target market and cus-tomer profi le has been appropriately identifi ed, then an expected outcome may be high sales, low returns and repeat sales. If, however, returns, com-plaints and warehouse stocks are high, then insuffi cient attention may have been paid to the monitoring and analysis of consumer responses, prefer-ences and needs. The following section explores some of the ways in which markets can be identifi ed and customers profi led.

4.3 Marketing

The 1930s saw the rise of a mass market for ready-to-wear clothing, but it was not until the decade following the Second World War that there was a rapid expansion of mass consumer clothing in the advanced industrial nations (Majima, 2003). It was at this time that marketing in the modern sense (an approach combining customer focus with an investigation of customer needs) emerged on the scale now evident in the clothing industry. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defi nes the concept of marketing as a management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfy-ing customer requirements profi tably.

4.3.1 Target market

A target market is a subset of a population; the term is used to denote a target at which a company will aim its marketing efforts. The identifi cation of target markets in the apparel industries is infl uenced by changes in the environment, by the market mix and by the way in which a company com-piles its segmentation strategy.

4.3.2 The apparel industry environment

All market environments, including apparel, need to be monitored for change at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. Single-apparel compa-nies generally have little control over changes on the macroscopic level, and these changes may affect sizing and fi t in the ready-to-wear market. Typical changes in the macroscopic market environment may include the following.

Table 4.1 An outline of the traditional apparel development and production process

Problem Monitoring Anthropometric data exploration Analysis Target market and customer profi le Selection New techniques Fashion trends Materials Sole usage system

Generation of Primary creation Experimental design solutions Creation of new designs Selection

Prototype Preparation Shape profi le, sizing shape system, size chart Body measurements, sizing system, size chart Block pattern Dress form Realisation and Generation of pattern evaluation Assembly specifi cation Apparel product in relevant sample size Initial material and manufacturing costs Evaluation of design sample on dress form (white seal) Production of For fi t approval (red seal) further preproduction sample

Production Preparation and Graded patterns and costings approval of Evaluation of graded samples graded sizes on fi t models. Wear test if appropriate (blue seal) Material markers; labour and material costings Specifi cations for materials, size, manufacture, labelling and packaging, specifi c cutting instructions (e.g. one-way fabrics), size and colour apportionments planning and scheduling Approval of Evaluation of production samples production on fi t model (gold seal) samples

Communication Promoting the Fashion show product National advertising In store or online catalogues Consumer product Label, swing ticket, hanger or information package (size, shape, colour, material and aftercare)

Consumption Monitoring, analysis Sales and evaluation Consumer feedback Returns Repeat sales


1 Long-term population shifts within countries, due to economic or immigration policies, such as the increased number of workers in the UK from former Iron Curtain countries, many of whom are reported as living in London and the south east of England (The Independent, 2005).

2 Increases in (or redistribution of) population by age, as is happening in advanced economies, such as Japan, where there will be one retired person to be supported by every two workers by the year 2025 (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005), the UK, where approximately 44% of the population will be of pensionable age in 2031, and similarly in the USA, where ‘the mature market’, i.e. consumers over 50 years of age, will be one in three by 2020 (Jones, 1999).

3 Shifts in diversity of race, as in the USA, where American demograph-ics expert Rebecca Gardyn anticipates that the percentage of white non-Hispanics will fall to 62% in 2025 whilst, in the UK, levels of non-white population are only approximately 8% but nevertheless represent 4.6 million people (The Independent, 2005).

4 Social and cultural changes, such as the increase in heavier and larger people in industrial societies caused by an overdependence on cars, sedentary occupations and an abundance of a variety of high-calorie foods. Almost two in three adults in the USA are overweight, and a calculation of the body mass index (BMI) of the average man and woman in the UK indicates that they are on the cusp of the normal–overweight category (Fig. 4.1).

5 Shifts in consumer expectations. A decade of price defl ation is expected to continue, as consumers spend less, expect more quality and call for

4.1 Female BMI types: the fi gure types are (from left to right) underweight, normal, overweight and obese (source: SizeUK, http://www.fashion.arts.ac.uk/SizeUK.htm)


better ideas (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005).

6 Shrinking lead times (from 46 weeks to 9 weeks), the recent quota debate, import penetration, falling sales due to decreases in clothing expenditure per head, war or terrorist attacks, which all have implica-tions for marketing.

7 Continuing technological advances which also affect marketing. In particular, the impact of three-dimensional (3D) body-scanning and visualisation systems on ready-to-wear, mass customisation, made-to-measure and e-tailing apparel. These technological developments have major implications for the apparel industry.

On a microscopic or local scale the company will be concerned with issues within its own control. What was once the supply chain is turning into a demand chain; the demand chain will require that fi rms in the chain cooperate with one another to establish working relationships between departments as they develop marketing strategies and support both suppliers and distributors. A further aspect of the microscopic environ-ment is the need to identify competitor companies, their target markets and market shares, with a view to identifying market gaps or opportunities for product differentiation. The fi nal element is the monitoring of customer needs and behaviours that may be directly related to product sizing, per-centage returns and the need to reduce costs. These issues would ideally be embedded in the market mix and segmentation strategy. However, both macroscopic and microscopic issues impact on sizing and fi t. Misfi t is iden-tifi ed as the primary reason for garment returns and misfi t causes women to leave garments hanging in the closet (Texas Agricultural Extension Service, 1999). The annual cost of misfi t problems is *6.7 billion in Germany, and US$28 billion in the USA (Heyd, 2004).

4.3.3 The marketing mix

Fashion apparel can be seen as distinct from other areas of marketing because retailing in this sector requires a high degree of responsiveness and innovation, together with a constant monitoring of fashion predictions, materials, changing customer needs and expectations (Jackson and Shaw, 2001). Pivotal to the success of an organisation is the supply of appropriate product and service benefi ts, through a market mix. This mix, initially conceived as a simple ‘4P’ structure (where 4P represents product, price, promotion and place) now extends into a subtler array of factors for con-sideration when a company sets out to differentiate a market more accu-rately in attempting to provide an effective service to an increasingly discerning customer (Table 4.2).


An optimum mix will vary between types of market and product offer and, as discussed in Section 4.3.2, will take account of fl uctuations experi-enced in the business or marketplace. The aim of effective marketing is to provide the consumer with an image that clearly distinguishes the company store or brand from its competitors.

It is of essence that the factors making up the marketing mix should be coordinated and that the customer’s experience should not suggest that marketing, production, distribution and service are in confl ict. An image of quality must be supported by an experience of customer service and not undermined by discounting; aggressive promotion must be supported by ready availability of stock. Where Table 4.2 refers to ‘customers’ it is also vital that the company concerned should have shaped the marketing mix (design, price and presentation) to appeal to and to be accessible to the target customer.

4.3.4 Strategies for segmenting the apparel market

The dynamics of fashion as an institution to regenerate demand have been widely explored and, by the 1980s, market segmentation as a strategy for

Table 4.2 Shaping the marketing mix (cf. Omar (1999), Jackson and Shaw (2001) and Cox and Brittain (2004))

Clothing fashion The complete package of benefi ts acquired by the product customer. Design; range of merchandise (sizes, shapes, colours, fabrics, etc.); technologyImage and This is separated for consideration because it applies not ambience only to the product but also to its promotion, the people encountered by the customer and the way that the goods are presentedGarment price The price paid by the customer, seen in the context of market competition, costs and profi t marginsPromotion of Advertising, labelling, packaging, promotional incentives, product conveying image and ambienceChannels Where the product is made available to the customer.

Accessibility: store location, online sales, mail order,personal selling

The people Customers, suppliers, retailing staff. A potentially involved important factor here is the quality of the advice or support that sales staff can give to a customerProcess The intended customer experience, customer service,

sales incentivesPresentation Presentation of the product through available channels of

communication. All the evidence available to the consumerFeedback Monitoring of sales and customer satisfaction and

continuing modifi cation both of short-term performance and long-term strategy


product differentiation was intensifi ed, resulting in a cyclical product in each segmented submarket (Majima, 2003). A population consists of many different groups with a wide range of needs, and it is not possible for a company to accommodate all needs for all groups; segmentation is there-fore a more effective means of defi ning a target group. Segmentation is a way in which markets can be divided into subsets of customers, any of which can be selected or grouped as a target to be satisfi ed with a distinct retail mix. However, Easey (2002) cautioned that, whilst there is no pre-ferred way in which to divide a market, it is nevertheless important that the basis selected for segmentation should relate directly to the needs of customers. While there is a consensus on the basis for segmentation, some fashion market writers and researchers have extended some categories; others draw distinctions between, fi rstly, descriptive or a priori segmenta-tion categories and, secondly, benefi t or a posteriori segmentation approaches (Easey, 2002; Mumel and Prodnik, 2005). The challenge for the future is seen as the need to respond to a richer mix of consumer seg-ments. The authors of the Kurt Salmon Associates report identify fi ve main clothing drivers.

1 Demographics.2 Lifestyle.3 Consumer typologies and their effect on behaviour.4 Incomes and budget priorities.5 Product attributes.

All have implications for garment fi t and labelling or unacknowledged sizing needs.

4.4 A priori segmentation

Descriptive a priori segmentation describes the characteristics of potential customers and could include geographic segmentation, geodemographic segmentation and demographics.

4.4.1 Geographic segmentation

Geographic segmentation is common to apparel industries and spans inde-pendent single-town locations and international providers, taking in national and regional needs and their climatic variations. It is a segment that is becoming increasingly important in the provision of apparel as markets expand to meet global ready-to-wear requirements, and the fact that there is a long-term change in the consumer population. However, variations in body size and shape (between and within national popula-tions, and between ethnic groups within those populations) have generated


concern at all market levels, in particular as immigration impacts on dif-ferent nations and regions. The literature suggests that there are differing views of national and international forms of sizing standardisation. At a national level, where companies cannot access relevant market sizing data, they prefer to conduct their own in-house studies so as to set individual standards (examples, prior to the SizeUK study, are provided by companies such as Marks and Spencer and JD Williams), and others (typically those that serve global markets) see the practical benefi t in the establishment of supra-institutional standards. Variation in body size and type within each segmented target market makes it diffi cult to achieve compatible sizing systems and frustrates attempts to offer consistent labelling (using picto-grams, codes or other strategies).

There are many different national conventions for conveying the size of apparel to different genders, ages and sizes of consumers in the market place but, as a means of communication with the consumer, size designa-tions on garment labels have been of dubious value. The size designation is most useful where it is tied fi rmly to body measurements; it is at worst a code that bears little relation to the body and, in particular, those codes used for womenswear, where they originally corresponded to quantitative measurements but were gradually eroded as the weight, size and height of the populations increased and codings began to refer to arbitrary measures and have given way to ‘vanity sizing’. In some cases this method of sizing has been used as a marketing tool (in, for example, an effort to fl atter the potential customer). Kunick (1967) offered a succinct warning, suggesting that ‘If the clothing industry develops the practise of omitting the body measurements from garment labels we shall, inevitably, revert to the sizing chaos of the past’. Unfortunately, Kunick has been shown to be correct. However, if the recommendations from international and pan-national groups (such as International Organization for Standardization and the European Union) and emerging shape classifi cations were to be fully implemented and integrated, the present multiplicity of variable-size label-ling would be replaced with a simple and standard means of identifying both size and shape, using body measurements and shape pictograms; these size and shape designations would provide a richer and more trans-parent guide to markets.

In addition, studies indicate that cultural differences between nations signifi cantly infl uence the level of importance of size and fi t in clothing purchase (Hsu and Burns, 2002), In assessing comfort and quality, the Japanese and Europeans rated fi t as the attribute with the highest impor-tance, whilst the Chinese preferred ease of care and durability (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005). Studies also indicate that, when wide age differences in a population in one region of a country are not segmented into target markets, this can generate


dissatisfaction with fi t (Goldsberry et al., 1996). In order to explore fully these other national and regional infl uences on size and fi t, market vari-ables would, ideally, be built into an anthropometric survey recruitment strategy; for example, the SizeUK study was representative of the gender, age and ethnic distributions of the UK population, both as a whole and within three regions. No attempt was made in this national study to make the data collected in each city representative of the selected market vari-ables across that region, but subject geodemographic and marketing data were collected and went some way to identifying target market require-ments for independent and single-town segments.

4.4.2 Geodemographic segmentation

This term refers to the characteristics of the locations where people live. It can be based on a classifi cation of residential neighbourhoods (ACORN), a system owned by CACI Ltd and used to combine information from regional postcodes and consumer profi les drawn from national census data (Table 4.3). A related system is Commercial Mosaic, owned by Experian Ltd.

4.4.3 Demographics

Market segmentation by demographic variable is probably the most widely used method (Cox and Brittain, 2004). Gender, age and size continue to be popular market variables for apparel. Whilst ethnicity is a demographic

Table 4.3 The ACORN categories (source: Jackson and Shaw (2001, p. 65))

A Thriving 1 Wealthy achievers, suburban areas 2 Affl uent greys, rural communities 3 Prosperous pensioners, retirement areasB Expanding 4 Affl uent executives, family areas 5 Well-off workers, family areasC Rising 6 Affl uent urbanites, town and country areas 7 Prosperous professionals, metropolitan areas 8 Better-off executives, inner-city areasD Settling 9 Comfortable middle-agers, mature home owners 10 Skilled workers, home-owning areasE Aspiring 11 New home owners, mature communities 12 White collar workers, better-off multi-ethnic areasF Striving 13 Older people, less prosperous areas 14 Council estate residents, better-off homes 15 Council estate residents, high unemployment 16 Council estate residents, great hardship 17 People in multi-ethnic low-income areas


variable that is receiving greater attention as populations become more diverse, segmentation by ethnic group is being revealed. Results from the SizeUSA study indicate that body size and shape can be predicted quite strongly on the basis of gender, age and ethnicity. These variables would thus be the easiest to use in establishing standard sizing, although to a lesser extent there is evidence to suggest that size can correlate with income. In the USA, lower-income groups have higher rates of obesity, irrespective of race, ethnicity and gender (Critser, 2004). Again, while there has been a general fall in spending on clothing, black and Hispanic groups continue to spend a higher proportion of their income (Gardyn, 2003). However, variables such as income, family life cycle and size of family home have more general relevance for meeting customer needs such as price and product quality.

Gender

Segmentation by gender normally forms one of the fi rst stages in identify-ing a market. In terms of size and shape the population of female customers for ready-to-wear clothing has been given more attention than either men or children. In the UK, no Government-sponsored anthropometric study of men was undertaken in the general population until the SizeUK survey began in 2001; there were, however, several military studies and one company-specifi c study conducted during the 1970s and 1980s. Likewise, only one children’s study has been carried out (from birth to 16 years, in the 1980s); a second, for children aged from 4 years to 16 years is planned, and a survey from birth to 4 years will follow when appropriate techniques for 3D dynamic capture and sizing extraction are available. The interest in women’s sizing is mirrored by their interest in apparel and shopping. 30% of men report that they do not like shopping at all and also that they are prepared to pay higher prices to save time that would otherwise be given to shopping around. Their interest in fashion is nevertheless said to be increasing, although overall budgets for both men’s and women’s clothing purchases are decreasing (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005).

Age

Many UK fashion retailers target their customers by age. For example, Oasis is aimed at women in their twenties, while House of Fraser (a depart-ment store) has three target age bands between 17 and 65 years. Other reports have lamented the total lack of clothing for neonates (babies with low birth weight) (Bergen et al., 1996) and, whilst children infl uenced more than £31 million of UK adult spending during 1996, children’s apparel


shopping issues are not addressed by research to the same extent as those of adults (Norum, 1998; Omar, 1999). There is, however, a relatively new children’s group that has been identifi ed in marketing terminology: ‘tween-agers’. These are pre-adolescents up to the age of 14 years who have emerged as a rich demographic target, who place high value on garments that are branded, of good quality, fashionable and deemed to be ‘cool’ (Grant and Stephen, 2005); this supports the Kurt Salmon Associates report that more than 60% of teenagers are interested in fashion.

There remains a major concern with ageing populations: the long-established stereotype of the elderly (as impoverished and unconcerned with appearance) is being challenged. As a group, the elderly have much in common with younger consumer groups; the way in which they perceive their own age may be a more reliable predictor than chronological age in the relative importance of dress and other aspects of self-presentation (Lackner, 1998). Evidence suggests that the elderly represent at least two and perhaps three distinct segments: a group with a high income and a propensity for spending; a ‘barely affl uent’ group, with a relatively high income and a high level of apparel expenditure; another group, character-ized by a low income and low apparel expenditure (Jackson, 1992; Workman and Lentz, 2000). Recent studies suggested that this target group wishes to be physically active, to stay psychologically young and to remain fashion-able. They have economic independence and enjoy shopping but are frus-trated at the lack of garments styled and fi tted to their age group (Rocha et al., 2005).

Size

Market segmentation for accurate size and shape in the ready-to-wear market typically requires data from regularly updated anthropometric surveys. In the past, many national sizing databases and standards were allowed to become outdated; sizing systems and body measurements used by apparel companies ceased to be an accurate representation, either of the size and shape of a nation or of individual markets. The only country to update its anthropometric data regularly over the last half-century was Germany.

Without up-to-date data, companies either continued to use outdated data or to fi nd other sources of measurements in order to develop their prototype garments. Those alternative sources have included the following: dress forms or professional fi t models; related databases (e.g. from the automotive industry); competitor size charts; garments where companies not only copied size but also a specifi ed fi t; fi nally, companies who some-times conducted their own surveys (Workman and Lentz, 2000). While these tactical solutions to the needs of companies to determine sizing can


give competitive advantage by giving them a market-specifi c size and fi t, they can also contribute to sizing variance between companies, between nations and in global trade.

The advantage of anthropometric studies is that they provide a scientifi c basis for the development of sizing systems to provide reliable apparel sizing. The aim of anthropometric studies, whether conducted by individual companies or by nations, is to collect statistically signifi cant data from populations of varying sizes, body types and shapes, and to group them into a range of economic sizes by producing a minimum number of sizes to cover the maximum number of people in a particular target market.

Recruitment strategies for anthropometric studies were routinely designed to refl ect a population large enough to be statistically signifi cant when data were segmented by gender, age or such geodemographic vari-ables as the regional division of a country. Three classic anthropometric principles for looking at data can be outlined as follows.

1 Design for the average. This provides a reasonable fi t for the majority, near the middle of the distribution (e.g. one-size-only garments, as in tee shirts, socks and tights).

2 Design for the range. This accommodates a larger percentage of the population (where most ready-to-wear sizes are developed).

3 Design for the extremes. In this, very small or larger sizes might exist (e.g. markets segmented into ‘petite’, ‘plus size’, the very young or the older markets).

Proposals for the development of sizing systems based on anthropomet-rics have been well documented (see, for example, Kemsley (1957), Kunick (1967), Gordon et al. (1989), Ashdown (1998), Beazley (1998) and Winks (1997)). The processes are similar, requiring a reliable database of mea-surements from national studies (if necessary, weighted to represent recent census data) and used to defi ne the range of variations and frequencies of distribution of each measurement from which key measurements could be selected. ‘Key’ or ‘control’ body dimensions provide a structure for sizing systems. These measures may be used to help to predict other measures, to distinguish body types, to create size intervals (a wider or narrower range of body sizes) and, together with secondary measures, to indicate designations for use on garment labels for consumer guidance. It has been proposed that the most convenient size intervals would be those showing consistency and uniformity of approach, normally with fi xed intervals between sizes but not necessarily between subsidiary measures. Size inter-vals mark the range of sizes and body types appropriate to a target market. However, Ashdown (2003a) cautions that sizing systems based on propor-tional sizing, may not refl ect the variety of body shapes within a single size in a target market.


Shape

In the case of linear body measures, shape is normally obtained by calcu-lating differences within height and girth. Height dimensions vary less within a population than variations in girth and, for this reason, are com-monly divided into three or four intervals only. In contrast, for girth mea-surements defi ning shape, an analysis of the differences between major girths provides the ‘drop’ value between major and minor measures (e.g. chest–hip, chest–waist and waist–hip). For menswear, these differences may be assigned to descriptive body types: athletic, regular, portly, stout and corpulent. Body types for women show greater variation and tend to be characterised with reference to geometric or other simple forms (the rectangle, square, triangle, diamond, hourglass, tube or such alphabetical shapes as A, H and V). Differences between bust and under-bust measure-ments have been used to determine cup shape (A, B, C, etc.) and sizes for foundation garments, although the International Organization for Stan-dardization (ISO) has recommended a numerical size designation system that obviates the need for alphabetical terms. Other terms have been assigned to the size of the hip, such as slender, average and full (Kunick, 1967), or slim, standard and broad (DOB-Verband, 1994). The selection of body types is seen as a marketing decision and the chart from the German survey that took place in 1993 shows market distribution across three heights and hip dimensions (Table 4.4).

It is noted in the German report that, although fi gure types with slim and broad hips have substantial market share, little attention has been given to them in the assembly of fashion collections, thereby limiting the number of options for better-fi tting fashion garments for these shape groups in the population.

However, while these sizing system approaches can increase the poten-tial for fi tting a greater number of people in a population, there is evidence to suggest that multivariate analysis for sizing systems could result in a closer fi t to overall body proportions and that selection of one or two dimensions from which all others are calculated is not necessary (Salusso-Deonier et al., 1985). Any number of dimensions could be used so that a particular combination of dimensions for each size can be optimised for individuals in a sample that will all fi t that size (Ashdown, 1998).

The application of 3D body scanning has revolutionised anthropometric studies. The shape (and not just linear measurements) of a target market can be captured. Scanners are fast; they can be used automatically to extract well over 100 clothing-related measurements in seconds and can capture two or more poses, if required. These advances in 3D whole-body, head and foot scanners have prompted national sizing surveys, creating databases for measurements and, for the fi rst time, 3D shape records.

S

izing systems, fi t m

odels and target markets

121

Table 4.4 German market distribution (source: DOB-Verband (1994))

Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) 016–030 032–060 064–0120 Hips: slim

Share 14% Share 17% Share 5% 36%

Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) 16–30 32–60 64–120 Hips: standard


Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) Sizes (codes) 516–530 532–560 564–5120 Hips: broad


Height Height Height

160 cm 37% 168 cm 49% 176 cm 14% 100%


National studies undertaken using body-scanning technology (either completed or in progress) include Japan, The Netherlands, the UK, the USA, China, South Africa, Mexico and France. The Netherlands survey was conducted as part of the Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometric Resource (CAESAR) project, which was a NATO project.

The SizeUK study was designed so as to allow company partners to determine market segments and to select analysed data from one of three options: to conduct an in-house analysis of measurement data using a sophisticated set of software tools; to select from a national set of analysed data; to have a customised data set. The process of analysing measurement data can be similar to that of traditional anthropometric analysis, where existing company body size systems can be checked to see how well the current size range meets the needs of a target customer and can highlight opportunities for expansion in larger or smaller sizes (Crawford, 2005). Different approaches to creating sizing systems are also being explored for market segments. Some are using proprietary ‘best-fi t’ software and 3D searching algorithms, which carry out a simulated fi t session by comparing every person in the target database against each of the sizes; that procedure then returns a measure of how well the size chart fi ts the target population (Fig. 4.2). Once key measures (all combinations for each size) have been defi ned (together with size intervals, the number of sizes and overall size range), all other measurements can be calculated to complete a detailed size chart. However, these two-dimensional (2D) sizing techniques are no longer suffi cient on their own, as they do not adequately describe 3D shape. It is the combination of quantitative measurements with their 3D shape that makes for better-fi tting garments for each target market (Crawford, 2005).

Two approaches to shape analysis have been proposed. The fi rst uses a unique software system to process specifi ed measurements to help to search and sort 3D scan data into shape descriptors, for example ‘rectangle’, ‘spoon’ and ‘oval’ shapes (Simmonds et al., 2004). The second uses just the electro-optic scans to facilitate shape analysis. Since the scanning process samples the body surface at many thousands of points, there is an oppor-tunity to analyse body shape directly. The canonical representation of the torso was used to compare data quantitatively, which was then mutually aligned and analysed using principal component analysis (a classical sta-tistical method). The results are the modes of variation described, i.e. the most signifi cant types of body size, shape and posture variation within the sample (Fig. 4.3) (Tahan et al., 2003). These techniques allow the correct averaging of body shapes which fall into particular size categories, and the identifi cation of a range of shape modes within size categories of different target markets.


4.2 Size chart optimization (source: Bodymetrics)

4.3 Sample mode for a target market, showing the images of women aged 25–34 years, whose shapes fall within what is referred to as a mode (source: Tahan et al. (2003))


Ethnicity

Peoples are distinguished by both genetic and cultural characteristics. Racial differences can be seen between, for example, Asians and Caucasians, but there is probably a much wider range of ethnic differences. There are perhaps 800 different groups in Africa and 55 in China, whilst the diversity of populations in other nations is not only increasing but changing, (e.g. the ratios of Caucasians, blacks, Asians and Hispanics that originated from a wide variety of national backgrounds that make up the population of the USA).

Ethnicity has been described as ‘implying common customs, values, attitudes within a group of people who are bound by a common cultural identifi cation’ (Manifold Data Mining Inc., 2006). Segmentation of these groups is seen by Canadian, US and Australian marketing and clothing companies as growing, concentrated, large, profi table and having high purchasing power.

In 2002, US Hispanics, American Africans and Asian Americans had a joint purchasing power of approximately US$1500 billion, and a pro-jected population growth by 2020 of 115 million (Cultural Access Group, 2006). In addition, the rising birth rate in the USA is contributing to one of the fastest-growing portions of the apparel market, and the black and Hispanic populations are of great importance to this birth-to-preschool market, as they are more than twice as likely to purchase cloth-ing for this consumer group (MarketResearch.com, 2003). Understanding the size and shape of these emerging population groups is vital to the marketing and economic success of clothing companies.

Studies indicate that there are signifi cant variations between interpopu-lations and intrapopulations. Differences of size and shape within popula-tions have been linked to geographic locations, climatic conditions, social environments, nutritional and genetic factors (Winks, 1997). Key varia-tions reported included weight, stature, girth and shape.

1 Weight. This is a key health and sizing issue in industrial societies, where population weights are increasing, as indicated by both the SizeUK and the SizeUSA surveys. However, whilst overall populations are growing heavier, Asian men and women in the UK were reported to be lighter than the general population. Conversely, black Caribbean women were found to be heavier and, together with Pakistani women, had a higher propensity to obesity (Primatesta and Hirani, 1999). This trend is mir-rored in the USA, where well over 70% of both black and Hispanic women are overweight, compared with 58% of white women. Growth in size and shape is not confi ned to the adults; 9 million children in the USA are overweight. More than a quarter of overweight girls between the ages of 12 and 19 are black, and nearly a fi fth Hispanic, in


comparison with a fi gure of 12% for white girls. Similar ratios are reported for girls aged from 6 years to 11 years (Gardyn, 2003). There are no recent anthropometric studies of children (the last in the UK was conducted in the mid-1980s), but many US stores have added ‘plus-juniors’ to their ranges, and some school uniform suppliers who used to supply sizes ranging between size 4 and size 12 have extended their range to include ‘plus’, ‘husky’ and young men sizes (Silver, 2005).

2 Stature. Tall populations are to be found in North Africa, and also in Northern Europe and the countries to which the latter emigrated (e.g. Australia and North America). Comparisons drawn between the height of men in southern Europe and Asia suggest that southern Europeans are shorter than those in the north and that Asians are shorter than northern Europeans in both interpopulation and intrapopulation studies (Winks, 1997; Primatesta and Hirani, 1999). Similar results were reported for both Asian and Hispanic women, when compared with Caucasian women in the USA (Gardyn, 2003). There are subtle and signifi cant differences between the limb lengths and seated heights of various national and ethnic groups that affect their overall propor-tions in relation to stature.

3 Girth. Recent results from SizeUSA indicate intrapopulation variations between three girth measurements from three ethnic groups (white, black and Hispanic) within two age spans. Black women were found to be larger than either white or Hispanics in both age groups. The busts and waists of white women were smaller than those of the Hispanic group, but similar on the hip, suggesting a different body shape. Such clear variations were not apparent in the male data. In the younger age group the black men had larger chests and hips, and the Hispanics the largest waists. However, in the older age group, white men were larger than either black or Hispanics ([TC]2, 2004).

4 Shape. New 3D technologies enable shape to be captured and classifi ed but, as yet, few studies have explored interpopulation or intrapopula-tion diversity. One study has, however, identifi ed both the diversity of shape within one ethnic group (Hispanic) and compared that with the shapes of three other groups (white, black and other). Using SizeUSA data, the results indicate that a ‘rectangular’ shape was most prominent for all four groups, whilst the Hispanic group had a higher percentage of both ‘inverted triangle’ and ‘top hourglass’ shapes, suggesting that the Hispanic body shape had a relatively large bust measure compared with that for waist and hip (Banks-Lee et al., 2005). Anthropometric sizing surveys conducted using 3D technologies support and enhance the exploration of emerging ethic market segments, enabling companies to target subgroups within a population and, eventually, demographics at store level.


4.5 A posteriori segmentation

4.5.1 Behavioural segmentation

This form of segmentation is distinct to the extent that it refl ects the behav-iour of customers both within and towards the store. A customer popula-tion may be grouped according to past purchases, consideration of the product, loyalty to a store (measured as frequency of visit) and core bene-fi ts sought, either from the product itself or augmentation of product benefi t arising from a visit to the store.

Product benefi ts may include its characteristics, performance, quality, brand image and fashion attitude. Clothing benefi ts sought by the con-sumer may be related to such desiderata as self-improvement, status, fashion image, function, individuality, fi gure fl aw compensation, sophisti-cation of appearance, femininity and so on (Shim and Bickle, 1994).

Social class has been a common means of segmentation, i.e. a division of the population into classes A, B, C1, C2, D and E, with supporting information regarding the percentage share of the population, social status and occupation; this information is readily available. However, whilst it is useful to identify broad categories, those variables have been considered inappropriate for the determination of fashion needs, as people with a desire to be fashionable come from all classes and occupations. Jackson and Shaw (2001) recommended use of the fashion variables (fashion leaders, fashion followers, fashion mainstream and commodity buyers), these being closely associated with the set of ‘diffusions of innovation’ (Table 4.5) as an appropriate means of identifying fashion needs not only between genders but also between nations.

Benefi t segmentation is regarded as a fundamental basis for segmenta-tion as benefi ts sought by people, such as good fi t, are the basic reason for preferences. Ascertaining size and fi t preferences for different target groups and specifi ed products is a continuing challenge. Fit satisfaction is the extent to which the consumer fi nds a selection of acceptable ready-to-wear garments. Men who are both big and tall were identifi ed as a target group but were generally dissatisfi ed with clothing. They needed to be targeted

Table 4.5 Diffusions of innovation (source: Rogers, cited by Jackson and Shaw (2001, p. 66))

Innovators Individuals who like to be the fi rst to use a productEarly adopters Individuals who like to buy early in the product life cycleEarly majority Those who pick up on a trend when it is establishedLate majority Those who pick up on a trend lateLaggards Those who buy products when the trend is over


as separate segmented groups: large men, extra-large men, tall men and extra-tall men (Shim and Kotsiopulos, 1991). Similarly, tall black women experienced dissatisfaction with lower-body parts in athletic apparel (Feather et al., 1996). Pants fi t was also found to be unsatisfactory for the lower-body confi guration of black males (Gidding and Bowles, 1990). It is hoped that, with data from new surveys, these segments will begin to be addressed. Three target market groups that expressed dissatisfaction with fi t were petite consumers, the plus size and pregnant women. The extra-small petite consumers were the group least satisfi ed with garments at the neck and shoulder width (Pietsch et al., 1991). Similar issues were identi-fi ed by the petite plus sizes, whilst the tall plus sizes found the upper-body garments to be of inappropriate length. The segmentation of clothing for pregnant women only provided for the average height. There was no provi-sion for pregnant consumers who were either small or tall (Mahoney and Shim, 1991).

The mature woman segment is one that is growing and is also a segment with a disposable income. Several researchers have addressed the garment fi tting needs of this group (Underwood, 1995; Belleau and Hebert, 1994; Goldsberry et al., 1996; Oh and Kundel, 1997). The shape and proportion of the fi gures of members of this group change with the ageing process, but little attention is paid to their clothing needs. Many are buying men’s cloth-ing for better fi t and more consistent sizing (Ashdown et al., 1995).

A major investigation into fi t preference for women was undertaken by the US National Textile Center. Anderson et al. identifi ed respondents with rectangular, pear and hourglass shapes as those who used clothing to project a fashionable image, whereas black professional women, and hour-glass- and pear-shaped females, who were dissatisfi ed with their lower bodies and weights, reported that they were seeking ‘fi gure fl aw’ compen-sation as a clothing benefi t. These researchers concluded that fi t preference issues are complex and that relationships between fi t preference, body shapes, body cathexis, clothing benefi ts sought and personal consumer profi les were all signifi cant (Anderson et al., 2001).

Some of those complexities that need further investigation are illustrated (in Fig. 4.4), emphasising the need to take account of human perceptions. Participants in the SizeUK survey were asked to state what they thought to be their waist sizes. This was recorded as a linear measurement and, when the shapes of the subject population were analysed, it was found that a given ‘size’ (such as ‘36 in waist’) corresponded to a range of differing shapes and sizes.

4.5.2 Psychographic segmentation

Psychographic segmentation is seen as being particularly useful to clothing and fashion, as benefi ts can be segmented and measured on the basis of


lifestyle attributes and a classifi cation of values. The largest trend in life-styles over the last decade has been the growth in business casual wear at the expense of formal wear. Japan, Italy and the UK all have a strong interest in formal wear, with formal wear becoming once again a sign of elegance and status in the USA and Canada after a period of interest in business casual. Lifestyle attributes consist of individual benefi ts and can be identifi ed in one of two ways. The fi rst is through a values-and-lifestyles (VALs) classifi cation system. (Fig. 4.5). The second, another commonly used classifi cation system, looks at activities, interests and opinions (AIOs). Shim and Bickle (1994) saw the advantage of AIOs as the ability to defi ne those attributes precisely and to understand the lifestyles of core customers in the target markets, so as to be able to communicate more effectively with them. The use of a psychographics approach requires an effort to understand the factors that shape the benefi ts sought by shoppers; such factors would be, for example, ‘I am education oriented’, ‘I am indepen-dent/an opinion leader’ and ‘I value health/exercise’.

However, this kind of segmentation is rarely considered suffi cient on its own. Through their study, Shim and Bickle used three kinds of benefi t segmentation (psychographics, shopping orientation and demographics) and identifi ed three kinds of users of clothing: symbolic–instrumental; practical–conservative; apathetic. They found that demographics was a signifi cant factor in differentiating benefi t segments, although they also concluded that it was not clear which of the three variables were better predictors of benefi ts sought (Shim and Bickle, 1994).

4.4 Different body shapes associated with men’s self perceived waist sizes (source: SizeUK, http://www.fashion.arts.ac.uk/sizeuk.htm)


4.5 VALs classifi cation of customer types (source: SRI Consulting Business Intelligence)

4.6 Target marketing

It will be seen from the range of segmentation strategies indicated that many variables may be used to help to identify a group to be targeted, and various sizes and shapes within a population have yet to be adequately addressed. However, a target market needs to be clearly identifi ed, measur-able, stable, accessible and substantial, with opportunities for economic growth and in support of a company’s overall objectives and resources. A segment that cannot be reached effectively or that suffers a lack of brand image does not represent a meaningful market (Jackson and Shaw, 2001).

VALs framework TM

Innovators

Survivors

Believers Strivers Makers

Thinkers Achievers Experiencers

High resourcehigh innovation

Low resource low innovation

Primary motivation

Ideals Achievement Self-expression


A company that has selected a target market can support its product devel-opment and buying teams with verbal and visual descriptions of their target customers, producing what has become known as a ‘pen portrait’. An example is the need to understand ‘Stephanie’, a hypothetical target cus-tomer. However, David Bossak, of Kurt Salmon Associates, has argued that many US companies fail miserably to perform this vital task of ‘getting to know the customer [Stephanie] better’. More than two thirds of manu-facturers have failed to defi ne a target customer, while three quarters have failed to integrate consumer input into the product development process ([TC]2, 2005).

4.7 Fit models

4.7.1 Fit

Fit and comfort have been described by consumers as synonymous with quality (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organ-isation, 2005). The extent to which the quality of fi t is achieved is infl u-enced by every stage of the apparel product development, production and consumption processes. The analysis of fi t is thus complex and remains a challenge, for both research and industry. A range of defi nitions of fi t, i.e. subjective (or tacit) assessments and objective (or explicit) evaluations of apparel, have been discussed by Fan et al. (2004), who concluded that apparel fi t is a complex issue but a critical feature in the effectiveness of clothing appearance, and that various technologies used, such as a 3D simulated form, may lead to more effi cient and effective decision making in the process of product development and quality control. The fi nal evalu-ation of the fi t lies, however, with the consumer, and there is a need to resolve consumer appearance and size and shape needs, so as to reduce the industrial debt accrued through misfi tting apparel. This section looks at the way in which 3D representations of the target consumer are used to serve the process of developing apparel. Three forms representing the target consumer are discussed: the dress form; the human fi t model; the virtual fi t model.

4.7.2 The dress form

Originally, dress forms were substitutes for a tailor’s clients and, as the ready-to-wear industry developed, a substitute for sizing systems. They were the only means of producing garments of a particular size and fi t, are still widely used to create new designs through draping and are used to evaluate apparel design, proportion, dimensional fi t and balance, both during construction and on completion of a garment. They are created to


represent the size and shape of a body for an individual or average set of bodies, for men, women and children, or made with varying degrees of ease added to represent jacket- and coat-fi tting forms. They can be whole bodies, half-bodies, torso or just the lower half of the body, with one or two legs. Some are product specifi c (e.g. bras). There is little consistency in the size and shape of commercially available dress forms. One dress form manu-facturer reported having thousands of size 8 measurements from diverse sources (Workman and Lentz, 2000). Another has 90 different ranges of dress stands, created to meet different customer requirements. Prior to the advent of 3D body scanning, there were ‘standard’ dress forms, derived from blocks. Companies are now looking for ways in which accuracy and consistency of fi t may be maintained by scanning their own professional fi t models, for all sizes in a range, and deriving dress forms from those scans (Fig. 4.6). The dress forms are then duplicated and sent to offshore manu-facturers (Kennett and Lindsell Ltd, 2005). Companies that have access to data collected using 3D scanners are using whole-body scans for each size and shape segment of their target markets to produce their dress forms. For example, shape analysis (developed for SizeUK) shows the variation in shape of a sample of a population, based on a company’s target market. The shape model shows the average shape and the variations in shape

(a) (b)

4.6 Dress forms, derived (a) from a block (Range F) and (b) from an electronic scan of a fi t model (OSIII fi tting model) (source: Kennett and Lindsell (2005))


across the sample, defi ned for each size. The output from the shape analysis process (together with the body size chart) can be used to create physical full-body dress forms (Crawford, 2005). These dress forms can replicate either the body of the fi t model or the size and shape of a specifi ed market. They are seen as being far more reliable as, unlike a human fi t model, the shape and measurements do not change day to day, once the fi t form is created. Additional benefi ts could include a reduction in the garment-fi tting time for which a fi t model is needed, and offshore fi t sessions might be conducted via video conferencing. There would also be a reduction in associated costs.

In addition to replicating the size and shape of the target market, other dress form developments are available. There are some that simulate tem-perature and sweating; others simulate the look, feel and movement of human fl esh and skin. These new dress forms are revolutionising model fi t sessions and improving the fi t of apparel, in particular, for specialised products such as jeans and intimate apparel (TUKAforms, 2003) (Fig. 4.7). Nevertheless, whilst these dress forms more closely resemble the size, shape and physiological composition of people, and represent one of the fi rst technological advances to shorten the product development cycle, they cannot walk, talk or give feedback on the physical properties of apparel.

4.7 Soft body image (source: Tukatech Inc.)


4.7.3 The human fi t model

A human fi t model is seen as playing a critical role in the sizing and fi tting of apparel, just as fi t testing is an essential part of the product development process, where apparel designs, production samples and graded samples are tried on and used by people, rather than fi tted on static dress forms.

Models may be recruited through advertising and agencies and some-times selected from among staff of an apparel company. They are custom-arily selected to represent a company market (or markets) and base size. This may be a combination of the following: specifi c body measurements; body shape and proportion; body type and height.

The methods used to identify these selection criteria can be separated into those applied before whole-body scanning became available and those applied subsequently. Companies without access to 3D body data usually follow a convention. For example, a particular size code for women (8, 10 or 12), chest size in the case of men (e.g. 42 in) or reference to age in label-ling sizes for children, with supporting measurements that might include weight, height, arm lengths, bust size and waist or hip may be used to select a fi t model. The dimensions provided may come from the variety of sources referred to earlier (existing anthropometric data, existing standards, com-petitor’s garments and studies conducted by the company). Companies that use sizing systems developed from traditional anthropometric studies (in the UK: Marks and Spencer, Debenhams, Next and Arcadia) select their fi t model’s dimensions according to their base sampling size; others use the measurements of the fi t model as the basis for their sizing systems. However, even though body measurements may be readily available, there are many body types within a target market. So, when garments are fi tted to a single fi t model, the garment retains a particular size, shape and set of propor-tions. Those characteristics may not represent either the average body shape of a size or one of several shapes within the size. Furthermore, this problem of using a single base size from an idealised fi t model shape can be compounded when companies use proportional grading rules that fail to address the differences that lie between the basic shapes and body pro-portions of the people who make up a target population (Ashdown, 2003a; Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005). This can be seen from body types with differ-ent drop values or from a set of 3D scans within a target market (see Fig. 4.3).

It is not unusual for larger companies in the UK to have fi t models for both the sample size and shape and those representing each size in the range. Some of these companies have access to 3D scan and extensive measurement data and have had their fi t models scanned and their shapes and measurements evaluated against their SizeUK target market data. Initial studies in the UK indicate that there are greater variations in the


larger-size fi t models than those who were at the lower end of a size range (Crawford, 2005). In addition to comparing existing fi t model, size and shape to updated 3D data and selecting new fi t models that are more rep-resentative of a target market, live fi t models are being scanned to explore opportunities for combining the visual and physical assessment of gar-ments, with the more objective techniques of visual scanning.

Fit testing

At present, physical fi t testing can be regarded as a largely tacit process. The aim of fi t sessions is to evaluate garments on a live body so as to adjust the garment to fi t the specifi cation of the fi t model. The fi t model is intended to represent the size and shape of a company’s target market. During a fi t session it is the relationship between a human body and the apparel that is being judged. This appraisal process is concerned with the grain or stretch properties of the materials, line, balance and set of the garment and how the plus-or-minus tolerance (or ease) interacts with both design char-acteristics and human dynamics. Members of an assessing team at a fi t session may include buyers, designers, pattern and clothing technologists, and representatives of the manufacturer or production department. The role of the fi t model is to work with the assessing team to check physical characteristics that would be diffi cult to evaluate simply by viewing the garment. A fi t model may report on the comfort and set of a garment, fabric and ease during donning, doffi ng, sitting, bending, reaching and walking. Some fi t sessions, with live model scenarios, have been standardized, in particular in the testing of overalls (Huck et al., 1997). The team work together to reach a decision that may result in acceptance, revision or rejec-tion of the sample garment (Bye and LaBat, 2005). The categories of gar-ments fi t tested vary between companies. Fit sessions are usually organised for particular product types, ranges or perhaps a mix and may involve more than one fi t model where, for example, ranges may be produced for differ-ent age categories. The frequency with which fi t sessions are held varies between companies, but it is not unknown to have weekly or biweekly ses-sions through the year. Sessions may last between one and four hours. Preparations for fi t sessions typically include checking the dimensions of garments against a size specifi cation and having access to the history of the development of the style during the session. In addition to fi t, issues addressed during fi t sessions include design, materials, colour, texture, reference to earlier discussions on style, block pattern development, pro-duction planning, delivery and cost. The top three concerns reported during fi t sessions were fi t, design and fabrics (Bye and LaBat, 2005). These fi ndings have been confi rmed by the writer’s observations of female fi t sessions but, for male sessions, the importance of design and materials


was reversed, refl ecting greater emphasis on materials in relation to comfort and fi t than design in menswear. Issues identifi ed for correction are com-municated by notes and diagrams. No samples were rejected during either the male or the female fi t sessions observed in studies of industry fi t testing. Typically, garments are colour coded for category of approval. An overview of typical proceedings has been given by Jackson and Shaw (2001). Coding could be design sample (white seal), fi t sample (red seal), fi nal approval (blue seal) or production samples (gold seal). A design sample considered for inclusion in a range is often photographed at a fi t session for buyer’s records. Once a garment design is approved, a fi rst fi t sample is submitted. It may take several attempts to approve this sample, although some com-panies limit opportunities for resubmission to three, after which manufac-turers may risk losing the order. Two fi nal sets of preproduction samples, with correct labels, swing tickets, etc., are generally submitted in all sizes, prior to production. In key UK companies, graded sizes within a range are usually fi tted on models representing those sizes. It is these samples that are used by quality control to check production. When they are approved and production begins, two production samples (usually in the base size) are submitted for approval. When approved, the company retains one of the production samples, while the other is returned to the manufacturer. If problems are anticipated, wearer trials may be conducted.

Recommendations for improving fi t sessions included the following (based on the work by Bye and LaBat (2005)).

1 Availability of a protocol, required for checking the measurements of fi t models, prior to fi t sessions.

2 Protocol for fi t sessions.3 Separation of the consideration of design from that of fi t.4 Clarifi cation of the roles of participants.5 Provision of training for participants in the fi t session.6 Exploration of the potential of new technology to support improvement

in and consistency of fi t.

Many companies have responded to the challenge to explore new tech-nology to improve current fi t testing practice. As a consequence, 3D whole-body scanners are increasingly being used by industry and researchers as a new fi t-testing tool. A particular case is an unpublished study where companies have scanned a range of fi t models, fi rst wearing and then not wearing shoes with high heels. This makes it possible to assess the effect of heels on posture and measurement; as expected, the body pitches forward slightly, with approximately 0.5% difference between the heights of the centre back neck and centre front neck when the model wears heels. This suggests the need to explore such effects on garment fi t (Fig. 4.8).


On heel

On heel

Barefoot

Barefoot

4.8 Fit model on high heels (source: London College of Fashion)

Other studies have involved scanning fi t models with and without control underwear and also in underwear and outerwear, all in static poses. The scans with control underwear were merged so as to measure the extent to which fl esh has been compressed or displaced by foundation garments, or (in the case of women’s pants) to measure the space between body and clothing. In the latter study, ease values (or body-to-pant comparisons) in


linear, area and volume measurements proved to be a valuable method with which to identify and characterise fi t. This study was conducted on the fi t model who was used in the development of the pant style, and then on representatives from the company’s target market with the expectation that the resulting data would quantify the actual body measurements of a company’s target market and make it possible to modify the sizing to increase the number of consumers who could fi nd a good fi t without adding additional sizes. In traditional fi t sessions it is only possible to look at the garment from outside; now, the space between the body and clothing can be visualised and measured using volume, surface area, circumference and slicing area techniques (Fig. 4.9) (Ashdown, 2003b).

4.9 Capturing fi t: women’s pants (source: Cornell University Web Production Group; see Ashdown (2003b), ‘Our research programme’)


Further work conducted by the same researchers replicated the physical fi t analysis process but substituted 3D scans for live models. It was con-cluded that whole-body scanning and visualisation technologies had the potential to view enlarged or rotated images, to test multiple fi t models wearing a single size in multiple poses and to hold virtual expert-fi t sessions that could be accessed from remote locations (Ashdown et al., 2004).

Whilst these advances in the use of technology for fi t testing go a long way towards improving the fi t analysis process and offer an opportunity to improve fi t for a greater number of people in a market segment, there are defi ciencies. These are seen as the inability to assess some visual, tactile and physical aspects of fi t, in particular, the assessment of ease and comfort by the human fi t model (Ashdown et al., 2004). It is anticipated that the fi t model’s occupation will continue to exist but that the tasks involved and time taken to carry out the fi tting process will change (Workman and Lentz, 2000).

4.7.4 Virtual fi t models

Virtual fi t models may be generated as follows.

1 As avatars, using computer graphics.2 As captured from existing shapes, using stereo, 3D scanners, videos or

cameras.3 By using existing sets of either to generate new models.

Representations derived from real life are regarded as superior to the static and unrealistic computer images with which we have been familiar, although highly realistic virtual human models are becoming common-place in computer graphics (Magnenat-Thalmann et al., 2004). For ready-to-wear fi t testing, an accurate real-life image may be generated to represent a specifi ed set of measurements or shapes, individual fi t models or a group of scans representing a target market. These virtual models can be used to test fi t at several stages during the clothing, product development, produc-tion and consumption process. The stages might include block patterns, styled patterns, 3D designs and 2D pattern generation, virtual garment prototyping, prototype designs, online shopping and in-store shopping. Each is discussed below, with references to some of the companies engaged in relevant development.

Block patterns (three-dimensional scans to two-dimensional patterns)

Product-specifi c 2D block patterns can be created on a 3D scan with options to vary silhouettes and degrees of fi t and ease (by, for example, [TC]2). Practitioners are able to assess the size, shape and fi t of a base


pattern and to customise lengths and shape at an early stage of style devel-opment. The automatically generated pattern can be imported to any pattern design system, where more complex styling and construction fea-tures can be added (Anderson, 2005).

Styled patterns (two-dimensional patterns to three-dimensional scans)

New approaches to styled patterns are being introduced. 2D styled patterns can be fi tted (wrapped) around a 3D scan, the fabric simulated, the style fi t tested and the pattern altered before a physical garment is cut and sewn (Optitex, Browzwear, Bodymetrics and PAD Systems). A similar system enables designers and pattern technologists to assess the fi t and style of a garment using 3D prototyping directly from the topography of the pattern. The system uses the pattern data to drape a 3D garment onto the 3D model; the fabric properties are integrated to present a realistic drape (Anderson, 2005).

Three-dimensional design and two-dimensional pattern generation (three-dimensional designs to two-dimensional patterns)

3D scans generated from fi t models can be made symmetrical and used to create 3D designs directly onto the virtual 3D fi t model (Fig. 4.10). There are two developments to note. The fi rst uses elastomerics for contoured sportswear and intimate apparel, where materials can be selected from an

4.10 3D-to-2D design and pattern generation (source: Lectra; see Heyd (2004))


integral database and 2D patterns are unwrapped from the 3D design. The fi t and ease can be adjusted to refl ect the mechanical properties of the fabric, and also the way in which those properties are used in the design, the size and the shape of the virtual model (Heyd, 2004; Krzywinski et al., 2005). The second system, by Kung (2005), offers a 3D-to-2D computer-aided-design solution to directly create virtual garments. The system enables the silhouette and fi t characteristics of a garment to be created and adjusted using a 3D template on a 3D virtual model, which can be gener-ated from human fi t models, or a model derived from a clearly defi ned target group of customers. The software provides a means to control and experiment with the fi t of a garment in 3D space while simultaneously generating a corresponding 2D pattern. The fi t of the garment follows the human body, and not data fi les or size charts; the actual body, the virtual body and the pattern are directly aligned. The drape of the garment can be adjusted according to the intended fi t, the material chosen or the neces-sity for a required freedom of movement by, for example, moving the arms forwards, thereby increasing the measurement across the back. ‘The main innovation of TPC [3D pattern concept] is the creation of garments in 3D [virtual] space, on a virtual body. In short, it is now possible to create [virtual] garments directly from 3D body scan data.’ It is claimed that the system can predict size progression and ensure garment fi t and comfort; if this is the case, the development could render traditional grade rules super-fl uous (Kung, 2005).

Virtual garment prototyping (three-dimensional computer-generated model to three-dimensional prototype)

The virtual garment prototyping, with automatic fi tting tools offers an interactive system for fashion designers. The design simulation tool allows the designer to experiment virtually with new collections via high-quality preview animations as well as enabling pattern technologists to adjust precisely the shape and measurements of the patterns to fi t the body and maximise comfort. Systems fi t the garment automatically and, by using a fi tting control tool, the operative can preview fabric deformations and ten-sions along any weave orientation and preview pressure forces in the garment on the body skin. Any change that is made to the pattern, design and sizing can be automatically evaluated by a mechanical ‘comfortability tool’. These virtual fi t evaluations can be conducted on both static and animated bodies (Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann, 2005).

Physical prototype garments (three-dimensional garments to three-dimensional representations of a fi t model wearing garments)

This system uses digital representation of a physical garment. Digital images, captured by video, can transport highly detailed images of a live


model wearing a garment. The software creates rotating 3D images that can be posted to a website, viewed in a simulated 3D manner, manipulated and magnifi ed and can immediately be appraised by buyers. Fittings can be completed using these visual images, by viewing either locally or offshore.

Online shopping

While major developments have helped to improve the fi t of garments through the use of virtual models during the product development and production process, the creation of virtual models for online shopping applications still presents a challenge. A study of the return of goods by dissatisfi ed customers, reported by Hammond and Kohler (2002), mirrors rates for catalogues and indicates a three-tiered problem: casual apparel, 12–18%; more fi tted fashion, 20–28%; high-fashion apparel, up to 35%. These fi gures show that it can be diffi cult to convince shoppers to purchase fashion products online. Efforts to improve the visualisation of apparel characteristics include the use of specialised colour accuracy and consis-tency tools, and zoom technology to enhance the viewer’s understanding of design and style features. The question of poor fi t is being addressed through ‘fi t calculators’ or ‘fi t ratings’ and by mapping consumer measures to apparel brands, styles and sizes. Size-predictive methods are offered using 2D and 3D models, and some have iterative tools that can be pro-grammed to match customer shape, size and appearance. The 18–25 year olds form a key online shopping audience that might also fi nd the new virtual fi t technologies under development exciting and effective. Predic-tions for sales in 2005 were US$13.8 billion, and it is expected that, by 2010, 12% of apparel sales will be online (Wagner, 2005). However, the fact that it is not possible to touch or feel products remains a major inhibi-tion to sales over the Internet, other than for basic (or non-fashion) items (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005).

In-store shopping (three-dimensional scan to three-dimensional garment)

3D scanners are being located in retail environments to give instant shape, size and fi t evaluations for ready-to-wear ranges of jeans. Some systems use a 2D-to-3D process where the customer is scanned and the scan imported to a visualisation system where 2D patterns of selected jeans are virtually wrapped around the scan of the customer (e.g. Bodymetrics). Other systems are being used for made-to-measure clothing, where garments are fi tted automatically to the 3D scan of a customer by using


landmark information on a body scan. Using a similar process (described by Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann (2005)) the systems show stretch, shear and bend forces of the simulation model. These virtual fi t evaluations can be conducted on both static and animated virtual bodies, e.g. bending (Spanglang, 2005).

The use of the virtual fi t model brings a number of benefi ts to garment fi t sessions. One is the ability to use fi t models based on 3D body scans that represent a target market, rather than unrealistic computer-generated graphic models. Patterns and designs generated from realistic human models have the potential to provide excellent fi t. They are more accurate and give opportunities to fi t garment component layers as well as to visu-alise and fi t completed garments. What is available on some systems is a facility to alter either the design or the pattern on the model, tools that automatically generate graded patterns to fi t the sizes and shapes in each size of a target market.

Interest in using virtual fi t models at different stages in the product development, production and consumption process is prompted, in part, by the consumer’s wish to be provided with a continuous supply of new products. It has created a demand chain, and that has made it necessary to reduce the time that it takes to move from concept to market (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005).

All the approaches described have the potential to support that aim. They promise to help to improve garment fi t prior to a garment being made, and help to reduce the following.

1 The costs associated with garment manufacture.2 The number of physical fi t sessions needed (estimated by one company

as a reduction by 50%).3 The number of samples that need to be shipped for fi tting.

Other benefi ts were identifi ed as the ability to create designs more quickly, the reduction in the time for garment approval, the improvement in the collaboration between departments (responsible for design, manu-facture and merchandising) and the creation of opportunities for compa-nies in the supply chain (perhaps separated by continents) to participate in global fi t sessions.

The availability of the virtual fi t model brings a considerable advance to both the process and the accuracy of fi t testing. They do not, however, offer all the benefi ts of using a live fi t model; there are some visual, tactile and physical aspects of fi t that cannot, as yet, be adequately evaluated in a virtual environment.


4.8 Fitting futures

4.8.1 Market misfi t

It was argued earlier that it is the consumer who is driving the clothing and fashion industry; looking ahead, this seems likely to continue. Another way of stating this is to say that the traditional ‘push’ system has been replaced by a demand chain, driven by consumption. However, while consumers appear to be in control, sales continue to be lost, margins are reduced and capacities along the chain remain underutilised. There are various reasons for this: in some cases the consumer is simply not interested in what is seen; in others the consumer fi nds the desired garment but fi nds that it does not fi t. The result is a signifi cant body of dissatisfi ed customers. A positive way of expressing this is to suggest that today’s market offers signifi cant oppor-tunities for those able to meet consumer expectations. The key to profi t-ability is to focus on those needs. (Kurt Salmon Associates for the International Wool Textile Organisation, 2005).

One aspect of the challenge is to provide clothing that fi ts populations whose members have different morphologies, arising from changes in immigration, ageing and lifestyle. Another is to address outmoded indus-trial practices. Changing consumer demands are leading to new approaches to sizing and (through the application of new technology) encourage the introduction of new size and shape practices. However, to reiterate, this cannot be achieved unless companies defi ne their target customers and begin to integrate consumer inputs into their product development processes.

4.8.2 Fitting technologies

Video, visualisation and 3D body-scanning technologies are having a growing impact on the product development, production and consumption process. In the retail environment, 3D scanning technology makes use of laser, light and radar technologies. There is a growing demand in some countries for the use of 3D body scanners to support retail, best fi t and mass customization but, with the exception of a recent [TC]2 size prediction installation (for sizing suits, shirts, slacks and shoes for men), little progress has been made towards giving the ready-to-wear consumer instant access to a record of their personal body size and shape; such information can be stored on a plastic credit-type card or mobile telephone and then used to shop for ready-to-wear apparel. Proposals have been made to develop a 3D body scanner that could be mass produced and fi tted unobtrusively into a photographic booth, retailer changing rooms and, of course, the consum-er’s home. Such a webcam package might take the form of a ‘digital shower’.


It would need to be compact, cost effective (i.e. not more than US$1000) and capable of mass production (Treleaven et al., 2003). An alternative approach is a proposed system using video cameras to snap the shopper and immediately to display selected clothing and accessories on a photo-realistic avatar that moves as the shopper moves (BBC World News, 2004).

Contributions made by body-scanning technology to the clothing and fashion industry have recently been based on the capture of static (fi xed pose) body scans. These developments are already threatening to make both size charts and grade rules redundant, as can be seen in the recent work of Kung (2005.) There is a desire to use these scans in dynamic applications, where the pose of the body scans can be varied to simulate, for example, the draping of garment designs ‘in action’. The direct use of static scans, as captured by static scanning technology in dynamic applica-tions, would require the following.

1 Multiple scans, captured in the required poses.2 Alternatively the manual addition of dynamic properties, such as skel-

etal attributes and skin deformation mechanics, to static scans, in order to alter their pose.

Both tasks would be laborious and costly. Automated procedures for adding dynamic properties to captured body scans would offer a better solution to varying the pose of static scans and hence aid their use in dynamic applications. The development of such automated procedures is currently being researched at University College London, work supported by both the London College of Fashion (for the use of these procedures in fashion applications) and by BBC Research and Development (for the use of these procedures in entertainment applications) (Ruto, 2005).

In addition to the need for 3D dynamic body shape (to assess apparel design and fi t), further research is planned to capture dynamic movement in three dimensions; in particular for use in gathering data on the size and shape of babies and infants. Data from both developments could enhance current size and shape databases and have the potential to improve design and fi t for a range of garment types and target markets.

4.8.3 Apparel design and fi t

The challenge for virtual garment design and fi t is to create a 3D free-form virtual fashion design system. Such a system could offer 3D design on a scan that represents a target market, which allows for inclusion of ease and dynamic properties (with the opportunity to evaluate various kinds of ease, minimum movement and style) (Petrova et al., 2003). Visualisation systems


for evaluating fi t, drape and appearance are already available (Spanglang, 2005). These interactive comfort evaluation tools for adjusting the fi t (of the weft, warp and shear directions) are being introduced into virtual product development systems (Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann, 2005). The operative might, however, be assisted by the introduction of a garment ease classifi cation system, i.e. a system identifying minimum fi t and move-ment ease that might be used for both traditional and digital product development processes. Methods for evaluating fi t for woven and knitted fabrics have been described by Fan et al. (2004), but the standardisation of fi t remains as complex as garment sizing and labelling. The application of 3D body-scanning technology, visualisation systems and analysis soft-ware is helping to establish new objective procedures for the estimation of minimum garment ease (Loker et al., 2003). It may be that these technolo-gies, together with kinanthropometric theory, might be used to establish objective methods for evaluating minimum ease for movement. They might include basic anatomical positions, either undertaken while the body is standing upright, such as joint motion (Watkins, 1984), or those movements related to physical activity, such as walking and sitting, as well as those used when consumers are engaged in specifi c activities while at work or sport.

4.8.4 Fitting models

Modern dress forms can now mimic many natural characteristics of the human fi t model. They improve the apparel fi tting process but do not as yet simulate or replicate breathing, articulate body movement or move from place to place. The human fi t model can now be selected accurately to represent the size and shape of each size within a target market and for each shape mode within a size. It is therefore anticipated that there will be a continuing place for the human fi t model. The number of fi t sessions required could nevertheless be reduced. The ‘comfortability tools’ being developed are impressive, but the experience of the human fi t model remains an asset; the model is able to offer feedback on the comfort of donning and doffi ng, material characteristics, and behaviour of the garment at rest and in motion. Such feedback is unavailable from either dress form or virtual fi t model. Furthermore, visualisation systems with virtual models do not enable the user to ‘feel’ the characteristics of a fabric. It is, however, interesting to note that a European project called Haptex has recently been convened to address these issues. The project aims to develop new avenues of research into multimodal interaction, enabling the user to perceive, touch and manipulate virtual textiles (Haptex, 2004–2007).

The trend is towards a digital future. New technologies are being used to advance several stages of the apparel product development, production


and consumption process. Anthropometric studies, using 3D scanning, enable companies accurately to identify the sizes and shapes of the con-sumers that make up their target markets. Fit models, dress forms and virtual models can all be selected or created to represent these sizes and shapes (BBC World News, 2004). New technologies are being developed to help in the following.

1 Selecting accurate physical fi t models and generating accurate dress stands.

2 Solving existing problems of sizing apparel.3 Offering new ways of analysing shape.4 Evaluating garment fi t in static poses.5 Eliminating the need for size charts and grade rules.6 Looking at the relationship between the body and the garment while

the wearer is in motion.

All these developments pave the way to improved fi t and consequent reduction in garment returns. JD Williams and Company Ltd, reported (2004): ‘Results from autumn/winter 2004 sales have revealed a reduction in returns due to poor fi t of garments. This essentially underlines and confi rms the value of the [SizeUK] survey from both a commercial stand-point, and in terms of boosting customer satisfaction.’

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Primatesta, P., and Hirani, V. (1999), ‘Anthropometry’, in Health Survey for England – The Health of Minority Ethnic Groups ’99, Chapter 6, Retrieved from http: / /www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/survey99 /hse99-00.htm.


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5Pattern grading

N.A. SC HOF I EL DUniversity of Wisconsin–Stout, USA

5.1 Introduction

Grading is the process used by clothing manufacturers to produce patterns for a garment in a range of sizes for ready-to-wear clothing. In order to grade a pattern, increases (or decreases) are applied at specifi c points of a pattern to make each new pattern in another larger (or smaller) size. In Concepts of Pattern Grading, Moore et al. (2001, p. 7) described what should be true: ‘a grading system is developed from sizing specifi cations, and sizing specifi cations are derived from anthropometric surveys’. In order to create garments in each size the increases used to create each new pattern should be based on body measurements associated with that spe-cifi c size and organized in a size chart. In turn, body measurements in size charts should be based on anthropometric data. Unfortunately, there are valid questions about the actual relationships between grading, sizing and anthropometric data. Often, appropriate data have not been available to apparel companies, and decisions regarding grading have been made based on prior practises and fl awed reasoning. If the grading process is fl awed, the manufactured garments will not refl ect the size charts and may not fi t a person whose measurements match the size. Disconnects between anthro-pometric measures and size charts also contribute to discrepancies between the garments and the consumers that they are intended to fi t.

In Pattern Grading for Women’s Clothes: the Technology of Sizing, Cooklin (1990, p. 8) noted that ‘a pattern grading system cannot be fun-damentally correct if the principal propositions have not been derived from authoritative data obtained by scientifi c methods’. In Section 5.2, the his-torical background of grading will establish that grading practice preceded common usage of sizing charts for women’s clothing.

Section 5.3 will detail the careful preparation and decision making needed for the grading process. The different types of grading system and grading technique, including computer grading, will be examined. Prac-tices involving the use of constant sizing intervals and grade rules, grade

152

Pattern grading 153

breaks, and incremental and relative categories of sizing increments and grade rules will be explained.

Existing sizing measurements for a bodice will be examined in Section 5.4 to determine their usefulness in the creation of functional grading information. Criteria will be defi ned to explain the required relationship between sizing measurements and grading information. The criteria will be applied to existing measurements. An accepted set of grade rules will be matched against its concurrent sizing standard to show how grading practice has precedence over body measurements in determining grade rules. Finally, new measurements to provide the missing information will be recommended.

Section 5.5 will identify structural assumptions that actually form the basis of grading. These proportional rules, set increments and assumptions are not supported by anthropometric research. The results of testing these assumptions using regression analysis on body measurements of the upper torso from the 1988 Anthropometric Survey of U.S. Army Personnel (Gordon et al., 1989) will be given.

Section 5.6 will compare a pattern graded with traditional grade rules with the same pattern graded with grade rules based on the specifi c regres-sion fi ndings. Differences between the resulting shapes and dimensions of the smallest and largest patterns will be examined. The current criteria and goals of grading will be explored in Section 5.7. A new goal will be proposed. Improved criteria for evaluating graded patterns will be presented.

Section 5.8 will report conclusions and implications. Section 5.9 will focus on future trends, on the role of collecting data from body scans and adapting computer grading systems to provide new tools for creating grading information and evaluation. Finally, Section 5.10 gives sources of further information and advice and Section 5.11 provides references.

5.2 Historical background

Prior to the 1880s, fi tted garments for women were made by a dressmaker or family member to fi t the individual woman. The primary method used was draping and pinning of cloth over the individual, which was very time consuming (Cooklin, 1990). There was no demand for ready-to-wear sizing systems for women’s clothing.

The earliest example of grading systems for women’s clothing were the proportional dressmakers’ systems developed between 1820 and 1840 (Kidwell, 1979). These were pattern-drafting systems which were used to identify and place critical points of a garment pattern. They were available in a range of sizes on a single piece of paper. Figure 5.1 and Fig. 5.2 are examples of pattern-drafting systems. It is important to note that these


5.1 Original label: the instructions and tool (intended to be perfo-rated) for Justin Clave’s 1859 proportional system printed in Phila-delphia on a sheet of paper, originally 61 cm × 91 cm, which was sold for US $2 (Library of Congress) (from Kidwell (1979, p. 26))

systems did not have a related size chart. A size chart is a codifi ed set of body measurements for each size in the range. Instead, the bust measure-ment was used to calculate all needed measurements on the bodice using different proportional formulas. The pattern for a garment for an individ-ual was constructed using one of the sizes of the pattern. The dressmaker copied points from the chosen size pattern through perforations in the paper onto a piece of paper underneath.

The fi rst size designations were used for paper patterns published in women’s magazines. Kidwell (1979) documented that paper patterns were fi rst mass produced in the 1860s and were created using proportional dressmakers’ systems. The body measurements for these early garment pattern pieces were generally not related to a size chart. Instead a single measurement was used for these early patterns as the initial measurement from which all other measurements were derived. Bust circumference was used for blouses and dresses. Waist circumference was used for skirts. The

Pattern grading 155

success of the fi t of the garment depended on the skill of the seamstress in adapting the pattern to fi t the individual.

The grading process used to create the different-sized pattern pieces for proportional dressmakers’ systems (and early paper patterns) was not based on size charts but instead on assumptions about the relationships between body measurements. When the pattern lines are drawn on a pro-portional dressmakers’ system to complete each pattern, the pattern set resembles a modern set of patterns known as a nested grade in many ways (Fig. 5.3).

A comparison of modern nested grades and early pattern sets illustrates assumptions about the relationships between the sized patterns and the grades. It is clear that some grading practices have continued since early times, while some refi nements have been made in modern grading. However neither early pattern sets nor modern grades represent sizing based on

5.2 Original label: tool (intended to be perforated) printed on a sheet of paper, 66.2 cm × 57.0 cm, for the 1868 hybrid system of Cox and Minton of Danville, Indiana. (Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress) (from Kidwell (1979, p. 32))

156 S

izing in clothing

5.3 An example of a traditional nested grade: the TRAD set of patterns based on traditional grading (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

Cen

ter

fron

t

3031323334 BASE SIZE35.53738.540.542.5 C

enter back

Pattern grading 157

human dimensions. (See Section 5.6 for a pattern graded with grade rules based on anthropometric data and a comparison with the same pattern graded with traditional grade rules.)

Near the end of the nineteenth century the fi rst fi tted ready-to-wear garments for women were produced. According to Cooklin (1990), these were cheap simplifi ed interpretations of then-current styles. He stated that the pattern grading system for these garments was based on the incorrect assumption that there was a fi xed proportional relationship between cir-cumferences and lengths. This tied vertical increases to girth increases. The disproportionally large vertical increase compounded as the size of the garment increased and resulted in clothing that fi t very few women. Cooklin noted that substantial alterations were required to obtain a toler-able fi t. He noted that more rational grading systems were developed by the late 1940s.

Early sources of grading information preceded the publication of the fi rst US anthropometric study in 1941 and the sizing standard based on these data published in 1958. There is no indication that early grading sources (Auditore, 1947; Kirschner, 1951; Gebbia, 1955) based their grading practise on size charts derived from anthropometric data.

Cooklin (1990, p. 8) applauded the four major anthropometric national surveys published in the 1950s and 1960s but noted that ‘with few excep-tions, the results of [the surveys] have had a rather limited effect on the sizing systems used by clothing industries’. In the paper entitled ‘Exploring the relationships of grading, sizing, and anthropometric data’, (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c), we reported that, with the exception of the use of grade breaks, US grading practise did not appear to change when sizing charts were introduced nor did it appear to change when anthropometric data became available. Indeed, we make the case that neither grading nor sizing is based on anthropometric data.

5.3 Grading process

Apparel grading is ‘the process of increasing or decreasing the base size pattern according to a set of body measurements and proportional relation-ships to develop a range of sizes for production’ according to Bye (1990, p. 10). This process was accomplished manually before the use of comput-ers in the apparel industry. Today, even with automated computer-based grading techniques, grading still requires a skilled person with an extensive knowledge of garment patterns and an understanding of the expected changes for all sizes in the range.

The preparation for grading begins with the development of a set of pattern pieces in the base size. The pattern pieces developed for the initial


base size garment are generally fi tted and perfected on a human fi t model (or possibly a dress form). The fi t model is chosen independently, based on the manufacturer’s or retailer’s experience, in an attempt to represent the dimensions and proportions of their target market. Fit models are typically in the size range 8–10 in US misses sizes with bust approximately 341–2 to 36 in (Workman, 1991). The base size is not usually the smallest size; rather it is the intermediate size between the small sizes and the medium sizes in a range of sizes produced. It is necessary that the corresponding seams and notches of the base size pattern are correctly matched and, when sewn, that the garment is well made and fi ts all critical body areas of the fi t model. The quality of the pattern to be graded is of utmost importance as any errors will be reproduced and possibly magnifi ed in the full range of sizes.

Each pattern piece is prepared for grading by identifying the grain line, the zero point of reference, and the points where increases (or decreases for smaller sizes) will be applied. It is necessary in any grading method to establish a point of reference for each pattern piece known as the zero point. All increases and decreases for the different-sized pattern pieces are made relative to that point. In a coordinate system it is the zero point for the coordinate scheme for that pattern piece. The examples of bodices in this chapter use a zero point at the center front (and back) at the underarm level. Moore et al. (2001) used the center front (and back) at the waist as the point of reference throughout their book. In Grading for the Fashion Industry: the Theory and Practice, Taylor and Shoben (1990, p. 26) used the term ‘cardinal point’ for the ‘points on the pattern to which grading increments are applied’. These are corners, dart points and some other points on the edges of a pattern piece. The basic front bodice pattern used as the example in this chapter has ten cardinal points (Fig. 5.4).

Next, decisions must be made about what sizes will be created, what increments of changes will be used between sizes and how the increments will be distributed among the pattern pieces. The fi rst of these decisions is what interval to use for the bust, waist and hip girths. In practice, the same increment is generally used for these girths and this increase is known as the ‘grade’. (See Section 5.5 for a discussion of the use of grade breaks.) In fact, the fi rst decision is whether or not the bust, waist and hips should change by the same amount for all sizes, but this is such common practise that this decision is taken for granted.

This grade interval must then be divided into appropriate amounts for each of the various pattern pieces to maintain the relationship of the con-structed garment to the body. To illustrate some of the decisions needed during this process, let us examine the horizontal increases needed to grade a bodice front to create the pattern pieces in the next size using a

Pattern grading 159

5.4 On the left-hand side are cardinal points (locations of grade rules) for a basic bodice pattern, and on the right-hand side are body landmarks on the front of body: (a) suprasternale; (b) trapezius point; (c) acromium; (d) bust point; (e) axilla (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005c); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

4 cm grade. First it is necessary to determine how a 4 cm bust (and waist) increase will be distributed across the parts of the bodice. Will the grader follow Cooklin’s (1990) recommendation to distribute 62.5% of the total increase across the front (in this case, 25 mm for the bodice front and 15 mm for the bodice back) (Fig. 5.5(a))? Or will the grader follow current US grading practise where the total bust increase is almost always distrib-uted equally across front and back pattern pieces (Fig. 5.5(b))?

The choice of front to back division is only the beginning. The grader must then decide what increase to use at the shoulder and cross-chest, and how these horizontal increases are to be further divided between the neck and shoulder points and between the sides of darts. Further decisions must be made for each style change. Cooklin (1990) identifi ed ten possible divi-sions of the horizontal increases of a bodice front pattern. For example, what happens if the style of the bodice has princess seams? How should the bust increase be divided between the pattern pieces and how will the shape of the curve at the bust point change? How should the waist increase be divided? In which way should the shoulder width increase be distrib-uted? (Figure 5.6 illustrates these decisions.) All these decisions have an

Zero line

4

5

6

7 7 9

8

d

e

c

b

a1

2

3

Zer

o lin

e

160 S

izing in clothing

5.5 Illustration of choices for the horizontal increases for a 4 cm grade for the bodice front using (a) Cooklin’s (1990) recommendations and (b) US grading practise

Cooklin’s (1980) recommendationsAdd 10 mm across shoulders

US sourcesAdd 10 mm across shoulders

Add 20 mmcross-chest

Add 10 mmcross-back

Zero

poi

nt

zero

poi

nt Add 10 mmcross-back

Add 10 mmcross-chest

Zero

poi

nt

15 mm back

7.5 mm

25 mm front

Add 40 mm around bust and waist

(a) (b)

12.5 mm

20 mm back

10 mm

20 mm front

Add 40 mm around bust and waist

10 mm

Pattern grading 161

5.6 Illustration of the decisions faced in determining how 10 mm horizontal grade will be applied to a bodice variation: the princess bodice front (see Fig. 5.5(b))

impact on the fi nal fi t and style of each garment in the range of sizes. Suzana Lau, Vice President/Director of the Technical Design Center for the May Merchandising Company (St Louis, Missouri, USA), feels that these important decisions rest on the ability and experience of the grader (personal conversation, 28 July 2005).

5.3.1 Types of grading system: simplifi ed versus complex

Taylor and Shoben (1990, p. 57) in their book on grading practices in the apparel industry differentiated between grading systems and grading tech-niques, stating that systems ‘describe the principles of body growth’ and techniques are the ‘means of applying these principles’. They distinguised between two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) grading systems. Moore et al. (2001) termed these two types of grading system as ‘simplifi ed’ (2D) and ‘complex’ (3D).

Taylor and Shoben (1990) gave a detailed explanation of the differences between the two systems. Using the term ‘suppression’ to refer to the typical garment design features employed to create the garment shape (i.e. darts, seams, pleats and gathers), they described complex 3D grading as a system which not only applies size increases to pattern edges but also applies increases to the suppression areas to control the added dimensions.

5 mm

5 mm

10 mm

10 mm

Zero

? ?

? ?

??

Zerobust


To understand the need for complex grading, it is easier to focus on those areas of the garment where additional fabric is needed in the larger sizes to cover the bust, hip, elbow, etc. This added fabric must then be reduced by suppression in selected areas to create the desired garment silhouette. For example, to adapt an individual bodice pattern to fi t a woman with a larger bust, additional fabric will be needed at the bust area and larger darts will be needed to suppress that addition so that the waist, side seam, etc., will remain the same. Some sizing charts specify that the size of the breasts should increase at a greater rate than the ribcage as the size increases. This third dimension must be assessed and accommodated with a more complex grading system.

Simplifi ed 2D grading systems can only apply pattern increases for two ‘tracks’: height and girth. For example, to apply the vertical increase at the shoulder–neck point of a bodice front, a 2D grading system can take into account only the vertical change in length between the waist and shoulder from a small size to a larger size. A complex 3D grading system would be needed to provide the additional necessary increase between waist and shoulder to maintain the fi t of the garment over a larger bust. This is essen-tial for a fi tted garment with more complex seaming.

Taylor and Shoben (1990) included detailed examples of pattern pieces graded using both 2D and 3D grading systems. The most observable dif-ference is that the darts (for the bust, elbow or hip) are kept at the same size in simplifi ed grading systems and allowed to increase in size out of proportion to the other body dimensions with complex grading systems. Moore et al. (2001) pointed out that complex grading systems have the ability to provide different width grades for front and back pattern pieces. (See discussion in Section 5.9.2.) They devoted an appendix to the develop-ment and comparison of complex and simplifi ed grading systems based on the US PS 42–70 grading guide.

The choice between the two systems depends on how many sizes will be in the range, the style of the garment, how close the fi t will be, the type of fabric and, ultimately, the knowledge and experience of the grader and those who judge the quality of the fi nal product. Moore et al. (2001) noted that simplifi ed systems are used in most grading texts and by a large pro-portion of the industry because complex systems take more time and can be cumbersome. However, there are many reasons why the time and effort to use a complex grading system are worthwhile for certain garment styles.

Bye and DeLong (1994) demonstrated that visual garment proportion is affected when the pattern is graded more than two sizes from the base size using standard grading practises. Taylor and Shoben (1990, p. 57) did not recommend the 2D system of grading because ‘fi tting and balance faults will automatically occur to the graded garment range’. They did indicate that the 2D system can be safely used for very-loose-fi tting garments over

Pattern grading 163

a very limited size range (three sizes). Moore et al. (2001) recommended that no more than fi ve sizes (two larger and two smaller) be graded together using a simplifi ed grading system. The average size range would then require more than one base size. They gave examples of simplifi ed systems that include grading information for nine sizes (three smaller and fi ve larger than the base size) which is a common practice in the apparel industry.

5.3.2 Grading techniques

There are three basic types of grading technique: shifting, edge changes and proportional grading. These are all used for 2D grading systems. Taylor and Shoben (1990) described a process that uses proportional grading to extrapolate grade rules from the needed changes between sizes for a 3D grading system.

All techniques begin with a base pattern created to fi t a fi t model or dress form. The new sizes can be smaller or larger than the base size depending on whether decreases or increases are applied. All techniques require some form of standardized notation for the interval between sizes at each of the cardinal points. Shifting uses the values of the incremental movements of the pattern, edge-changes grading uses grade rules with horizontal and vertical components of the intervals between sizes, and proportional grading requires the total horizontal and vertical change to the largest (or smallest) size.

Shifting

Shifting is a manual technique of grading. Historically, it is the most common grading method used. The grading information is expressed as the distance and direction to move the pattern from one cardinal point to fi nd the next cardinal point. Shifting is described by the following grading sources: Auditore (1947), Kirschner (1951), Kunick (1967), Rohr (1967), Scheier (1974), Davis (1980), Handford (1980) and Price and Zamkoff (1974, 1996).

The shifting technique uses a stiff base pattern as a template that either can be shifted by hand and traced fl at on a table or can be attached to a device called a manual grading machine to control movement and to ensure only parallel and perpendicular movements. One pattern size is drawn at a time. During this procedure the pattern is generally oriented so that the vertical grain line is horizontal. However, for ease of understanding, move-ments are described here as they relate to the person wearing the garment. The pattern is moved by specifi c amounts, in a prescribed procedure, fi rst up, then out, down and in, always in line with or perpendicular to the original (vertical) grain line of the pattern piece to create the next pattern in the size range. After each movement the cardinal point for the new


pattern is located and that segment of the pattern is drawn. The left-hand portion of Table 5.1 describes Handford’s (1980) movement of a base size 10 bodice front pattern as it is shifted to create a size 12 pattern.

Several descriptions of manual shifting techniques indicate that the base pattern itself is traced to draw the new curves and intermediate lines between the cardinal points for each new pattern. The term ‘blending’ is used to describe the manual adjustments (including rotating the pattern) employed to draw a curved seam or to keep the angle of the shoulder seam remaining unchanged for all sizes. This method of drawing curves gener-ally results in a ‘fl attening’ of the curve in the largest sizes as the curve spans more distance.

In Advanced Pattern Grading, Kirschner (1951) described a variation: shifting the layers of paper for the new patterns instead of moving the base pattern. A base pattern that is stiff enough to serve as a cutting template is used. Layers of paper (one for each size) are aligned under the base pattern and then individually shifted a successive amount and only in one direction (horizontally or vertically) at a time. Selected areas are cut through all the layers after each shift. This is the only method that forms the pattern pieces by cutting them (one element at a time, through all layers) instead of drawing them.

Edge changes

The edge-changes method of grading is a more recent technique that requires the establishment and organization of grade rules. Grade rules assigned to each cardinal point are numbers that defi ne the precise increases for larger sizes (or decreases for smaller sizes) from the base size. These are in the form of the vertical and horizontal changes at cardinal points on the pattern. For computer grading, these are expressed as Cartesian coor-dinates (x, y). The right-hand portion of Table 5.1 contains a grade rule table that would give the same result as Hanford’s (1980) grading informa-tion. Each grade rule is the equivalent of the accumulation of the shifted movements used in shifting to get to that cardinal point. (Note that the signs used for the coordinates would depend on the orientation of the pattern piece.)

Glock and Kunz (1995) emphasized the importance of grade rules. Man-ufacturers (and in some cases retailers) establish standard grade rules that set the differences between the base size and each new size. The use of standard grade rules should provide consistent differences and proportions between sizes within each size range that is produced. The goal is main-taining a consistent fi t for all garments produced in that size range.

The manual edge-changes technique begins with the base pattern. At each cardinal point on the base pattern a horizontal line is drawn. Ticks

Table 5.1 Example of shifting movement values to create a size 12 bodice front from a base size 10 using a 11–2 inch (4 cm) grade (Handford, 1980), the location of the cardinal points (see Fig. 5.4) and a comparable grade rule table

Grade, 4 cm Dimensions (cm) Grade rule table for the following sizes

Location of cardinal Shifting Size 6 8 10 12 14 16point (grade rule)

Movement of

Rule

X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y

Center neck Up 0.3 1 0.0 −0.6 0.0 −0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.9Neck: shoulder Out 0.3 Up 0.3 2 0.6 −1.2 0.3 −0.6 0.0 0.0 −0.3 0.6 −0.6 1.2 −0.9 1.8 pointShoulder: arm Out 0.3 3 1.2 −1.2 0.6 −0.6 0.0 0.0 −0.6 0.6 −1.2 1.2 −1.8 1.8 pointSleeve notch Down 0.6 4 1.2 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 −0.6 0.0 −1.2 0.0 −1.8 0.0Underarm Out 0.3 5 1.8 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 −0.9 0.0 −1.8 0.0 −2.7 0.0Side waist Down 0.3 6 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.0 0.0 −0.9 −0.3 −1.8 −0.6 −2.7 −0.9Bust dart In 0.6 7–9 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 −0.3 −0.3 −0.6 −0.6 −0.9 −0.9Center waist In 0.3 10 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 −0.3 0.0 −0.6 0.0 −0.9


or points are drawn on the horizontal line for the set amount of horizontal (x) increase (or decrease) for each size. A vertical line is drawn and marked in the same manner with the vertical (y) increase (or decrease). New points are drawn, triangulating the ticks (Fig. 5.7). The new pattern is then drawn from point to point. Descriptions of edge-changes grading procedures generally lack information on how the curved shapes of each new pattern are to be drawn between the cardinal points or how shoulder seams are kept parallel. Mortimer-Dunn (1966) and Aldrich (1994a) described edge changes. Moore et al. (2001) referred to the ‘measurement method’, while Taylor and Shoben (1990) used the term ‘track grade’. There are variations in this practise.

Current computer-aided design (CAD) grading methods are based on edge-changes grading. The pattern pieces are digitized or entered into the computer. The grade rule table does not list a grade rule for each cardinal point. Instead the table lists every possible combination of vertical and horizontal changes that is needed for that specifi c garment. The grader then assigns a grade rule to each cardinal point on the pattern, by typing in the x and y coordinates, assigning numbers from the grade rule table, or by copying the information from an already graded point. The computer locates the cardinal points for each new size of the pattern based on the change of the point in the coordinate plane and generates the pattern ele-ments between the cardinal points using straight lines or curve generation algorithms. The new patterns are displayed on the screen and can be printed and exported to marker-making programs but do not exist as sepa-rate patterns from the base size.

5.7 Example of grading by edge changes: neck and shoulder seams of a front bodice

Next size

Base size

Pattern grading 167

Grading a straight line is a simple process. A straight line (seam or dart leg) is defi ned by the computer as the locations (x, y Cartesian coordinates) of the two end points of the line. The new locations of the end points for each new size are computed by adding the grade rule amounts to the origi-nal location (x + horizontal grade rule, y + vertical grade rule).

Generating a curved seam in CAD is a more complex operation. The technician draws the original curve on the base size pattern piece by locat-ing several points, known as curve-points, along the curve. The shape of the curve is then generated using basic curve forming algorithms. The computer program may add several control points as part of the process to describe the curve as a series of segments. When grade rules are applied to the end points of a curved edge, the program must mathematically determine how each internal curve and control point should move. The results can distort the curve. Additional intermediate cardinal points, each assigned a grade rule, may be needed to defi ne appropriate curve shapes for each different size (personal conversation with E. Bye, 27 July 2005).

Proportional grading

Proportional grading begins with the base size pattern piece and the pattern piece for the largest size. The two patterns are lined up by matching the zero points. (The largest pattern is usually obtained by grading up from the base size directly to the largest size using the total vertical and hori-zontal increases.) A diagonal line is drawn from each cardinal point of the base size to the corresponding cardinal point of the largest size. A divi-sional tool is used to divide the line into the number of intervening sizes (Fig. 5.8). Each new pattern piece is drawn from point to point. Cardinal points for smaller sizes are obtained in the same manner by starting with the pattern piece in the smallest size.

Gebbia (1955) used proportional grading for all examples and stated that each new pattern element is drawn from point to point using the previous pattern. Other terms are sometimes used to describe proportional grading. Taylor and Shoben (1990) included a chapter on ‘draft grading’. Cooklin (1990, p. 48) mentioned that ‘vector grading’ is sometimes called the master grade method and is widely used. Aldrich (1994a) included an illustration that appears to be proportional grading in a discussion of computer grading, but none of the major commercial computer applications use this method.

In proportional grading, the increments between the sizes are created in the grading process and are derived by dividing the distance to the largest (or smallest) size by the number of sizes in the set. This is in contrast with other grading methods which use increments that are predetermined and applied to each pattern piece to obtain the next size. In proportional


grading, the increments between sizes can be any value and are not limited to standard increments, e.g. multiples of 1–8 inch or 1 mm.

5.3.3 The use of grade breaks

The noun ‘grade’ is used for the sizing interval (and cumulated grade rule) for the major girths of a pattern. Cooklin (1990, p. 21) explained that, while in practise the choice of sizing intervals varies, ‘it is widely accepted that the three major girths of bust, waist, and hips all change by the same amount’. In practise, a range of sizes is often divided into (up to three) sets of sizes differentiated by the grade used for each set. The grade used increases for each larger set of sizes in the range. Winks (1997) explained that this is common practice on the European continent. The phrase ‘the use of grades’ or ‘grade breaks’ refers to the use of different sets of intervals for the major girths in a stair-step format of size grouping. Each grouping is named for its grade. The British sizing charts use size groupings of 4 cm, 5 cm or 6 cm grades. US sizing charts use the convention that the smaller sizes within the size range use a 1 inch (2.5 cm) grade, the medium sizes use a 11–2 inch (3.8 cm) grade, and the larger sizes use a 2 inch (5.1 cm) grade. (Since ‘1 inch grade’, ‘11–2 inch grade’ and ‘2 inch grade’ are the names for the grade breaks, the equivalent metric values will not be given hereafter.)

The use of grade breaks was not evident in the early proportional drafting systems. My examination of sizing charts and grading sources starting from 1873 found no source for the origin of the use of grade breaks or how the sizes were distributed between grades (Schofi eld, 2000). O’Brien and Shelton (1941), researchers for the original US anthropometric sizing study

5.8 Example of proportional grading: neck and shoulder seams of a front bodice

Largest size

Base size

Pattern grading 169

for women’s clothing, included no information about the use of grade breaks. The 1958 US standard (National Bureau of Standards, 1958), based on that study, does use size intervals with similar values, but not grade breaks. Lapick (1955) included a size chart that uses three grades (1 inch, 11–2 inches, 2 inches) but only 82% of the sizing intervals for bust, waist and hips match the grade. The fi rst size chart observed to use grade breaks consistently for the bust, waist, and hip intervals is the 1970 US sizing standard (National Bureau of Standards, 1970). The practise became more defi ned over time and reached widespread acceptance by the 1980s. Most US size charts follow this practice, although not all charts use all grades. However, there is no agreement as to which set of sizes is included in each grade.

In ‘Examination of the use of grades in sizing women’s clothing’ (Scho-fi eld and LaBat, 2005b) we examined the use of grade breaks from 40 women’s size charts spanning 127 years and found three components.

1 The bust, waist and hip circumferences use the same interval between sizes known as the grade.

2 The grade increases for each size range (US charts use 1 inch for small sizes, 11–2 inches for medium sizes and 2 inches for large sizes).

3 All sizing intervals for all measurements are constant within the grade break.

We suggested several possible reasons for the use of grade breaks. Kunick (1967) found that a substantial percentage of garments produced before the 1940s required shortening. Cooklin (1990) explained that all sizes in the range were created by a grading method that used a direct relationship between vertical and girth measurements or, in other words, that employed constant intervals for all measurements. He noted that this problem became worse as the pattern size increased. It is possible that grading practise was changed in an attempt to correct this problem. The use of grade breaks keeps vertical size intervals between sizes the same while spacing girth garment measurements farther and farther apart. This changes the rela-tionship between vertical and girth measurements for larger sizes.

In addition, graders worked by hand until very recently and would have had to memorize many sets of grade rules to create a set of sizes. The use of grade breaks provides the grader with a simple system of applying grade rules with different values.

Finally, at the time that these standard grading methods were developed, the population had a higher percentage of women in the smaller sizes. The practise of using grade breaks creates more sizes for smaller women and fewer sizes for larger women. In 1941, the subjects in the study of the US population by O’Brien and Shelton were distributed as follows: 53% were in the 1 inch grade, 25% were in the 11–2 inch grade and 22% were in the 2 inch grade. The subjects in the 1988 anthropometric Survey of U.S. Army Personnel (Gordon et al., 1989) were distributed as follows: 29% were


in the 1 inch grade, 45% were in the 11–2 inch grade and 26% were in the 2 inch grade (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005b). This method of allotting sizes does not serve our population which has a greater proportion of larger women.

5.3.4 The use of constant sizing intervals

My 2000 research study closely examined sizing charts and documented the emergence of the practise of using constant intervals between sizes for all measurements (within the grade break). In that study, measurements of the upper torso from 40 US size charts of women’s sizes published between 1873 and 2000 were analyzed. The difference between each pair of adjacent sizes was calculated for each measurement in the chart. These size intervals for each measurement were compared to determine whether the size inter-val is constant for all sizes, is constant for all sizes within the grade break or uses variable amounts (Schofi eld, 2000). The use of constant intervals for measurements was further detailed in the paper by Schofi eld and LaBat (2005c).

The use of constant intervals for measurements is common in early size charts, but there are many exceptions. As many as fi ve different values are used in one chart for intervals of a single measurement over the range of sizes. Several charts have measurements with intervals that alternate between values.

The use of constant intervals is not derived from anthropometric data. Only 85% of the measurements in the 1958 US sizing standard (National Bureau of Standards, 1958) (based on anthropometric data) use constant intervals. Of the 25 size charts from before 1970 that were analyzed, only two sizing charts have 100% use of constant intervals for all measurements (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1939; Auditore, 1947). Over time, this practise of using constant increments for all measurements became widespread. All but two of the charts since 1955 use constant intervals for 90% or more of their measurements. The 1970 US sizing standard (National Bureau of Standards, 1970) and the 1994 US sizing standard (ASTM International, 1994) have constant intervals for all measurements in the charts. Constant intervals are used without exception by all the collected catalogue size charts that were published in 2000 (Schofi eld, 2000).

5.3.5 Categories of sizing increments: incremental and relative

Further examination of sizing intervals reveals that they can be divided into two categories: incremental and relative. Both are constant intervals

Pattern grading 171

for all sizes within the grade break. The difference between the two is revealed by comparing the size intervals for the different grade breaks. Incremental sizing intervals have a constant value that is applied to all sizes in the size chart while relative sizing intervals have different values for each of the three grade breaks.

These defi nitions are based on the observation of intervals between sizes. To understand the relationship between measurements as the size of the garment changes, it is necessary to compare the size intervals of each measurement with the continuous change in body size. Because the body circumference interval increases with each larger grade break, the result of applying a relative sizing interval is an approximately constant increase (or decrease) when compared with the increase in bust size. For example, if a certain measurement has a relative sizing interval of 0.25 inch (6 mm) for sizes in the 1 inch grade, 0.375 inch (9 mm) for sizes in the 11–2 inch grade, and 0.5 inch (12 mm) for sizes in the 2 inch grade, the actual increase in that measurement is an increase of 0.25 inch (6 mm) per bust inch (25 mm) across all sizes. Figure 5.9 shows the line generated by the application of a relative sizing interval across a full range of sizes.

In contrast, an incremental sizing interval results in different increases for each grade break because the interval is for each individual size, and not for each unit of additional circumference. In fact, the actual propor-tional amount of the difference decreases as the grade becomes larger. For example, if a certain measurement has an incremental sizing interval of 0.25 inch (6 mm) for all sizes, that measurement will change by 0.25 inch (6 mm) per bust inch (25 mm) for the sizes in the 1 inch grade, but it will change by 0.1875 inch (4.5 mm) per bust inch for the sizes in the 11–2 inch grade, and by only 0.125 inch (3 mm) per bust inch for the sizes in the 2 inch grade. Figure 5.9 is a graph of an incremental sizing interval.

Grade rules for different cardinal points as compared throughout the pattern can also be categorized as incremental or relative. In ‘Defi ning and testing the assumptions used in current apparel grading practice’ (Scho-fi eld and LaBat, 2005a), we found that the majority of grade rules used by grading sources are incremental, particularly vertical grade rules. Only horizontal grade rules at shoulder point, sleeve notches, underarm point and side waist point are relative.

5.4 Examination of the relationship between grade

rules and associated body measurements

In ‘Exploring the relationships of grading, sizing, and anthropometric data’ (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c) we questioned the perception that grade rules are derived from body measurements. This perception is accurate only if there is a specifi c measurement that has a direct relationship with

172 S

izing in clothing

5.9 Graph of application of an incremental and a relative grade rule (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

4.00

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00 32 33 34 35 36 37.5

39 40.5

42.5

44.5

46.5C

hang

e (in

ches

)

Incremental 1 inch per size

Sizes labeled by bust circumference (inches)

>----------------< >----------< >--1 inch grade 2 inch grade11 inch grade2--<

4 Relative 1 inch per bust inch4

Pattern grading 173

each needed grade rule. To judge the existence of appropriate measure-ments and their relationship to grade rules, we examine the question from different viewpoints. Firstly, we develop three criteria to determine whether measurement information can be used to create grade rules and apply these criteria to existing measurements of the upper torso. Secondly, we examine the individual grade rules of the upper torso to determine whether there is an existing body measurement that is associated with the corre-sponding cardinal point and whether that measurement meets the criteria. Thirdly, we compare existing grade rules with size intervals from a concur-rent sizing standard to determine whether the grade rules match sizing information. Finally, we recommend new measurements that can be used in grade rule formation.

5.4.1 Criteria for using measurement information for grade rule formation

For the purpose of our study, we defi ne three criteria for using measure-ment intervals for grade rule formation: fi rstly, the measurement must be either a horizontal or vertical measurement (related to the garment), sec-ondly, the measurement must relate to only one grade rule and, thirdly, the measurement must be taken at an identifi able body landmark correspond-ing to the cardinal point on the pattern.

Criterion 1. The measurement must be either horizontal or vertical.

Shifting and edge-changes grading techniques use grading information that is either horizontal or vertical. Angled measurements could be used for proportional grading or could be divided into horizontal and vertical components, but only if the angle is known. In addition, measurements must span areas of the body if the corresponding area of the garment spans the body. For example, the center front length is measured on the surface of the body between the breasts. This information cannot be used for grading of garments that span the body from bust point to bust point and therefore do not lie fl at on the body, as the garment and body measurement may not correspond. Therefore, measurements must be either parallel to the vertical grain line of the garment pattern (e.g. center back length) or perpendicular to the grain line (the cross-grain) of the garment pattern (e.g. front bust arc).

Criterion 2. The measurement must relate to only one grade rule.

If a measurement spans two or more cardinal points, the size interval would need to be divided into grade rules for each point. For example, the interval for center back length must be divided into two grade rules: the vertical increase from the underarm level to the center back neck and


the vertical increase from the underarm level to the center back waist. The determination of what percentage of the interval applies to each grade rule is based on other factors besides the direct relationship between the body measurement and the garment measurement.

Unfortunately, circumference measurements alone are not useful mea-surements for deriving grading information. Common practise is to divide bust, waist and hip increases equally between front and back garment pieces. This practise, although expedient, is contrary to both the 1958 and the 1970 US sizing standards. More logically defi ned rules should be based on front arc and back arc body measurements so that appropriate changes can be made from the side seam in the front and back separately.

Criterion 3. The measurement must be related to a body landmark.

The sites on the body that serve as end points for measurements are termed landmarks. Landmarks are specifi cally located on a bony promi-nence or other physically defi nable point on the human body so the mea-surement can be reproduced. Cardinal points of a pattern are matched to body landmarks in order to establish the relationship between individual grade rules and sizing measurements. See Fig. 5.4 for the location of car-dinal points on a garment and the landmarks on the front of the body. Many measurements used in sizing charts are not related to identifi able body landmarks. The previously mentioned arc measurements, which effectively divide circumference measurements into front and back, are desirable for establishing grade rules at the side seam but are not easily obtained. Some early size charts include arc measurements. Unfortunately, there are no body landmarks for a side seam. The US anthropometric study (O’Brien and Shelton, 1941) provided these measurements but did not clearly defi ne how the side seam locations are determined.

The armscye of a bodice pattern is the seam for the sleeve. Anthropo-metric measurements use body landmarks of the axillas, the folds of skin in the front and back at the armpit (Gordon et al., 1989). Measurements for apparel sizing generally do not use these landmarks. Additionally, the location of the points used to measure the cross-chest width and cross-back width are generally not defi ned. The few researchers who described these landmarks did not agree on their location.

The bust point is a key landmark used in several measurements. However, the location of the bust point can change in both the vertical and the hori-zontal planes for an individual depending on the brassiere worn.

Only fi ve out of 30 commonly used measurements of the bodice pass the three criteria and are judged useful for grading information. These are scye depth, front and back shoulder widths, side neck to bust point, and bust-point-to-bust-point width. Of these, only back shoulder width is a measure-ment that is commonly found in size charts. However, back shoulder width is not measured in the 1939 US anthropometric survey, nor is it found in

Pattern grading 175

British sizing charts. Neck breadth, a common measurement in anthropo-metric studies (taken using a calliper), meets all three criteria. However, this measurement is not used in apparel or in sizing charts.

5.4.2 Matching measurements to cardinal points

We examined the cardinal points on a bodice to select matching landmarks and garment measurements (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c). Only seven of the 22 cardinal points of a basic bodice (front and back) (32%) are specifi -cally associated with a body landmark so that related measurements have defi nable points. Measurements related to the cardinal points are detailed in Table 5.2 for the front of the body and Table 5.3 for the back of the body. (See Fig. 5.4 for the locations of cardinal points and body landmarks.)

There are a total of 38 non-zero vertical and horizontal components of grade rules for the 22 cardinal points on the basic bodice. Of these 38 grade rule components, 16 have no related body measurement. Of the 22 grade rule components with related body measurements, nine measurements fail the fi rst two criteria (only vertical or horizontal, only one grade rule affected), and six components fail the third criterion because there are no body landmarks on the side seam location. Only seven out of 38 grade rule components (18%) have related body measurements that are reliably derived from anthropometric studies for body charts.

5.4.3 Comparison of a set of grade rules with a size chart

We have compared the grade rules given by Price and Zamkoff (1974) with size intervals from the 1970 US sizing standard, the most current standard at the time of publication of this text, focusing on the cardinal points of the front bodice (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c). Table 5.4 illustrates the comparison and indicates whether individual grade rules match the related size intervals. The 22 cardinal points are listed with separate sections for horizontal and vertical grade rule components. The related size intervals from the 1970 US sizing standard are given in separate columns for the front and back. Because the grade rules given by Price and Zamkoff (1974) are identical for front and back they are presented in one column. Only 11 of 38 vertical and horizontal grade rule components have a corresponding body measurement in the chart. Six of those grade rule components do not match the corresponding size interval.

5.4.4 Recommended new sizing measurements needed for grade rules

In order to establish the link between size charts and grading, we recom-mended 20 measurements to be included in size charts for the upper torso (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c). These measurements are listed in Tables 5.2

176 S

izing in clothing

Table 5.2 Cardinal points, landmarks, existing measurements and recommended measurements of the front bodice (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

Cardinal point Body V/H Existing sizing measurement Primary measurement, needed landmarklocation on pattern* landmark and comments† and comments

1 Center front Suprasternale V Center front length, N-S Center neck to line between bust points Not garment measurement (surface, between breasts)2 Shoulder, Trapezius point H None Neck breadth side neck V Side neck to bust point, G Unstable location of bust point Full front length, N-A, N-S3 Shoulder Acromion H Front shoulder width, G point V Full front side length, N-S Shoulder point to underarm level Front shoulder slope, N-A, N-S Landmark underarm4 Sleeve Axilla (not used) H Cross-chest, G, L Landmark at sleeve notch notch V None Sleeve notch to underarm level Landmark sleeve notch/underarm5 Underarm None H Front bust arc, G, L Landmark underarm/side seam6 Waist side Waist general H Waist front arc, G, L Landmark center waist None V Side length, G, L Landmark waist/side seam7 Dart legs at Waist general HV None (None known) waist8 Dart point Bust point H Bust-point-to-bust-point breadth, G (Unstable location of bust point) V Underarm level vertical to bust-point level9 Waist center Waist general V Center front length, N-S Center waist to line between bust points

V and H stand for vertical and horizontal measures.† G, measurement is useful for grading; N-A, Not useful, angled measurement; N-S, not useful, spans more than one cardinal point; L, Measurement would be useful if had a related body landmark.

P

attern grading 177

Table 5.3 Cardinal points, landmarks, existing measurements and recommended measurements of the back bodice (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

Cardinal Point Body V/H Existing sizing measurement Primary measurement, needed landmarkLocation on Pattern* landmark and comments† and comments

1 Center back Cervicale V Scye depth, G Center back length, N-S2 Shoulder side neck Trapezius point H None Neck breadth V Full back length, N-A, N-S Trapezius point to underarm height Shoulder dart leg Midshoulder HV None (None known)3 Shoulder point Acromion H Back shoulder width, G (Surface measurement would be best) V Full back side length, N-S, N-A Shoulder point vertical to underarm height Back shoulder slope, N-A, N-S Shoulder dart point None HV None (None known)4 Sleeve notch Axilla (not used) H Cross back, G, L Landmark at sleeve notch V None Sleeve notch height to underarm height Landmark at sleeve notch and underarm5 Underarm None H Back bust arc, G, L Landmark at underarm at side seam6 Waist side Waist general H Waist back arc, G, L Landmark at waist at side seam V Side length, G, L Landmark at side seam at waist and underarm7 Dart legs at waist Waist general HV None (None known)8 Dart None HV None (None known)9 Waist center Waist general V Center back length, N-S Center waist to height of underarm Landmark at center waist and underarm

V and H stand for vertical and horizontal measures.† G, measurement is useful for grading; N-A, not useful, angled measurement; N-S, not useful, spans more than one cardinal point; L, measurement would be useful if had a related body landmark.


and 5.3 with the corresponding cardinal point and body landmark. Six existing measurements are included: bust point to bust point, side neck to bust point, shoulder width (front and back), scye depth and neck breadth. An additional seven existing sizing measurements can be used for grade rules if landmarks or measurement locations could be defi ned to match the cardinal points on a pattern. These are as follows: cross-chest, front bust arc, waist front arc, cross-back, back bust arc, waist back arc and side length. The missing landmarks are sleeve notch location, center waist point, and underarm and waist points on the side seam.

We recommend eight new measurements for grade rule formation: on the front, center neck to a line connecting the bust points, center waist to a line connecting the bust points, and front sleeve notch to underarm height; on the back, trapezius point to underarm height, back sleeve notch height to underarm height, and height of underarm to center waist; serving

Table 5.4 Comparison of 1970 US sizing standard size intervals with the grade rules given by Price and Zamkoff (1974) for a bodice (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

Cardinal Horizontal† Vertical†point

Size intervals Grade Size intervals Grade (inches) rules (inches) rules

Front Back Front Back

1 Center neck N 1/8S 1/8

2 Side neck M M 1/16 3/8X N 1/4

Back dart leg N 1/8 N 1/8

3 Shoulder M M 1/16 N N 3/16 point Back dart N 1/8 N 1/8 point4 Sleeve notch 1/8X 3/16S 3/16 N N

5 Underarm 1/2X 1/8X 3/8

6 Side waist 7/16X 5/16X 3/8 1/8S 1/8S 1/8

7 Dart leg N N 1/8 N N 1/8 at waist8 Dart point 1/8S N 1/8 N N9 Center waist N N 1/8

† S, grade rule matches the size interval; X, grade rule does not match the size interval; N, no measurement in the 1970 standard; M, measurement exists, but not in the 1970 standard.

Pattern grading 179

both front and back, a vertical measurement from the shoulder point to the underarm height. An eighth measurement, underarm level vertical to bust point level, is necessary to document the change in height of the bust point across sizes. All new measurements require landmarks to be defi ned or new measurement locations to be used. All are vertical measurements on the garment, but only short distances can be taken with the callipers used in anthropometric studies to determine the straight-line distance between two body points. The others need to follow the contour of the body. These types of measurement are easily generated from 3D body scans.

5.5 Grading assumptions that are the actual basis

for grade rules

The lack of direct connection between grading and sizing charts led me to establish the grading assumptions that are the primary basis for grading a woman’s bodice. Proportional rules, standard increments and other assumptions that are the primary basis for grading practice for a woman’s bodice were defi ned by analyzing grade rules from 16 US and British text or reference books. These assumptions were tested using anthropometric measurements of the 1988 Anthropometric Survey of US Army Personnel (Gordon et al., 1989). (Not all assumptions could be tested using these data.) Regression analysis is used to determine appropriate sizing intervals and grade rules. The practice of incremental grade rules could be validated by models that are piecewise linear with a very limited range of possible slopes for the line segments. Join-point regression analysis is used to dis-cover the existence of join points and to determine the slopes of the line segments of such models. See Schofi eld (2000) for a description of the sta-tistical process used and the detailed fi ndings.

The word ‘assumption’ is used to mean ‘a premise about a relationship between measurements of the body that is used in practice but has not been empirically tested’ (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c, p. 19). Eight grading assumptions presented here are grouped as follows: fi rst of all, grading assumptions related to the sizing practices of constant increments and the use of grade breaks (Assumptions 1–4), next an assumption that front and back horizontal increases are identical (Assumption 5), then an assump-tion related to the shoulder area (Assumption 6) and, fi nally, assumptions related to the front bust dart (Assumptions 7 and 8). Examination of the Use of Grades in Sizing Women’s Clothing (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005b) focused on Assumption 4 (the use of grade breaks). The other seven assumptions and the possible results of following these practices were described in greater detail by Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a). For this discus-sion, movements (horizontal and vertical) of the cardinal points or garment


elements are relative to the orientation of the garment as it is worn on the body, and not to the pattern piece as it is graded.

5.5.1 Increasing vertical grade rules

The practise of linking vertical measurements to horizontal measurements is contrary to anthropometric research. O’Brien and Shelton (1941) clearly stated that vertical measurements do not correlate with width measure-ments. Based on similar results from the British national survey, Taylor and Shoben (1990) concluded that height should not increase with size.

Assumption 1. The vertical components of grade rules for points on neck and shoulder are positive and incremental for all sizes.

All grading sources use constant vertical increases (or decreases for smaller sizes) for each cardinal point along the top of the bodice pattern for all sizes. These are incremental grade rules. The regression results of fi ve available measurements do not validate Assumption 1. Intervals are much less than expected and are not incremental.

Assumption 2. The vertical components of the grade rules at the waist are positive and incremental for all sizes.

Most grading sources use vertical increases (or decreases for smaller sizes) for all points along the waist of the bodice pattern for all sizes. Three British grading sources, Aldrich (1994a), Cooklin (1990, 1995) and Taylor and Shoben (1990), and a US source, Gebbia (1955), did not alter the dis-tance between underarm height and waist height as the size changes. Another British source, Kunick (1967), decreased the vertical distance between the underarm height and waist height as the size increases.

The three vertical measurements from underarm level to waist derived from the anthropometric survey actually decrease for each larger size up to bust circumference of 39 inches (99 cm). For sizes larger than 39 inches, the vertical increases are positive, but very small. None is incremental.

5.5.2 The use of grade breaks

Assumption 3. The intervals between sizes for bust, waist and hip circum-ferences are identical. The horizontal grade rules at the bust, waist and hips are relative.

All grading sources use the same total horizontal increases at the bust, waist and hip. This is known as an even grade. The result of this assump-tion is that (in standard grading) the difference between the major girths (hip minus bust, and bust minus waist) of the base size is maintained for all sizes. For example, all sizes from Aldrich’s (1994a) sizing charts have the exact difference between the bust and waist circumferences: 2.5 cm.

Pattern grading 181

The grade rules for the horizontal increases at the bust, waist and hip are relative.

The regression results indicate that this assumption is not true and these girths should vary by different amounts over the sizes in a chart. Regres-sion analysis results for the waist indicate that the change at the waist is only 73% of the expected value for sizes smaller than a bust of 36 inches (92 cm) but is close (97%) to the expected value for larger sizes. The change at the hips is only 70% of the expected value for sizes smaller than a bust of 36 inches (92 cm) and 57% of the expected value for larger sizes. These grade rules at the waist and hips are not relative.

Assumption 4. Grade breaks are used.

The use of grade breaks is evident when grade rules are constant within the grade break and when the grade increases for each larger set of sizes within the size range (see Section 5.3.3). This combination results in the two types of grade rule: incremental and relative (see Section 5.3.5). Grading sources use relative grade rules for horizontal changes at cardinal points on the side seam and armscye. Grade rules related to all verticals (except bust-point height) and to the horizontals at the neck and dart points are generally incremental.

To examine the use of grade breaks, regression analysis of the measure-ments from the 1988 Anthropometric Survey of U.S. Army Personnel (Gordon et al., 1989) was used to determine which grade rules are incre-mental or relative, or which do not fi t either pattern (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005b). The expected model for a measurement with a relative grade rule is a straight line (see Fig. 5.9). Four of the six horizontal measurements that were expected to have relative grade rules instead have models with jointed lines indicating that incremental grades would be more appropri-ate: shoulder breadth, below-bust circumference, waist circumference and hip circumference. The expected model for a measurement with an incre-mental grade rule is a jointed line with three line segments (see Fig. 5.9). Only fi ve of the 16 measurements which are expected to be incremental are best represented by a jointed line, but none of the models follows the expected pattern. Of all the measurements tested, only below-bust circum-ference has a model that is a line with three segments. Only shoulder breadth and hip circumference have a piecewise linear model with two line segments, with a smaller increase for larger sizes than the smaller sizes. However, these three are traditionally relative grades. All other models of jointed lines follow divergent patterns.

The use of grade breaks is an artifi cial structure for sizing charts. These results indicate that use of grades, constant size intervals and constant grade rules may not create garments that fi t well across a population. In particular, these results suggest that waist and hip circumferences should increase at different rates from the bust to maintain fi t over the range of


sizes. At one time there were functional reasons for maintaining an even grade, when all grading was done by hand and needed to be simple enough to maintain quality. Restricting size intervals to constant amounts is now unnecessary since grade rule tables are stored in computers. Each grade rule can be a different amount.

5.5.3 Horizontal grading assumptions

Assumption 5. The horizontal components of front and back grade rules for the bodice are identical.

This assumption appears to be contrary to anthropometric data. Early US and British sizing standards do not divide increases in horizontal mea-surements equally between front and back. The 1958 and 1970 US sizing standards (National Bureau of Standards, 1958, 1970) and the National Joint Clothing Council of Great Britain (1957) specify a front increase that is greater than the back at the bust level, and a greater increase for the cross-back than for the cross-chest. The two early US sizing standards (National Bureau of Standards, 1958, 1970) specify a front increase that is greater than the back at the waist, and a back increase that is greater than the front at the hip. Cooklin (1990) averaged measurement data from four national anthropometric surveys and recommended a front bust increase that is 62.5% of the total bust increase. Cooklin (1990) and Taylor and Shoben (1990) also used grade rules with a greater increase at the cross-chest than at the cross-back. These examples are the exception; most grading sources use identical horizontal components for front and back grade rules for the armscye and side seam. This assumption has been tied to simplifi ed grading systems.

To test Assumption 5, arc measurements are needed but were not avail-able from the 1988 anthropometric survey data. As an alternative method, below-bust circumference was used to approximate chest size. If below-bust and bust circumference increase at the same rate as size increases, then the front bust arc is not increasing at a greater rate than the back bust arc. The regression results establish that the below-bust circumference increases at only 68% of the bust increase for every size up to bust 39 inches (99 cm) and 85% for larger sizes. Waist grade rules could not be tested without access to arc measurements in the anthropometric data.

Assumption 6. Shoulder width rule – the horizontal increase for the front and back shoulder and armscye points is proportional to (generally one half of) the bust increase. These grade rules are relative.

Price and Zamkoff (1996, p. 28) described the relationship of the shoul-der increase to the bust increase as ‘the cross-shoulder grade of the bodice

Pattern grading 183

is always one-half of the cross-bust grade’. In the example used in Fig. 5.5(b), a bodice graded with the 4 cm grade, following US grading practice, will have a 2 cm increase across the front and back at the bust. The increase at the cross-shoulder, cross-chest and cross-back widths is half that amount, 1 cm (and the grade rules are 0.5 cm for half the pattern piece). British sources do not use horizontal grade rules that match front to back and the cross-chest increase does not match the shoulder increase (see Fig. 5.5(a)). However, all sources use relative horizontal grade rules for the shoulder points and sleeve notches.

The skeletal structure of an individual for the most part determines the width of the shoulder and armscye. However, the soft tissue covering the ribcage and the breasts are added to the size of the ribcage to determine the bust circumference. It is doubtful that the wider range of bust circum-ferences in the population can be directly proportional to the limited range of shoulder widths.

The three available anthropometric measurements are shoulder breadth, cross-back width at midscye, and cross-back width at scye. (There are no front measurements in the anthropometric data to test.) The regression results diverge from grading practice as the location of the measurement moves up from the bust level. The increase for cross-back width at scye measurement is very close to the expected 50% of the cross-bust increase. The increase for cross-back width (at midscye) is only 40%, while the increase at shoulder breadth is 28% for sizes up to a bust of 34 inches (86 cm) and 16% for larger sizes. The resulting grade rule for shoulder breadth follows the pattern for an incremental and not a relative grade rule.

5.5.4 Grading assumption of the front bust darts

Grading sources handle the grade rules for the cardinal points of the front bust dart that intersects the waist seam in one of three ways: fi rstly, one half of the sources keep the bust point at the same vertical level as the original pattern and move the cardinal points of the dart at the waistline vertically with all waist points, secondly, four sources (all use shifting) keep the dart exactly the same as the original pattern and move it vertically and, thirdly, three sources move the bust point down but keep the waist points at the same vertical level as the original pattern. All cardinal points of the waist are moved vertically by the same amount or are kept at the same height. Sources that use a vertical movement of the cardinal points at the waist use 0.125 inch (3 mm) for all sizes. All grading sources move the three cardinal points of the dart horizontally for each size by that same amount.

The choice of grading practice for the grade rules of the dart affects its size. The dart remains unchanged for all sizes graded using the second


method. The fi rst method will increase the length of the dart for larger sizes (and shorten it for smaller sizes), while the third method will have the opposite effect. The fi rst method will increase the enclosed angle of the dart for smaller sizes and decrease the enclosed angle of the dart for larger sizes, while the third method will have the opposite effect. These differences will create darts that fi t differently on the body.

Assumption 7. The bust point maintains the same vertical location in the bodice for all sizes. (Alternative assumption 7. The vertical component of the grade rule at the bust point is incremental and moves the point of the bust dart down as the size increases.)

To test this assumption, the bust-point height is compared with the axilla height. Sources that move the bust point down as the size increases use incremental grade rules. However, the regression results show this is a rela-tive grade rule. The bust point of the garment will move down 0.067 inch (1.7 mm) as the bust increases.

Assumption 8. The horizontal components of the three grade rules for the cardinal points of the front bust dart are identical and incremental.

All grading sources use identical horizontal components for the three cardinal points of the bust darts. Price and Zamkoff (1996, p. 40) explained that the width of the dart is constant across all sizes ‘because the areas that shape the dart at its widest and narrowest ends grow in proportion to each other’. The most common value for the traditional horizontal grade rules of the bust dart into the waist was 12.5% of the bust interval unit. The grade rule from regression model on bust-point breadth is 6.7% of the bust interval unit and is not incremental.

Regression results indicate that the increase in below-bust circumfer-ence is 67% of the increase in the bust circumference for bust size up to 39 inches (99 cm) and 85% for larger sizes. This indicates that the below-bust circumference does not increase at the same rate as the bust increases. The waist circumference also does not increase at the same rate as bust circumference (see Assumption 3). These regression results indicate that the waist points of the bust dart have horizontal grade rule components with different values as the size changes.

5.6 Comparison of standard graded bodice with

regression fi ndings

To compare regression fi ndings with current practice, a standard basic bodice pattern was graded using two sets of grade rules. The TRAD set

Pattern grading 185

uses grade rules adapted from a traditional grading method (Handford, 1980). The TEST set uses my regression fi ndings adapted into grade rules (Schofi eld, 2000). The size of each pattern is named by the bust circumfer-ence in inches. For example, the base size 34 fi ts a woman with a 34 inch (86 cm) bust circumference. The TRAD set of patterns has ten sizes (30–42.5) in three grades (see Fig. 5.3). The TEST set of patterns has 13 sizes (30–42) in a 1 inch grade (Fig. 5.10). The largest pattern piece of the TEST set was graded a half-size up to a 42.5 size. Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a) included details of the comparison of these two sets of patterns.

5.6.1 Garment elements comparison

Each pattern element was examined for differences in shape and propor-tion. The comparison between the smallest (30) and largest (42.5) sizes and base size (34) is shown in Fig. 5.11.

Neck

The TRAD set has larger differences between vertical increases at the center neck and between horizontal increases at the side neck point than the TEST set has. The width of the neck of the TRAD 42.5 size is 1.3 inches (3.3 cm) wider than the TEST 42.5 size. The range of neck circum-ferences over all sizes for the TRAD set is much larger than the range for the TEST set. The front neck seams of the TEST set are similar in size and shape for all sizes. The front neck seams of the TRAD set are skewed to the bias at the side neck point for large sizes.

Shoulder angle, length and width

The shoulder angle for the TRAD set decreases slightly (3°) while the shoulder angle for the TEST set increases 10° as size increases. The length of shoulder seams for the TRAD set and TEST set are comparable. However, the shoulder seams would fi t differently on the body. For larger sizes, the TRAD set has wider necks, moving the location of the TRAD shoulder seam farther out from the center of the body. Further, the shoul-der slope of the garment is greater.

Shoulder width for the TEST set does not increase at the same rate as the TRAD set. The difference for the shoulder width between largest and smallest sizes is 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) for the TRAD set and 0.9 inch (2.3 cm) for the TEST set. Both shoulder seams for the TRAD set are parallel for all sizes. The back shoulder seams for the TEST set are approximately parallel for all sizes, while the angle of the front shoulder seam for the TEST set changes as the size changes.

186 S

izing in clothing

3031323334 Base size3536373839404142

Size 30

Size 39Join point-size 39

Size 42

Size 30

Size 42

Size 42

Size 30

Center backC

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5.10 The TEST set of graded patterns, based on regression fi ndings (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a): reprinted by permission of the International Textile and Apparel Associa-tion, Inc.)

P

attern grading 187

5.11 Comparison of the smallest and largest patterns of the TEST and TRAD sets of graded patterns with the base size pattern (from Schofi eld and LaBat (2005a); reprinted by permis-sion of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc.)

Base size34Test set3042.5Trad set3042.5

42.5

TE

ST

Cen

ter

fron

t Center back


Armscye

The difference between the back armscye seams for the TRAD set and TEST set is the most obvious difference between the graded patterns. The armscye seams for all sizes appear to be parallel for the TRAD set because the increase at the shoulder point matches the increase at the armscye notch. The armscye seams of the TEST set appear to tilt toward the center as the size increases because the results show that the increase in shoulder width is smaller than the increase across the back at notch level. The TRAD shoulder width increase is much larger than the TEST shoul-der width increase. This makes a difference in the length of the back armscye seam. The difference between the largest and smallest sizes for length of back armscye seam for the TRAD set is 3.5 inches (9 cm), while it is 1.35 inches (3.4 cm) for the TEST set. This will change the fi t of sleeve cap to the armscye between the two methods. The armscye shape remains similar, only lengthened, for all sizes of the TRAD set. The armscye shape and orientation of the TEST set changes for different sizes.

Bust dart

The dart points for all sizes of both the TRAD and the TEST sets are on a 45° line. The horizontal and vertical distances between dart points of the TEST set are one half of the horizontal and vertical distances of the TRAD set.

The seams of a dart are known as dart legs. The matching dart legs from bust point to intersection at the waist of the TRAD set are parallel for all sizes. The horizontal components of the grade rules for the TEST set for the points of the dart at the waist have different values; so the enclosed dart angle increases with increasing size. In the TEST set, no pair of dart legs is parallel to the dart legs of the previous size.

The original base size pattern was created to fi t a model with a B-cup bra size. The TRAD set maintains that cup size for all sizes. The below-bust circumference for the TEST set increases to only 35.4 inches (89.8 cm) for size 42.5 inches. The largest size would fi t a model with a D-cup bra size.

Waist seam

The second most obvious difference between the graded patterns is the vertical location of the waist seam in relation to the underarm level. The vertical movements at cardinal points of the waist for the TEST set are distinctly different from traditional grading. The cardinal points on the waist of the TRAD set are 0.125 inch (3 mm) lower for each larger size. The smallest size of the TEST set has the longest bodice from underarm

Pattern grading 189

level to waist level. From size 30 to size 39 the vertical lengths decrease for each larger size. Above size 39 the lengths increase slightly for each larger size. However, size 42 is still shorter than size 38 for the TEST set.

Side seam

Since the horizontal components of the grade rules at the underarm and side waist points are the same, the side seams of the TRAD set are parallel. The horizontal distance between the side seams is one quarter of the grade: 0.25 inch, 0.375 inch and 0.5 inch (6 mm, 9.5 mm and 13 mm respectively). The horizontal components of the grade rules at the underarm and side waist points are not the same for the TEST set; so the side seams are not parallel. The waist has a join point at size 39 because the amount of change is different for sizes 39 and below from those above 39 (which are smaller). Each larger size of the TRAD set has a longer side seam. The side seam of the largest size of the TRAD set is 1.12 inches (2.8 cm) longer than the smallest size. In contrast, the smallest size of the TEST set has the longest side seam. The side seam of the largest size is actually 0.11 inch (3 mm) shorter than the smallest size.

5.6.2 Comparison summary

Differences in grade rules affect size and shape of all garment elements. For the 1988 anthropometric survey women, especially in large sizes, gar-ments graded using traditional grade rules would not provide good fi t in many areas of the body. In particular, the neck of the traditional graded garments would tend to be too wide and the sleeve cap would tend to hang off the shoulder, while the TEST garments should fi t more of the popula-tion properly in these areas. In addition, the proportion front to back at bust level, the position and shaping for the bust, and the size and height of the waist for garments graded using the TEST grade rules should better refl ect the population. Although individual variations will result in some misfi t from any set of garments graded to create standard sizes, the gar-ments graded using anthropometric data should fi t more of that population better than those graded on the basis of unproven assumptions.

5.7 Goals of grading

5.7.1 Traditional criteria of accuracy; the visual inspection of the nested grade

The grader is a skilled expert who must use his or her judgment to apply the grade rules to pattern pieces in the infi nite variety of shapes and


placements that may be supplied by the designer. The visual inspection of the nested grade has been a reliable and straightforward method to access the quality of the grading process.

A nested grade shows all the graded pattern pieces arranged one within the other lined up at the zero point on one piece of paper (see Fig. 5.3). Price and Zamkoff (1996, p. 13) explained that ‘an experienced grader can see at a glance . . . whether or not each corner of the pattern has received the proper grade’. The grader uses the following criteria in the traditional visual inspection of the nested grade: that cardinal points are evenly spaced, and that curved seamlines follow the same approximate shape and straight lines are parallel. The grader checks the even spacing of the car-dinal points by drawing a straight line, or a jointed line if grade breaks are used, through matching cardinal points. This tells the grader that identical vertical and horizontal increments are being used for all sizes in the grade break.

When the two sets of patterns are evaluated by visually assessing the nested grade, the TRAD set appears to be a well-made nested grade and therefore appears to be correctly graded. The TEST set has many irregu-larities. The TEST set of graded patterns has straight lines that are not parallel and the other seam lines that do not maintain a similar shape. Thus, the TEST set would not be acceptable to the trained eye. (See Fig. 5.3 for the TEST set nested grade and Fig. 5.10 for the TRAD set nested grade.)

These criteria are actually assessing whether the pattern shapes and proportions of the base size have been maintained over all pattern sizes. This goal used by graders in the past, when manual grading was evaluated visually, may be at odds with the creation of a size set that will fi t the popu-lation well. A pattern set resulting from a grading process based on actual body measurements need not have cardinal points that line up nor have seam lines that are parallel. Computer grading methods eliminate the need for grade rules that are constant, linear or proportional. Grade rules can vary for every size. Neither of these two historical criteria is valid for determining accuracy of a graded pattern designed to fi t a target popula-tion accurately.

5.7.2 Other goals of grading

Bye’s (1990) research explored the need for grading to maintain visual effect. Price and Zamkoff (1996) indicated that the goal of grading is to maintain the original style of the design. Lapick (1955) stated that the graded garment should fi t and look like the original garment.

The goal of grading should be to create a garment for each new size that will provide the same fi t as the base size garment. This goal may not be

Pattern grading 191

compatible with use of a nested grade to judge how similar the patterns are for each size. A set of patterns judged to be an appropriate nested grade by the industry will provide the same fi t for women in the size range only if those women have the same proportions as the base size fi t model. The goal of maintaining the same standards of fi t for all sizes requires that the changes used for grading should refl ect the changes between real body dimensions over the range of sizes. If any of the proportions change over the range of sizes, then the lines of the patterns in a nested grade will not be parallel. It is necessary to defi ne the existing key criteria and to add another criterion to update the evaluation of a graded set of patterns.

5.7.3 Updated criteria for evaluating the accuracy of a graded pattern

Before a set of patterns is graded, it is necessary to ensure that the original pattern be well made. Each pattern piece must be an effective working part of the whole garment. In order to construct a well-made garment, matching seam lines should be the same length. Also, the shape of the corners of joining seams should match and create a smooth line when joined.

Criterion 1 is that each graded pattern must be a well-made pattern. The existing assessment of the nested grade assures that this important crite-rion is met. Traditional grading methods maintain the same relationships between front and back pattern pieces and the same proportions and pattern shapes for all pattern sizes. The TRAD set of patterns meet this criterion because matching grade rules of front and back are identical, resulting in shoulder and side seams that are the same length. In addition, the pattern shapes and angles remain similar for all sizes. The TEST set does not meet this criterion because the front side seam of the TEST set for size 42.5 is almost 1–3 inch (8 mm) longer than the back side seam and the angle of some corners change. The TEST grade rules would have to be adapted to meet this criterion before they could be used.

When a pattern does not meet the traditional criteria of the nested grade, Criterion 1 must be evaluated for each sized pattern. By hand, a grader can either measure or ‘walk the seam’, a technique used to check that seam lengths are the same and will match when sewn. Computer software for pattern making and grading has been developed which allows a grader easily to check matching seams of individual sizes in a graded set of garment patterns.

An additional criterion is automatically met using traditional grade rules. Criterion 2 is the preference for matching seams to maintain the same relationship to the grain. This recommendation will make garment assembly easier. Traditional grading causes the side front neck seam to skew toward the bias as the garment size increases. With this exception,


the TRAD set meets this criterion while the TEST set does not. This may result in seams that do not lie fl at or seams that need to be sewn carefully so that they do not ease into one another improperly. This could be a problem especially in the shoulder seam that provides support for the whole garment.

The pattern pieces should be evaluated using Criterion 2 before a garment goes into production. A visual inspection of the pattern would alert a grader to potential problems. Software can easily be written to evaluate relationship of seam lines to the grain line and to compare seams that are to be assembled. However, if it is necessary to change the pattern shape over a range of sizes to fi t the population, this criterion may hinder the effort to accomplish this goal.

Since our goal of grading is the creation of a set of well-made patterns that can be used to create garments that fi t each size in the way that the base size fi ts the original fi t model, it is necessary to defi ne a criterion to evaluate more accurately whether a graded set of patterns meets this goal. The defi nition of the accuracy of a set of graded patterns must be changed to focus on the fi t of each sized pattern. Moore et al. (2001) asserted that the graded pattern should be checked by creating a size run to make sure that the fi t and style sense have been maintained across all sizes. It will be necessary to determine whether the change at each cardinal point refl ects the actual difference(s) between body measurements. This cannot be determined from the visual inspection of a nested grade. Criterion 3 requires grade rules that are based on measurement data from a represen-tative target market. In addition, the graded pattern must be evaluated on representative fi t models or realistic dress forms in each size, requiring a considerable commitment of time and expense.

Criterion 1 will ensure that the graded patterns are well made. Criterion 3 ensures that the garments fi t each size in the way that the base size fi ts the original fi t model. Criterion 2 is related to the creation of the well-made garment by ensuring ease of construction. Our research questions the authority of this criterion. To ensure proper fi t it may be necessary to accept and learn to deal with pattern pieces whose shapes are not familiar. Criterion 2 cannot be given precedence over Criterion 3.

5.8 Conclusions and implications

The roots of current grading practise were in existence when the ready-to-wear industry began. Some practises, such as proportional grading and the use of different grade rules for front and back horizontal measures, have been abandoned for simplifi ed grading systems.

Our research demonstrated that the process of creating sized garments (grading) is not based on sizing intervals (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005c) but

Pattern grading 193

rather is based on increasing (or decreasing) the base size pattern by set increments and relative rules. Here eight grading assumptions determined by comparing grade rules from grading sources have been defi ned. These grading assumptions cannot be supported using body measurement data (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005a, 2005b).

If the goal of grading is to create a garment for each new size that will provide the same fi t as the base size garment, then grade rules must be based on sizing charts that are based on anthropometric data from the representative target market. To evaluate the graded (pattern and) garment it must be tried on representative fi t models or realistic dress forms in each size. The technology is now available to support the research and to provide the tools needed to make the transition from outmoded to realistic grading practices.

In my opinion, the perception that proportions of fi t models are correct and applicable to all people is not only easier to maintain than dealing with the reality of human body proportions but is also a barrier to making nec-essary changes to grading practise to fi t the real population. The transition to realistic grading practise will require changes at many levels. Graders and pattern makers need to change their concept of the proper shape of pattern pieces, to experiment with new systems of grading and to replace their reliance on the nested grade with new methods for determining the accuracy of the graded pattern.

The TEST set of pattern pieces portrays the need for the shape of pattern pieces to change as the size changes, particularly in the side seam, neck and shoulder areas. In order to achieve good fi t, the traditional crite-ria of parallel seam lines and evenly spaced cardinal points must be aban-doned. Criterion 3 (comparable fi t) must be given precedence over Criterion 2 (ease of construction). Research is needed to determine the effect of the changes in pattern elements created using these unconventional grading techniques on the manufacture of garments. For example, what problems are caused when the side seam of a garment is shaped or angled differently depending on the size being constructed? In many cases the issues intro-duced in the production process will be more or less of a problem depend-ing on the fabric used and the style of the garment. To refl ect the population accurately, adjustments may have to be made in garment construction techniques. Manufacturing methods may need to be changed to address any problems caused by new pattern shapes that are unfamiliar and may be different for different sizes. It is necessary to fi nd the correct balance between grading practises that can result in better fi t and those that may affect the quality or style of the garment in each case.

The visual evaluation of a nested grade is a task that is simple to perform, very clear to see and very satisfying. However, the dependence on the visual evaluation of a nested grade blinds the grader to the truth that a


well-constructed nested grade is a testament to the outmoded practices detailed in this chapter and probably does not serve the needs of the popu-lation. Unfortunately, any replacement procedure will be comparatively more diffi cult and not as gratifying.

Providing good fi t throughout the range of sizes for consumers may not be enough. If women have come to accept a level of misfi t in ready-to-wear clothing, they may not readily accept garments produced with grading based on anthropometric data. For example, large women may have come to expect that garments with suffi cient room in the bust will also have necklines that are wide and armscye seams that hang off their shoulders. Research is needed to determine whether women can recognize good fi t and would make it a priority (Schofi eld and LaBat, 2005a).

5.9 Future trends and possibilities

The industry, made up of individuals from designers to technicians, from manufacturers to salesmen, from factory workers to merchandisers, needs to abandon the perception that proportions of fi t models are correct and applicable to all people. The devotion to the concept of ideal proportions is counterproductive to providing apparel that fi ts our population with its rich variety of dimensions, shapes and proportions. Applying antiquated assumptions to proportions of fi t models’ bodies will not create realistic larger-sized (or smaller-sized) body models. Measurement data from real human bodies must be used to create clothing that will fi t real people.

5.9.1 Anthropometric measurements

The set of primary measurements that we recommend has not been avail-able from any anthropometric database. This research should be replicated to determine the primary measurements for the rest of the female body, for men and children, and for different body types and populations. Future studies should use a complete set of primary body measurements from selected populations to provide the best data for creating realistic size charts and grade rules. The results should be evaluated using fi t testing to compare garments graded using standard methods and garments graded using data from body measurements, to examine the fi t of the garments throughout the size range and to determine the fi t problems caused by following those practices.

It is my belief that most population segments will eventually be served by manufacturers who can retain repeat customers by providing consistent fi t. Body measurements for different population segments will be different. As each apparel company targets its own segment of the population, it is important that companies have access to reliable anthropometric

Pattern grading 195

measurements that provide direct grading information and size charts for their target market. These size charts must be made available to cus-tomers so that they can assess whether garments from that company will fi t them.

New primary measurements for establishing grading practices based on anthropometric data can quickly be generated from 3D body scans. [TC]2 (2006b) has developed measurement extraction software to obtain 2D measurements easily from 3D body scans. Jim Lovejoy, Director of the SizeUSA project for [TC]2, indicated that early results show that ‘the grade rules for most manufacturers today . . . do not refl ect’ the SizeUSA survey fi ndings ([TC]2, 2006b). The enormous problem of inexpensively obtaining anthropometric data from large samples of the civilian population has been overcome. Ashdown (2005), at a presentation to a SizeUSA User’s Group meeting, stated that body scanning will be as revolutionary to the clothing industry as the invention of the sewing machine. Body scanning on a large scale could revolutionize the sizing of clothing by providing up-to-date 3D data from representative target market populations and play a major role in changing grading from adherence to outdated practises to representa-tion of real-world sizing and adoption of new methods. Applying these data to an analysis of grading practises can reveal areas where improvements can be made that will result in better-fi tting garments throughout the size range.

5.9.2 Enhanced computer grading

Computer applications must be developed to use this measurement data. If the goal of grading is for a garment to fi t each size in the way that it fi ts the base model, then the dimensions of each size must be realistic and the garment must be graded in a manner related to those dimensions. Simpli-fi ed 2D grading systems cannot provide an accurate range of sizes for 3D bodies. Complex 3D grading systems must be made available, learned and used. Computer grading systems will need to offer these options.

Computer grading systems will be asked to provide new metrics so that the grader can apply new criteria for grading. Several different existing computer systems can virtually sew the seams of a pattern in three dimen-sions to check the accuracy of pattern pieces. It is possible to create soft-ware programs that are capable of calculating the results of sewing darts and seams, determining the lengths and angles of seams and comparing the seams in a set of sized garments.

Software designers need to develop ways of testing the important criteria of the graded set of patterns not only to assess the graded patterns but also to support the transition to advanced grading practice. Realistic fi t models will be required to test the fi t of each size.


5.9.3 Grade rules based on scan data

Manufacturers or retailers can now choose individual scanned bodies to represent each size in the range. Grade rules can be obtained from differ-ences in body measurements between each size and the base size.

The research by Shin et al. (2005) created a virtual dress form of the lower body that represents a size grouping of Korean men in their forties. A representative 3D computer model was created by morphing the body scans of the men in the group. Physical dress forms were also created from the 3D model. This important research is a fi rst step toward the future goal of creating sets of virtual models in sizes to represent groups of scanned bodies. When that happens, grade rules for each size can be derived from representative models.

[TC]2 (2006a) has a new software application Bodice 3D garment surface defi nition for automatic unwrapping and fl attening to create a 2D custom pattern from 3D body model data. This software will allow individual scanned bodies or representative 3D models to be used as a basis for grading (Fig. 5.12, see also Section 6.3).

5.12 Bodice 3D Garment Surface Defi nition ([TC]2, 2006a) for auto-matic unwrapping and fl attening to create a custom pattern from the 3D body model data (image courtesy of [TC]2, Cary, North Carolina)

Pattern grading 197

5.9.4 Virtual fi t models

To ensure a standard of fi t across sizes it is necessary to try graded gar-ments on fi t models in each size. Body scanner technology now allows clothing designers and technicians to obtain scanned models of their fi t models. Manufacturers and retailers will be able to utilize representatives of their target market. These scans will remain unchanged and be available at all times.

Computer-generated models based on body scan data will eventually be available as virtual fi t models in every size in a range for representative target markets. The rapid advances in animation software and equipment prepare the way for realistic virtual fi t models. Future computer software will allow graded garments to be virtually tried on these models to evaluate the quality and accuracy of the grading.

This is an exciting time. The Internet is facilitating suppliers and custom-ers to fi nd each other. Computer software and equipment is enabling us to manipulate massive amounts of information and to visualize realistically the 3D body form. We now have not just images and 2D dimensions, but 3D models of realistic bodies to measure, compare and fi t. Body scanners are coming of age and will revolutionize the way that garments are sized. We need to use our imaginations to fi nd 3D solutions to sizing and grading problems.


The primary sources used for the research reported in this chapter are the sizing charts (dating from 1873) and grading sources that were used in my research study, Investigation of the Pattern Grading Assumptions Used in the Sizing of U.S. Women’s Clothing for the Upper Torso (Schofi eld, 2000). The following books were my primary sources: Auditore (1947), Kirschner (1951), Gebbia (1955), Mortimer-Dunn (1966), Kunick (1967), Rohr (1967), Price and Zamkoff (1974, 1996), Scheier (1974), Davis (1980), Handford (1980), Cooklin (1990, 1995), Taylor and Shoben (1990), Zangrillo (1990) and Aldrich (1994a, 1994b). The book by Moore et al. (2001) was not available when my regression analysis was carried out.

The following are useful grading sources: Kirschner (1947, 1949), Fuller and Chart (1960), Rohr (1965), Goulbourn (1971), Jaffe (1972), Millar (1972), Bulsara (1981), Aldrich (1985, 1990, 1997) and Cooklin (1991, 1992).

The most thorough texts for instruction on grading are Grading for the Fashion Industry: the Theory and Practice (Taylor and Shoben, 1990) and Pattern Grading for Women’s Clothes, the Technology of Sizing (Cooklin, 1990). These two British sources address the complexity of fi tting the human body and present methods that provide solutions. They each present


many explanations, illustrations and examples. In particular, they clearly show how an overall vertical or horizontal increase should be divided between sections of a pattern. Each source offers a unique perspective.

Taylor and Shoben (1990) included extensive examinations of different areas of the body, using vertical and horizontal slices of the body to compare the largest and smallest sizes. Their descriptions of the grading systems analyzed advantages and disadvantages and included examples and recommendations. Further, Taylor and Shoben (1990, p. 6) devised an adaptation process to ‘incorporate the three-dimensional bust suppression factor’ into a pattern which can then be graded on the computer. They detailed the process with an example. Cooklin (1990) examined the his-torical record, analyzed the national anthropometric surveys and made specifi c recommendations about grading intervals.

The most recent US source Concepts of Pattern Grading (Moore et al., 2001) offered detailed explanations of the terminology and differences between many types of grading, and clear visuals and examples of 2D grading systems. (This text is being revised.) Grading Techniques for Fashion Design by Price and Zamkoff (1996) offered simple and effective descriptions of basic 2D grading using shifting with clear, easily understood and effective visuals. All sources offer multiple examples of garments with variations.

[TC]2 (2006a) of Cary, New Carolina, USA, has developed unique body scanning hardware focused on the clothing industry. [TC]2 is also a major player in developing the needed software, and in actively pursuing and supporting research in the fi eld. CAD for clothing was studied by Gray (1998).

Little research has been performed on grading. Most research falls into the category of graduate student research: A Visual Sensory Evaluation of Two Pattern Grading Methods (Bye, 1990), A Case Study of the Infl uence of Pattern Grading Systems on the Fit and Style of Two Low-neckline, Fitted Bodices (Murphey, 1993) and Investigation of the Pattern Grading Assumptions Used in the Sizing of U.S. Women’s Clothing for the Upper Torso (Schofi eld, 2000).

5.11 References

Aldrich, W. (1985), Metric Pattern Cutting Children’s Wear from 2–14 years, Collins, London.

Aldrich, W. (1990), Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear, Blackwell Scientifi c, Oxford.

Aldrich, W. (1994a), Metric Pattern Cutting, Blackwell Scientifi c, Oxford.Aldrich, W. (Ed.) (1994b), CAD in Clothing and Textiles, Blackwell Scientifi c,

Oxford.Aldrich, W. (1997), Metric Pattern Cutting, Blackwell Scientifi c, Oxford.

Pattern grading 199

Ashdown, S.P. (2005), Presentation to SizeUSA User’s Group, [TC]2, Cary, North Carolina, 29 July 2005.

ASTM International (1994), D 5585-94 Standard Table of Body Measurements for Adult Female Misses Figure Type, Sizes 2–20, American National Standards Institute, New York.

Auditore, G. (1947), Practical Pattern Designing of Women’s and Misses’ Apparel, G. Auditore, New York.

Bulsara, R.N. (1981), Art and Science of Designing: Drafting, Grading, and Cutting Men’s Garments, V. Design Publications, London.

Bye, E.K. (1990), A Visual Sensory Evaluation of Two Pattern Grading Methods, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota, St Paul.

Bye, E.K., and DeLong, M.R. (1994), ‘A visual sensory evaluation of the results of two pattern grading methods’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12 (4), 1–7.

Cooklin, G. (1990), Pattern Grading for Women’s Clothes: The Technology of Sizing, BSP Professional Books, London.

Cooklin, G. (1991), Pattern Grading for Children’s Clothes: The Technology of Sizing, BSP Professional Books, London.

Cooklin, G. (1992), Pattern Grading for Men’s Clothes: The Technology of Sizing, Blackwell Scientifi c, London.

Cooklin, G. (1995), Master Patterns and Grading for Women’s Outsizes, Blackwell Science, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Davis, E.E. (1980), Apparel Design Pattern Grading, Coutoure Productions, San Gabriel, California.

Fuller, E.F., and Chart, S. (1960), Pattern Grading, The Tailor and Cutter Limited, London.

Gebbia, A.S. (1955), Modern Method of Women’s and Children’s Garment Design, Modes Apparel, Chicago, Illinois.

Glock, R.E., and Kunz, G.I. (1995), Apparel Manufacturing: Sewn Product Analysis, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Gordon, C.C., Churchill, T., Clauser, C.E., Bradtmiller, B., McConville, J.T., Tebbetts, I., and Walker, R.A. (1989), 1988 Anthropometric Survey of U.S. Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts.

Goulbourn, M. (1971), Introducing Pattern Cutting, Grading and Modelling, Batsford, London.

Gray, S.N. (1998), CAD in Clothing and Textiles, Gower, London.Handford, J. (1980), Professional Pattern Grading for Women’s, Men’s and Chil-

dren’s Apparel, Plycon Press, Redondo Beach, California.Jaffe, H. (1972), Childrenswear Design, Fairchild, New York.Kaplan, C., and Kaplan, E. (1939), Proportional Measurements for Foundation

Patterns and Grading, Streimin Studio, New York.Kidwell, C. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers’ Drafting Systems in

the United States, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Kirschner, J. (1947), Pattern Grading, Simplifi ed, Fairchild, New York.Kirschner, J. (1949), Outline for Studying Grading of the Basic Patterns Used in

Making Women’s, Misses’, Juniors’ and Children’s Dresses, Suits, and Coats, Fairchild, New York.


Kirschner, J. (1951), Advanced Pattern Grading, Fairchild, New York.Kunick, P. (1967), Sizing, Pattern Construction, and Grading for Women’s and

Children’s Garments, Philip Kunick, Ltd, London.Lapick, G.J. (1955), Complete Measurement Charts for Women’s, Misses’, Junior

and Children’s Garments, Fairchild, New York.Millar, R.L. (1972), Cutting and Grading Patterns for Boys, Youths, and Young

Men, United Trade Press Limited, London.Moore, C.L., Mullet, K.K., and Young, M.P. (2001), Concepts of Pattern Grading,

Fairchild, New York.Mortimer-Dunn, G. (1966), Pattern Design, Canadian Educational Institute,

Vancouver, British Columbia.Murphey, I.C. (1993), A Case Study of the Infl uence of Pattern Grading Systems

on the Fit and Style of Two Low-Neckline, Fitted Bodices, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

National Bureau of Standards (1958), Commercial Standard CS 215-58 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Bureau of Standards (1970), Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Joint Clothing Council of Great Britain (1957), Women’s Measurements and Sizes, HMSO, London.

O’Brien, R., and Shelton, W.C. (1941), Women’s Measurements for Garment and Pattern Construction, Miscellaneous Publication 454 (Textiles and Clothing Division Bureau of Home Economics, US Department of Agriculture in coop-eration with Work Projects Administration), US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

Price, J., and Zamkoff, B. (1974), Grading Techniques for Modern Design, Fairchild, New York.

Price, J., and Zamkoff, B. (1996), Grading Techniques for Fashion Design, Fairchild, New York.

Rohr, M. (1965), Pattern Drafting and Grading: Women’s and Misses’ Garment Design, Including Juniors, Sub-teens, Teens, and Half Sizes, Rohr Publishing, Waterford, Connecticut.

Rohr, M. (1967), Pattern Drafting: Children’s Garment Design, Including Grading, Junior Petite, Sub-teens, and Teens, Rohr Publishing, Netanya.

Scheier, M. (1974), The ABCs of grading, M. Scheier, Bronxville, New York.Schofi eld, N.A. (2000), Investigation of the Pattern Grading Assumptions Used in

the Sizing of U.S. Women’s Clothing for the Upper Torso, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota, St Paul.

Schofi eld, N.A. (2006), ‘Relationship of grading methods to garment fi t at the bust’ (Abstract), in Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the International Textile and Apparel Association, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 2006, International Textile and Apparel Association, Monument, Colorado, November 2006.

Schofi eld, N.A., and LaBat, K.L. (2005a), ‘Defi ning and testing the assumptions used in current apparel grading practice’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 23 (3), 135–150.

Pattern grading 201

Schofi eld, N.A., and LaBat, K.L. (2005b), ‘Examination of the use of grades in sizing women’s clothing’ (Abstract), in Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, 2005, International Textile and Apparel Association, Monument, Colorado, Res-564.

Schofi eld, N.A., and LaBat, K.L. (2005c), ‘Exploring the relationships of grading, sizing, and anthropometric data’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 23 (1), 13–27.

Shin, S., Nam, Y., Choi, K., Park, S., and Han, H. (2005), ‘A study of representative type and dress form of men’s lower bodies in forties by using 3-dimensional scan data’ (Abstract), in Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, 2005, International Textile and Apparel Association, Monument, Colorado, Res-553.

Taylor, P.J., and Shoben, M.M. (1990), Grading for the Fashion Industry: the Theory and Practice, Stanley Thornes: Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.

[TC]2 (2006a), Bodice 3D Garment Surface Defi nition for Automatic Unwrapping and Flattening, Retrieved on 1 May 2006 from http://www.tc2.com/products/body_software.html.

[TC]2 (2006b), SizeUSA, Retrieved on 1 May 2006 from http://www.tc2.com/what/sizeusa/#fl h.

Winks, J.M. (1997), Clothing Sizes: International Standardization, Textile Insti-tute, Redwood Books, Manchester.

Workman, J.E. (1991), ‘Body measurement specifi cation for fi t models as a factor in clothing size variations’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10 (1), 31–36.

Zangrillo, F.L. (1990), Fashion Design for the Plus-size, Fairchild, New York.

6Function, fi t and sizing

H.A.M. DA A N EN A N D P.A. R EF F ELT R AT HTNO Defence, Security and Safety, The Netherlands

6.1 Introduction

Clothing forms the interface between the human skin and the human environment. Clothing not only has an aesthetic function but also acts as a protection against climatic factors such as cold and solar radiation. Other protective functions of clothing may be related to chemical and biological agents and external impact. An impressive example of the protective func-tion of clothing is the suit of a jet fi ghter pilot. The suit has special textiles to protect the skin against burns, it has a system to put external pressure on the legs to prevent venous pooling of the blood in the leg veins, it has a cooling or heating system, and it provides fl otation for the pilot if ejected over water.

These complex clothing systems can only function properly when they are correctly fi tted to the body. This is not an easy job to perform, since the variation in body dimensions between humans is tremendous. Gender, age and ethnicity are some of the factors that add to the variability. Cloth-ing designed for everyday wear is often created for specifi c target markets, subsets of the population. Clothing designed for protection or functional purposes such as clothing for the armed forces or deep-sea divers often must fi t broader segments of the population. For example, protective cloth-ing for soldiers must often fi t both males and females.

One way to deal with the variability is to make clothing in several sizes. The challenge is to cover as many people from the user group as possible with the minimum number of sizes. This chapter gives information on dif-ferent sizing systems and how to optimise them. Another way to deal with variability is to provide custom-made clothing. Recently, new techniques became available, such as three dimensional (3D) body scanning, which may make this method more cost effective.

Section 6.2 addresses human performance. Clothing always increases weight and movement resistance and thus reduces task performance. Clothing should be designed in such a way that a good balance between

202

Function, fi t and sizing 203

protection and performance is achieved. The chosen materials should be as light as possible and the clothing design should account for human movements. Section 6.2 about human performance in clothing systems provides information over the effect of clothing weight on human perfor-mance and yields information about human movement ranges that may help designers.

Section 6.3 deals with clothing fi t. Fit is the relation between body dimensions and clothing dimensions. The difference between the two is called ‘ease’. Ease is very different between individuals; some prefer baggy clothing, while others like a tight fi t. These differences are larger for recreational clothing than for clothing worn during demanding tasks. A good fi t is achieved when subjects feel comfortable in the clothing and tasks can be performed well. A loose fi t may lead to accidents since clothing can be trapped in machines for instance. A tight fi t may lead to movement restriction or uncomfortable skin pressure. The section gives information on how to measure body dimensions and how to perform fi t mapping. Also, the methodology is discussed on how to measure ease, in other words how to quantify the amount of trapped air between the human skin and the clothing layers. Since the variation in human dimensions is considerable, clothing should be available in many sizes to accommodate for this. Three available sizing methods are compared for effi ciency. A relatively new trend is the semiautomatic generation of made-to-measure clothing, which is discussed at the end.

A tight fi t means that less air can move between the skin and clothing layers, which has an effect on heat transfer between humans and their environment. This aspect is discussed in Section 6.4.

Section 6.5 summarizes the most important information and trends. Throughout the entire chapter, issues are illustrated by research projects performed at TNO in Soesterberg (The Netherlands).

6.2 Human performance in clothing systems

Human performance is dependent on many factors, including training status and motivation, but clothing also plays a major role. Section 6.2.1 shows how clothing affects physiological load and thus task performance. Section 6.2.2 shows the magnitude of human movements that should be taken into account in clothing design to allow for unrestricted movements.

6.2.1 Increased physiological load due to wearing a ballistic vest

Kistemaker et al. (2004) performed a study to determine the additional physiological load of wearing ballistic protective clothing. The aims of the


study were to provide input for human performance models and to assist in formulating guidelines for the selection of clothing and equipment for military tasks.

Eight male subjects (age, 21 ± 3 years; stature, 185 ± 3 cm; weight, 74 ± 10 kg) walked three time cycles on a treadmill for 20 min with a velocity of 7 km/h. Each 20 min walking period was followed by 40 min without walking. Two clothing ensembles were compared in this study: a combat suit and a combat suit with ballistic vest (including a ceramic plate at the chest). The ambient temperature was 30°C and the relative humidity was 50%. The weight of the combat suit was 1480 g and the weight of the ballistic vest was 6432 g.

The heart rate, rectal temperature Tr and mean skin temperature Tsk were measured continuously. Thermal comfort was rated according to ISO 10 551 (−4, very cold; 0, neutral; 4, very hot).

The physiological load during walking on the treadmill increased considerably on wearing the vest. The heart rate increased about 13 beats/min (Fig. 6.1). The signifi cant increase in heart rate during the time cycles can be interpreted as a cumulative effect since the workload did not differ. Further, a signifi cant higher heart rate was found after 15 min of exercise compared with the heart rate after 10 min.

6.1 Heart rate measurements after 10 and 15 min of the time cycle with and without the ballistic vest

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The mean body temperature was about 0.2°C higher when the ballistic vest was worn and the vest was rated to cause more thermal discomfort. In a separate experiment these values were shown not to be related to the weight of the vest, but to the reduced body surface area for heat exchange.

In conclusion, the heavy ballistic vest (6432 g) resulted in a higher mean heart rate during walking compared with the combat suit. It is likely that the performance in terms of walking distance will also decrease owing to the increased physiological strain.

6.2.2 Human movements

Humans have to function and move unrestricted in clothing systems. Lotens (1989) defi ned several postures in which the extremes of range of motion are reached (Fig. 6.2). He quantifi ed the distance over which cloth-ing had to move. When a subject bends over, for instance, the clothing at the back has to extend for 16 cm. This extension may be achieved by elas-ticity in clothing. However, some protective materials do not allow for so much stretch and therefore extra material should be incorporated in the design. When standing straight, the extra material will generate folds or bellows, which is unavoidable.

6.2 Seven extreme body postures causing changes of 18 cm, 24 cm, 21 cm, 22 cm, 27 cm, 16 cm and 22 cm respectively, relative to a neutral position (Lotens, 1989)


6.3 Fit

6.3.1 Body dimensions

Ideally every product that humans wear or use should be designed accord-ing to the subjects’ body dimensions. This also holds for clothing. A recent database of body dimensions of the user population should be the starting point of clothing design. It should be current since human body dimensions can change considerably in time. For instance, the current secular trend for stature is 1 mm/year in The Netherlands and the secular trend for weight is 1 kg in 3 years. These changes have an impact on clothing dimensions.

Two international standards are available that describe how to measure these dimensions unambiguously: ISO 7250, focusing on technical designs, and ISO 8559 for clothing. Increasingly, systems are developed that are con-nected to a personal computer to reduce the number of errors and increase accuracy (see, for example, Brisland and Daanen (1993)). More recently, 3D scanning systems entered the market from which one-dimensional (1D) data for clothing design can be deduced. Figure 6.3 (see also Section 5.9.3) shows an example. Linear dimensions derived from 3D scans are highly reproducible when markers are attached to the body prior to scanning (Robinette and Daanen, 2006). Unfortunately, the computer-generated 3D-scan-derived circumferences often deviate considerably from those of

6.3 Example of 1D data for clothing design derived from 3D scans (www.tc2.com)


experienced anthropometrists. One important reason is that the anthro-pometrist often uses palpation of bony protrusions such as the iliac spine bone as a reference for circumference measurements, a technique that a scanner cannot use since it makes no contact with the human body. There-fore, if we adhere to the current ISO standards for circumference measure-ments, the scanners will have problems in providing correct data. This is the reason why some specialists are of the opinion that we should value the scan-derived circumferences without focusing on current ISO standards.

Converting 3D body scans directly to clothing dimensions is the next step. [TC]2 (http://www.tc2.com) offers the possibility to select basic garments that are graded on the 3D scanned body, using 1D body dimen-sions derived from the scan. The fi nal step is to convert 3D scans directly to a clothing pattern without using error-prone 1D measures. Daanen and Hong (2006) triangulated a part of a 3D scan and converted these triangles directly to a patchwork skirt.

3D body scanning has given new momentum to the generation of anthro-pometric databases. In Japan, US, Canada, The Netherlands, Italy, Korea and France for instance recent databases are available. However, these databases are currently not accessible for the designer. Therefore, a group of scientists has formed a group called the Worldwide Engineering Anthro-pometry Resource (WEAR) with the aim of making anthropometric databases available to engineers and designers. Information is available at http://ovrt.nist.gov/projects/wear/.

An increasing effort is being made to convert static 3D body scans to ‘dynamic’ digital manikins. These manikins are common in the automotive industry where they are used for the design and evaluation of car interiors. Line of sight and reach are important components that can be assessed using these techniques.

The fi rst digital manikins are now also used in the clothing industry (Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann, 2000). Clothing can be selected to add to the manikin and, using automatic draping techniques, the move-ment of clothing during walking looks very realistic. At http://www.missdigitalworld.com, designers compete for the most beautiful and realis-tic virtual manikin. These virtual manikins will continue to be developed and will offer us a platform for the analysis of clothing fi t in the near future. Already tools are available to construct a manikin on the Internet that resembles the customer to some extent (hair, skin tone and body build), like that of the Gap company (http://www.fl ytip.com/blogs/advertising/archives/2005/07/watchmechangeco.shtml).

6.3.2 Fit mapping

When anthropometric data are available, the data should be matched with the product under design or evaluation. This analysis, also called


fi t mapping, indicates whether clothing sizes are accommodating the user population. Two examples of fi t mapping will be given: one in which anthro-pometric data were available and one in which measurements had to be taken to obtain the necessary information.

The fi rst example deals with the trousers of the Dutch armed forces. Nine sizes were available based on the NATO sizing system (Standard NATO Agreement STANAG2335). The sizes are based on waist circum-ference and inner leg length. We calculated what percentage of the user population would fi t in each size. The results are shown in Fig. 6.4.

The NATO size system is indicated by four numbers for the length range, followed by four numbers for the circumference range. For instance, 8595/7080 indicates the upper left size in Fig. 6.4. 8595 stands for an inner leg length of between 85 and 95 cm, and 7080 indicates that the waist circumference lies between 70 and 80 cm.

The increasing tendency to be overweight in The Netherlands can be expressed by the secular trend in body weight, which is about 0.3 kg/year, and waist circumference. Therefore, the sizes with small waist circumfer-ence became obsolete. We decided to eliminate sizes 7585/7080, 8595/7080 and 9000/8090 and to introduce a new size that was not available before: 7080/0010. This size was accommodating 5.9% of the user population.

The net result was that the number of sizes was reduced from nine to seven and the accommodated user population increased from 87.5% to

Waist circumference (cm)

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6.4 Percentage of the user population in each size: the white boxes are existing sizes; the shaded boxes are sizes that currently do not exist


91.1%. The few subjects with small waist circumferences now have to wear a slightly wider pair of trousers.

Sometimes the term effi ciency is used in this context. The sizing effi ciency is defi ned as the average percentage of the population covered by a size. In this example the effi ciency increased from 9.7% to 13.0%. Of course, this term should be interpreted in combination with the percentage of the user population that is covered by the sizing system. Figure 6.5 shows the relation between the number of sizes and the percentage of the accom-modated population. This graph shows that it may be appropriate in some circumstances to use only six sizes: 90.2% of the population is accommo-dated with an effi ciency of 15%.

The second example started with a question from the Belgian company Bivolino (www.bivolino.com). This company sells men’s shirts over the Internet and wanted to extend their business to female blouses. Although this example is from the ready-to-wear industry, the methods used are applicable for providing fi t for functional apparel. For the men’s shirts, Bivolino created an effective patented system in which only four questions (age, stature, body weight and collar size) formed the starting point of the production chain. It took them a while to fi ne-tune the system, based on returns due to improper fi t. Now, the question posed to TNO was whether this process could be speeded up based on fi t mapping. First, 50 females, representative of the user population, were invited to the laboratory, measured accurately and fi tted the blouses. The size of the blouse that

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6.5 Relation between the number of sizes and the percentage of the user population that is accommodated


fi tted best was recorded, as well as the changes in patterns that should be made to arrive at a perfect fi t. Regression analysis showed that the best fi tting size could be predicted rather well with age, stature, body weight and bra size as indicators (Fig. 6.6). In 55% of the cases the size was pre-dicted correctly and in 96% the size was predicted plus or minus one size. Not only was size predicted using regression analysis, but also the individ-ual measurements were assessed. Arm length for instance is relatively well related to stature. Now, for every female ordering a blouse through the Internet, the size is predicted and adjustments are made according to the blouse of this size to the estimated individual sizes. The experience with the male shirts show that the number of returns is very low using this method; for female blouses it is too early to draw conclusions.

6.3.3 Quantifying trapped air volume between skin and clothing

One critical difference between loose fi t and tight fi t for functional clothing design is the amount of air trapped between the body and clothing, a factor that affects the thermal properties of the garments. Therefore, the amount of trapped air is an important variable related to fi t and is important to quantify.

6.6 Relation between the size of the best-fi tting blouse and the predicted size, where the size of the dot represents the number of subjects for that data point: the straight line is the line of identity; the dotted line is the linear regression line

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Size of best-fitting blouse

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The volume of the trapped air can be quantifi ed but not easily. The traditional method, developed in the 1970s, is to use a vacuum suit (Bouskill et al., 2002). The suit is put over the garments. Slowly, the air is sucked out while volume and pressure are measured. When the vacuum suit touches the garments, the pressure will increase. From this moment on, the volume is counted until all air is sucked out of the suit. This method is cumbersome and an alternative may be found in a model approach or using 3D whole-body scans. Therefore, a study was performed that investigated the reli-ability and reproducibility of these techniques in a systematic manner (Daanen et al., 2005).

Four healthy males (stature, 180–187 cm; weight, 65–78 kg) were investi-gated in three conditions: seminude (wearing only bicycle shorts), wearing a T-shirt and wearing a coverall. The fi rst method to determine micro-climate volume was whole-body scanning. The subjects were scanned in each condition using a Vitronic Vitus Pro scanner (http://www.vitronic.de) using Polyworks software (http://www.innovmetric.com) to determine the shape’s volume. The volume under the T-shirt or coverall was determined by subtracting the volume of the seminude body from the volume of the scan with T-shirt or coverall (Fig. 6.7). The position of the subject was standardized as much as possible holding hand bars. It is an alternative to using manikins, which obviously is more reliable, but less valid for real-life situations (Lee and Hong, 2000).

The second method was the traditional vacuum suit method.The third method estimated the microclimate volume by measuring

the circumferences of the nude body and clothed body, modelling the human body in cylinders (Lotens and Havenith, 1991). The difference between the cylinder volumes when clothed and when nude was taken as

(a) (b)

6.7 (a) 3D-scan example of a subject seminude, with T-shirt and with coverall; (b) a transverse section at the chest level


the microclimate volume. The dimensions of the cylinders were based on manual circumference measurements over the nude body and clothed body.

The microclimate volumes of the T-shirt were 12 ± 2 dm3, 13 ± 4 dm3 and 4 ± 1 dm3 for the scanning method, suit method and cylinder modelling respectively. The microclimate volumes of the coverall was 33 ± 5 dm3, 27 ± 5 dm3 and 28 ± 8 dm3 respectively. The standard deviation mainly refl ects differences between subjects. The difference within subjects (three repetitions) was about 1% for the scanning method, 8% for the suit and 54% for the model. The large error in the model is due to the uncertainty in determining the difference in circumference between covered and non-covered skin.

It can be concluded that the microclimate volume determined by the 3D scanning method was most reproducible and that 3D scanning may be a good method to quantify and visualize the volume of trapped air.

6.3.4 Sizing systems

Several sizing systems exist of which the traditional confection system based on chest circumference is the most common. The size corresponds to 50% of the circumference, e.g. jacket size 52 for a chest circumference of 104 (102–106) cm. Generally, steps of 4 cm in circumference are assumed.

Sometimes this system is expanded using length size, e.g. size 53 means size 52 (chest circumference, 102–106 cm) with extra length.

Another system, already mentioned previously, is the NATO sizing system based on length and circumference parameters. Reffeltrath and Daanen (2001) compared the advantages and disadvantages of both sizing systems for coveralls for the Dutch armed forces.

The dimensions of the supplied coveralls were fi t mapped to the anthropometric data of 561 males from the Nedscan database (http://www.nedscan.nl), the Dutch part of the Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR) project (Blackwell et al., 2002; Robinette et al., 2002). For each coverall, we evaluated the number of men that fi tted a size, the total coverage of the population with the available sizes and the relation between the dimensions of the overall and the dimensions of the body. This relation was evaluated using regression analysis, in which the relation was tested between the dimensions of the overall and the relevant body dimensions for each size.

The most effi cient sizing system with respect to population coverage is the NATO sizing system. With six sizes this system covers 82.4% of the population. The sizing effi ciency (average percentage of the population covered by a size) is 13.7%. The confection sizing system covers 91.1% of


the population with eight sizes, and 95.2% of the population with ten sizes. The sizing effi ciencies are 11.4% and 9.5% respectively. The winter coverall of the Royal Netherlands Air Force (confection sizes with two lengths) has the least effi cient sizing system. 12 sizes are used to reach a coverage of 72.7%, leading to an effi ciency of only 6.1%. No fi tting tests were conducted for this analysis; it was assumed that the suit fi tted when the body dimensions of the subject fell within the specifi ed range of the size. This assumption is not always correct; fi t mapping (see Section 6.3.2) should be performed to test the assumption.

Length and circumference body dimensions have a low correlation and can therefore be considered as almost independent. The NATO sizing system takes this into account since both length and circumference are included in the sizing system. Therefore, it is not surprising that this system showed the best sizing effi ciency. The confection sizing system is only related to the circumference of the body and therefore provides a size set that does not accommodate human body variation.

A special problem of the common confection system is that there is no uniform coding over the world. The size indication in the UK differs from that in European countries on the continent and even varies between those countries. A standardization group of the European Committee for Standardization (Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN)) is working on implementing a new coding system in which three main dimensions of the body are incorporated, but it will take a while before it comes into effect after acceptance.

6.3.5 Benefi ts of made-to-measure clothing

The problems related to sizing systems become obsolete when each individual has his or her own tailor-made clothing system. The introduction of 3D whole-body scanners to the market has led to the revival of made-to-measure clothing. The industrial revolution caused a focus on the mass production of clothing and even now the majority of clothing is presented ready made in stores where the customer is tasked to fi nd something that he or she likes and that fi ts. One disadvantage of mass production is the enormous space that is needed to exhibit clothing in suffi cient sizes and suffi cient colours and fashion to satisfy the client. Even with large displays, many customers cannot succeed in their quest for fi tting clothing.

Using 3D scans, some companies tried to reverse the clothing chain. The body dimensions of the customer and his or her preference are the starting point for clothing production. This chain reversal is associated with considerable investments in single-layer cutting machines for instance and, in Europe, only a few companies that invested in this technology survived.


In addition to the economic benefi ts, made-to-measure clothing may offer savings in material and also may look better. This was the topic that Hin et al. (2000) investigated. Five subjects received a coverall from the shelf (based on chest circumference only), one a made-to-measure coverall and one a ‘mass customised’ coverall (based on a few body dimensions). The fi t was estimated by an expert and by the subject, clothing ventilation was determined, performance on several tasks was recorded and the amount of material needed for each coverall was measured. As expected, most material was needed for the confection coverall (Fig. 6.8) and ventila-tion rates were highest. Interestingly, the made-to-measure coverall was assessed subjectively as the best looking, but not very comfortable since it was too tight to the body. The relatively loose-fi tting confection coverall was rated as most comfortable. For the manufacturer this means that it is hard to manufacture coveralls that are rated as good looking and simulta-neously as comfortable.

6.4 Thermal aspects of fi t

6.4.1 Heat and moisture transfer through clothes

Protective clothing aims to protect us against hostile environments, for instance thermal, biological, chemical or ballistic. Unfortunately, the materials and designs used for protective clothing hamper the transfer of heat and moisture of the human to the environment. A good balance has

6.8 Surface area of the coverall averaged over fi ve subjects, where the small blocks indicate the mean

Coverall

27000

29000

31000

33000

35000

37000

Confection Mass confection Made-to-measure

Sur

face

are

a (c

m2 )


to be achieved between the two extremes of protection and human comfort. Havenith et al. (1995) investigated whether increasing the air permeability of chemical protective clothing helps to reduce heat strain (Fig. 6.9). Increasing the ventilation through the material from 186 to 365 l/m2 increased the tolerance time from 174 ± 42 to 203 ± 56 min while walking on a treadmill. The protective properties are of course reduced, but humans can perform better in the new suit.

Reducing air resistance of the materials in protective clothing is there-fore a good method to improve human performance in protective clothing. Another method may be to increase the microclimate volume and thus to enhance the ventilation rate under clothing during movements.

6.4.2 Clothing ventilation and fi t

During activities such as walking or running, the movement of the limbs compresses air pockets, which leads to air movement, also called the

6.9 (a) The tolerance time of 174 ± 42 min in the old M82 protective suit with a ventilation rate of 186 l/m2 was less than (b) the tolerance time of 203 ± 56 min in the new ‘out-of-area’ suit with a ventilation rate of 365 l/m2

(a) (b)


pumping effect. We investigated the extent to which the ventilation rate could be improved by changing the fi t, in this case enhancing the microclimate volume (Tan et al. 2003).

Nine male subjects participated in the study. The air volume between the skin and clothing was varied using metal rings in the inside of a combat jacket. These rings enlarged the volume by about 60%. The volume of the trapped air was determined reliably using 3D scanners (Daanen et al. 2005). Figure 6.10 shows an example of a 3D scan with and without rings in the combat jacket. Since all subjects wore the same size of garment, the microclimate volume also varied owing to subject variation in chest dimensions. The TNO tracer gas method was used to determine ventilation (Havenith et al., 1990). The ventilation rate was measured during standing, walking, swinging arms and bending arms.

The impact of body movements on ventilation was more pronounced in the oversized jacket than in the normal fi tting jacket. In the oversized

Enlarged

StandardSeminude

6.10 Side view of three overlaid scans of a nude subject (inside) dressed with an enlarged combat suit using metal rings (outside) and the same suit without rings (intermediate)


jacket, the ventilation was about 200 l/min when standing and 500 l/min when walking, in comparison with 120 l/min and 250 l/min respectively for the normal fi tting suit. These fi ndings were related to the microclimate volume, which averaged 26 l in the normal jacket and 42 l in the oversized jacket. In conclusion, we observed that clothing fi t has an impact on ventilation rate. Since ventilation rate is related to evaporative effi ciency, fi t thus impacts cooling rate.

6.5 Conclusions

Clothing establishes the interface between humans and their environment. Clothing systems protect people, but on the other hand they add thermal stress and weight. To reduce the resulting strain on the human body, the clothing materials should be light and comfortable, and the clothing design should allow for a wide range of body motion.

Fit can be defi ned as the relation between clothing dimensions and body dimensions. The technique of 3D whole-body scanning offers new possibilities to quantify and visualize fi t by superimposing scans made with and without clothing.

To evaluate the sizing of a clothing system, we recommend using fi t mapping. A representative sample of the user population fi ts the clothing system under investigation. The dimensions of the subjects and the clothing system are determined and regression techniques are used to relate the two for sizes that fi t. Fit mapping, when performed correctly, gives a clear image of who can wear what size.

Sizing systems that take two almost independent body dimensions into account, such as the NATO sizing system, better cover the variability in human body dimensions than the traditional confection system based on chest circumference. In the near future, semiautomated tailor-made clothing generation will gain importance, but many technical hurdles still must be overcome.

Fit is an important factor in heat transfer of the body to the environment. Ventilation between garment layers increases signifi cantly when fi t is loose. This enhances heat loss. Another way to enhance heat loss is to make the textiles more air permeable.


6.6.1 Websiteshttp://www.tc2.com. This covers the application of body-scanning techniques for

the clothing industry.http://www.human-solutions.com/apparel_industry/index_en.php.


6.6.2 BooksRobinette, K.M. (Ed) (2006), Computer Aided Anthropometry for Research and

Design, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey (to be published).

Volino, P., and Magnenat-Thalmann, N. (2000), Virtual Clothing, Springer, Berlin.

6.7 Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the head of the clothing and equipment research laboratories of the Dutch Armed Forces, Henk Reulink, as well as TNO colleagues Koen Tan, Martine Brandsma, Emiel den Hartog, Wouter Lotens and Lyda Kistemaker.

6.8 References

Blackwell, S., Robinette, K.M., Daanen, H.A.M., Boehmer, M., Fleming, S., Kelly, S., Brill, T., Hoeferlin, D., and Burnsides, D. (2002), Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR), Final Report, Vol. II: Descriptions, Technical Report AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0170, US Air Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Crew System Interface Division, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, and SAE Interna-tional, Warrendale, Pennsylvania.

Bouskill L.M., Havenith, G., Kuklane, K., Parsons, K.C., and Withey W.R. (2002), ‘Relationship between clothing ventilation and thermal insulation’, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 63 (3), 262–268.

Brisland, C.E.S., and Daanen, H.A.M. (1993), An Anthropometer for the Distri-bution of Clothing, Report 1993 A-2, TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.

Daanen, H.A.M., Hatcher, K., and Havenith, G. (2005), ‘Determination of cloth-ing microclimate volume’, in: Environmental Ergonomics, Elsevier Ergonomics Book Series, Vol. 3 (Eds Y. Tochihara and T. Ohnaha), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 361–368.

Daanen, H.A.M., and Hong, S.-A. (2006), Apparel pattern development based on 3D whole body scans, (to be published).

Havenith, G., Heus, R., and Lotens, W.A. (1990), ‘Clothing ventilation, vapour resistance and permeability index: changes due to posture, movement and wind’, Ergonomics, 33 (8), 989–1005.

Havenith, G., Vuister, R.G.A., and Wammes, L.J.A. (1995), The Effect of Air Permeability of Chemical Protective Clothing Material on the Clothing Ventila-tion and Vapour Resistance (in Dutch), Report TNO-TM 1995 A 63, TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.

Hin, A.J.S., Adema, M.M., and Daanen, H.A.M. (2000), From Mass Confection to Made-to-measure: Reconstructing the Overalls (in Dutch), Report TM-00-D014, TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.


Kistemaker, L.J.A., Koerhuis, C.L., and Daanen, H.A.M. (2004), ‘Performance degradation of the protected soldier’, in Proceedings of the PASS Congress (Eds Van Bree et al.), Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2004, TNO, Rijswijk, pp. 395–400.

Lee, Y., and Hong, K. (2000), ‘Measurement of air volume in clothing microcli-mate and its relationship with thermal insulation’, in Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Environmental Ergonomics, Dortmund, Germany, 3 July–4 August, 2000, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, pp. 303–306.

Lotens, W.A. (1989), ‘Optimal design principles for clothing systems’, in Handbook on Clothing (Eds) Research Study group on Biomedical Research Aspects of Military Protective Clothing, NATO, Brussels, pp. 1701–1715

Lotens, W.A., and Havenith, G. (1991), ‘Calculation of clothing insulation and vapor resistance’, Ergonomics, 34 (2), 233–254.

Reffeltrath, P.A., and Daanen, H.A.M. (2001), Sizing Systems of Overalls Compared (in Dutch), Report TM-01-A065, TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.

Robinette, K.M., Blackwell, S., Daanen, H.A.M., Fleming, S., Boehmer, M., Brill, T., Hoeferlin, D., and Burnsides, D. (2002), Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR), Final Report, Vol. I: Summary, Technical Report AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0169, US Air Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Crew System Interface Division, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, and SAE Interna-tional, Warrendale, Pennsylvania.

Robinette, K.M., and Daanen, H.A.M. (2006), ‘Accuracy of 3D whole body scans’, Applied Ergonomics, 3, 259–265.

Tan, T.K., Daanen, H.A.M., and Brandsma, M.G. (2003), Infl uence of Microcli-mate Volume on Motion Generated Convection, Report TM-03-B003, TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.

Volino, P., and Magnenat-Thalmann, N. (2000), Virtual Clothing, Springer, Berlin.

7Communication of sizing and fi t

J. C H U NYonsei University, South Korea

7.1 Introduction

Well-fi tting apparel products are critical to enhance the comfort, well being and confi dence of men and women. Ready-to-wear apparel manufacturers and retailers put much effort into to providing the desired fi t for their target market consumers. Good fi t of the ready-to-wear garment begins with effective pattern making using accurate body measurements of the target market consumer and appropriate sizing systems. This is a diffi cult task given the fact that consumers have different body measurements and pro-portions. In order to produce ready-to-wear garments that provide good fi t for their own target market, manufacturers produce garments using various sizing systems. Diversifi ed sizing systems have caused manufacturers, retailers and consumers alike much confusion (Brown and Rice, 2001). A system that communicates sizing and fi t effectively so that consumers can identify the appropriate garment size is a critical factor in the creation of an effective overall sizing system for a population in which consumers can fi nd well-fi tting clothing easily.

When a consumer selects a ready-to-wear garment, a size label gives information about the dimensions of the garment before the consumer tries it on. The size label is a manufacturer-to-consumer communication channel that enables consumers to make effi cient purchase decisions. For proper and satisfactory garment fi t, consumers rely on statements on the size label. If the information on the size label is not reliable or complete, consumers must try on multiple garments when searching for a satisfactory fi t. Consumers may waste time in the fi tting room, retailers may lose a sale, and manufacturers can suffer from customer dissatisfaction with their brand.

In current practise, many size labels on ready-to-wear garments provide consumers only with general information on whether the clothes may fi t them or not. Various apparel brands label garments with specifi c size numbers, which fi t differently on the consumer compared with another

220

Communication of sizing and fi t 221

retailer offering garments labeled with exactly the same size numbers. This is because each apparel manufacturer has their own body measurement size table developed from different fi t models. Thus, each apparel brand has a different standard of measurement for their sizing system.

Many factors contribute to the lack of ready-to-wear garment fi t. Some researchers have claimed that apparel fi t problems come from a lack of standardization of sizes between different manufacturers and retailers. It is suspected that the result of apparel fi rms and stores searching for a competitive advantage from practices of vanity sizing results in a lack of standardization that creates confusion in the marketplace. Expensive lines that run large are sometimes referred to as being vanity sized, because they appeal to the vanity of customers who want to think of themselves as wearing a small size (Brown and Rice, 2001; Cotton, Inc., 2003). Some women attach importance to considering themselves a size 8 or a size 10 even though their body and fi gure type may have changed into what has traditionally been a size 12. Other possible problems cited by some researchers are the lack of current accurate body measurement data from which to make reliable sizing tables commercially appropriate to a selected target market. Population phenomena such as aging baby boomers can shift body sizes of the population or of a manufacturer’s loyal target market away from the manufacturer’s garment sizing system. Beyond the problems caused by the lack of the industry’s size standardization and accuracy, fi t problems can also be the result of poor pattern making and production control, issues that must be resolved fi rst so that size labeling can commu-nicate reliably.

In this chapter, a discussion of standardization of sizing designations, existing size labeling models and a new paradigm related to digital technol-ogy in the apparel industry will be discussed.

7.2 Communications from manufacturer

to consumer

Successful apparel fi rms have a comprehensive understanding of their market and products (Rosenau and Wilson, 2001). The trend today is for target markets to shrink in scope as they become more focused on smaller segments. Increasing numbers of target markets have sharpened competi-tion. Creating the right garments in terms of fi t for the current needs of the target market has become important, and appropriate communication to this market segment is also key to successful implementation.

Apparel companies must make appropriate production decisions based upon an in-depth understanding of their target market. The apparel company must make the right products in terms of fi t for the needs of their


target market. Apparel manufacturers often target a narrow consumer group with similar body characteristics. In order to develop the right product for the company’s target customer, their customers may be specifi ed for age or fi gure type. For example, the customer might be a woman between the ages of 45 and 55 years. She may prefer a casual life style and favor loose fi t and comfortably styled clothing. She might have experienced a fl uctuating waist size. With these characteristics of the target customer in mind, the designer develops styles that comfortably fi t the consumer’s body shape and style needs. Equally important is fi nding the most effective way to communicate information about sizing and fi t to the particular target market. Some consumers want and need very little information on a size label or hang tag, while others may respond favorably to more in-depth information.

When a consumer selects a ready-to-wear garment, the size label provides information about the size and fi t of the garment before the consumer actually tries it on. The apparel industry aims to produce better-fi tting clothes and to provide the correct size for the consumer. For manufacturers and retailers, a reliable sizing label that refl ects a quality product improves the reputation of the brand and retail outlet. Apparel companies develop a sizing system by defi ning their target market and identifying demographic characteristics, such as age, income and lifestyle. Each fi rm chooses a fi t model who has an idealized body shape for their product and target market. A single fi t model has a particular body shape that is trans-located to the full range of garment sizes manufactured in the fi rm. Providing good fi t using a fi nite set of sizes for an almost infi nite range of body types is a challenging task. Multiple companies with different target markets can meet this challenge, but communicating attributes, including sizing information, of each company’s products is an important part of this process.

The most common issue stated in previous research on sizing is incon-sistency of garment fi t produced by different manufacturers (Delk and Cassill, 1989). In the apparel industry, each manufacturer has its own sizing table. The size specifi cations and range of sizes used are based on what the manufacturer perceives as their own market requirements. As a result, even though women’s ready-to-wear clothing may be labeled using the same size code, identically labeled garments made by different manu-facturers are often made to fi t different fi gure types, body measurements and proportions (Fellingham, 1991). Many manufacturers have also con-tinuously revised their own standard body measurement table. As a result, the body measurements and therefore the garment measurements identi-fi ed with identical size codes have varied not only among manufacturers but also within individual manufacturers over time (Brunn, 1983). A unique sizing system with identical codes created by each manufacturer


creates a dilemma for the women who may fi t into clothing that is labeled in a range of sizes from 6 to 12, depending on the sizing systems of different manufacturers. This size code shift is often the result of vanity sizing. In general, high-price lines tend to run larger than most other gar-ments of the same labeled size (Brown and Rice, 2001). In an attempt to minimize the variance of fi t among different apparel fi rms, many countries have provided a standard garment sizing system and body measurements for the manufacturer to reference in creating sizes that conform to the standard.

Throughout the world, various garment sizing systems have been devel-oped in order to serve different populations and to increase the consumer’s satisfaction with garment fi t. Attempts to address problems with identify-ing appropriate sizes have focused either on standardizing body measure-ments for each size code or on devising a standardized size description system that is fl exible enough and yet informative enough to communicate sizing appropriately.

The manufacturer’s sizing systems are based on the concept that mass-produced clothes should be sized on the basis of the body measure-ments of the intended wearer. Traditionally, most manufacturers have created their own individual sizing system by assigning a new set of body measurements for an existing size code. Consumers can measure their body size and identify their garment sizes with a manufacturer’s size table for those that provide them (generally mail-order and Internet companies). Because mail-order clothing cannot be tried on in advance of purchase, catalog and website vendors assist consumers by listing body measurements of key dimensions that a particular garment size is designed to fi t. Information about particular styles and size variation (whether they run large or small compared with the label) is also sometimes available from the personnel who fi ll telephone orders. Well-informed retail associates in department stores can also help customers to fi nd styles and sizes particularly appropriate for their body, which can help to limit the number of garments that must be tried on to fi nd the best fi t.

7.2.1 Standard size labeling systems

A size label is designed to identify to consumers the suitability of a garment for their body dimensions. In order for consumers to select the correct garment size effi ciently, the size labeling system needs to be easy to under-stand and also based on sound methodology. The most common size labeling systems used internationally are generic size codes, such as S (small), M (medium), L (large) and XL (extra large). Generic size codes are popular for sportswear and garments that fi t loosely.


Men’s and women’s garment sizes are generally based on different systems. Men’s clothing sizes are primarily communicated in terms of body measurement. For example, a size 38 men’s jacket is designed to fi t a chest circumference of 38 inches. A man’s dress shirt sized 15–38 is designed to fi t a neck circumference of 15 inches and a 38-inch sleeve length (measured from the cervicale over the shoulder and down the arm). Women’s clothing sizes are stated in code numbers that correlate to bust, waist, hip girth and height measurements but do not correspond directly to any body measurement. In many countries, including the USA, Japan and Korea, the manufacturer’s sizing system is not published except by some mail-order catalogs and Internet shopping sites. Most women’s ready-to-wear garment size labels do not inform consumers of the body measure-ments which are associated with particular size codes, so that women must try on garments to determine the size code of each manufacturer that corresponds to their body size.

There have been various size labeling systems for women’s ready-to-wear garments. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the sizes of women’s ready-to-wear garments were labeled by age or body measurements in the USA. Eventually various size classifi cations were introduced for women’s ready-to-wear based on different ages and body confi gurations: women, misses and junior. Garment sizes associated with different size classifi ca-tions are labeled differently. By the 1930s, women’s sizes were labeled with even numbers from 34 to 52. These numerical codes for women’s sizes originated from bust measurements. Misses’ sizes were labeled with even numbers from 14 to 20, and junior’s sizes were labeled with odd numbers from 13 to 19. These numerical codes for misses’ sizes and junior’s sizes originally indicated the corresponding ages of customers (Nystrom, 1928). However, soon after, the relationship between age and numerical size codes of misses’ and junior’s sizes were disengaged and the numerical code of women’s sizes no longer indicated bust measurement (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1993). In the 1980s, women’s sizes began to be labeled using numer-ical size codes, similar to the size codes used for the misses’ sizes. For example, women’s size 36 was replaced with size 18W. In 1991, size 2 was included in the misses’ size category (ASTM International, 1994a). Size 0 has recently been added to the range of sizes by some retailers and manu-facturers in the USA (Cotton, Inc., 2004). This change in the size labeling system shows that women’s garments early in the history of ready-to-wear garments began to be labeled by arbitrary numerical codes which did not represent body measurements nor age.

Labeling can also take the form of a system totally unconnected either to body measurements or to the more traditional sizing systems. A manu-facturer of women’s clothing in the USA, Chicos, has developed its own sizing and labeling system with labels 0, 1, 2 and 3, designed to fi t bust


ranges from 33.5 inches to 42.5 inches, waists from 25.25 inches to 33.25 inches, and hips from 36 inches to 45 inches. Their garments are generally loosely fi tted, with elastic waists and unconstructed styles (Cotton, Inc., 2004, Chicos, 2006).

In the German women’s ready-to-wear garment sizing system (DOB-Verband, 1983), women’s body types were defi ned by height and hip types with corresponding size codes. For example, sizes 18, 018 and 518 are women’s garment size labels for women whose bust girths are 84 cm. Here the numbers 0 and 5 are codes indicating hip types. Size 18 is a woman’s average hip type. The 0 in size 018 indicates a slim hip type and the 5 in size 518 indicates a full hip type. The next two digits designate height and body frame size. The numbers from 16 to 25 are used for short heights; the numbers from 32 to 60 are used for average heights, and the numbers from 72 to 100 are used for tall heights. For examples, sizes 018, 036 and 072 are women’s garment size codes for women with slim hips from the different height categories.

In the Japanese standard sizing system established in 1997 (Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4005: 1997 (Japanese Standard Association, 1997)), women’s garment sizes were labeled using a three-way system identifying body types, circumferential measurements and heights. For example, size 9AP is for women with average fi gure type. Her body measurements are as follows: bust girth, 82 cm (32.3 inches); hip girth, 90 cm(35.4 inches); stature, 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches). The Japanese national standard sizing system also recommends different waist girth measure-ments for garments intended for different ages. For example, the waist girth measurement of size 9AP comes in two different measurements for different ages, specifi cally for women in their twenties and for women between the ages of 30 and 50 years. The waist girth measurement of size 9AP for women in their twenties is 64 cm (25.2 inches) and the recommended waist girth measurement for size 9AP for women between the ages of 30 and 50 years is 67 cm (26.4 inches). Therefore the same size label can be used for women of different proportions.

Several standard garment sizing systems describe garment sizes by key body dimensions. In the Hungarian sizing system (Hungarian Standard MSZ 6100/1-86 (Offi ce of Hungarian Standards, 1986)), women’s garment sizes are described by measurements of three key dimensions: height, bust and hip girths. For example, size 170–88–92 stands for a height of 170 cm (5 feet 7 inches), a bust girth of 88 cm (34.6 inches) and a hip girth of 92 cm (36.2 inches). The Japanese standard size designation system (Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 0103: 1990 (Japanese Standards Association, 1990)) and the Korean standard size description system (Korean Standard KS K 0051 (Korean Standards Association, 1999a)) also describe garment sizes with body measurements of the corresponding key dimensions. In the


Korean system, for example, a garment sized 88–90–165 is for a women whose bust girth measurement is 88 cm(34.6 inches), hip girth measure-ment is 90 cm (35.4 inches) and height is 165 cm(5 feet 5 inches).

When key dimensions are listed on the size label, women consumers can fi nd their garment sizes easily by comparing their body measurements and the key dimensions listed on the size label. Mail-order catalogs also assist consumers by publishing size charts listing body measurements for key dimensions that a particular garment is designed to fi t. Most catalogs use similar key dimensions: bust, waist and hip girths together with some height or length measurements. However, such a size chart or key dimen-sions on the label do not solve all the problems related to the garment fi t. Consumers have to know their body measurement to identify their garment size. In order to select the correct garment size, consumers must be able to measure their key dimensions accurately.

A previous study investigated how customers estimate or measure their body size. It was found that consumers’ estimations of their body sizes were not accurate. People overestimated their stature. Measurement errors varied depending on the body dimensions, with waist girth and bust girth measured with the least error. Hip girth was undermeasured. It was suggested that consumers be educated so that they can measure their body dimensions more accurately (Yoon and Radwin, 1994).

Manufacturers generally only include the size code for a garment and rarely include other sizing information. However, some catalog and Internet sites communicate different fi t and style characteristics that help consumers to make sizing choices, communicated through style names and sketched silhouettes. For example, Banana Republic (2005) described four different pant fi ts for women: the Martin, with a lower waist and straight leg, the Harrison with a waist at the natural waistline and a straight leg, the Fashion with a very low waist and a straight leg, and the Contoured with a low waist and a leg styled to curve around the hip and thigh. Gap (2005) sells three different pant and jean styles designed for different body proportions, the Curvy for women with waists smaller than their hips, the Straight for women whose waist and hips form a straight line, and the Original for women with a body type between straight and curvy. Eddie Bauer (2006) also gives different labels to different pants’ fi ts: the Vashon, fi tting below the waist with a straight hip and thigh cut, the Mercer, fi tting at the waist with a straight hip and thigh cut (classic fi t), the Blakely, fi tting above the waist and full over the hips and thighs (this type of fi t is advertised to have one size difference between the waist and hips), and the Bremerton, fi tting above the waist and full over the hip and thigh (relaxed fi t). Lands’ End (2006) sells pants in traditional, classic and modern fi ts, tops in shaped, classic and easy fi ts, and swimsuits for regular and long torso lengths, with three different styles of leg opening, labeled


1, 2 and 3 (1 fi ts along the natural division between the torso and the leg, and 2 and 3 are cut higher on the outside of the leg). Lands’ End also identifi es swimsuit styles designed to fi t and fl atter different body types. Other terms used to describe different kinds of fi t are fi tted, easy fi t and relaxed fi t (L.L. Bean, 2006), and fi tted, semifi tted, relaxed and loose (Norm Thompson, 2006). Catalog and Internet companies will also sometimes include garment measurements such as in-seam measures and jacket lengths with their clothing descriptions.

7.2.2 Global standard for size labeling systems

The size labeling systems of several countries demonstrate that there have been many different size labeling systems in different parts of the world. Unfortunately, most of these labeling systems are not easy to understand if a consumer does not have experience with them. These variances in size labeling systems have also caused some diffi culties in global apparel trading.

As trade between countries continues to expand, the need for knowledge and understanding of the sizing systems of other nations becomes increas-ingly important to apparel companies which are conducting their busi-nesses at international level.

With an increase in the international trade of apparel comes the diffi -culty of communicating the size dimensions of garments that are being imported and exported. With the goal of developing an international sizing system to relieve confusion over size codes within and between countries, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (1991) estab-lished an anthropometric size labeling system based on communication of the key body dimensions.

The ISO size labeling system identifi es garment sizes by key body dimensions to help consumers to select garment sizes based on their individual body measurements. The ISO suggested that body measurement data should be processed in such a way as to group measurements by the key dimensions appropriate to the garment type (International Organization for Standardization, 1991).

A system that allows consumers to identify the size of garments more easily would include size symbols. The symbols would quickly communi-cate to the consumer the body dimensions that the garment was designed to fi t. In the pictogram developed for the ISO sizing system the body measurements critical to the fi t of the particular garment are indicated on a sketch of the human body. Since pictograms give size information without words, there is no language barrier. It is a practical solution to the size labeling of garments for import and export. In the years since the ISO developed the international size description system, many countries


including Germany, France, Australia, Japan, New Zealand and South Korea have revised their standard size labeling systems based on the ISO system. The body measurements of key dimensions are listed on the hang tag with a pictogram and table format. Figure 7.1 gives examples of the pictograms. Adding a pictogram and the measurement of key dimensions to existing size labels for all garments in all countries would greatly facili-tate the selection of women’s garments (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1995).

7.2.3 Women’s body types in standard sizing systems

Throughout the world, various garment sizing systems have been devel-oped. Most sizing systems for women worldwide classify and label sizes for different women’s fi gure types in order to give consumers with a wide range of proportions an acceptable fi t. Many countries have developed national standards for garment sizes that include options for various fi gure types. Women’s body types are frequently classifi ed by height and by drop value, a measure of body proportions which is calculated by subtracting one body dimension (generally the bust girth) from a second body dimension (generally the hip girth).

7.1 Examples of size pictograms in the national standard sizing systems

France: G 03-007, Juillet 1977

New Zealand: AS/NZS 4501.2 : 1999 Japan: JIS L 0103 : 1990

Tour de dessous de poitrine

Tour de de poitrine 94–96

70–74 70–74

72–76

164–170

82

90

156

Tour de Taille

80

82 90

156

63 9 AR

94–96

92–96

94–96

80

80


In the USA, standard women’s ready-to-wear sizing systems were devel-oped for various fi gure types in the past. The Voluntary Commercial Standard CS 215-58 (National Bureau of Standards, 1958) published in 1958 defi ned 20 fi gure types by height and hip types. The garment sizes were labeled using a three-way system according to bust sizes, heights and hip types. Heights were classifi ed into three groups: short height (S), medium height (R, which stands for ‘regular’), and tall height (T). Hip types were slender hips (−), average hips and full hips (+). For example, 14R− was the size for a medium-height woman with a size code 14 bust with slender hips. Tate (1977) noted that, although this standard had been adopted by the entire commercial pattern industry, ready-to-wear garment manufacturers were not willing to accept this system. To promote the effi cient production of ready-to-wear garments (Delk and Cassill, 1989), CS 215-58 was revised in 1970 to another Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 (National Bureau of Standards, 1971). By omitting the variation in hip types, the number of fi gure types in PS 42-70 became smaller than those in CS 215-58. In recent years there have not been sizing systems for women in the USA that incorporate different drop values as a size variable. However, as US apparel companies use different fi t models with different proportions as the basis for their sizing, women of different proportions can often fi nd good fi t within a specifi c apparel brand.

The women’s sizing systems developed in England (Kemsley, 1957), in Germany (DOB-Verband, 1983), by the ISO (International Organization for Standardization, 1991), in Japan (Japanese Standards Association, 1997), and in South Korea (Korean Standards Association 1999a, 1999b) all classifi ed and labeled fi gure types by height and drop value. The drop value in each case is calculated the same way (by subtracting the bust girth measurement from the hip girth measurement), but the labeling varies depending on whether the size is defi ned in relation to the bust or the hip.

Ready-to-wear garment sizing systems are often also classifi ed by three height groups. According to Cooklin (1995), in the English system, if a women’s height is under 155 cm (5 feet 1 inch), she belongs to the short height group. A medium-height woman is in the range from 155 cm (5 feet 1 inch) to 165 cm (5 feet 5 inches). A woman who is taller than 165 cm (5 feet 5 inches) belongs to the tall height group. Within the three height groups, six fi gure types are classifi ed by the drop value, in this case labeled by bust proportion: very small bust, small bust, medium bust, full bust, large bust and extra-large bust. A very-small-bust body type has a 15 cm (5.9 inches) smaller bust girth than the hip girth. A body type with a small bust has a 10 cm (3.9 inches) smaller bust girth than hip girth. The bust girth is 5 cm (2 inches) smaller than the hip girth for the medium-bust body type. The bust girth and hip girth measurements are the same for the full


bust body type. The bust girth is 5 cm (2 inches) larger than hip girth for the large-bust body type. The extra-large-bust body type is for a woman with a 10 cm (3.9 inches) larger bust girth than hip girth (Cooklin, 1995).

In Germany, DOB-Verband (The Women’s Outerwear Garment Asso-ciation) developed a standard sizing system in 1983. Nine fi gure types were defi ned by height and drop values, but in this case the labeling classifi ed sizes by hip type. Height was grouped into average height (normal), short height (kurze) and tall height (lange). For each height group, three hip types were given: slim hip (schmalhüftig), average hip (normalhüftig) and full hip (starkhüftig). Hip types were determined by drop value. The slim hip type is for women whose hip measurement is either 3.5 cm (1.4 inches) smaller or up to 1 cm (0.4 inches) larger than her bust measurement. The average hip type is for a woman whose hip measurement is 2.5 cm (1 inch) to 8 cm (3.1 inches) larger than her bust measurement. The full hip type is for a woman who has hip measurement that is from 8.5 cm (3.3 inches) to 13 cm (5.1 inches) larger than her bust measurement.

In 1991, the ISO classifi ed women’s fi gures into three types by the drop value: A type, M type and H type (Fig. 7.2). The A body type has well-developed hips and her hip girth is larger than the bust girth by at least 9 cm (3.5 inches). The M body type has average hips and her hip girth is larger than the bust girth by between 4 cm (1.6 inches) and 8 cm (3.3 inches). The H body type has slim hips and her hip girth is approximately equal to the bust girth.

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 110 116 120Bust circumference (cm)

Hip

circ

umfe

renc

e (c

m)

Body type A Body type M Body type H

7.2 Women’s fi gure types in the ISO sizing system (International Organization for Standardization, 1991)


7.2.4 Men’s body types in standard sizing systems

In standard garment sizing systems, men’s body types have also frequently been classifi ed by a drop value. The drop value for men’s sizing system is calculated by subtracting the body waist girth measurement from the body chest girth measurement (Fig. 7.3). The sizing system discussed in ISO/TR 10652 (International Organization for Standardization, 1991) classifi es men’s body type into fi ve different types labeled by descriptive words referring to the shape of the fi gure: athletic (A), regular (R), portly (P), stout (S) and corpulent (C). The A body type has a well-developed chest and his chest girth is larger than the waist girth by at least 16 cm (6.3 inches). The R body type has an average body build and his chest girth is larger than the waist girth by 12 cm (4.7 inches). The P body type has a relatively large waist size compared with his chest size. His chest girth is 6 cm (2.4 inches) larger than his waist girth. The S body type also has a large waist size. His waist girth is approximately equal to his chest girth. The C body type has a very large waist size. His waist girth is larger than his chest girth by 6 cm (2.4 inches).

The sizing systems recently developed in Japan (Japanese Standards Association, 1996) and South Korea (Korean Standards Association, 1999b) also classifi ed men’s body types by a drop value, labeled using different combinations of letters. The Japanese standard sizing system in Japan Industrial Standard JIS L 4004: 1996 (Japanese Standards Association,

6065707580859095

100105110115120125130

80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120Chest circumference (cm)

Wai

st c

ircum

fere

nce

(cm

)

Body type A Body type R Body type P Body type S Body type C

7.3 Men’s fi gure types in the ISO sizing system (International Organization for Standardization, 1991)


1996) classifi es men’s body type into eight different types: Y, YA, A, AB, B, BB, BE and E. The Y and YA body types have well-developed chests. Their chest girths are larger than their waist girths by 16 cm (6.3 inches) and 14 cm (5.5 inches) respectively. The A body type has an average body build and his chest girth is larger than his waist girth by 12 cm (4.7 inches). The AB and B body types have relatively large waist sizes. Their chest girths are only 10 cm (3.9 inches) and 8 cm (3.1 inches) respectively larger than their waist girths. The BB and BE body types also have large waist sizes. Their chest girths are 6 cm (2.4 inches) and 4 cm (1.6 inches) respec-tively larger than their waist girths. The E body type has a very large waist size and his waist girth is approximately equal to his chest girth.

The Korean standard sizing system in KS K 0050 (Korean Standards Asso-ciation, 1999b) classifi es men’s body types into four different types by drop values: Y, A, B and BB. The Y body type has a well-developed chest and his chest girth is larger than the waist girth by between 18 cm (7 inches) and 22 cm (8.7 inches). The A body type has an average body build and his chest girth is larger than the waist girth by 14 cm (5.5 inches) to 18 cm (7 inches). The B body type has a relatively large waist girth compared with his chest girth. The chest girth is from 10 cm (3.9 inches) to 12 cm (4.7 inches) larger than the waist girth. The BB body type has a large waist size. His chest girth is from 6 cm (2.4 inches) to 10 cm (3.9 inches) larger than his waist girth.

The US standard men’s garment sizing tables in ASTM D6240-98 (ASTM International, 1998) include body measurements for 27 men’s garment sizes: size 34 to size 60, with size labels referring to the chest size. Different sizes for different body types are not defi ned by a drop value. The drop value is the same at 15.24 cm (6 inches) from size 34 to size 44. The drop value is decreased by 0.63 cm (0.25 inch) for every size interval from size 44 to size 52. The drop value of size 53 is 8.89 cm (3.5 inches) and the drop value decreases by 1.27 cm (0.5 inch) from size 53 to size 56. After size 56 the drop value decreases by 2.54 cm (1 inch) for each size. The chest girth and waist girth of size 58 are the same. The waist girths of the men’s size 59 and size 60 are larger than the chest girths.

The US voluntary apparel sizing standards for menswear also have cat-egories for height and body build. For example, the size labeled short is for men who are shorter than the average man; the size labeled tall or long is for the taller man; the size labeled slim is for the slender fi gure; the size labeled big or stout is for the full build; the size labeled big and tall is for the taller man with big body build (Brown and Rice, 2001).

7.2.5 Garment types in sizing systems

The anthropometric size label informs consumers of the key body mea-surements associated with a particular size code. Different key dimensions are appropriate for garments that cover different parts of the body. The


design of a garment and the type of garment will also affect garment fi t. The design of a garment may be based on either a close fi t or a loose fi t. A close-fi tting garment style requires a large number of sizes to fi t the full range of consumers’ body measurements and body types, but a loose-fi tting garment for the same population could fi t consumers satisfactorily with fewer numbers of sizes.

Women, in general, report more clothing fi t problems than men. This is due at least in part to the fact that menswear size labeling systems are more likely to include body dimensions to communicate size selections. Women’s clothing has a wide variety of available garment silhouettes and generally a much wider range of variation in the proper fi t of different styles. The physical properties of fabric also affect garment fi t. Many kinds of fashion fabric with various physical properties are developed every year, again with more variety used in womenswear. As manufacturers respond to the current fashion in closely fi tted styles and the use of stretch fabrics, pattern makers are being challenged to produce garments within the existing sizing systems that will fi t and fl atter a range of body types.

The ISO and British Standards Institution (BSI) have classifi ed women’s garments into three types: outerwear, underwear and others (Table 7.1). These garment types are subclassifi ed by the area of body covered with clothing: upper-body garments, lower-body garments and whole-body gar-ments. Outerwear garments are also are classifi ed by stretch property of the material used: knitwear and other than knitwear or swimwear (British Standards Institution 1982a, 1982b).

The classifi cation of garment types in the Japanese sizing system is dif-ferent (Table 7.2). The Japanese sizing system in JIS L 0103: 1990 (Japanese Standards Association, 1990) classifi es garments into seven groups by item: coat/dress, skirt, pants, garments for work, sweater/jacket/blouse/shirts, underwear and swimwear. Pants are classifi ed by leg length: long pants and shorts. Garments for work and underwear are classifi ed by the area of body covered with clothing: upper-body garments, whole-body garments and lower-body garments.

In the size labeling systems of both the ISO and the JIS, the key dimen-sions most often used to identify the garment size are bust girth, waist girth, hip girth and height. These two different sizing systems recommend slightly different key dimensions for labeling the various garment types. The hip measurement is used as a key dimension for tight-fi tting coats or jackets in the Japanese sizing system.

7.3 Communications from consumer

to manufacturer

Clothing is a vital tool to an individual’s psychological and social well-being. Successful apparel makers in today’s global marketplace are tuned


Table 7.1 Women’s garment types and key dimensions in the British Standards Institution sizing system: BS 3666:1982

Garment types Key dimensions

A Outerwear (including knitwear and swimwear) Upper- or whole-body garments other than knitwear or swimwear Bust girth, hip girth and height Knitwear Bust girth Swimwear Bust girth and hip girth Lower-body garments Hip girth, waist girth and outside leg length

B Underwear (including nightwear, foundation garments and shirts) Upper-body garments other than foundation garments Bust girth Foundation garments Underbust girth and bust girth Whole-body garments other than foundation garments Bust girth and height Foundation garments Underbust girth, bust girth and hip girth Nightwear, one-piece Bust girth and height Nightwear, two-piece Bust girth, hip girth and height Lower-body garments other than foundation garments Hip girth Foundation garments Waist girth and hip girth

in to their target market. This requires developing a knowledge base for their target market. Consumer demand has caused manufacturers and retailers to study demographic and psychographic trends and to analyze databases to defi ne their target market. However, the amount of time and effort spent in this analysis is wasted if consumers have a diffi cult time fi nding the right size through poor labeling systems. Women are indeed having a tough time fi nding clothes that fi t. Studies show that many women in the USA have diffi culty fi nding clothing that fi ts, and that a high percentage of catalog returns are due to problems with sizing (Kurt Salmon Associates, 1999; DesMarteau, 2000). Women’s ready-to-wear garment manufacturers and retailers use vanity sizing as a strategy to fl atter the egos of consumers who often feel better about buying smaller sizes. This can be a successful strategy and can help to increase brand loyalty, but it also contributes to the confusion about sizing.


Table 7.2 Women’s garment types and key dimensions in the Japanese Standards Association sizing system: JIS L 0103:1990

Garment types Key dimensions

A Coats, dress, and Bust girth, hip girth* and height upper-body garments

B Skirt Waist girth and hip girth in-seam length

C Pants Long pants Waist girth and hip girth* and leg Other pants Waist girth and hip girth*

D Garments at work Whole-body garments Bust girth and height Upper-body garments Bust girth and height Lower-body garments Waist girth

E Sweater, jacket, blouse, Bust girth and height shirts and sleepwear

F Underwear (bra and foundations are excluded) Whole-body garments Slip Bust girth and length of slip Others Bust girth and hip girth Upper-body garments Bust girth Lower-body garments Petticoat Hip girth and garment length Others Hip girth

G Swimwear Bust girth and hip girth

* Hip girth is an additional key dimension for a fi tted garment.

The costs incurred by the consumer searching for garments that fi t well include the value of their shopping time as well as transportation expenses, factors that may be increasingly important to consumers. Dif-ferentiation between sizes for different manufacturers and retailers with no information to fi nd the correct size is a common complaint of consum-ers. The returned merchandise brings loss of sales and brand dissatisfac-tion. Sizing based on actual body measurements could help to provide cost effi ciency for manufacturers, salability of the garments for retailers, and appropriate styles and good fi t for customers.

A previous study investigated consumers’ preferences for various size labeling systems to discover whether consumers wanted an anthropometric size labeling system which included key body dimensions. Both men and


women preferred the size labeling system with a pictogram and body dimensions listed on the label (Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1995).

7.3.1 Expanding special-size markets in the USA

One of the important issues of the US ready-to-wear garment industry is the increased interest by the consumer in special sizes: large sizes, petite sizes and sizes designed for baby boomers. Fashion for petite and large-sized women has been increasingly available from the fashion industry since the 1970s. With a growing increase in obesity, demand for large-sized garments is also increasing in the market.

The retailing of special-sized fashions is also becoming a larger business as the market for large sizes has developed rapidly through the years. The needs of large-sized women have been ignored by retailers and apparel manufacturers, but designers are now starting to give attention to this growing target market. Designers realize that the large-sized customer wants fashionable clothing as much as any other customer. Large-size lines require signifi cant initial investments as well as a very specialized expertise in terms of fi t. Retailers have begun to address spe-cifi c customers within the large-size market, which is segmenting into various niches.

Large sizes in the USA are labeled plus size or women’s size. There are no defi nite rules regarding the demarcation line between regular size and large size. Through common usage, it is generally accepted that size 18 and upward in the 1970s (Women’s Market, 1977), and size 14 or size 16 and upward in the 1980s (Spalding, 1985; Daria, 1993) were large sizes.

Under pressure from several large retailers, a new size description system for the large-size code was devised by merchants and manufacturers in the late 1980s. Women’s sizes began to be designated by smaller numbers than before; for example, the women’s size 36 was replaced with size 18 W. Most manufacturers thought that the small numerical codes for the larger sizes would be psychologically more appealing (Cook, 1988). The new numeri-cal size codes also provided continuity with the sizing codes used for misses sizes. Today large sizes in the USA range from 12 W to 32 W. For larger women who are also short, sizes from 12 WP to 32 WP are now available. Sometimes large sizes are now represented by 1X, 2X, 3X and 4X (Adams, 1988).

Garment sizes for short women in the USA have been in the retail market for many years with various names: short size, half-size and petite size. The term ‘half-size’ was discontinued and replaced with ‘petite’ owing to the negative connotation of half-size for consumers. Petite sizes are created for the woman who is shorter than the women’s or misses sizes, 162 cm (5 ft 4 inches) or less. However, many women do not know what


body sizes are included in the petite-size category (Wallach, 1985). Con-sumers and retailers have different perceptions concerning what consti-tutes the petite size range.

When petite sizes were fi rst introduced for larger women, designers had diffi culty developing styles that would fi t and fl atter shorter and stockier fi gures. Styling for the special size categories of large size women, petite size women, and big and tall size men must consider their specifi c needs. The designer and the manufacturer who seize on the unique opportunities in the special size market must have an understanding of the body types of their target market. Retailers are interested in making clothing available for these emerging market segments but are wary of supplying styles in too many categories as this requires duplicate and triplicate inventory, which can cause logistical problems for the selling fl oor and for inventory man-agement (Cotton, Inc., 2001).

7.3.2 The growing silver market

The older population group is the most rapidly increasing segment in the USA and Europe and is also becoming a large part of Asian markets. Previous studies have shown that the populations belonging to the age group 45 years old and upward are becoming the largest generation in terms of the percentage of the population and they can have a large infl uence on the apparel market. These consumers want ready-to-wear garments that give comfortable fi t to their particular body type together with fashionable styles, and they generally have the buying power to make them an attractive target market. Apparel fi t has been reported as the major reason for older women’s dissatisfaction with apparel (Woodson and Horridge, 1990; Goldsberry et al., 1996a, 1996b). These customers experience trouble with fi t of ready-to-wear garments, which generally provides a lack of acceptable fi t to accommodate the proportional changes that occur with age. As they are apt to dress up more often than younger people, they are a profi table target market for manufacturers (Frings, 2005). There is an increased demand on manufacturers to improve specialized fashion and fi t for the older consumer. As they age, most obvious physical changes are the enlargement of the trunk girth. The elderly tend to become shorter and heavier as they age. The body changes of the the older population need to be considered to make garments for them. In shopping, some of them choose loosely-fi tted style garment as an alternative to fi nding garments giving good fi t. Others use alterations or custom-made services. The US apparel sizing system in ASTM D5586-94 (ASTM International, 1994), the Japanese sizing system in JIS L 4005: 1997 (Japanese Standards Association, 1997) and the Korean sizing system in KS K 0055 (Korean Standards Association, 2002) have


developed standards that refl ect the proportions and mature body type of women aged 55 years and older.

The naming of a size category designed specifi cally for this target market has been an issue in societies such as the USA where many terms that refer to older people have negative connotations. Goldsberry (1993) in an anthropometric study of women aged 55 years and older in the USA rec-ommended that a word or symbol be developed for use in marketing to this age group. Subjects in their study were asked to suggest appropriate words or phrases that they would fi nd appropriate to defi ne this new size category. More than 500 words and phrases were identifi ed, many of which did not refer to the age of the women.

7.4 Impact of new technologies

Technological advances have begun to revolutionize the apparel industry. Digital technology has had a great impact, resulting in changes that continue to occur in the apparel industry. Among the various new techniques introduced is the three-dimensional (3D) body-scanning technology which has the potential to bring tremendous changes to the apparel-manufacturing system and also to the whole concept of ready-to-wear sizing. It can potentially be used to provide a perfect fi t for every individual.

Up-to-date anthropometric data for the target market are valuable for making a sizing system to fi t the range of people in a target market. Well-designed sizing systems based on accurate data will provide the best fi t and comfort for the greatest number of people with various body sizes and proportions in a target market population. In order to produce garments and sizing systems that continue to provide good fi t for people, it has been claimed that national anthropometric surveys repeated at frequent inter-vals are necessary. In the past, few anthropometric surveys have been conducted for the civilian population because of the high costs associated with measuring a meaningful number of people. Traditionally, body mea-surements for clothing applications were made manually using the measur-ing tape and anthropometric tools such as anthropometers and calipers. A measuring device which collects anthropometric data with increased speed and accuracy was needed.

The advent of the 3D scanning technology has opened up new possibili-ties by allowing the rapid collection of human measurement data, as well as the collection of body shape data. 3D body-scanning has elevated the measuring activity through the use of digital images of body shapes and measurements. It is expected to give a better understanding of body shape of their target market and to help apparel manufacturers to improve the fi t of their ready-to-wear garments. Recently many countries


have conducted nationwide anthropometric surveys employing 3D body scanners. For example, SizeUSA, SizeUK, French National Size Survey and Size Korea have all collected 3D body scan data. Use of this tool can make the ongoing collection of anthropometric data a more realistic possibility. Once these data are collected, they can be used to improve sizing systems, making possible constant upgrades to sizing as the popula-tion anthropometrics change. Effective methods to label garments and to communicate new sizing systems would be an important part of this system.

Some apparel companies in the USA are already making use of new anthropometric data to improve their sizing systems. Industry sponsors of SizeUSA include a wide range of apparel manufacturers and retailers. Development of new sizing strategies is under way at many of these companies. Whether these changes will be made within the frame-work of the current size labeling systems is unknown, but many creative methods of creating sizes for the existing population are being explored ([TC]2, 2005).

Other size strategies and size labeling systems are being developed by apparel companies and independent entrepreneurs driven by new data available from recent anthropometric studies made possible by 3D scanning technology. These new studies make it possible to compare and analyze body types and to create sizing strategies designed to fi t a variety of body proportions. Fit Technologies, a company owned by entrepreneur Cricket Lee has developed a sizing system called Fitlogic for US women that provides sizes for three body types: straight, curvy and pear-like silhouettes, labeled 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Fitlogic size labels contain traditional misses size designations with its three body type numbers, resulting in size labels with sizes such as 10.2 and 8.3. Although multiple sizes in a single style for different body types provide the most fi t choices for consumers, the multiple racks necessary to carry all these sizes in a retail environment can be a problem for the retailer because of the extra fl oor space needed and also for the customer who must look through more racks to locate their size. These sizing and labeling systems are more successful in mail-order companies (such as the television shopping channel QVC), catalogs and the Internet where garments are selected from warehouse stock (Barbaro, 2006).

7.5 Future trends

Online shopping is playing a greater role in the apparel market, and 3D body scanners are replacing the process of hand measuring using a tape measure. The size labels on the garments both online and offl ine no longer satisfy customers when it comes to ‘perfect fi t’. Shoppers demand an informative


body measurement information and application system. Through observing the changes in shopping trends, catalog-based apparel fi rms are turning to online apparel markets offering new online virtual fi t services that have the potential to be more effective compared with the body size table that they used to list on their catalogs. A customer personalizes the simulated fi tting model on the web site by choosing the body type, hair style and facial shape that is closest to the customer. With the help of the simulated image on the website, shoppers may choose the garment of their style closest to a ‘perfect fi t’: a shopper’s dream come true. However, although this simulated image may provide the customer with a more concrete idea of the style of garment, it still does not guarantee a ‘perfect fi t’.

Changes in ordering and distribution systems to create mass-customized garments, according to consumption trends, are inevitable. Perhaps there will be no need for a size label in a mass customization market if size labels become useless once a garment is made to fi t a particular customer accord-ing to his or her measurements. Levis brand blue jeans in the USA made a recent attempt to improve size selection while maintaining the existing production and distribution methods of ready-to-wear garments using a 3D body-scanning system called Intellifi t. A shopper steps into a glass booth, fully clothed. Radio waves bouncing off the moisture in the shopper’s epidermis take the shopper’s body measurements in approximately 10 seconds. The system then scans the database to fi nd the style and size of garment which would best fi t the shopper. The Intellifi t system is currently installed in several malls in the USA and was also used by David’s Bridal to collect data to help to improve their sizing system (Tanaka, 2005). Size selection systems such as this could reduce the need for labeling to an identifi cation code with selection of the appropriate size a function of a computerized system.

Whether sizing will be selected in the future using computerized pro-cesses, and however future sizing systems are confi gured, some method of communication is essential to provide the customer with a method for locat-ing the best-fi tting size for their body from a set of sizes. Body scanning, size selection systems and virtual fi t may eventually reduce the frustration that many consumers feel now with trying on clothing to fi nd well-fi tting garments. However, a well-designed size labeling method will ultimately be the key to repeat sales and customer satisfaction with sizing.


7.6.1 Article

Hwang, J., and Istook, C. (2001), ‘Body measurement terminology used in the apparel industry’, in Proceedings of the Korean Society of Clothing and


Textiles – International Textile and Apparel Association Joint World Confer-ence, Seoul, South Korea, June 2001, Available from http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/3dbodyscan/pdf_docs/su_itaa_ksct_paper.pdf.

7.6.2 International Organization for Standardization standards and technical report

International Organization for Standardization (1981), ISO 3635: 1981 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Defi nitions and Body Measurement Procedure, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1972), ISO 3636: 1977 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Men’s and Boys’ Outerwear Garments, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1972), ISO 3637: 1977 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Women’s and Girls’ Outerwear Garments, Intern-ational Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1977), ISO 3638: 1977 Sizing Designations of Clothes – Infants’ Garments, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1981), ISO 4415: 1981 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Men’s and Boys’ Nightwear and Shirts, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1981), ISO 4416: 1981 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Women’s and Girls’ Underwear, Nightwear, Founda-tion Garments and Shirts, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1977), ISO 4417: 1977 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Headwear, International Organization for Standard-ization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1982), ISO 7070: 1982 Sizing Designation of Clothes – Hosiery, International Organization for Standardiza-tion, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1989), ISO 8559: 1989 Garment Construction and Anthropometric Surveys – Body Dimensions, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (1991), Standard Sizing Systems for Clothes Technical Report ISO/TR 10652, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.

7.6.3 ASTM International standards (USA)

ASTM International (2002), ASTM D4910-02 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Infants, Sizes 0 to 24 Months, ASTM International, West Con-shohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1995), ASTM D5585-95 Standard Table of Body Measure-ments for Adult Female Misses Figure Type, Sizes 2–20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.


ASTM International (2001), ASTM D5586-01 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Women aged 55 and Older (All Figure Types), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2000), ASTM D5826-00 Standard Table of Body Measure-ments for Children, Sizes 2 to 6x/7, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1998), ASTM D6192-98 Standard Table of Body Measure-ments for Girls, Sizes 7 to 16, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1998), ASTM D6240-98 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Men’s Sizes Thirty-four to Sixty (34 to 60) Regular, ASTM Interna-tional, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1999), ASTM D6458-99 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Boys, Sizes 8 to 14 Slim and 8 to 20 Regular, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2004), ASTM D6460-04 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments Relating to Women’s Plus Size Figure Type, Sizes 14 W–32 W, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2002), ASTM D6829-02 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Juniors, Sizes 0 to 19, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2003), ASTM D6860-03 Proposed Standard Tables of Body Measurements for Boys, sizes 6 to 24 Husky, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (2006), ASTM D7197-06 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Misses Maternity Sizes Two to Twenty-two (2–22), ASTM Interna-tional, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

7.6.4 Other US standards

National Bureau of Standards (1958), Voluntary Commercial Standard CS 215-58 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Bureau of Standards (1971), Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70: Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

7.6.5 British Standards Institution standards (UK)

British Standards Institution (1982), BS 3666: 1982 Specifi cation for Size Designa-tion of Women’s Wear, British Standards Institution, London.

British Standards Institution (1971), BS 5592: 1978 Specifi cation for Size Designa-tion of Clothes – Headwear, British Standards Institution, London.

British Standards Institution (1982), BS 6185: 1982 Specifi cation for Size Designa-tion of Men’s Wear, British Standards Institution, London.


7.6.6 Japanese Standards Association Standards (Japan)

Japanese Standards Association (1990), JIS L 0103: 1990 General Rule on Sizing Systems and Designation for Clothes, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Japanese Standards Association (1996), JIS L 4004: 1996 Sizing Systems for Men’s Garments, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Japanese Standards Association (1997), JIS L 4005: 1997 Sizing Systems for Women’s Garments, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

7.6.7 Korean Standards Association Standards (South Korea)

Korean Standards Association (1999), KS K 0050 Sizing Systems for Men’s and boy’s Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Korean Standards Association (1999), KS K 0051 Sizing Systems for Women’s and Girl’s Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Korean Standards Association (1999), KS K 0052 Sizing Systems for Infant’s Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Korean Standards Association (2002), KS K 0055 Garment Sizing Systems for Elderly Women, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

7.7 References

Adams, M.J. (1988), ‘Large size and growing’, Store, (July), 11–19.ASTM International (1994a) ASTM D5585-94 Standard Tables of Body Measure-

ments for Adult Female Misses Figure Types, Sizes 2–20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1994b) ASTM D5586-94 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Women aged 55 and Older (All Figure Types), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

ASTM International (1998) ASTM D6240-98 Standard Tables of Body Measure-ments for Men sizes Thirty-four to Sixty (34–60) Regular, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

Banana Republic (2005), Pants by Fit, Retrieved on 25 June 2005 from http://www.bananarepublic.com/browse/category.do?cid=5024.

Barbaro, M. (2006), ‘Clothes that fi t the woman, not the store’, New York Times, (31 March), http://fi tlogic.net/press/NYTimes.pdf.

British Standard Institution (1982a), BS 3666:1982 Specifi cation for Size Designa-tion of Women’s Wear, British Standard Institution, London.

British Standards Institution (1982b), Specifi cation for Size Designation of Women’s Wear, Report VOC. 687.12-181:006.78, British Standards Institution, London.

Brown, P., and Rice, J. (2001), Ready-to-wear Apparel Analysis, 3rd edition, Merrill, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Brunn, G.W. (1983), ‘The shape of your customer’, Bobbin, 25 (3), 96–100.Chico’s (2006), Chico’s Summer Catalog, Fort Myers, Florida.


Chun-Yoon, J.S., and Jasper, C.R. (1993), ‘Garment-sizing systems: an interna-tional comparison’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 5 (1), 28–37.

Chun-Yoon, J.S., and Jasper, C.R. (1995), ‘Consumer preferences for size description systems of men’s and women’s apparel’, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 29 (2), 429–441.

Cook, C. (1988), ‘Thinking big’, Savvy, (February), 46–54.Cooklin, G. (1995), Master Pattern and Grading for Women’s Outsizes, Blackwell

Science, London.Cotton, Inc. (2001), ‘Short story’, Women’s Wear Daily, (12 July), http://www.

cottoninc.com/lsmarticles/?articleID=152.Cotton, Inc. (2003), ‘Super sizing’, Women’s Wear Daily, (11 September), http://

www.cottoninc.com/lsmarticles/?articleID=28.Cotton, Inc. (2004), ‘Sizing it up’, Women’s Wear Daily, (14 April), http://www.

cottoninc.com/lsmarticles/?articleID=77.Daria, I. (1993), ‘Truth in fashion’, Glamour, (February), 149–150.Delk, A.E., and Cassill, N.L. (1989), ‘Jeans sizing: problems and recommenda-

tions’, Apparel Manufacturer, 1 (2), 18–23.DesMarteau, K. (2000), ‘Pre-production and CAD: Let the fi t revolution begin’,

Bobbin, 42 (2), 42–56.DOB-Verband (1983), DOB-Grössentabellen (Women’s Outer Garment Size

Chart), DOB-Verband, Köln.Eddie Bauer (2006), Eddie Bauer Spring Catalog, Groveport, Ohio.Fellingham, C. (1991), ‘Truth in fashion’, Glamour, (August), 159–160.Frings, G.S. (2005), Fashion: From Concept to Consumer, 8th edition, Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Gap (2005), Women’s Pants, Retrieved on 25 June 2005 from http://www.gap.

com/browse/category.do?cid=5697.Goldsberry, E. (1993), Women 55 and Older: How Well is the Domestic Apparel

Sizing System Addressing Their Needs?, Research Technical Report PCN 33-000006-18, ISR-06, ASTM Institute for Standards Research, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Goldsberry, E., Shim, S., and Reich, N. (1996a), ‘Women 55 years and older: Part I. Current body measurements as contrasted to the PS 42-70 data’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 14 (2), 108–120.

Goldsberry, E., Shim, S., and Reich, N. (1996b), ‘Women 55 years and older: Part II. Overall satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the fi t of ready-to-wear’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 14 (2), 121–132.

International Organization for Standardization (1991), Standard Sizing Systems for Clothes, Technical Report ISO/TR 10652:1991(E), International Organiza-tion for Standardization, Geneva.

Japanese Standards Association (1990), Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 0103: 1990 General Rule on Sizing Systems and Designation for Clothes, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Japanese Standards Association (1996), Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4004: 1996 Sizing systems for Men’s Garments, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.


Japanese Standards Association (1997), Japanese Industrial Standard JIS L 4005: 1997 Sizing Systems for Women’s Garments, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo.

Kemsley, R. (1957), Women’s Measurements and Sizes – a Study Sponsored by the Joint Clothing Council Limited, HMSO, London.

Korean Standards Association (2002), Korean Standard KS K 0055 Garment Sizing Systems for Elderly Women, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Korean Standards Association (1999a), Korean Standard KS K 0051 Sizing System for Women’s and Girls’ Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Korean Standards Association (1999b), Korean Standard KS K 0050 Sizing System for Men’s and Boys’ Garments, Korean Standards Association, Seoul.

Kurt Salmon Associates (1999), Annual Consumer Outlook Survey, Kurt Salmon Associates, Atlanta, Georgia.

Lands’ End (2006), Lands’ End Spring Catalog, Swim Issue, Dodgeville, Wisconsin.

L.L. Bean (2006), LL Bean Summer Catalog, Freeport, Maine.National Bureau of Standards (1958), Voluntary Commercial Standard CS 215-58

Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

National Bureau of Standards (1971), Voluntary Product Standard PS 42-70 Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

Norm Thompson (2006), Norm Thompson Catalog, Summer Vol.1, Portland, Oregon.

Nystrom, P.H. (1928), Economics of Fashion, Ronald Press, New York.Offi ce of Hungarian Standards (1986), Hungarian People’s Republic State

Standard MSZ 6100/1-86 The Hungarian Standard Sizing System, Offi ce of Hungarian Standards, Budapest.

Rosenau, J.A., and Wilson, D. (2001), Apparel Merchandising – The Line Starts Here, Fairchild Publications, New York.

Spalding, L.A. (1985), ‘Fashion merchandising catering to the big and tall’, Store, (October), 72–74.

Tanaka, W. (2005), ‘Fit to be tried’, The Philadelphia Inquirer, (12 September), http://www.intellifi t.com/Intellifi t/NewsArticles/PhiladelphiaInquirer9-12-05.pdf.

Tate, S.L. (1977), Inside Fashion Design, Harper & Row, New York.[TC]2 (2005), SizeUSA User Group Meeting, Retrieved on 27 June 2006 from

http://www.tc2.com/what/sizeusa/index.html#fl h.Wallach, J. (1985), ‘Where big is better’, Store, (April), 13–23.Women’s Market (1977), ‘Cataloging the large-size customer’, Clothes, (1 Decem-

ber), 26–28.Woodson, E.M., and Horridge, P.E. (1990), ‘Apparel sizing as it relates to women

age sixty-fi ve plus’. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 8 (4), 7–13.Yoon, J.S., and Radwin, R.G. (1994), ‘The accuracy of consumer-made body

measurements for women’s mail-order clothing’, Human Factors, 36 (3), 557–568.

8Mass customization and sizing

S. LOK ERCornell University, USA

8.1 Introduction

Mass customization – A strategy that uses information and manufac-turing technology to effi ciently produce goods with maximum differ-entiation with low-cost production (Pine, 1993).

The term mass customization was coined by Davis (1987) and elucidated through empirical testing by Pine (1993) and others (Kotha, 1995; Lampel and Mintzberg, 1996; Duray et al., 2000; Da Silveira et al., 2001; Duray, 2002; Berger et al., 2005; Piller et al., 2005). It is defi ned as a business strategy that uses advanced information and production technologies and involves the customer in the development, production or distribution of a product or service in order to provide the right product to a customer at the right time. Mass customization can occur in either product or service industries, at various points that occur in development, production or distribution processes, and for either consumer or business customers. Its combination of the effi cient process of mass production with the individu-alization of custom production has lead businesses and academics to imagine and test its possibilities. The clothing product is a natural applica-tion for mass customization, owing to its close connection to customers’ personal preferences and to applicable emerging technologies in the clothing industry (Anderson et al., 1998; Lee and Chen, 1999; Kamali and Loker, 2002; Choy and Loker, 2004).

The goal of mass customization is to achieve choice at a low cost through the use of technology. In clothing, mass customization can be applied at several specifi c levels or at multiple levels in the production process, as indicated in Table 8.1. Depending on the level, different customer involve-ment and enabling technology options are used to facilitate mass custom-ization. For mass-customized sizing, customers are involved as patterns are developed (top row of Table 8.1) with individual or custom specifi cations by apparel businesses using computer-aided design (CAD) pattern-making equipment. In the most sophisticated systems, measurements can be taken

246

Mass customization and sizing 247

using body scan technology and transferred directly to CAD systems. The customer, either consumer or business, needs to be involved in measure-ment acquisition and fi t preference processes.

To accomplish mass-customized sizing, strategies for production and distribution will differ from the mass production or custom strategies to which we are accustomed. The emphasis will be on personalized rather than standardized sizing, customer involvement in measurement rather than try-on of multiple completed garments, and advanced technol-ogy rather than hand-customized pattern development and construction techniques.

Customer involvement includes solicitation of information for customer identifi cation and tracking as well as interaction, enticement and nurturing of customers. In an Internet environment, customers have become familiar with the process of registering as they enter a new website, particularly a website for e-commerce. This registration provides the basic information for developing a customer profi le and can serve as a tracking mechanism that can inform the customer of new products based on past purchases. In the case of apparel sizing, body measurements, body characteristics and fi t preference information can be requested as part of this process. Providing customers with choices for mass customizing products requires a different set of interactive and response options including rejection and redesign. For clothing, these options often include design choices such as collar and

Table 8.1 Mass customization model for clothing

Point of customer Apparel mass Enablinginvolvement customization option technologies

Pattern development Custom fi t or design Body scanner, CAD pattern makingDesign Component choice: Product confi gurators, size, style, fabric CAD, gradingProduction planning Data forecast Integrated computer systemsManufacture Small-lot repeats Single-ply cutters, unit production systems, fl exible manufacturingDelivery Point-of-sale data Bar codes, radio-frequency identifi cation tags, logistics computer systemsPost-purchase Customer adjustments Electronic settings for smart clothing, gel gloves that mold to hands


neckline shapes, sleeve styles, silhouette options and color alternatives. The trick is to offer suffi cient styles to engage the customers without intimidating them with too many choices and an overextended design process (Kamali and Loker, 2002; Piller et al., 2005). With mass-customized sizing, the ability to present the product on a virtual model with similar or exact personal characteristics, body proportions and body type to the consumer is a crucial step in customer involvement.

Equally important to the success of mass customization in clothing sizing is the effi ciency of the production process as it incorporates information and production technologies (Zipkin, 2001). Flexibility is required in the acquisition of materials, modularization or repetition of component parts, and assembly processes. One advantage of mass custom-ization lies in the practise of making only the garments that are needed, ordered or purchased. However, this means producing small quantities of each size (and color and style), and sometimes just one of a kind. Produc-tion methods must enlist technologies that effi ciently produce small quanti-ties of a particular size, such as single-ply cutters, unit production systems and modular manufacturing. Modularity in pattern pieces used for multiple styles and sizes is one approach used for mass customization strategies. For sizing, this means adapting pattern blocks as modules to be used for multiple sizes or in a variety of styles. For example, a standard size 10 bodice block can contain a variety of sleeve patterns of different lengths and different styles of collars. It is also necessary to have the fl exibility to assemble a variety of sizes and styles at one time. Low-ply or single-ply cutters make it possible to cut small lots automatically and rapidly, and the unit production system and modular manufacturing methods move products effi ciently through the assembly process without bundling.

Tracking individual pieces belonging to a fi nal product is fundamental to mass customization logistics. Integrated computer systems can use bar codes and radio-frequency identifi cation tags to identify and track indi-vidual clothing articles in mass customization environments. This costs more than tracking by bundle, order or carton, but the producer and cus-tomer will always be able to locate where the product is in the production cycle. When the product is completed, delivery options accommodate the consumer or business customers. Consumer purchases are often shipped directly to homes or delivered to a local store for pick-up. Offering fi tting services or accepting returns at the local store provides a personalized touch to the mass-customized purchase and is a way to guarantee satisfac-tion. Such guarantees are important for mass-customized products in order to reassure customers that the individualized product will indeed meet their needs and be worth the increased cost.


8.2 Strategies and technologies for

mass-customized sizing

The approach and the technologies for sizing in a mass-customized envi-ronment are important to understanding this topic. This section will fi rst analyze the strategies employed for size development, pattern making and fi t evaluation. Then, evolving technologies that address mass-customized sizing are explored.

8.2.1 Size development

In a ready-to-wear mass production environment, size development strives to fi t the most people with the least number of sizes. The effi ciency of mass production is based on economies of scale, i.e. making many identical items using effi cient methods costs less than making a smaller number of more varied items. Therefore, the number of sizes (and colors and styles) or stock-keeping units is purposely limited so that many people will buy the same size (color or style). Sizes are developed on the basis of large anthro-pometric studies with samples representative of the entire population. Many items are designed, produced and offered in a set number of sizes (e.g. S–M–L or 4–6–8–10–12–14–16–18 or 40–42–44–46–48–50) that fi t ‘most’ of the population or a select or target group.

In a mass customization environment, size development is more per-sonal, either based on an individual’s body measurements or on a set of measurements provided by an individual business customer. The goal is to provide a fi t that is somehow individualized on the basis of the customer’s objective body measurements and/or preferences for tighter or looser fi t.

There are several potential approaches. One extreme is the ultimate target-market-of-one approach of custom sizing or made-to-measure cloth-ing. Any single individual can order and receive a clothing article based on his or her own individual body measurements. Custom production or bespoke has long been a tradition in geographical locations such as London, Hong Kong and Thailand. In the USA, however, custom clothing and the production and distribution methods used for it are less common. Hand construction and multiple fi ttings are typical of custom production, requir-ing many long hours of labor that mass production has long eschewed. Geographical areas with the skills and traditions of tailoring passed down from generation to generation as well as the developing economies with large labor pools tend to offer more custom clothing production. The mass customization process may make offering personally sized clothing in developed geographical areas where labor is expensive more fi nancially and logistically feasible.


The other extreme is customizing a fi rm or brand sizing system based on a specifi c segment or target market of the population or an idealized target market. Body measurements would be taken of an ideal customer or multiple members of the target market and applied to develop a fi rm’s individualized sizing system and to draft a set of patterns for the target market. The fi nal patterns are special and proprietary in that they will be used for only one specifi c consumer market or business client.

One technology that facilitates or enables mass customization in sizing development is the body scanner. It captures approximately 300 000 x, y, z data points in about 12 seconds. The data points are linked and surfaced automatically in a full digital three-dimensional (3D) model that can be measured in multiple ways including linear, slice and surface area, and volume measurements for each scan (Loker et al., 2005). Some systems present 3D visualizations of the data (Ashdown et al., 2004) and others send measurements directly to CAD pattern-making and cutting systems. The use of body measurements and posture information generated from body scan technology to facilitate individual pattern creation and cutting is a state-of-the-art mass-customized approach.

8.2.2 Pattern-making strategies

CAD pattern-making technology was developed as a stand-alone process. Most clothing businesses initially adopted CAD to organize and store patterns and to use and adapt them to create new styles over time. CAD legacy systems have since been upgraded to provide multidepartment integration and access and to serve a multiplicity of functions including the following.

1 Database management of patterns for access, manipulation and storage.2 Creation of individual and size specifi cations for ready-to-wear clothing.3 Modular piece access and storage for mass production and customiza-

tion applications.4 Grading functions to create pattern blocks in multiple sizes from the

sample size blocks.5 Connection to computerized cutting systems.

CAD databases streamlined the mass production product development process by storing old patterns for adjustment and reuse. In mass custom-ization, specialized CAD programs can quickly adapt sizes in two ways: fi rstly, by adjusting existing patterns based on one individual’s body measurements and/or fi t preference and, secondly, by creating made-to-measure patterns directly from an individual’s body measurements, with


8.1 Clothed body scan (courtesy of the Cornell Body Scan Research Group)

no pre-existing pattern. CAD technology is quick and accurate and can be digitally connected with plotting and cutting technology. The result is a fast, accurate and individualized pattern for production.

8.2.3 Evaluation of style and fi t

Body scan technology can also be used to scan and create clothed images that can be used for visual analysis of fi t (Fig. 8.1). Electronically, custom-ers are able to see the fi t of their clothing in a 3D or virtual environment entirely new to them. Not only can they view the front, back and side views, but the image is fully dimensional with an accurate image of the drape of the fabric.

These visual images can be analyzed for fi t, size and style appropriate-ness. Views of these scan images provide a personalized 3D image not


available with a mirror or video camera. It is truly a brand new view of one’s self.

8.2.4 Strategies

The interactive nature of the Internet now offers a direct communication means between consumer and tailor that provides new custom size oppor-tunities. Consumers can enter their measurements, respond to body charac-teristic questions, describe their fi t preferences and eventually should be able to share body scan measurement information from their personal computer in their homes (http://www.landsend.com, http://www.nikeid.com and http://www.mvm.com). Confi gurator tools are available to record the information from the consumer while allowing some experimentation. For example, a confi gurator tool developed by My Virtual Model (http://www.mvm.com) asks for body characteristics, hair color and style, and other personal descrip-tive information in order to develop a virtual representation of the consumer. If consumers do not think the virtual model is a good likeness, they can go back and change some of their responses to adjust the model’s image. Con-sumers can use the model virtually to ‘try on’ garments on some sites. To date, this ‘try-on’ is only for evaluation of garment choices and colors on a body type similar to the consumer’s and focuses on appropriateness of style rather than fi t. In the future, with the use of body scan technology to develop virtual models that accurately represent a consumer’s body measurements, this virtual ‘try-on’ will be used for evaluating actual fi t.

Confi gurator tools (Fig. 8.2) often include style and color choices, pro-viding the consumer with design input through exploration and trial-and-error decisions that can be changed before submitting an order. Some of the initial online mass-customized clothing companies offered a set range of sizes rather than custom measurements or modular style selections to provide individualized fi t. More recently, Lands’ End and other retailers have offered size-customized clothing developed from individual body measurements which are entered online. In the future, body scans may offer measurement data in appropriate formats to be used in the mass-customized sizing process.

For business customers, there is a growing trend in developing dress forms to represent a company’s fi t model. Typically, fi rms identify a single person to be the fi t model for a specifi c line of clothing. This fi t model’s measurements are used to develop size specifi cations and to test the fi t of garment samples. As design and production have moved to locations remote to company headquarters, fi t tests are more diffi cult to conduct with all parties involved. The response has been to develop dress forms based on the fi t model’s body scan, with adjustments to make them sym-metrical to accommodate mass production techniques. A number of dress


8.2 Online clothing confi gurator tool (courtesy of Iowa State University)

forms are made for fi t sessions in several locations, often with multiple people viewing the fi tting sessions over video-casting or Internet connec-tions. Once the sample fi t is approved, standard grading methods are used to develop patterns for all sizes in the system.

A logical step for business customers desiring a fi rm-specifi c sizing for their clothing lines is to create a fi t model that represents the range of target market customer body shapes and sizes. One Hong Kong-based technology consulting fi rm, TPC (HK) Limited, uses the body measurements of up to seven members of a target market size division and an algorithm to develop a composite fi t model for that size (http://www.tpc.com.hk). The virtual fi t model is then ‘unwrapped’ (with appropriate ease added) for a 3D to two-dimensional (2D) pattern-making process. Each size in the range has its own virtual fi t model. The advantages of this method are, fi rstly, that each composite fi t model is based on more than one member of the target market, secondly, that there is a composite fi t model for each size allowing for size-dependent variations in body shape and proportion and, thirdly, that it offers a totally electronic method of pattern making from each composite fi t model’s virtual image.

A web-based clothing business can use measurement and fi t information to choose from a selection of sizing option modules, to adjust existing


patterns or to create a customer-specifi c pattern for the desired clothing article. Modular considerations are important in the fi rst two options. The Levi’s Personal Pair (later called Original Spin) approach was to offer an exponentially greater number of sizes and styles than were available in their ready-to-wear stores. Patterns developed for every combination of waist, hip, inseam and crotch length values offered almost 2000 choices. This mass customization approach was based on a modular approach where, as long as a pattern existed for a particular set of measurements and a particular style, the modules could be selected and created for the customer in their choice of fabrics. One advantage of this method is that it allows the customer to try the garment and to adjust their selection for fi t preferences, as the number of size combinations, although large, is fi nite so that test garments can be made available at every retail location. The limitation of this approach is that it provides limited accommodation for the person with odd proportions or measurements outside the norm, depending on the range of values and combinations of values included in the pattern set. Automated alteration processes driven by measurements to adjust existing patterns can accommodate every body proportion while also making use of existing patterns or modules. Patterns can be graded on two levels to address length adjustments as well as circumference variations or unusual proportions, and specifi c adjustments can be made to pattern pieces based on individual measurements.

The fi nal mass customization option is to develop a pattern based on an individual’s measurements without the use of an existing pattern. Firms offering this service, such as the former IC3D, have developed an algorithm that generates the pattern through mathematical calculations or artifi cial intelligence principles. The computer does the calculations, drafts the pattern and sends it to the cutter.

Another size-related web-based service that is emerging is size predic-tion. Business membership networks now offer size prediction services to consumers (e.g. http://www.mvm.com/en/solutions.htm). The business model calls for clothing fi rms to buy a membership with a third-party busi-ness. The clothing fi rm provides the Internet-based size prediction service with a set of size specifi cations for styles in one or more of their branded lines. The size prediction service collects all its members’ size–style brand combinations in its database. The consumer connects to the size prediction service directly from business members’ clothing websites. Consumers identify personal body measurements and request suggestions for size and styles that match the measurements. Intellifi t (http://www.intellifi t.com) takes the size prediction approach to another level using mall kiosks for body scanning to predict sizes for currently available clothing. Following the free scan, customers are given a list of recommended styles and sizes from all participating member clothing fi rms and online access to a list of


their measurements. At this time, Intellifi t member fi rms are limited to fewer than 20, but this may change quickly if consumer interest grows. Although not technically mass customization, size prediction services are an intermediary option before customization that increases acceptable fi t and style selection through individual size matching. This method increases consumer choice by providing size information on clothing from multiple clothing fi rms with a variety of style, fabric and fi t choices.

Virtual visualizations can be used to evaluate fi t for pattern development using target market member body scans in selected clothing styles. The Cornell Body Scan Research group has pioneered this process with scans of over 200 women aged 34–55 years in the best-fi tting size of a test pant generated for fi t evaluation (Ashdown et al., 2004) (Fig. 8.3). Using a com-puter survey tool developed for the purpose, a clothed and minimally clothed scan of each subject is presented for evaluation. The raters can be located anywhere and can conduct the fi t evaluation at any time, a great advantage for global clothing fi rms. The scans can be rotated for front, side and back views and zoomed for close-up views. The ratings are entered directly into a database. Raters can score a number of scans as acceptable or unacceptable and then review their ratings to check for consistency and appropriate rating standards. Perhaps the most signifi cant advantage to this approach is the lasting nature of the scans. They can be stored indefi nitely, checked each season as new patterns are developed and inform the fi t of a fi rm’s target market long past the initial fi t evaluation. This method could also be used to record and judge the fi t of mass-customized

8.3 Virtual visualizations used in fi t analysis


garments on individuals in order to track and assess the success of the pattern-making strategy used.

8.3 Body measurement selection and application

One of the most important decisions that all apparel businesses need to make to develop clothing with acceptable fi t is which body measurements to use to develop their patterns. It does not matter whether a business designs and manufactures custom, ready-to-wear or mass-customized clothing. If the wrong body measurements are used to develop the pattern, good fi t will not be achieved. One distinction in mass-customized clothing is the need to involve the consumer to provide those measurements, using a tape measure, some body characteristic and fi t preference questions, or a body scan.

There has been much discussion about the reliability of body measure-ments provided for mass-customized clothing, particularly in Internet purchases. It is well documented that individuals do not take accurate measurements of themselves using a tape measure (Yoon and Radwin, 1994). Not only is it diffi cult, indeed requiring the skills of a contortionist, to take one’s own measurements, but also identifying the exact placement of the tape to measure reliably is not common knowledge. Internet sites and catalogs selling clothing often describe the vertical and horizontal locations to take the measurements, which bones or body curves to look for, and how tight the tape measure should feel to your body.

Some websites ask consumers a set of questions about their body characteristics in order to build a virtual model that resembles their body image. These present models are not exact representations based on measurements but are a step in the direction of personal replicas that could be used to evaluate fi t. The questions may include the following or others.

1 How tall are you?2 How much do you weigh?3 Do you have broad, narrow or average shoulder width?4 Would you describe your shape as an hourglass, square or a reverse

triangle?

The future will bring a virtual model that is based on an individual’s own scan data. The virtual model will be an exact replica of the body and will be used for an authentic virtual try-on. The questions that we must ask to achieve this future are as follows. Firstly, will consumers want to see their own body in three dimensions? Secondly, will consumers be able to and want to evaluate clothing fi t from a virtual image? Thirdly, will


technology be developed to provide interactive tools to allow consumers to adjust the virtual model’s clothing to fi t better and then to generate pat-terns accordingly? These must be answered for virtual try-on to succeed as a mass customization strategy.

Will consumers want to see their own body in three dimensions? We have reported some preliminary fi ndings on consumer interest in viewing scans (Loker et al., 2004b) that indicate a general comfort with viewing the scans on the computer screen. The participants in this research view their minimally clothed scan. We are in the process of investigating the interest and ability of 18–22 year old women to evaluate pants fi t from viewing 3D scan images of the clothed fi gure. These results should begin to answer both the fi rst and the second questions.

Will consumers be able to and want to evaluate clothing fi t? The answer to this question depends on both the ability to see clothing fi t in an online environment and an interest in judging clothing fi t. Our current research study is comparing the fi t ratings of the potential consumers with fi t ratings of experts to assess the general consumer skill level in evaluating fi t in an online environment. We also ask them about their interest in evaluating fi t. However, the underlying question is whether consumers in general have any understanding of the criteria defi ning good fi t. Judging by the outfi ts seen in public places, the overwhelming incidence of misfi tted clothing in our society is clear. Whether this is due to the diffi culty in fi nding well-fi tting clothing or the inability to judge fi t effectively is the question. If the second is true, then it may take extensive education and enticing motivations to help consumers to take their role in improving fi t using mass customization and virtual fi t tools.

Will technology be developed to provide interactive tools to allow con-sumers to adjust the virtual model’s clothing to fi t better and then to adjust the patterns appropriately? There is much work currently addressing the advancement of technologies used in virtual try-on and the transformation from 3D models into 2D patterns. Body scan technology enables mass customization size offerings based on exact measurements taken from 3D images captured by cameras in scanning systems. Scans take approxi-mately 300 000 x, y, z data points that can describe a body in three dimen-sions. The non-invasive nature of the body scan makes it attractive to the consumer while the speed and accuracy of measurements appeal to the clothing producer. Methods for transferring the data to a usable format for CAD pattern-making are being developed for commercialization by several fi rms (e.g. Lectra and Optitex), and Brooks Brothers (Haisley, 2002) has been using its proprietary system for several years. This integration of scan data into CAD systems is one of several current obstacles in clothing size mass customization using the method of creating patterns directly from body measurements.


A second obstacle is dressing the virtual model. One issue is creating the drape of a fabric onto the virtual model to create realistic 3D images. May-Plumlee and Eischen (2005) and Z-weave (http://www.zweave.com) among others are working on solutions to this 3D visualization problem. Another issue is the transition from 3D garment visualizations to 2D pattern pieces. Some technology developers are working from the 2D patterns and ‘wrapping’ the virtual model to create a garment. Others are working from the 3D garment and ‘unwrapping’ the virtual garment into 2D pattern pieces. Both have the capabilities to effect a mass customization solution from a virtual environment to CAD pattern-making equipment. Only time will tell whether one or both will become industry standards.

Another technological requirement needed for the eventual involvement by consumers in fi t evaluation in a 3D virtual environment is the develop-ment of tools to modify the garment fi t based on consumer adjustments or preferences. For example, imagine that the consumer selects pants to try on their virtual image and wishes to make them looser or tighter. With a click of the online product confi gurator, consumers should be able to view several fi t preferences. If the consumer sees a poor fi t indicated by wrinkles at the waist or crotch line, the on-line product confi gurator should be programmed to make a change to the visualization at the designated problem area and eventally to the 2D patterns. These technologies are feasible but not yet realized. Their commercialization and marketplace offerings are expected in the near future.

8.4 Future trends

Mass customization strategies and technologies offer some future oppor-tunities for clothing sizing. Customized-sizing offerings and ready-to-wear sizing adaptations, either before or after purchase, may increase and become commonplace. Virtual environments may offer consumers and businesses the ability to evaluate fi t in three dimensions and to increase awareness and standards for good fi t. These are some of the trends of the future that will affect the mass customization of clothing sizing.

The market-of-one mass customization sizing process is clothing devel-oped using individual body measurements. The introduction of body scan-ners has made the process of acquiring individual body measurements effi cient, accurate and non-intrusive. However, extensive deployment of body scanners for easy consumer access and a wide acceptance and use of scanning by consumers to generate current body measurements are require-ments for this technology to be available to advance mass customization processes further. The diffusion of body scan technology and applications for clothing sizing will take time. Technologies to read and apply scan data


easily in CAD pattern-making software for pattern generation and mass-customized cutting and assembly techniques are improving and will con-tinue to spread throughout the industry (http://www.archetype-solutions.com and http://www.optitex.com).

Perhaps a greater limitation to mass-customized sizing is consumer interest and adoption. Although initial research has confi rmed consumer interest in some applications for apparel sizing (Loker et al., 2004a), Western consumers are used to a shopping experience that includes a variety of immediately available choices, access to the tactile feeling of fabric and try-on opportunities afforded by ready-to-wear clothing. Mass-customized offerings usually restrict the number of style choices available and offer limited or no try-on opportunities prior to purchase. Consumers of custom clothing are used to the pampering of service providers, includ-ing multiple fi ttings, special attention and specialized hand-made construc-tion. Mass-customized clothing based on an individual’s body measurements must incorporate some of these additional services as well as multiple style choice in order to motivate consumers to replace their ready-to-wear shopping experience.

The Internet environment and some emerging technologies are the tools to a bright future for mass-customized clothing sizing. Body scans could be easily accessible on smart cards that consumers carry, use on-line and share with clothing manufacturers, or at a central online location accessible through passwords. Online product confi gurators offer multiple style options for experimentation and exploration of personalized design. Once the visualization tools are perfected for virtual try-on using body scans, it will be possible to evaluate size and fi t online using the confi gurators as well. Consumers will be able to design clothing for specifi c events such as business, sport and special occasions and to adjust fi t according to personal or functional preferences. The product confi gurators might offer two, three or more fi t preferences such as the slim, regular and relaxed fi ts now offered by some online custom clothing retailers (e.g. Lands’ End). An additional benefi t would be the virtual try-on of the clothing on one’s own 3D body scan. Individual fi t could be experimented with online and the consumer could select the fi t that they liked best.

Another exciting future opportunity for mass-customized sizing might involve adjusting existing ready-to-wear offerings. Using the visualization tools now under development, ready-to-wear patterns could be ‘wrapped’ onto an individual’s body scan, from the 2D patterns to the 3D clothing item. The consumer or business could evaluate the fi t and adjust the patterns for the existing size to fi t the consumer precisely. Visual evaluation rather than comparison of linear pattern measurements would be used to assess garment fi t and then the enabling technologies would adjust existing patterns. Another option would be to include size adjustments into the


clothing design that could be modifi ed after purchase. Length and fullness variations are obvious post-purchase size adjustments.

The advent of virtual visualizations of clothing on bodies has initiated an exciting opportunity for improved clothing fi t and a better understand-ing of fi t by both professionals and consumers. With the ease of body scanning, a number of national sizing studies (e.g. SizeUSA and SizeUK) have emerged that have generated large databases of body scans that can be categorized by body measurements, gender, age and some lifestyle variables to create industry target markets. With 3D scan data, shape can be added to the typical circumference measurements used for size development. Sizes that fi t more people in a particular target market can be developed. For mass customization, these databases will be especially useful in developing modular patterns that can provide improved fi t for certain shapes. For example, our research has found the protruding abdomen to differentiate women of 35–54 years of age (Loker et al., 2005). A mass-customized clothing business could develop two modular pants fronts to accommodate the two types of body in a given size, selecting the proper one from the scan measurements. This process would improve fi t while applying the effi ciency of mass-customized production using modular pattern pieces and size. Identifying other body confi gurations and perfect-ing style and fi t specifi cally tailored to these new body shape target markets could provide good fi t using mass-customized modular techniques for many segments of the population.


8.5.1 Books

Pine, B.J., III. (1993), Mass Customization: The New Frontier in Business Competition, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts.

Pine, B.J., and Gilmore, J.H. (2000), Markets of One: Creating Customer-unique Value through Mass Customization, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts.

Tseng, M.M., and Piller, F.T. (2003), The Customer-centric Enterprise: Advances in Mass Customization and Personalization, Springer, Berlin.

8.5.2 Articles

Abend, J. (2001), ‘Tapping into a virtual world’, Bobbin, 42 (6), 38–47.Berman, B. (2002), ‘Should your fi rm adopt a mass customization strategy?’,

Business Horizons, 45, July–August, 51–60.Mastnak, R. (2000), ‘3-D scanning and the apparel industry in North America: A

new business paradigm’, Retrieved on 26 April 2006 from http://www.techexchange.com/thelibrary/3-dScanning.html.


8.5.3 Conference proceedings

Proceedings of the Third Interdisciplinary World Congress on Mass Customiza-tion and Personalization, Hong Kong, 18–21 September 2005, http://www.mcpc2005.com.

8.5.4 Journal

International Journal of Mass Customization, Interscience, New York (published since 1995).

8.5.5 Newsletters

Mass Customization and Open Innovation Newsletter, http://www.mass-customization.de/news/newsletter.htm.

http://www.techexchange.com.

8.5.6 Websites

http://www.apparelindustry.cornell.edu.http://www.archetype-solutions.com.http://www.bodymetrics.com.http://www.intellifi t.com.http://www.lectra.com.http://www.myvirtualmodel.com.http://www.optitex.com.http://www.tpc.com.hk.

8.5.7 Commercial projects

http://www.tc2.com/what/sizeusa/.http://www.fashion.arts.ac.uk/sizeuk.htm.Collaborative projects of Research Center Mass Customization and Customer

Integration, Technische Universität München.EuroShoe (EU 5. Framework Project) (2001–2004), ‘Development of the

processes and implementation of management tools for the extended user oriented shoe enterprise’, http://www.euro-shoe.net.

(Sonderforschungsbereich 582 (SFB 582)) (2001–2004; second stage, 2004–2007), ‘Mini plants for customer centric decentralized manufacturing of customized products’.

WinSERV (BMBF-DLR Project) (2002–2005), ‘User driven innovation and customer integration in innovation processes’, http://www.win-serv.de.

EWOMACS (BMBF-PFT Project) (2002–2005), ‘Supply chain management processes in the footwear industry’, http://www.ewomacs.de.


8.6 References

Anderson, L.J., Brannon, E.L., Ulrich, P.V., Marshall, T., and Staples, N.J. (1998), Discovering the Process of Mass Customization: A Paradigm Shift for Competitive Manufacturing, Research Brief, National Textile Center, Retrieved from http://www.ntcresearch.org.

Ashdown, S.P., Loker, S., Schoenfelder, K.A., and Lyman-Clarke, L. (2004), ‘Using 3D scans for fi t analysis’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (1), 1–12, http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/.

Berger, C., Moslein, K., Piller, F., and Reichwald, R. (2005), ‘Co-designing modes of cooperation at the customer interface: Learning from exploratory research’, European Management Review, 2 (1), 70–87.

Choy, R., and Loker, S. (2004), ‘Mass customization of wedding gowns: Design involvement for prospective brides on the Internet’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 22 (1), 1–9.

Da Silveira, G., Borenstein, D., and Fogliatto, F.S. (2001), ‘Mass customization: Literature review and research directions’, International Journal of Production Economics, 72, 1–13.

Davis, S. (1987), Future Perfect, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.Duray, R. (2002), ‘Mass customization origins: Mass or custom manufacturing?’,

International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 22 (3), 314–328.

Duray, R., Ward, P., Milligan, G., and Berry, W. (2000), ‘Approaches to mass customization; Confi gurations and empirical validation’, Journal of Operations Management, 2 (2), 605–625.

Haisley, T. (2002), ‘Brooks Brothers digital tailors measure up’, Bobbin, 43 (6), 26–30.

Kamali, N.N., and Loker, S. (2002), ‘Mass customization: On-line consumer involvement in product design’, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 7 (4), http://www.jcmc.indiana.edu/vol7/issue4/loker.html.

Kotha, S. (1995), ‘Mass customization: Implementing the emerging paradigm for competitive advantage’, Strategic Management Journal, 16, 21–42.

Lampel, J., and Mintzberg, H. (1996), ‘Customizing customization’, MIT Sloan Management Review, 38 (1), 21–32.

Lee, S.E., and Chen, J.C. (1999), ‘Mass-customization methodology for an apparel industry with a future’, Journal of Industrial Technology, 16 (1), 2–8.

Loker, S., Ashdown, S.P., Cowie, L., and Schoenfelder, K.A. (2004a), ‘Consumer interest in commercial applications of body scan data’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, 4 (1), 1–13, http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/.

Loker, S., Ashdown, S.P., and Schoenfelder, K.A. (2005), ‘Size specifi c analysis for body scan data to improve apparel fi t’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Tech-nology and Management, 4 (3), 1–15, http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/.

Loker, S., Cowie, L.S., Ashdown, S., and Lewis, V.D. (2004b), ‘Consumer reactions to body scanning’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 22 (2), 151–160.

May-Plumlee, T., and Eischen, J. (2005), 3D Virtual Draping with Fabric Mechanics and Body Scan Data, Research Brief, National Textile Center, Retrieved from http://www.ntcresearch.org.


Piller, F., Schubert, P., Koch, M., and Moslein, K. (2005), ‘Overcoming mass confusion: Collaborative customer co-design in online communities’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (4), article 8, http://www.jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue4/piller.html.

Pine, J., III. (1993), Mass Customization: The New Frontier in Business Competition, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts.

Yoon, J.C., and Radwin, R.G. (1994), ‘The accuracy of consumer-made body measurements for women’s mail-order clothing’, Human Factors and Ergonom-ics Society, 36 (3), 557–568.

Zipkin, P. (2001), ‘The limits of mass customization’, MIT Sloan Management Review, 42 (3), 81–87.

9Materials and sizing

D.H. BR A NSON A N D J. NA MOklahoma State University, USA

9.1 Introduction

Materials are one of the critical factors that affect garment fi t, and there-fore an understanding of material properties has an important place in the development of garment sizing. There is widespread agreement that a well-fi tting garment contributes to the confi dence, comfort, performance and even safety of the wearer. Apparel sizing is developed to create a set of garments that will provide well-fi tting garments for a targeted group of people. Yet, what exactly is meant by ‘well fi tting’ and how does the choice of materials affect whether a garment can be said to be well fi tting? This chapter will explore the dynamic relationships between material choices, material and garment characteristics as they impact fi t, perception and assessment of fi t, and approaches to sizing systems.

The purpose of a sizing system is to fi t the majority of a given population whose body proportions fall within predetermined standard dimensions (Workman, 1991). A sizing system can be defi ned as the method or system used to create a set of clothing for a variety of people in the target market (Cornell University, 2006). A common approach used by many US manufacturers for developing a sizing system involves creating a base pattern sized to fi t a given fi t model plus a set of graded patterns based on the assumption of proportional measurement changes for individuals larger and smaller than the fi t model. Le Pechoux and Ghosh (2002) reported that sizing for the US women’s hosiery market relies on statistical models derived from anthropometric data collected in 1941. Another approach used for mass customization includes size designation by a spe-cifi c set of measurements, e.g. every combination of waist and hip measurements (Rifkin, 1994). Nam et al. (2005) described another sizing methodology that used examination of military measurement data in order to designate a three-size system (S, M and L) during the product develop-ment cycle for a close-fi tting cooling garment for 98% of the intended

264

Materials and sizing 265

population. Thus, there are multiple approaches for sizing system develop-ment in existence today.

Fit assessment is an important step in the process of developing and assessing the success of a sizing system. Typically, fi t assessment within an apparel production environment occurs at the end of the product development cycle and is often accomplished by assessing the prototype garment on a company’s fi t model in a specifi ed size. Fit assessment also occurs during the purchase process by an individual consumer. Both processes are highly subjective. Many studies have reported that a large number of the US population cannot fi nd apparel in the marketplace that fi ts (Kurt Salmon Associates, 2000), suggesting that traditional methods of industry sizing and fi t assessment could be improved. With a growing recognition of the severity of fi tting problems by the industry, garment producers are increasingly interested in ways to improve garment fi t. Researchers represent a third group interested in assessing fi t and they have correspondingly developed multiple approaches and testing methodologies.

9.2 Fit judgment framework

Figure 9.1 shows a proposed framework to examine the issues of materials, garment design, and individual, industry and researchers’ perception and/or assessment of fi t within a broad environmental context.

A well-fi tting garment hangs smoothly and evenly on the body with straight seams, no fabric distortion nor pulling, and no gaping (Rasband, 1994). Hems are parallel to the fl oor unless otherwise intended, and the garment armscyes and crotch do not constrain the body (Rasband, 1994).

9.1 Determining a perfect fi t: three perspectives

Environment Physical–socio-psychological–cultural

Mass production

Clothing Individual person

Clothing Researcher Clothing

Anthropometic data

Personal clothing fit judgment

Base pattern

Graded patterns

Fit evaluation Live models Dress forms

Subjective measurementObjective measurement

Fabric objective measurement

(KES-F and FAST)

Expert panelsfit evaluations

Garment physical analysis Visual examination

Wearing test (tactile and movement properties determined by fabric properties)


Suffi cient room is provided within the garment so that constriction of the body does not occur while an individual is in the anatomical position and many active body positions as well. The industry refers to this ‘extra room’ as ease, which is defi ned as the difference between the actual measured size of the body and the measured size of the garment, as intended by the designer (Hudson, 1980). Ease can be described as wearing ease, i.e. ease to allow for body movement, and design ease, i.e. ease developed by the designer to create a desired visual effect, silhouette or style. Wearing ease can vary from 1–2 in to 4 in, depending on body location and material, as given in numerous pattern-making textbooks. Some clothes are designed to be very closely fi tted and others are intended to be slightly fi tted. A very-close-fi tting garment may include less than minimum wearing ease. Without suffi cient wearing ease, clothing strains, pulls and binds uncom-fortably against the body, emphasizing body contours and fi gure variations (Rasband, 1994). Material properties are of primary concern in creating the appropriate ease for a garment.

Protective clothing and other garments for which the function is a primary concern can have other fi t priorities than those needed for clothing worn for everyday activities. Arriving at the appropriate combination of material properties, wearing ease and design features can be quite complex in these situations.

Determining what is an appropriate amount of ease is an important and diffi cult issue in assessing fi t generally for both the manufacturer and the individual consumers. The amount of wearing ease and design ease required by the manufacturer is infl uenced by choice of material, a given garment style and function, and the designer’s perception of desired aesthetic choices for a given garment. For example, the amount of wearing and design ease for a sheer chiffon blouse will be different from the ease required for a bulky fur coat; the wearing ease for sheer hosiery will be different from the wearing and design ease for baggy pants. The amount of ease desired in a garment by an individual is infl uenced by personal preference and the environmental context in which the wearer anticipates wearing the garment. For example, some individuals might generally prefer a looser fi t than others, and a blouse worn to compete in a competitive athletic event such as jumping horses might be tighter than a blouse worn to the offi ce. It is also possible that the amount of ease desired by an indi-vidual varies over time. Thus, perception of good fi t varies from person to person as well as within the same individual over time and depending on environmental context.

Testing for fi t by the apparel industry is the process of verifying that a garment designed for a specifi c size does indeed fi t the dimensional speci-fi cations determined by the sizing system. Testing for fi t can be carried out on prototypes while the sizing system is being developed, and it can also


be performed on a regular basis at the end of production lines as part of a quality control scheme. Fit can be tested in various ways using live models (including ease analysis using body scanner measurements), on various types of forms and using stretch tests. Each testing procedure has its advantages and disadvantages. Fit testing by an individual consumer may consist of a visual examination in a mirror of the garment on the individual either in a store dressing room or at home. Fit testing by researchers is addressed in Section 9.6.

9.3 Non-stretch materials

Materials with a minimal amount of stretch such as conventional woven fabrics have been the focus for standard wearing ease recommendations given in pattern-making textbooks. Because these materials have minimal stretch, additional fabric or wearing ease must be allocated in the pattern-making process, whether the pattern is produced by draping, computer-aided design (CAD) or traditional fl at pattern techniques, so that a wearer will have suffi cient movement ease. There are three additional ways to provide ease for movement with such fabrics. Firstly, the pattern pieces can be oriented on the bias rather than on the lengthwise or crosswise grain lines since the bias grain line affords stretch. Secondly, design features can be incorporated into the garment design to allow for greater movement. An example would be an underarm gusset that can be added to allow a tight-fi tting sleeve constructed in a woven fabric to provide greater arm and shoulder mobility. Thirdly, various fi ber content choices (such as blend-ing Lycra® in the yarn) or yarn forming and weaving techniques (such as the use of a twill weave) can introduce more elastic properties to the fabric. The use of a silk fi ber with a high twist in either the warp or weft direction of a woven fabric to allow for fabric movement in one direction is another example of this strategy (Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association with Stefan, 1997, p. 116). Many apparel manufacturers have skilled pattern makers with expertise and experience in making appropriate choices of materials, ease values, design features or combinations of these factors to achieve a well-fi tting garment.

There is also a variety of special-purpose non-stretch fabrics, particu-larly in the protective materials fi eld, that pose additional challenges for fi tting. More wearing ease will be required for these stiffer non-woven fabrics, such as the various fi lms and coated fabrics used for protective occupational clothing, so that the fabric will not tear when the wearer performs necessary activities while wearing the garment system. These fabrics typically have no stretch or very little stretch regardless of grain-line placement. Therefore, reliance on achieving wearing ease and good fi t is dependent on use of design features. Further, the practise of sizing such


garments in broad sizing systems such as sizes S to XXL exacerbates fi tting problems for both males and females. Laing and Sleivert (2002, p. 18) stressed that the combination of optimizing fi t, reducing garment weight and providing ease for movement accomplished through the use of innova-tive design is essential for optimizing human performance, but little research has been carried out in this area. Rigid materials such as metals, ceramics and fi ber-reinforced resins used to provide ballistic protection and in garments that protect against deep-sea pressure or the vacuum of space pose even more diffi culties in fi tting and facilitating movement. Innovative design features must be devised to provide a fi tting adjustment system, adequate protection and satisfactory provision for movement.

9.4 Stretch materials

In 1820, Thomas Hancock, an English inventor who founded the British rubber industry, invented the masticator, a machine that shredded rubber scraps, allowing rubber to be recycled after being formed into blocks or rolled into sheets, and thereby ushered in the beginning of stretch materi-als. He patented elastic fastenings for gloves, suspenders, shoes and stock-ings. In 1920, ‘US Rubber invented fi brous rubber or “latex” yarns, which were generally used as a “core” fi ber covered with another yarn or yarns’ (Sporting Goods Manufactures Association with Stefan, 1997, p. 116). The development of nylon, polyester and thermosetting of manufactured yarns and fi bers made many varieties of stretch fabrics available, starting in the 1950s. The invention of spandex in the late 1950s provided the next major step in the history of stretch materials. They entered the mainstream market in the early 1990s after designers began to use stretch fabrics in numerous applications. Stretch fabric can be achieved by the use of yarns to form a knit fabric or other ‘stretch’ fabrication method, or use of an elastomeric yarn. Knitted fabrics such as rib knits and jersey knits, and fabrics made from rubber, latex and fi lament synthetic fi bers such as nylon and spandex are representative stretch fabrics that are widely available in the marketplace. Currently, a diverse array of stretch fabrics are widely used for a variety of end uses including undergarments, swimwear, active sportswear, casual clothing, tailored clothing and evening wear.

Stretch fabrics have three desirable performance functions, namely comfort, performance enhancement and fi t, which have contributed to their rapid growth in the marketplace. Various dimensions of comfort are provided with stretch materials. Clothing that gradually gives with the body in motion provides comfort that is highly valued in today’s society. Wicking moisture management fabric systems are most effi cient when they are in direct contact with the body, a fi t confi guration that is more success-ful in elastomeric fabrics. A stretch fabric made using fi bers and weave


constructions that transport moisture for evaporation is an ideal fabric for next-to-the-skin use applications.

Stretch fabrics can infl uence wearer performance in multiple ways. Their use in creating form fi tting clothing can take fractions off a competitor’s time. The 2006 Olympic Games provided ample opportunity to view many examples of stretch materials used to create form-fi tting clothing designed for serious competition. Stretch fabrics have also been used to create com-pression garments to help prevent injury, to contain or aid in healing an injury, to minimize unwanted movement (a sports bra) and to shape the body as desired (foundation type garments). These functions are served by a wide variety of elastomeric fabrics available in multiple-modulus (recovery power) characteristics, fi bers, yarn and weave constructions and special fabric designs specially engineered for specifi c purposes and in many widths from fabric bolts down to elastic tapes (Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association with Stefan, 1997).

The fi tting process can be simplifi ed in the use of stretch materials as the stretch can potentially compensate for individual body variations that would require greater attention if the design were executed in a woven fabric. Yet, it is erroneous to assume that a stretch fabric garment will automatically fi t in all the right places and provide ease of movement. This is a fundamental misunderstanding of stretch characteristics (Yu, 2004, p. 85). Stretch fabrics exhibit a wide range of variation in elongation and recovery properties. Watkins (2000) divided contour fi t into three catego-ries: form fi t, action fi t and power fi t. Form fi t exerts no pressure on the body; action fi t holds and supports the body; power fi t molds the body into the desired shape.

Stretch clothing presents pattern-making diffi culties and fi t evaluation complications. Patterns designed for stretch fabrics will generally be smaller than a pattern created for an identical style and size in a woven fabric, and commonly have ‘negative ease’, i.e. they are made smaller than the body measurements by a percentage to achieve a well-fi tting garment. Further, many elastomeric fabrics are not as stable as woven fabrics over the life of the garment. Wearing, washing or dry cleaning the garment may contribute to either growth or shrinkage of the fabric. Therefore, the stress–strain behavior of the material essentially infl uences clothing fi t (Yu, 2004, p. 85). For intimate apparel, stretch tests contribute an essential part of the fi t testing. The fabric and/or elastic bands used in the garment are stretched to actual body dimensions, and the force level is measured by a tension spring (Yu, 2004, p. 85). Marks and Spencer also introduced a single bra sensor to measure pressure fi t at several positions, such as the shoulder and rib cage around the body (Yu, 2004, p. 85).

Currently ‘trial and error’ has been used to modify patterns for knit fabrics and to determine grading rules to create a set of sizes. The survey


by Hardaker and Fozzard (1997) found that ‘trial and error’ was a pre-dominant feature of the bra pattern development process. Most bras are constructed from fl at panels of stretch fabric in a given size and then assembled into garments that are checked on forms, adjusted and subse-quently fi tted on live models. The prototyping loop can involve multiple iterations of fi t and pattern amendment to achieve a well-fi tting bra. Once the designer is satisfi ed with the fi t of the sample garment, the pattern pieces are graded across the intended size range, then fi tted to live models and fi nally adjusted as necessary. All the surveyed companies felt that fi t testing on live models was the only way to achieve a well-fi tting bra. In addition, they reported that assessing fabric properties was part of the design process and essential for rapid development of patterns. ‘Fabric properties are so critical in determining the shape of a pattern, that a new set of patterns has to be developed if the intended fabric for an existing style is changed’ (Hardaker and Fozzard, 1997, p. 317).

9.5 Effect of material properties on fi t and sizing

Geršak (2002a, 2002b) and Hunter and Fan (2004) listed various mechani-cal fabric properties, such as formability, tensile properties, shear proper-ties (shear rigidity and shear hystereses) and bending properties (bending rigidity and bending hystereses), which affect the tailorability of garments, and therefore appearance and fi t. Formability refers to a ‘fabric’s propen-sity to pucker when it is compressed along the seams’ (Hunter and Fan, 2004, p. 107). Shearing properties refer to deformation by forces tending to produce a shearing strain. Shearing strain is a condition in or deforma-tion of an elastic body caused by forces that tend to produce an opposite but parallel sliding motion of the body’s planes. Geršak (2002a, 2002b) developed a system to predict garment manufacturability and quality of garment appearance based on objective determination of selected fabric mechanical properties and qualitative evaluation of garment appearance and fi t.

For example, fabric properties in the warp or lengthwise direction are important for obtaining a properly tailored shape, e.g. the form of a jacket, since most seams run in that direction. The quality of the seam produced depends on bending and shear rigidity, and formability and elongation of the fabric (Hunter and Fan, 2004). There are primarily two systems for evaluating the mechanical properties of fabrics. The fi rst, the Kawabata evaluation system for fabrics (KES-F, later named KES-FB), is an elaborate system for predicting feel, hand and appearance of fabrics. The second is the fabric assurance by simple testing (FAST) system, a simpler alternative to KES that adequately predicts tailorability, although it does not directly predict nor defi ne fabric hand. Hunter and Fan (2004)


provided an excellent overview of both systems, including the individual instruments used in each system. Initially KES-F was restricted to research applications, but later it was widely used in industry for quality assurance and performance prediction (Kenkare and May-Plumlee, 2005, p. 119).

An objective measurement of fabric hand or handle was developed in Japan by the Hand Evaluation and Standardization Committee (HESC) in 1972. Fabric handle is calculated in the KES-F system from measurements of tensile, bending, shearing, compression and surface fabric properties, all of which are measured under conditions which would be expected to infl uence fabric handle. KES-F instruments provide precise fabric data important for tailorability. Fabric extensibility was found to be especially important in tailoring.

The drape of a fabric is its ability to hang freely in graceful folds when some area of it is supported over a surface and the rest is unsupported (Sharma et al., 2005). Drape, an important property that infl uences the gracefulness and balance of a garment as it hangs on the body, is important for selection of an appropriate fabric for an intended garment. Several researchers beginning with Pierce (1930) have contributed to the fi eld of drape measurement in the form of designing an instrument, studying the parameters infl uencing drape and defi ning the relationship between a fabric’s mechanical properties and drape. Drape characteristics are infl uenced by complex interactions between varying factors of bending, shear, fabric history, operating conditions and fi nishing. In general, bending, shearing and extension properties were shown to affect drape characteris-tics (Kenkare and May-Plumlee, 2005).

Drape and related fabric properties have been studied in three-dimensional (3D) animation and virtual garment simulations. Drape research has attracted the attention of computer engineers along with textile engineers in the past few decades. This is due to the increasing application in designing, product development and e-commerce (Kenkare and May-Plumlee, 2005).

The thickness of a fabric or fabric system is an important factor that affects garment ease and pattern dimensions. Thick materials are frequently used for a special purpose such as for thermal insulation or for impact protection. Achieving a well-fi tting garment with thick fabrics requires a thorough consideration of the purpose of the designated garment system and the relevant mechanism(s) necessary to achieve the garment system goal. For example, a cooling vest constructed of two layers of fabric with tubing carrying chilled water sandwiched between the fabric layers is designed to achieve microclimate cooling by conduction. Since conduction relies on physical contact between the skin and the fabric surface, the garment pattern should be developed to maximize physical contact between the wearer’s skin and the inner surface of the garment system. Thus, the


pattern would have a minimum amount of ease. Conversely, a down jacket for winter sports achieves thermal insulation by using a thick and bulky fabrication that traps air within the fabric system. The garment pattern should be large enough to maintain the fabric system thickness when the wearer moves in order to preserve the thermal barrier and yet not so large that the warm air created inside of the garment system is exchanged with outside air. Thus, fabric thickness and garment system purpose must be taken into consideration for determining appropriate ease and pattern dimensions to create a well-fi tting garment.

9.6 Fit assessment

Perception of fi t as judged by the wearer involves several major issues, namely appearance or how the wearer perceives that the garment looks on themselves, and perception of comfort based on both tactile and visual responses (Ashdown and DeLong, 1995). The former can be related to body cathexis. The latter can be assessed using objective measurements.

In the current mass production environment, the designer, pattern maker and management can evaluate the fi t of garments using dress forms and/or live models. In the 1960s, the National Association of Hosiery Manufactur-ers (NAHM) published recommended hosiery sizing standards that are still used today (Le Pechoux and Ghosh, 2002). The NAHM standards recommend using live model testing with subjects carefully selected on the basis of the NAHM standard size charts, who tested pantyhose in standing, seated and walking positions. Each model should evaluate the hosiery for ‘reasonable tension, tendency to slide down and wrinkle’ (Le Pechoux and Ghosh, 2002, p. 27). Although this is the accepted standard way of per-forming the fi t evaluation, some fi rms choose a convenience sample of fi t models from their employees, which can introduce variability in body proportions and cause problems with collecting reliable information.

Fit researchers can use a variety of techniques to evaluate fi t. Using objective measurements of physical fabric properties can provide informa-tion on given fabric properties known to affect fi t. The KES-F and the FAST systems both rely on this concept. Fit can also be evaluated by an expert panel. An expert panel was used to examine 3D body scans to determine the extent of good fi t of a cooling vest designed to be worn close to the body (Nam et al., 2005). The 3D body-scanning technology was judged an adaptable tool for fi t research based on the Nam et al. study. Fit analysis of apparel has been effectively conducted by panels of trained judges to provide reliable and valid data (Choi and Ashdown, 2002). Some research has been performed to evaluate the fi t of garments in the product development process. Requirements to assess fi t included ease, line, grain, balance and set (Erwin et al., 1979).


The functional performance of girdles is mainly determined by the pressure imposed on the wearers. For product development and evaluation of girdles, it is important to measure or predict a girdle’s pressure distribution on the wearer so as to assess whether it is appropriate with regard to body shaping, wearing comfort and human physiology. Although much work has been published on the comfort of wearing girdles, since the optimum pressure distribution was not well established, Chan and Fan (2002) designed an experiment to attempt to answer this question. They used a portable digital skin evaluator to measure pressure in ten body locations on standing models and determined that there was a moderate linear relationship between tightness rating and the logarithm of clothing pressure (Chan and Fan, 2002, p. 109).

9.7 Future trends

9.7.1 Pattern development

Current garment pattern development, grading and sizing processes based on ‘trial and error’ need to be redefi ned to reduce time and cost. Use of body measurement databases and objective measurements of material properties could be used to automate pattern generation.

Recent fabric drape simulations and rendering technologies make it possible to simulate various kinds of garments in static or dynamic body positions even when the manikin is in motion such as on catwalks (Yang and Magnenat-Thalmann, 1993; Choi and Ko, 2002). It is also possible to simulate the draping process to create virtual garments and to predict fi t using existing fabrics by entering several fabric parameters. Gerber Inc. uses specifi c mass, stretch force, bend force and shear force as critical fabric physical properties for the parameters to simulate the draping behaviors of garments (personal communication). Optitex has also developed a 3D simulation of fabric fi t that uses fabric parameters to predict and visualize garment fi t for different body–garment relationships.

Kang and Kim (2000b) indicated that further development in automatic pattern generation can be made by advancement of a non-contact body-measuring system, creation of databases of various garment models, and experiments to determine coeffi cients used in the pattern-fl attening process.

Current CAD pattern-making programs do not allow for changes in physical fabric properties as an input to alter a pattern automatically. Investigations to determine relevant mechanical fabric properties and measurement methodologies could be used to develop CAD systems with this capability. Such a development would greatly speed the pattern development process. In addition, if an objective evaluation method for


garment fi tness was developed to replace traditional evaluation methods, the overall garment development process could be dramatically shortened (Kang and Kim, 2000a).

9.7.2 Use of manikins to simulate physiological and physical human performance

The determination of overall human performance or specifi c physiological or physical measures of interest is a critical research area that is needed to develop and test highly technical garments. Sophisticated manikins could become an effective step between fabric tests and human subject testing. Anthropometric data could be used to size and create manikins capable of simulating physical or physiological responses such as sweating for moisture and thermal measurements as affected by fi t, and also contain-ing movement and pressure-sensing technology for determination of fi t under active conditions.

9.7.3 Development of innovative materials to reduce fi t problems

A futuristic fl exible material was used in the 2006 winter Olympics for the US and Canadian skiers. Skiers normally have to wear bulky arm and leg guards to protect themselves from poles placed along the slalom run. A lightweight bendable material, known as d3o, was developed for impact protection that can be worn under normal ski clothing. The material is synthesized by mixing together a viscous fl uid and a polymer. Following synthesis, liquid d3o is poured into a mold that matches the shape of the body part that it will protect from impact (Knight, 2006). The material is generally fl exible and comfortable to wear but reacts to high-speed impacts by changing material properties from soft and fl exible to stiff and protec-tive. As soon as the pressure is released, the material reverts to its original pliable state. The process is therefore very fast and is also repeatable. This material is a very large improvement over the hard plastic materials cur-rently in use for impact protection, which are diffi cult to fi t and can inhibit movement.

New testing methods will be needed to assess and compare new fabrics with variable properties. Revolutionary new products will impact the sizing and fi t of clothing in ways that can only be imagined at this stage. What will remain the same is the need to assess carefully the interactions between material properties, design features, comfort, functionality and aesthetics in order to provide the best fi t for the greatest number of people and there-fore the most effective sizing system for each different apparel product.



Pad system: http://www.padsystem.comGerber Technology: http://www.gerbertechnology.comLectra: http://www.lectra.comOptitex: http://www.optitex.comSporting Goods Manufacturers Association: http://www.sgma.comIndustrial Fabrics Association International: http://www.ifi a.com

9.9 References

Ashdown, S.P., and DeLong, M.R. (1995), ‘Perception testing of apparel ease variation’, Applied Ergonomics, 26 (1), 47–54.

Chan, A.P., and Fan, J. (2002), ‘Effect of clothing pressure on the tightness sensation of girdles’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 14 (2), 100–110.

Choi, K., and Ko, H. (2002), ‘Stable but responsive cloth’, ACM Transactions on Graphics, SIGGRAPH, 21 (3), 604–611.

Choi, M.-S., and Ashdown, S.P. (2002), ‘The design and testing of working clothing for female pear farmers’, Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 20 (4), 253–256.

Cornell University (2006) Explore Cornell – The 3D body scanner, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Retrieved on 10 March 2006 from http://explore.cornell.edu.

Erwin, M., Kinchen, L., and Peters, K. (1979), Clothing for Moderns, 6th edition. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Geršak, J. (2002a), ‘A system for prediction of fabric appearance’, Textile Asia, 33 (4), 31–34.

Geršak, J. (2002b), ‘Development of the system for qualitative prediction of clothing appearance quality’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 14 (3–4), 169–180.

Hardaker, C.H.M., and Fozzard, G.J.W. (1997), ‘Communications: The bra design process: A study of professional practice’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 9 (4), 317–325.

Hudson, P. (1980), ‘The role of fi t and fashion on apparel quality’, Bobbin, 21 (11), 108–122.

Hunter, L., and Fan, J. (2004), ‘Fabric properties related to clothing appearance and fi t’, in Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology (Eds J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter), Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp. 89–113.

Kang, T.J., and Kim, S.M. (2000a), ‘Development of three-dimensional apparel CAD system: Part II: Prediction of garment drape shape’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 12 (1), 39–49.

Kang, T.J., and Kim, S.M. (2000b), ‘Optimized garment pattern generation based on three-dimensional anthropometric measurement’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 12 (4), 240–254.

Kenkare, N., and May-Plumlee, T. (2005), ‘Evaluation of drape characteristics in fabrics’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 17 (2), 109–123.


Knight, W. (2006), US and Canadian Skiers Get Smart Armour, Retrieved on 14 February 2006 from http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8721&print=true.

Kurt Salmon Associates (2000), ‘Annual consumer outlook survey’, Presented at a meeting of the American Apparel and Footwear Association Apparel Research Committee, Orlando, Florida, USA.

Laing, R.M., and Sleivert, G.G. (2002), ‘Clothing, textiles and human perfor-mance’, Textile Progress, 32 (2), 1–132.

Le Pechoux, B., and Ghosh, T.K. (2002), ‘Apparel sizing and fi t’, Textile Progress, 26 (3), 1–59.

Nam, J., Branson, D., Ashdown, S.P., Cao, H., Jin, B., Peksoz, S., and Farr, C. (2005), ‘Fit analysis of liquid cooled vest prototypes using 3D body scanning technology’, Journal of Textile and Apparel Technology and Management, 4 (3), available at http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/volume4issue3/articles/Nam/Nam_full_138_OS.pdf.

Pierce, F.T. (1930), ‘The handle of cloth as a measurable quantity’, Journal of the Textile Institute, 21, T377–T416.

Rasband, J. (1994), Fabulous Fit, Fairchild, New York.Rifkin, G. (1994), ‘Digital blue jeans pour data and legs into customized fi t’, New

York Times, (4 November), A1, C4.Sharma, K.R., Behera, B.K., Roedel, H., and Schenk, A. (2005), ‘Effect of sewing

and fusing of interlining on drape behavior of suiting fabrics’, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 17 (2), 75–90.

Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association Staff with Stefan, M.D. (1997), SGMA Sport Apparel Dictionary of Performance Fibers, Fabrics and Finishes, Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC.

Yang, Y., and Magnenat-Thalmann, N. (1993), ‘An improved algorithm for collision detection in cloth animation with human body’, in Proceedings of the 1st Pacifi c Conference on Computer Graphics and Applications (Pacifi c Graphics 93), World Scientifi c, Singapore, pp. 237–251.

Yu, W. (2004), ‘Objective evaluation of clothing fi t’, in Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp. 72–88.

Watkins, P. (2000), ‘Analysis of stretch garments’, in Proceedings of the 80th World Conference of the Textile Institute, Manchester, UK, 16–19 April, 2000, Textile Institute, Manchester, pp. 1–17, available on CD ROM.

Workman, J.E. (1991), ‘Body measurement specifi cations for fi t models as a factor in clothing size variation’, Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 10 (1), 31–36.

10Sizing for the military

W.L . TODDNaval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, USA

10.1 Introduction

Who can forget the opening sequence from the fi lm A Few Good Men, which depicts a pristine line of identical US Marines who execute drill commands with impeccable synchronization? Commercials, recruiting posters and movie images all promote the stereotype of military men of identical height and weight, stamped into identical heroic shape by boot camp. Since they are all the same, sizing the clothes should be as easy as cutting out gingerbread men, or so it would seem.

Other chapters in this book have shown that creating successful sizing systems for clothing is a complex task. However, those who develop sizing for military uniforms, protective clothing and gear face an even more dif-fi cult task. Military sizing is charged with a rigorous expectation for a ‘smart and crisp’ (US Department of the Navy, 2006), ‘dignifi ed . . . strictly conformal’ (US Marine Corps Headquarters, 2003), ‘neat and soldierly’(US Department of the Army, 2005) and ‘professional’ appearance (US Depart-ment of the Air Force, 2002) with the confl icting obligation of protecting the wearer. Both tasks must be accomplished for mission threats ranging from cold-water immersion to hot dry desert to arctic climates, for a popu-lation consisting of both women and men of different races, ages and physi-cal fi tness levels.

This chapter will describe not only how US military clothing developers get the job done but also the importance of fi t and sizing for protection, the methods by which garments and gear are sized for modern military populations to provide protection, how military sizing systems differ from commercial ready-to-wear sizing, how the right-size clothing gets to the right place at the right time, and future trends in military sizing practices that seek to bring commercial practices, including digital scanning, into the military mainstream.

First, we need to make a distinction between military uniforms and pro-tective clothing. Uniforms are standardized garments that serve primarily

277


to create a service-unique identity and appearance; uniforms are worn around the garrison (the ‘offi ce’) and for offi cial ceremonies. In contrast, protective clothing (‘organizational’ and ‘special issue’) is worn for training or operational missions, and the specifi c items to be worn are dictated by the wearer’s occupation, the mission threats and the environmental conditions. Which protective clothing components and how these are to be worn are codifi ed in the technical manuals or orders of each of the services. Sometimes there is an overlap between uniforms and protective clothing. For example the camoufl age coat and trousers, the fl yer’s coverall, and the fl yer’s jacket are all worn as both uniforms and protective clothing. For these garments, both uniform board regulations and the safety orders must be satisfi ed. For simplicity, this chapter will focus on clothing worn for protective functions (excluding headwear, footwear and handwear).

10.2 Fit and sizing for protection of the military

wearer for the mission threat

In this section we shall introduce the concept of sizing and concept of fi t for representative types of military clothing.

10.2.1 Concept of sizing

When many people think about protective clothing, brightly colored high-technology textiles and complicated confi gurations of high-strength webbings bristling with serious hardware leap to mind. Perhaps because fi t is an invisible variable, the importance of this factor often is seen as secondary to the more glamorous issues related to material developments. Although a garment might be constructed of the most effective materials, its protective benefi ts are optimized when the garment fi ts the wearer well and can be rendered ineffective by poor fi t. Goodness of fi t is, up to a point, often directly related to the number of sizes (in other words, the more sizes, the better is the chance of a good fi t). However, despite this imperative for appropriate numbers of sizes in the system to provide good fi t, multiple factors contribute to a system with a relatively low number of sizes allocated to protective clothing and a relatively high number allocated to those also worn as Army Combat Uniforms (ACUs) (Table 10.1 and Table 10.2).

One reason that fewer sizes are allocated to protective clothing is that the expectations for a smart and crisp military appearance are less rigorous for protective clothing than for uniform clothing; as the formality of the garment increases, so do the number of sizes. The combat mission theater

Sizing for the military 279

Table 10.1 Comparison of the number of sizes allocated to unisex body armor with the number of unisex ACU coats (Defense Logistics Agency, 2006)

Number of sizes of PRU-60A/P small arms Number ofprotective (soft armor) for aviators ACU coats

2 38

Table 10.2 Comparison of the number of sizes allocated to men’s and women’s items (Defense Logistics Agency, 2006)

Number of CWU-62B/P and C/Panti-exposure (immersionprotection) suits Number of CWU-27/P fl yer’s coveralls

Men’s Women’s Men’s Women’s

12 9 28 48

is the least formal of military environments and therefore ‘needs’ fewer sizes. Another factor is the difference between uniform and gear distribu-tion systems and the limitations that would prevent a large sizing system with complex sizes to be effectively deployed (see Section 10.5). An impor-tant consideration is whether adjustability mechanisms can provide a safe fi t just as well as an additional size. Sometimes the primary factor that causes fewer sizes to be allocated to protective clothing is that protective items are much more costly per unit than a uniform item and so provision of multiple sizes can be very costly (Table 10.3).

Table 10.3 Comparison of costs for items in Tables 10.1 and 10.2 (Defense Logistics Agency, 2006)

Item Number of sizes Unit cost (as of February 2006)

PRU-60A/P soft armor 2 US$594.65Coveralls, fi remen’s, aluminized, 3 US$466.35 proximityCWU-62B/P men’s anti-exposure 12 Men’s/ US$489.85 suit 9 Women’sCWU-27/P fl yer’s coverall 28 Men’s/ US$103.30 48 Women’sACU coat 38 US$ 36.95


In short, the general concept of military sizing for protective clothing is this: create as few protective items as possible in the minimum number of sizes needed to keep the wearer protected at the required level. It is within this conservative paradigm that the military clothing developer must create sizing systems that provide well-fi tting, attractive, effective and protective garments.

10.2.2 Concept of fi t

The fi rst consideration in developing a sizing system for a protective garment is to establish the concept of fi t. Previous research, testing and experience have resulted in information about how specifi c garments should theoretically fi t to achieve a protective goal. Thus, these lessons lay the foundation for the design, sizing and grading by establishing criteria for how closely or loosely the garment should ideally fi t a wearer. What follows is a discussion of some major types of protection afforded by military garments and the related fi t issues.

10.2.3 Burn protection

Military operators, especially those in tanks and aircraft, are at risk of being caught in a fuel or engine fi re. For this reason, they must wear fl ame-resistant clothing (as well as headwear, handwear and footwear). Besides the fabric itself, the next most important protection against burns is the air gap between the fabric and the wearer’s skin. If the air gap is not large enough (i.e. fabric is stretched taut over the skin surface), then the wearer will suffer burns, not from direct fl ame impingement, but from the radiant transfer of heat. If the air gap is too large, a chimney or bellows effect can occur as the volume and pressure differential inside and outside the fabric surface pulls heat into the garment through any openings (Norton et al., 1985). Military fl ame-resistant garments are therefore designed and sized, fi rstly, to eliminate open columns or chimneys, secondly, to avoid tight fi t, thirdly, to avoid large billowing air pockets and, fourthly, to promote mobility. A body-hugging precise fi t is not optimal to achieve these goals.

The US Air Force–US Navy CWU-27/P fl yer’s coverall and US Army Aircrew Battledress Uniform (BDU), which are fl ame-resistant garments designed to protect aviators from fl ash fi re, are shown in Fig. 10.1 and Fig. 10.2 respectively. Note the adjustable strap closures at the wrists and the waist designed to eliminate open columns and to impede heat transfer within the garment. Also note the somewhat loose and yet conforming fi t that provides a protective air gap. In addition, pleats and extra layers are provided to provide double or triple fabric thickness in areas where the


10.1 US Air Force–US Navy CWU-27/P summer fl yer’s coverall. Note the straps at waist, wrists and tapered ankles to reduce the chimney effect

garment is pulled fl at against the skin (e.g. the top of the shoulders, the back of the neck, the chest, and the thighs in the seated position). This not only provides a thicker convective barrier but also traps more air. A rela-tively large number of sizes avoids both excessively tight and loose fi t. Another consideration is that neither garment is alterable on site owing to the complexity of the seam constructions.

How much air gap is suffi cient to protect against burns? The question and the answer are each dynamic. The exposure time, heat fl ux, composi-tion of the outer fabric, number of layers and moisture present that can generate steam all affect the required thickness of the air layer. Thermal Protective Performance testing, full thermal manikin burn testing and burn modeling are all used to estimate the potential burn injury for a given garment. The ASTM D4108-87 test method exposes a material to heat from a standard fl ame and measures the amount of heat energy, when applied to one face, which would be expected to cause a second degree burn on human tissue in contact with, or close to, the opposite face (ASTM International, 1987; this test method is currently under revision).


10.2 US Army BDU. Note the straps at waist, wrists and ankles to reduce the chimney effect

Designers then change the garment design and fi t as needed to achieve the desired burn protection. A search of the literature yielded little research on the quantifi cation of the air gap. However, the US Army has carried out some exploratory work using a three-dimensional (3D) body scanner to correlate air gap and burn protection (Li et al., 2000). Predictive models, such as that developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Lawson and Mell, 2000) enable the modeler to input the presence or absence of an air gap or to vary the amount of air gap dynamically.

Coverage is the more visible aspect of protective fi t in fl ame-protective garments. The areas of the skin to be protected must be completely covered, and all the interfaces between the clothing and gear must be taken into account. When a pilot zips on his anti-g suit and/or straps into his seat, the harness snugs the crotch seam up against the body, in effect shortening the inseam and potentially exposing the ankle and calf. For this reason, the fl yer’s coverall is sized to have a long inseam. Likewise, the seat harness and survival vest shorten the sleeve length, and so the sleeves are also sized to be somewhat long. Thus, a well-fi tting fl yer’s coverall has pant hems that


puddle over the boots, and sleeves that blouse over the wrist cuff. The height of the collar is somewhat oversized to allow it to be worn up and tucked under the helmet nape roll to protect the skin of the neck for all neck lengths.

Since the fl yer’s coverall and aircrew BDU are worn around the clock rather than for specifi c tasks, they are furnished in a large number of sizes. In contrast, fi refi ghter turnout gear is worn on an occasional basis and is not individually issued. Because close fi t is not necessary to protect the individual, and because the item is expensive, the practise is to assign people who fi t one of the three suit sizes to tasks which require this protec-tion rather than making suffi cient suit sizes fi t all potential wearers.

10.2.4 Barrier protection: immersed hypothermia, toxicological and chemical biological protection

Keeping the wearer isolated from cold water, germ-laden air or poisoned air is the protective objective for barrier-type suits. Assuming the presence of an intact impermeable (or selectively impermeable) fabric body, water-tight or air-tight fi t of the wrist and neck seals is the most critical factor in how well these types of suit protect the wearer. The Navy manual for fi tting (Naval Air Systems Command, 2006) states that well-fi tting dry-suit neck seals are those that achieve contiguous contact between the surface area of the skin and the surface area of the seal material during all head–neck–shoulder movements. In other words, the seal must fi t like a second skin and move with the wearer’s skin. These seals are therefore provided in many different sizes and made in elastomeric materials which further aid in refi ning fi t. For example, the Navy CWU-62B/P anti-exposure coverall has a molded latex-rubber neck seal that comes with 12 trimmable rings that effectually provide 12 sizes, as well as the extra range afforded by the stretchiness of the latex.

Despite the many sizes of the latex neck seals, many aviators report that they are the most uncomfortable part of the suit. Intellectually, the fi tters know that, if the neck or wrist seals are loose, the wearer’s protection and their chances of survival are greatly reduced. The tendency is therefore to cut the neck seal to fi t very tightly to ensure a good seal – at least to err on the side of too tight. This practice is counterproductive because the increased pressure on the sensitive throat tissues makes the wearer uncomfortable, some to the point that they will not wear the dry suit unless ordered to do so. Others will trim the seals to a more ‘comfortable’ circumference, i.e. one that is so loose that there is a discernible air gap around the wearer’s neck. Therefore it is very important that immersion-protective seals come in suffi cient sizes and are fi tted so that the entire


spectrum receives not only a watertight fi t but also a comfortable fi t as they cannot benefi t from the protection if they do not wear it at all.

The body of the dry suits, including the foot area, includes ease to allow for modular insulation to be worn underneath without resulting in a tight fi t and lack of mobility when fully dressed. For dry suits, one conundrum for designers of immersion protection is the confl ict between insulation and inherent buoyancy. To protect wearers from succumbing to hypother-mia, the garment should theoretically trap as much air as possible. However, the more trapped air there is, the higher is the inherent buoyancy. The higher the inherent buoyancy, the harder it is for the wearer to escape from a submerged vessel (Brooks, 1986). Inside an aircraft, the buoyancy traps the wearer like a helium balloon stuck to a ceiling. Suits can include adjust-ability features that press out excess air, or that limit the amount that can be trapped. Military protection suits are sized with the intention of con-forming closely to the wearer’s dressed shape and size; they are thus pro-vided in multiple sizes, are tailorable on site and are also available as custom-order items. If they are being designed for wear in environments where underwater escape is a need, toxicological and chemical biological suits must also address the inherent buoyancy problem.

10.2.5 Impact and ballistic protection: body armor

Modern body armor consists of two parts: a vest of ‘soft’ armor that protects against fragmentation, and ‘hard’ plates that protect against armor piercing ammunition. Watkins (1984) stated that, to protect the body part from impact, the protective layer must lie directly over that body part at the moment of impact. In other words, well-fi tting armor is snug and secure at all times against the body. Obviously, the surest way for body armor to be effective is for it to be custom molded to the individual’s contour. Even were money no object, it would be wildly impractical to make custom armor person by person, and impossible to keep up with the natural change of an individual’s body shape over time as well as the per-sonnel turnover.

As noted above, there are only a few (two to fi ve) sizes of body armor to fi t a huge diversity of torso shapes and sizes. This is primarily because ballistic materials are extremely expensive, as is the manufacturing process; the number of sizes was not based on the best protection but on more affordable protection. Early plate design prioritized protection over mobil-ity and covered the entire front and much of the sides of the torso as possible, much like the medieval steel breastplates (Fig. 10.3). Modern plate design prioritizes mobility over protection, and body armor designs now consist of simple rectangles oriented lengthwise with a concave inner surface (Fig. 10.4). The current hard plates were theoretically


10.3 T-65 body armor, front plate (1970s). Note the high degree of coverage

10.4 PRU-60A/P body armor, front plate (1990s). Note the reduced coverage


designed to protect the vital organs, but also to allow a high degree of shoulder and arm mobility.

When there are such few sizes, sizing and fi t must rely upon adjustability features. The current soft armor vest is designed to provide limited adjust-ability in both torso circumference and strap length. Hard body armor plates are often inserted inside the soft armor vest fabric pocket, which means that it might or might not cover all vital organs, depending upon the wearer’s body size and how the wearer has adjusted the strap length.

10.2.6 Retention systems

Retention systems such as parachute harnesses, ejection seat leg restraints, helicopter fall protection belts and rescue hoists, while not technically clothing, are important protective components that must also be sized and fi tted properly to keep the wearer safe. The function of these systems is to restrain or retain the wearer’s torso to some other stabilizing object, thus forming a rigid system (Pavlick et al., 1975). A tight fi t is often critical to avoid injury due to ‘dynamic overshoot’ (i.e. rebounding). Often these systems are combinations of webbing and fabric (Fig. 10.5) that are highly

10.5 PCU-56/P ejection seat parachute harness. Note the tight fi t


adjustable. Even so, sometimes items must come in multiple sizes to fi t different body shapes. An example of such a system is the US Navy PCU-56/P torso harness (three sizes). An aviator wears the PCU-56/P to secure him or her to his or her seat during positive gz fl ight maneuvers, and to his or her parachute in the event of an ejection. If the harness is fi tted improperly, the aviator can lose control of the aircraft (Lorch, 1984). During ejection an ill-fi tting harness can cause fatal injuries because, as a parachute canopy deploys and opens, the harnessed body is yanked rapidly upward. If the harness can shift position, limbs can be broken and joints dislocated, not to mention the loss of parachute control for landing. The only sure way to know that the harness is fi tted properly is to hang the wearer in the harness to check for rigidity, stability and secure position-ing of the webbing fasteners. Knowledge of the population variation for vertical trunk circumference, chest circumference, strap length and ingui-nal circumference are important dimensions for creating well-fi tting torso harness systems.

10.2.7 Load-bearing systems: vests and packs

Load-bearing systems are similar to retention systems only in reverse; instead of the human load being strapped to a stabilizing system, the human is the stabilizing system to which the load is strapped. Survival vests are cloth or webbing systems that contain emergency items, such as signaling devices, radios, medical kits, water, supplemental air, knives and other survival-related equipment. These devices are worn on the front of the chest. Packs contain larger routine-use items that are necessary for sustained fi eld missions. Currently these packs do not have sizing systems; yet these one-size items cover such a large surface area that careful dimensioning is required to avoid impairing mobility; imagine a pack that is so long that it prevents the backward swing of the legs with each step. Sizing is equally important to avoid causing cumulative stress injuries that can be produced by a shifting bouncing load with a displaced center of gravity. Biomechanical interactions as well as body dimensions have an intimate relationship in determining the proper fi t of load-bearing systems (Harman et al., 1999). Vertical adjustability is critical, particularly for shoulder retention straps and waist retention straps. As load-carrying systems are usually mounted on the torso, such dimen-sions as chest circumference, waist circumference, waist length front and back are important for sizing (Clauser et al., 1986). The concept of fi t is, like retention systems, to create a tight rigid system, while the concept of sizing is ‘one size fi ts most’.


10.2.8 High-altitude and acceleration protection: pressure suits and anti-g suits

As atmospheric pressure decreases at higher altitude, the body’s gases begin to expand. If unrestrained, the lung tissues will expand, making breathing diffi cult. The protective objective of a pressure suit is to provide just enough counterpressure on the body to balance the lung pressure. A close fi t that conforms to the body with the appropriate level of pressure is required. The correct pressure is achieved with lacing, but custom patterning is frequently necessary because the suit must cover the body’s entire surface area below the neck, and a high degree of mobility is needed to board and disembark aircraft.

Anti-g suits are typically wrap-around pant-like garments that extend from the waist to the ankles of the wearer (Fig. 10.6). The garment works like a blood pressure cuff; as positive gz forces are encountered during aircraft maneuvers (such as an inside loop of the aircraft at high speed),

10.6 CSU-13B/P anti-g suit. Note the snug fi t


pneumatic bladders infl ate with pressurized air from the aircraft propor-tional to the amount of g forces. The bladders constrict the garment tightly to the body and compress the blood-fi lled tissues underneath. This com-bination of constriction and pressure pushes the blood in the legs up toward the head, thereby maintaining oxygen supply to the brain and eyes. Both pressure suits and anti-g suits are expensive items as they are generally very diffi cult to construct and are made of expensive aramid fabrics and components.

For the sizing of both pressure and anti-g suits, knowledge of the body and suit circumferences is extremely important in order to achieve the tight fi t required for the population of wearers. In anti-g suits, the lengths of body segments are also important to locate bladders over muscle tissue. Critical sizing dimensions are sitting dimensions, i.e. the location of the knee (popliteal height; patella-to-trochanter length; leg inseam; leg outseam; thigh, waist and calf circumferences). Currently, anti-g suits are provided in about ten sizes, and the only allowed fi eld modifi cation is taking in the waist, an alteration frequently needed by women. Lacings, while a simple technology used since the earliest anti-g suits, are an extremely effective way to achieve a snug circumferential fi t, and all anti-g suits use them. Field modifi cation of the length of anti-g suits is not possible because the bladder would also have to be modifi ed, which is not possible without compromising the bladder’s reliability. Fit of anti-g suits could be improved with the provision of more lengths.

10.3 Military sizing systems

Private: How many sizes does this come in?Supply sergeant: Just two – too little and too big!

An easy way to describe military sizing is to compare it with ready-to-wear civilian sizing with an example. When Ms Jane Doe wants to buy a cold-weather jacket, she can go to a department store with racks of choices and try on several different styles of jackets in a range of different sizes. She also has the choice of several different brands to fi nd the one that suits her best. If her local store does not provide what she needs she can choose items from catalogs or the internet. In contrast, when Sergeant Jane Doe needs a dry suit for her imminent deployment to Iceland, there is no store for her to visit. She cannot try on anything but must order using size-issuing tables or guess. There is only one brand, no style choices and not as many sizes as she would see in retail. Sizes optimistically labeled ‘unisex’ in reality are often just men’s sizes. In this section, we shall discuss the concept of unisex sizing, male–female sizing, and the format and structure of typical military sizing systems.


Traditionally, military sizing systems were built to fi t the male wearer. As more women joined the ranks, the poor fi t of clothing designed for men on women made the differences between male and female proportions clearly apparent. Garments for the upper torso were sloppy and baggy while the hips were extremely tight. Bad fi t led to compromises in safety including an increased propensity for the garment to snag on protruding edges, inability to wear multiple layers, inaccessible pockets, impaired reach, decreased burn injury protection and hobbled leg mobility.

To create and stock a complete set of female-specifi c sizes in addition to the male stock created issues in manufacturing, stocking and distribution costs. McConville et al. (1981), Robinette et al. (1981) and Gordon (1986) strove to create a truly unisex sizing system for the Army BDU. Using anthropometric data and multivariate statistical methods, three slopers were created for each coat and trouser. The smallest sloper was based on solely female dimensions while the largest was based on solely male dimen-sions. The medium sloper was a blend of male and female dimensions. Gordon (1986, p. 589) described the sloper as follows: ‘Females set the chest, waist and hip dimensions, because given equal shoulder circum-ferences and stature, women are larger for these dimensions than men. All the other design values are set by male derived regressions, because, given equal stature and shoulder circumferences, men are larger than women for these dimensions.’

However, a study comparing the anthropometric proportions of men and women concluded that the differences between male and female propor-tions were too great to be fi t by the same sizing system (Schafer and Bates, 1988). Crist et al. (1995) in their fi t test of two US Air Force aviation cov-eralls concurred, stating further that a separate women’s sizing system would be easier to grade and cheaper to develop. The fi nal results of inte-grated fi t and wear testing have not been published; to date, the Army continues to use existing male-based sizes for the BDU and its replace-ment, the ACU. Nonetheless, female sizing systems now exist for the US Air Force–US Navy–US Marine Corps CWU-27/P fl yer’s coverall, the US Navy shipboard utility uniform, the US Navy MultiClimate Protection System (a line of underwear, thermal liners, vests, jackets, overalls and trousers), the US Marine Corps ‘MARPAT’ combat uniform, the US Navy–US Marine Corps CWU-62C/P dry suit and CWU-81/P and CWU-82/P thermal liners, to name a few.

All the items above (and all other military protective items) have a unique size-issuing chart. Even if the labels and number of sizes are the same between sizing charts, different items usually have different range criteria that may mean the size 42R in item A is completely different from the size 42R in item B. Therefore, it is very important for the military


Table 10.4 Clothing items, example size codes and issuing body measurements (Defense Logistics Agency, 2006)

Clothing item Example size Girth Length code

ACU Coat Large Short Chest circumference HeightUS Army PRU-60A/P body Medium Chest circumference None armorUS Air Force–US Navy–US 40 Regular Chest circumference Inseam Marine Corps men’s Hip circumference fl yer’s coverallUS Air Force–US Navy–US 38MS (Miss’s Chest circumference None Marine Corps women’s Short) Hip circumference fl yer’s coverall 38WL (Woman’s Long)US Air Force–US Navy–US Medium– Weight Height Marine Corps anti-g suit RegularUS Army–US Marine Extra-Large– Chest circumference Height Corps combat vehicle Short crewman coveralls

wearer to read the size prediction chart carefully and not to rely just on the size of some other item in his or her locker. To encourage the wearer to be more discriminating, the practice of labeling sizes with arbitrary codes rather than common size descriptors such as 42R or ‘medium long’ was introduced. However, the need in wartime to rapidly issue without try-on have pushed designers to return to the use of relatively meaningful descriptors. This practice can backfi re, as we shall show below.

Typical military sizing labels are bivariate in nature, including some verbal descriptor for height and girth in the size code. For example, a 42R coat indicates (just like a ready-to-wear coat) a chest size of 42 (which is not the same as a body measurement of chest circumference equal to 42 inches), and a ‘regular’ body length. A ‘medium long’ anti-g suit indicates a ‘medium’-sized body girth with ‘long’ legs; the key sizing dimensions themselves are weight and height. Coveralls often have trivariate sizing systems with an upper-body girth dimension, a lower-body girth dimension and a general indication of the wearer’s height. The issuing dimensions are often not those with the highest correlation to provide good fi t but rather measurements that wearers know about themselves. To accommodate the force commanders’ need to issue garments sight unseen, designers try to balance high predictive power with something easy to measure or already known. Table 10.4 presents examples of the size codes and accompanying issuing body measurements.


10.4 Sizing for military populations

At one time, military sizing systems were designed to attempt to accom-modate 90% of the population body size variation within their own service, a daunting enough prospect. Currently the goal of military sizing systems is to accommodate 95% of the population body size variation for not just one service but all the US Armed Forces. Perhaps the inclusion of allied forces will be a future development. This section is presented in two parts. First we shall discuss the sources of diversity that affect the creation of sizing systems: population and subgroup body size, the effect of clothing layers, and cultural attitudes. Then we shall outline the approach by which sizing systems are created to address the accommodation demand.

10.4.1 Sources of body size variation within military populations

Race exerts a huge infl uence on body size and proportion. For instance, Asian and Pacifi c Islander men tend to be much shorter than African American and White men (Greiner and Gordon, 1990). Each service seeks to enlist a diversity of races, and the Offi ce of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel, and Readiness (2006) reported that, relative to the civilian population proportions, active duty enlistments of African Americans, American Indian, Alaskan natives, native Hawaiian, and other Pacifi c Islanders are slightly overrepresented, while Hispanics and Asians are underrepresented. The point is that, as the services continue to democratize their racial composition, body size will continue to diversify.

Gender is another obvious source of body size variation that we have already discussed. In 2006 women were enlisting at a slightly declin-ing rate but comprised 17–20% of the armed forces, a signifi cant number. Age is another diversifying factor; the reserve component tends to be a slightly older population than the active duty component.

Occupational physical or ergonomic demands may result in different body shapes. For example, Greiner and Gordon (1993) found that fi eld artillery males and transportation females were anthropometrically unique from other Army occupational groups.

Height and weight entry standards

Each service has their own height and weight entry standards (US Depart-ment of the Army, 1998; US Department of the Air Force, 2001; US Marine Corps Headquarters, 2002; US Department of the Navy, 2005) that theoretically control the body size variation of the military population


within affordable accommodation limits. When the USA has a shortage of personnel, whether for individual race, gender or age quotas, or low general enlistment, these standards are sometimes waived. Thus increasing numbers of extreme body sizes that are not intended to be accommodated are present, accounted for and must be outfi tted.

Funding for the development and deployment of sizing has always been limited but current policies and budget practises are resulting in increased limitations. Currently funding is not available for the service-specifi c items; for example the development of separate and different Army, Air Force and Navy chemical biological coveralls and the like is not supported. Even when the anthropometric composition of service members, protective needs and mission theaters are extremely different, the services must develop identical protective garments. This could cause some wearers to be overprotected or underprotected. It also results in even more diver-sity for the sizing system to accommodate.

10.4.2 Sources of body size variation among military populations

As noted above, each service has different entry standards, based on height and weight. Each service also has different retention standards based on body composition and, added to that, different physical fi tness standards, all of which have a major infl uence on body size, even within the same department. For example, the Marine Corps falls within the US Depart-ment of the Navy; consider the differences between the Marine Corps and Navy retention standards. The Marine Corps allows no more than 18% body fat for men and 21% for women (US Marine Corps Headquarters, 2002), and the Marine’s physique is a major factor at promotion boards. In contrast, the Navy allows up to 26% body fat for men and 31% for women (US Department of the Navy, 2005) and does not take appearance into account for promotion. The Marine Corps physical fi tness examination consists of running, sit-ups, push-ups and pull-ups, emphasizing upper-body development and strength. The Navy physical fi tness examination is based on running, sit-ups but only push-ups and is overall less rigorous than the Marine Corps battery. All these differences can result in general differences in body fi tness that are refl ected in body dimensions and proportions.

Another source of diversity is the clothing layers that must be worn together. For example we have explained how anti-exposure suits are sized to be worn over one or two layers of insulation. In addition, the fl yer’s coverall is worn over the dry suit, the anti-g suit is worn over the coverall, the torso harness is worn over the anti-g suit, and the survival vest is worn over the anti-g suit. This describes only a fi ghter pilot’s clothing


confi guration. All the other kinds of pilots and aircrew of the other services’ confi gurations vary according to service and mission require-ments and yet all clothing and equipment must be integrated within and among all confi gurations.

The most diffi cult source of diversity is not easy to quantify, is subjective and is not very tangible: the concept of military appearance. Each service has a unique culture and self-concept of appearance that is not expressed in a way that could be applied to sizing goals. Nonetheless the different con-cepts of military appearance show in the colors that service men and women choose to wear, the movies that depict them, the heroes that they revere, and their attitudes toward their mission. These cultural biases emerge in the form of opinions such as ‘It fi ts okay but I don’t like it; it makes my shoulders look narrow’, ‘It makes me look like I’m wearing a diaper’, ‘It makes me feel and look like a clown’ and the classic, ‘It looks too much like what an Army tanker would wear’. (These are paraphrased comments from various fi t tests of Navy fl ight clothing. Of course, Army tankers are just as anxious not to look like Navy sailors.) These issues are important because if they think they look good, they will feel good and, if they feel good, they will perform well. It is very important to hold focus groups with the wearers throughout the design process in order to make the appropriate choices related to appear-ance. The appearance of the garments must be appropriate so that the service men and women will wear the garment when it is fi nished.

There are also differences between men and women. Despite the increasing number of female-specifi c clothing items that are available, many women have stated that they are reluctant to wear female-specifi c garments because they want to be seen and treated as ‘one of the guys’.

Other psychological sources of diversity are the needs that human beings have relating to personal body space. Protective garments that include face shields are often described as stifl ing, claustrophobic and alienating. Gar-ments that are fi tted closely to the neck are often perceived as psychologi-cally disturbing. Hard components located near the groin are disliked even if the wearer reports no discomfort or mobility impedance.

Considering the body space needs, the different self-concepts among the services, the existing and emerging clothing systems within a service and among services, and the population diversity, it is clear that creating a military sizing system is an exercise of compromise in both development and verifi cation.

10.4.3 Typical approach for the creation of a military sizing system

The following section contains an outline for the general approach to statistical derivation of a military sizing system. This is not intended to


represent the best or recommended approach, but the most common current practice.

1 Demographically defi ne the wearing population by military occupa-tion, age, sex, race and gender.

2 Determine the general concept of fi t.(a) Mission threat and/or operational environment.(b) Self-concept of military appearance.(c) Psychological aspects of fi t.

3 Determine the critical sizing dimensions for the concept of fi t and draft a sloper accordingly.

4 Characterize the anthropometric variation of the wearing population, using existing or statistically derived databases.

5 Determine the concept and limitations of sizing system.(a) Accommodation range: examine any requirements documents

for language such as ‘must have no more sizes than current’ or ‘one size must fi t all’ or ‘must fi t central 95% of the population’.

(b) Budget.(c) Logistical considerations (e.g. stowage space and availability).

6 Determine the optimal number of size regions and intervals. (Whites-tone and Robinette (1997) characterized the practice of determining the number of sizes early as ‘putting the cart before the horse’. They argued that the number of sizes and intervals should ideally be the result rather than the determinant to fi t the population.)

7 Calculate the midsize values region and within-size deviations. 8 Select the best predictive key dimensions using regression relationships. 9 Add ease for layers, mobility and stretch.10 Calculate the desired fi nished garment dimensions for medium

size; prove out the pattern accuracy in fabricated garment; correct the pattern as needed (note that this step does not generally include the use of ‘fi t models’).

11 Make a prototype of several medium-size test assets; fi t test the medium size on a variety of body shapes that fall within that size interval, including those at the corners.

12 Adjust patterns as necessary.13 Repeat steps 8–10 as needed.14 Grade up and down to create other sizes.15 Fit test on a demographically constructed sample; adjust the size-

issuing chart as needed; eliminate or combine sizes; modify patterns as needed.

16 Conduct an integration test with other clothing and gear layers.17 Wear test on a large user population.


18 Derive the tariff using population databases (or statistically matched subsets).

19 Quantify who in the population will not get a good fi t and develop strategies for these individuals.(a) Make provision for on-site tailoring.(b) Set up contracts for custom manufacturing.

A second, increasingly common approach is to skip steps 1–14 and to adopt a commercial item and its sizing system without any (or limited) upfront testing. This is by far the most rapid and least costly approach but poses a high risk that many do not receive an optimally safe fi t. It does have the advantage that items reach the fi eld much more quickly. This approach is used when there is no funding or time to develop a sizing system.

10.5 Getting the right size at the right time and

right place

A sizing system can only protect the wearer if the wearer can get the items when needed. How does the military get the right sizes of clothing and equipment to the right place at the right time? The answer is compli-cated. Let us begin by following the course of a typical service member’s career.

10.5.1 Getting the right size, a function of time and perseverance

Boot camp

Recall that there are three types of clothing items: uniform, organiza-tional and special issue. On a recruit’s fi rst day at boot camp, the service’s clothing-issuing facility issues uniform ‘bag items’ that include the camou-fl age uniform (also worn for combat) and other utility clothing (e.g. briefs, T-shirt, socks, belts, caps, rainwear and insignia). Except for boots, which are carefully fi tted, the experienced facility personnel issue a size by looking at the recruit’s body rather than by using a size-issuing chart. In the third week of boot camp, the recruit is measured for his dress uniform clothing, and at this time a set of body dimensions are taken. At graduation 6 weeks later, the dress uniforms are issued. The clothing-issuing facility thus maintains a full size complement of the clothing that is to be issued. The long lead time of custom-made clothing severely challenges the train-ing schedule and is strongly discouraged. Often the recruit who receives poor fi t must make do and hope that better-fi tting clothing will be available at a later time.


Pipeline training

After boot camp, the service member may be sent to a training command for initial training in his or her assigned occupation. At the training command, the service member receives his or her own basic organizational clothing while special-issue clothing is temporarily issued from a stock (‘pool gear’) maintained for that purpose. These special-issue items are returned to the training command after training is completed. The service member arrives at school for in-depth training for his or her assigned occupation. In the same way as at the training command, the service member is temporarily issued with pool gear for use throughout the cur-riculum, which may not be the correct size. The comprehensiveness of the sizes maintained by the training command is a function of their funding position.

Permanent duty station

(The term ‘permanent’ is a slight misnomer in military parlance. Even though the service member is assigned to a duty station for only 2–3 years, that time is termed ‘permanent’ to distinguish it from ‘temporary’ duty assignments that last mere days or weeks. ‘Deployment’, a longer-term duty assignment, usually lasts 6–9 months and is not labeled ‘permanent’. When a service member is transferred to his or her next station, the move is termed ‘permanent change in station’ even though it will last only 2–3 years). Upon arrival, the service member is issued more organizational clothing and equipment for that unit’s mission environment. For example, if the fi rst duty station is in a hot-desert non-combat environment, the service member is issued with hot desert clothing and gear, but not per-sonal armor, immersion protection, cold-weather gear, etc. By the time that service members reach the permanent duty station, they have tried on several sizes of various items and have formed a good idea of their best-fi t size. If the requirement cannot be fi lled at local levels, the unit’s gear specialist submits a funded requisition (see 10.5.2) of the needed sizes from a centralized defense supply system to be fi lled from supply depots, direct vendor delivery or, in some cases, items are back ordered. Until the per-sonal issue arrives, the service member may have to wear pool gear that may not be the correct size.

Deployments

When a unit receives the news that it is deploying, special-issue clothing items (such as body armor, chemical biological protection, dry suits and arctic protection) are ordered. The requisitions are submitted to the defense


supply center where the requisitions are fi lled from the base local supply, other local supply or defense regional warehouses.

Equipment turn-ins

Organizational and special-issue items are often turned back in to the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Offi ce so that they can either be disposed of or made available in the inventory. Reasons for turn-ins include unit surplus, product expiration dates, beyond capability of maintenance (unrepairable), end of unit deployment and individual retirement.

Outside the sizing system

What if the service member is one of those who just cannot fi nd a good fi t in any of the available sizes, and tailoring of specifi c items is either not allowed or not possible? The service member can order many items custom made. For these items the clothing specialist takes a battery of measure-ments using specifi c techniques, records the measurements on an order form and submits the form digitally with the requisition. (The Department of Defense currently has a web-based form with clickable videos that dem-onstrate how to take the measurements.) Footwear and handwear requests must be submitted with molds or tracings that must be mailed, which takes more time. Custom orders are currently negotiated to cost no more than the regular size item, but they take 6–8 weeks to fi ll. If the requisition is submitted during a contracting hiatus, the service member has no choice but to wait. For these rare cases, unorthodox solutions will be sometimes employed (a research and development center might volunteer to fabricate the item, or a one-time substitution of an alternative or commercial item may be authorized.) The defense supply personnel monitor the types of custom orders that they receive and will recommend adding sizes to the supply system if justifi ed by the demand. For example, four new large sizes (50R, 50L, 52R and 52L) were added to the fl yer’s coverall size roll owing to the large numbers of custom orders for these sizes.

10.5.2 Getting clothing and equipment at the right time

A military requisition is merely a request to buy something that is put in writing on a special military order form (the order can be called in, submit-ted electronically or mailed). Like a retail catalog order form, a military requisition form has fi elds for address, item number, size, how many, etc. Unlike a retail catalog order form, separate items require a separate form. The form also has fi elds for required delivery date, deployment date, deployment site and unit combat status. Used collectively, these fi elds


establish the priority level for the requisition. For instance, a requisition for body armor for a unit deploying to a combat area within 2 weeks of the requisition is assigned a high-priority code that jumps it ahead of a requisi-tion for body armor from a unit in California that is not scheduled for deployment for the foreseeable future. A high-priority requisition will be fi lled sooner and express shipped rather than shipped using ground freight but otherwise is not handled differently from a routine order. Custom orders can also be requisitioned for certain items. A complication is that military funds expire every year at the end of September. Thus, if a high-priority requisition is submitted but the unit funds have run dry or expired, then the requisition, no matter how high the priority, is not fi lled until new funding arrives. Work-arounds are that another unit could supply the needed equipment or funds can be reallocated.

10.5.3 Getting it at the right place

To fi ll the requisition, the service’s supply system fi rst searches that duty station’s local warehouse and, if it is there, the unit can go and pick it up within days of the requisition being submitted. If it is not there, the supply system expands the search to the other local warehouses, and then to the defense regional depot warehouses (there are three in the USA, one in Japan and one in Germany). Once the item is found, it is shipped to the ‘send to’ address on the original form. If the item is not in the inventory, then it is back ordered and the requisition must wait to be fi lled until a new contract is awarded and the item is being produced again, which can take months.

10.5.4 Maintaining supply

The large stocks of clothing and equipment in local or depot warehouses are bought via defense supply contracts. Supply personnel monitor the item demand status on a monthly basis to anticipate surges or to monitor static or falling demand. Contractual delivery expirations must be carefully considered in advance to straddle the annual fi scal death day so that there is no hiatus in fi lling requisitions. The number stocked per size depends on whether the item already exists, or whether it is a newly developed item. If the item already exists, historical demand rates by size (as well as the custom fi t orders discussed previously) for the item are used to determine probable inventory needs. This historical approach has a fl aw: did the observed drawdown refl ect the actual size needs, or were sizes issued in the past because they were the only sizes stocked? If a size was not being ordered, was it because it was not stocked to begin with? If the item is new, demand must be projected by statistical methods using existing


anthropometric databases, by analysis of user groups and by the likelihood of demand surges based on whether it is wartime or peacetime.

10.5.5 Case study: shortage of chemical–biological protection

In the mid-1990s, the ‘Joint Service Lightweight Integrated Suit Technol-ogy’ (JSLIST) chemical–biological protective garments were introduced. The sizing system for this item was created using Mellian’s (1997) data (as cited by Smith-Lopez (2005)) from a sample of 840 military men and women. It is not clear how the tariff was derived. During the 2003 US deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan, the defense supply system experi-enced a run on the larger sizes of the JSLIST chemical–biological protective suits. The subsequent shortage caused a scramble of emergency contracting to fi ll the gap. These continuing shortages required the rapid development of ‘extra-large’ and ‘extra-extra-large’ sizes. During that development and supply process, persons in combat of certain body sizes were at risk.

Smith-Lopez (2005) explained the shortage as follows.

1 The tariffs did not adequately take into account that body shapes and sizes differ between the services.

2 Many of the soldiers and marines revealed during interviews that, instead of taking their measurements, they had guessed at their size or had given their BDU size. JSLIST and the BDU used the same adjec-tival descriptors, and yet JSLIST came in only seven sizes, while the BDU had 38 sizes. The descriptors were particularly inaccurate for the larger sizes. The use of common adjectival descriptors for very different sizing systems directly contributed to the fact that wearers got the wrong size.

3 Divisions of the JSLIST sizing charts and one of the predictive dimen-sions were not as accurate as they could have been, which caused some people to be assigned an ill-fi tting size.

4 Three needed sizes (‘small regular’, ‘medium extra-short’ and ‘large short’) did not exist.

5 The 1997 study did not (and arguably could not) account for the larger body sizes of the unknown eventual user population, which turned out to include large numbers of reserve soldiers and marines, as well as contractors, journalists and civilians.

Another contributing factor was that the defense supply inventory system was so antiquated and uncoordinated that they had no visibility into their own inventory or those of the individual services, and could not locate any


unexpired or excess assets (General Accounting Offi ce, 2002). (The indi-vidual services themselves had inventory tracking systems that ranged from non-existent to paper and pen, to dry-erase boards to computerized systems, none of which could talk to the Defense Logistics Agency, or to each other (General Accounting offi ce, 2002).)

This case demonstrates how providing the right size at the right time and right place is a complex process that has many synergistic interactions: selecting issuing measurements, defi ning size regions, establishing appro-priate wording of size labels, communicating the importance of ordering based on size charts and not assumptions about what size will fi t, account-ing for population diversity, forecasting demand, and knowing what you have and where it needs to be. Unlike fashion retail, the consequence of inaccuracy is that our military readiness is at risk (General Accounting Offi ce, 2001).

10.6 Future trends

10.6.1 Apparel Research Network

The Defense Logistics Agency (2006) established the Apparel Research Network (ARN) to improve the effi ciency of the military clothing supply chain. Universities, equipment suppliers, apparel manufacturers, industry consultants and software developers engage in research, development and technology transfer to solve distribution, equipment and material supply problems. Bar coding, virtual inventory and web-based ordering are just a few of the initiatives that ARN has implemented in the last 5 years.

10.6.2 Principal-components analysis cases

Hudson et al. (2003) applied a multivariate statistical method known as principal-components analysis to defi ne the boundaries of the population for designing and sizing of fl ight clothing and equipment of the Joint Strike Fighter aircraft. The principal-components analysis method fi nds and sim-plifi es the variation of key body dimensions into two major components, expressing the two components as a two-dimensional scatter plot. An ellipse representing the desired fi t goal (e.g. the central 90% of the population) is drawn on the scatter plot, defi ning the boundaries. Cases on the ellipse are selected that represent the most extreme variability. Theoretically, if these cases are well fi tted, as well as representative cases in the central portion of the distribution, then the sizing system should be successful.


10.6.3 Digital body scanners and sizing

Digital body scanners are being adopted by the military for collecting body size data, and for automated size issuing. There is a hope that body scanner data could be used to create 3D clothing patterns for on-the-spot mass customization. The research to accomplish these goals is still in early stages. At the time of writing, each service is concentrating on indi-vidual research, although the World Engineering Anthropometry Resource (WEAR) is trying to establish common usage types, data collection protocols, systems and processes. Some of the applications using body scanners are listed below.

US Army

The US Army uses body scanners for research and for population anthro-pometric data collection (e.g. USFIT). The US Army Tank-Automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) has also funded a project to use iterative fi t testing and feedback to train automated size issuing software to be 90% accurate (US Army Natick Soldier Systems Center, 2004).

US Marine Corps

The Marine Corps uses body scanners to automate size issuing (replacing the practice of issue by eye), customization for dress uniforms and body size data collection (Cyberware, 2001).

US Air Force

The US Air Force was the fi rst organization to use a body scanner for the collection of body size measurements (Robinette et al., 2002). It con-tinues to employ body scanners for research and fi t mapping (Robinette, 2002).

US Navy (Naval Air Systems Command)

The US Navy uses body scanners for research on the dressed body envelope.

Military of other countries

France, Scotland, Great Britain and Canada are also using body scanners for population data collection and clothing issue (Meunier and Yin, 2001; Apparel Research Network, 2002).



The author is very grateful to the many who patiently reviewed this chapter, but especially to Professor Susan Ashdown of Cornell University, Mr Andy Galligan of KR Systems, Inc., Mr Fred Gustafson of Defense Supply Center, Philadelphia, and Mr Steven Paquette of the US Army Soldier Systems Command for their insightful and valuable contributions to the text.

10.8 Sources of further information and advice (see

also References)

10.8.1 Impact and ballistic protectionBrantley, J. (1999), Field evaluation of the sizing and tariff of the U.S. Marine

Corps Interceptor body armor, Technical Report Natick/TR-00/-14, US Soldier Systems Center, Natick, Massachusetts. (NTIS AD No. ADA379872).

Gordon, C., Corner, B., and Brantley, J. (1997), Defi ning Extreme Sizes and Shapes for Body Armor and Load Bearing Systems Design: Multivariate Analysis of U.S. Army Torso Dimensions, (Technical Report NATICK/TR-97/012), US Soldier Systems Command, Natick, Massachusetts. (NTIS AD No. ADA324730).

Mellian, S. (1980), Body Armor for Women, US Patent-4 183 097, US Department of the Army, Washington, DC (NTIS AD No. ADD007728).

Zehner, G., Ervin, C., Robinette, K., and Daziens, P. (1987), Fit Testing of Female Armor, Technical Report AAMRL-TR-87-046, Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA 188721).

10.8.2 Military anthropometryBell, N., Donelson, S., and Wolfson, E. (1991), An Annotated Bibliography

of U.S. Army Natick Anthropology 1947–1991, Development and Engineering Center, U.S. Army Natick Research, Natick, Massachusetts (NTIS AD No.ADA239831).

Gordon, C., and Fried, K. E. (1994), ‘Anthropometry in the US armed forces’, in Anthropometry: the Individual and the Population (Eds S. J. Ulijaszek and C. G. Mascie-Taylor), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Chapter 12.

Robinette, K.M., and Fowler, J. (1988), Annotated Bibliography of United States Air Force Engineering Anthropometry – 1946 to 1988, Harry G. Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA198345).

Robinette, K., Churchill, T., and McConville, J.T. (1998), A Comparison of Male and Female Body Sizes and Proportions , Technical Report AMLTR-79-69, Harry G. Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA074807).


US Department of Defense (1991), Anthropometry of U.S. Military Personnel, Military Handbook DOD-HDBK-743, US Government Printing Offi ce, US Department of Defense, Washington, DC.

10.8.3 Anthropometry and sizing primersNational Aeronautics and Space Administiation (1978), Anthropometric Source-

book, NASA Reference Publication 1024, National Aeronautics and Space Administiation, Houston Texas Order No. 79 11 734, National Technical and Information Service, Springfi eld, Virginia).

McCulloch, C.E., Paal, B., and Ashdown, S.P. (1998), An optimisation approach to apparel sizing, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 49 (5), 492–499.

Robinette, K.M. (1997), ‘Introduction’, in 3-D Surface Anthropometry: Review of Technologies, AGARD Advisory Report 329 (Eds K.M. Robinette, M.W. Vannier, M. Rioux, and P.R.M. Jones), Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development, Neuilly-Sur-Seine, Chapter 1.

Whitestone, J., and Robinette, K. (1997), ‘Fitting to maximize performance of HMD systems, in Head Mounted Displays: Designing for the User (Eds J. Melzer and K. Moffi tt), McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 7, Retrieved on 27 April 2006 from http://www.hec.afrl.af.mil/HECP/Card5/shtml.

10.8.4 Female specifi c sizing and fi tErvin, C. and Robinette, K.M. (1991), Sizing Evaluation of Navy Women’s

Uniforms, Technical Report AL-TR-1991-0116, Anthropology Research Project Yellow Springs, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA250071).

Bransdorfer, A.H., and Johnson, K.R., (1999), Aircrew Modifi ed Equipment Leading to Increased Accommodation (AMELIA) Survey Results, Technical Memorandum NAMRL-TM-99-01, Naval Aerospace Medical Research Labo-ratory Pensacola, Florida (NTIS AD No. ADA375339).

Meyer, L.G., Pokorski T.L., Smith, D.G., and Ortel, B.E. (1996), Development and Implementation of Aircrew Modifi ed Equipment Leading to Increased Accommodation (AMELIA) Program, Report NAMRL SR-96-3, Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Pensacola, Florida (NTIS AD No. ADA327030).

Robinette, K., Mellian, S., and Ervin, C. (1991), Development of Sizing Systems for Navy Women’s Uniforms, Technical Report AL-TR-1991-0117, Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA250071).

Todd, W., Paquette, S., and Bensel, C. (1996), Compatibility of Army Systems with Anthropometric Characteristics of Female Soldiers, Technical Report NATICK/TR-97/017, US Soldier Systems Command, Natick Massachusetts (NTIS AD No. ADA329489).

10.8.5 Pressure and anti-g suitsWheeler, T., Gross, M., Crist, J., and Robinette, K. (1994), A Statistical Analysis

of the Sizing System for the Advanced Technology Anti-g Suit (ATAGS), Tech-


nical Report AFRL-HE-WPTR-2002-8174, Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA412704).

10.8.6 Tariffi ng and distributionRobek, J. (1997), Analysis of Special Measurement Orders for U.S. Army Men’s

Dress coats and trousers for tariff expansion and/or pre-altered patterns, Report DDFG-T1-P4, Retrieved on 20 February 2006 from http://www.arn2.com.

10.8.7 Body scanningRobinette, K., and Daanen, H. (2003). Lessons Learned From CAESAR:

A 3D Anthropometric Survey, (Report XCAFRL, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA430674).

10.9 References

Apparel Research Network (2002), 3-D Body Scan Search, Retrieved on 6 February 2006 from http://www.arn2.com.

ASTM International (1987), ASTM D4108-87 Standard Test Method for Thermal Protective Performance of Materials for Clothing by Open-fl ame Method, ASTM International Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Brooks, C. (1986), ‘Ship/rig personnel abandonment and helicopter crew/passen-ger immersion suits: the requirements in the north Atlantic’, Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 57, 276–282.

Clauser, C., McConville, J., Gordon, C., and Tebbetts, I. (1986), Selection of Dimensions for an Anthropometric Data Base Vol. I: Rationale, Summary and Conclusions, Technical Report NATICK/TR-86/053, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts (NTIS AD No. A179-566).

Crist, J., Gross, M., Robinette, K., and Altenau, M. (1995), Fit Evaluation of Two Aircrew Coveralls, Technical Report AL/CF-TR-1995-0053, Armstrong Aero-space Medical Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA 298097).

Cyberware (2001), Vision to Reality: One Year Review of the San Diego Marine Corps Recruit Depot Project, Retrieved on 13 February 2006 from http://www.cyberware.com/news/newsletters/newsletter13.html.

Defense Logistics Agency (2006), Data retrieved on 10 February 2006 from http://warfi ghter.dla.mil.

General Accounting Offi ce (2001), Chemical and Biological Defense: Improved Risk Assessment and Inventory Management Are Needed, GAO Testimony Re-port GAO-01-667, Retrieved on 1 March 2005, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/gao/gao-01-667.htm.

General Accounting Offi ce (2002), DOD Management: Examples of Ineffi cient and Ineffective Business Processes, GAO Testimony Report GAO-02-873T, US General Accounting Offi ce, Washington, DC (NTIS ADA No. ADA403066).


Gordon, C. (1986), ‘Anthropometric sizing and fi t testing of a single battledress uniform for U.S. Army men and women’, in Performance of Protective Clothing, ASTM Special Technical Publication 900, ASTM International, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 581–592.

Greiner, T., and Gordon, C. (1990), An Assessment of Long-term Changes in Anthropometric Dimensions: Secular Trends of U.S. Army Males, Technical Report, NATICK/TR-91/006, US Army Natick Research Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts(NTIS AD No. ADA230416).

Greiner, T., and Gordon, C. (1993), Assessing Patterns of Change in Anthropo-metric Dimensions: Secular Trends of U.S. Army Females 1946–1988, Technical Report NATICK/TR-93/013, US Army Natick Research Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts (NTIS AD No. ADA 260869).

Harman, E., Frykyman C., Pandorf, W., Tharion R., Mello, J., Obusek, J., and Kirk, J. (1999), Physiological, Biomechanical, and Maximal Performance Comparisons of Female Soldiers Carrying Loads Using Prototype U.S. Marine Corps Modular Lightweight Load-Carrying Equipment (MOLLE) with Interceptor Body Armor and U.S. Army All-Purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment (ALICE) with PASGT Body Armor, Technical Report T99-4, US Army Medical Research and Material Command, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts (NTIS AD No. ADA365448).

Hudson, J., Zehner, G., and Robinette, K. (2003), JSF CAESAR: Construction of a 3-D Anthropometric Sample for Design and Sizing of Joint Strike Fighter Pilot Clothing and Protective Equipment, Technical Report AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2003-0142, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA420324).

Lawson, J., and Mell, W. (2000),. ‘A heat transfer model for fi re fi ghters’ protective clothing’, Fire Technology, 36 (91), 39–68.

Li, P., Corner, B.D., Paquette, S., Lee, C., and Kim, I.Y. (2000), ‘Analysis of air gap size and distribution in single- and multi-layer clothing systems using 3-D whole body digitizing’, in Proceedings of the International Ergonomics Associa-tion 14th Triennial Congress and Human Factors and Ergonomics Society – 44th Annual Meeting, Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, California, pp. 6758–6761.

Lorch, D. (1984), Improving Infl ight Negative Gz Restraint for Aircrewmen, Report NADC-84114-60, Naval Air Development Center, Warminster, Pennsylvania (NTIS AD No. ADA 151909).

McConville, J., Robinette, K., and White, R. (1981), An Investigation of Integrated Sizing for US Army Men and Women, Technical Report NATICK/TR-81/033, US Army Natick Research Development and Engineering Center, Natick Massachusetts (NTIS AD No. ADA109406).

McConville, J.T. (1986), ‘Anthropometric fi t testing and evaluation’, in R.L. Barker and Coletta, G.C. (Ed.), Performance of Protective Clothing: ASTM STP 900, pp. 556–568, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

Mellian, S. (1997), Final Phase II Design, Size, and Fit Evaluation Report, Unpub-lished Report M67854-95-C-1028/JS-TE-E-A29, Navy Clothing and Textile Research Facility, Natick, Massachusetts.


Meunier, P., and Yin, S. (2001), The Intelligent Clothing and Equipment Sizing System: Final Report, Retrieved on 10 April 2006 from http://pubs.drdc-rddc.gc.ca/inbasket/meunier.011003_1043. Toronto_TR_2001_138.pdf

Naval Air Systems Command (2006), Aircrew Personal Protective Equipment (Clothing), Report NAVAIR 13-1-6.7-2, Change 9, 1 Mar 2006, Naval Air Technical Data and Engineering Service Command, San Diego, California, pp. 3–11.

Norton, M., Johnson, R., and Jordan, K. (1985), ‘Assessment of fl ammability hazard and its relationship to price for women’s nightgowns’, Textile Research Journal, 54, 748–760.

Offi ce of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel, and Readiness (2006), Exec-utive Summary of the 2003 Population Representation in the Military Services, Retrieved on 25 February 2006 from http://www.dod.mil/prhome/poprep2003/

Pavlick, M., Schwartz, M., and O’Rourke, J. (1975), Prototype Fabrication and Testing of a Modifi ed MA-2 Harness, Report NADC-75034-40, Naval Air Development Center, Warminster, Pennsylvania (NTIS AD No. ADA013640).

Robinette, K. (2002), ‘Learning to fi t: 3-D fi t mapping in an information system’, in WEAR (World Engineering Anthropometry Resource) Workshop 1 Confer-ence Proceedings, 24–25 June 2002 (NTIS AD No. ADA423929).

Robinette, K., Blackwell, S., Daanen, H., Boehmer, M., and Fleming, S. (2002), Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR), Final Report: Vol. I (AFRL-HE-WPTR-2002-0169), Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA406704).

Robinette, K., Churchill, T., and Tebbetts, I. (1981), Integrated Size Programs for U.S. Army Men and Women, Technical Report (NATICK/TR-81/032: US Army Natick Research Development and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts NTIS AD No. ADA 109309).

Schafer, E. and Bates, B. (1988), Anthropometric Comparisons Between Body Measurements of Men and Women, Technical Report AAMRLTR-88-020, Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio (NTIS AD No. ADA204698).

Smith-Lopez, D. (2005), JSLIST Tariff Verifi cation Report, Unpublished Report on 12 December 2005 to Joint Project Management Offi ce for Individual Protec-tion, US Marine Corps, Quantico, Virginia.

US Army Natick Soldier Systems Center (2004), Uniform Systems for Improved Tariffs (USFIT) Update, Unpublished Brief to Tank and Automotive Command, US Soldier Systems Command, Natick Massachusetts.

US Department of the Air Force (2001), Medical Examinations and Standards, Publication AFI 48-123, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

US Department of the Air Force (2002), Dress and Personal Appearance of Air Force Personnel, Publication AFI 36-2903, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

US Department of the Army (1998), Standards of Physical Fitness, Publication AR 40-501, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

US Department of the Army (2005), Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia, Publication AR 670-1, Headquarters Department of the Army, Washington, DC.


US Department of the Navy (2005), Physical Readiness Program, Publication OPNAVINST 6110.1H, Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

US Department of the Navy (2006), Uniform Regulations, Publication NAVPERS 15665I, Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, DC.

US Marine Corps Headquarters (2002), Marine Corps Physical Fitness Test and Body Composition Program Manual, Publication MCO 6100.12, US Govern-ment Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

US Marine Corps Headquarters (2003), Marine Corps Uniform Regulations, Pub-lication MCO P1020.34G, US Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC.

Watkins, S. (1984), Clothing: the Portable Environment, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, p. 102.

Whitestone, J., and Robinette, K. (1997), ‘Fitting to maximize performance of HMD systems’, in Head Mounted Displays: Designing for the User (Eds J. Melzer and K. Moffi tt, McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 7, Retrieved on 27 April 2006 from http://www.hec.afrl.af.mil/HECP/Card5/shtml.

11Sizing and clothing aesthetics

VA N DY K L EW ISCornell University, USA

11.1 Introduction

The purpose of this discussion is to examine the relationship between the body, the garment and the concepts of scale, size and silhouette. Arrange-ments of clothes worn on the body are examined for their haptic context and the dichotomies of incidental design introduced by the wearer. The size of the subject’s body and the scale of garments offer the opportunity for inadvertent experiments in design that can ultimately bring about changes in fashion. The fundamental ambition of this chapter is to say something about the complexity and intangibility of the size–scale relation-ship, bearing in mind the idea that confl ict between scale and size may result in changes to how fashion design is perceived.

11.2 Fashion

Fashion that is anomalous to change is not fashion. The prerequisites of fashion’s dialog are found in alterations of components that are designed into the apparel object; these include color, texture, motif and scale. Fashion designers use these elements and their skills to manipulate the garment form and to encourage the process of transforming garment forms that we call fashion change. Those wearers who wish to add to or to alter the design of designed objects often utilize the same elements that are available to the professional designer. Fashion wearers who redesign fashion objects do so because manufactured fashion is just that – manufactured. Designer clothes are situated as rhetorical prompts that require bodies and environ-ments, and the interaction of the wearer, to elaborate their meaning within the context of everyday life. Philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1962) has offered the idea that perception is not a passive but rather a creative activity. In making decisions about ways that fashion clothing might be changed, the wearer may choose to customize denim pieces by sandpaper-ing and scouring the surface, recoloring T-shirts or fi ring gun shot into a

309


jacket or may simply refrain from ironing pieces that were designed with the intention that they be neatly pressed. These attempts by clothing wearers are actions that mirror and represent nuances of the everyday urban condition through examinations of surface. However, they are only surface modifi cations, and they disregard the larger issues related to the effect that the scale of clothing has upon a body. Ultimately clothes are construed in many different ways, depending on how, where and when they are worn. Structural design features expressed by the partnership of wearer–body–apparel are undeniably diffi cult to alter and sometimes dif-fi cult to recognize; outcomes tend refl ect the core purpose of the object’s construction as fashion. This core purpose is moderated by the wearer’s connectivity and stimulus to the broader environment. Whilst the goal of this discussion is to elaborate the idea that fashion is created through the garment’s interaction with the body, an assumption in this discussion is that fashion and ultimately design are derived from some degree of negotiation. Propositions made by way of the garment–body relationship are immeasurable; such propositions are endlessly coded and represent a marked advance toward a type of co-design. Yet, viewed in this way, co-design differs from the industry understanding of the term, which is often characterized by the employment of focus groups, and candid interview techniques, or photo research; results from these activities are fed back to designers in the hope that the product or merchandising will be more suc-cessful. Co-design effects introduced by the wearer’s choices in choosing and manipulating garments after they are successfully merchandized are placed differently in the continuum that leads to the creation and modifi ca-tion of fashion.

The topic of co-design is closely associated with the fi elds of product design, new media and engineering. However, apparel wearers do have a role in proposing new ways to wear clothes. The concerns of the fashion designer must be to develop skills to detect, react and refl ect how fi t and comfort have been achieved by the wearer. See the editorial in Co Design (2006), 2 (2), 49–52.

11.3 Size and scale

In fashion, scale is something of an enigma; it is closely related to the cut and form of the garment and is a component of fashion’s ongoing tension that divides cultures and schools of thought. Perhaps the most recent clash of oppositional thinking about scale occurred in 1981 when the Japanese, notably the fashion houses of Comme des Garçons (Rei Kawakubo) and Yohji Yamamoto showed extremely loose garments on the runways of Paris. These events mounted an opposition to the body-conscious nature of clothing such as that of French designer Azzedine Alaïa, which at the

Sizing and clothing aesthetics 311

time was featured as a leading exemplar of European fashion, beauty and taste.

The Japanese proposed looseness and bigness as their discernible motif; the looseness of the Japanese garments were conspicuous in their rejection of the obvious sexuality that form-fi tting Euro-American fashion had endorsed. Big loose garments and fi tted small garments vied for the designation of ‘fashionable’. The controversial point is that the clothes of Kawakubo and Yamamoto essentially overwrote the fi xed ideas that con-nected a specifi c form of clothing to fashion. In opposition to the idea proposed by scholars such as Langer (1991) and Flugel (1956), the Japanese created clothes that used shapes which up until then were not considered as sexy or attractive. These clothes ‘. . . conceal the wearers’ bodies to the extent desired for purposes of public decency . . .’. This comment stimu-lates questions about the eventual excitement and allure of these antitheti-cal designs. Why did tightness (relative or not) become fashionable, and did looseness short-circuit or circumvent the perennial relationship of lit-tleness and desirability?

The size–scale relationship as demonstrated in the fi t of clothing is acknowledged in recent anthropometric studies and yet the relationship is underplayed outside anthropometric, fashion and apparel design schol-arship. If seen from the perspective of a fashion wearer, the frame of the relationship is based upon the assemblage of apparel on the body; this is a practical test of this relationship, although there is another assem-blage. This second assemblage concerns the subject’s desire to achieve harmony between size and scale, and the desire for good fi t. Yet good fi t is a subjective concept; it exists in a very narrow scale of personal satisfac-tion, one perceived by the wearer in the equally narrow confi ne of personal taste. Taste, without qualifi cation and prefi x of either good or bad, is a digression away from the clues and prompting offered by the fashion indus-try, media and general perceptions of gender, status and fashion. Taste is always the most debatable concept. In regard to fashion clothes, taste is simultaneously an active and a passive action, where the wearer decides on particular apparel types simply by excluding other apparel types. Taste may be confl ated into a ‘natural selection’ of what clothes will become popular with the additive effect of decisions made based on taste by a set of many people. Through taste, individuals are able to demonstrate their interpretation of the cultural moment, according to Furby (1978, p. 60), ‘. . . possession is the ability to affect and control the object in whatever way one wishes’. Taste is the primary concern in a series of processes that cultivate a discernment of beauty and its congruity in clothes. The subjec-tivity of taste is complex; understanding the fi t of garments as a conse-quence of taste is more so. In a much neglected treatise on fashion, Rene König (1973) distinguished ‘Taste as an individual matter. . . . Taste can


accordingly affect only the way a person wears fashion, never his choice of it’.

Excursions can also go beyond the demonstration of comfort that is so frequently discussed in studies of clothing fi t; questions of choice and suitability are phased into the moments where the wearer examines and fl irts with the vanquishing of fl esh for the celebration of the material garment. When the fashionable woman gazes in a mirror and as a result of her view makes the customary adjustments to her body (turning to view the self from the side, pulling in the stomach), followed by alterations to her clothing (straightening the fall of a garment, or setting the waistband lower on the body), she makes manipulations that are innate, contorting body and reshaping the clothes into various manifestations of fi t, the desired fi t that is governed by taste. The ambition of the wearer’s corporeal contortion is to achieve harmonies of appearance and high levels of self-satisfaction. More accurately, wearer contortions refer to the tightening and loosening of muscles and altered postures that are summarized in the endeavor to determine a degree of satisfaction both in clothes and in the environment. Contortions are fl eeting deformations; they are body move-ments that are made with regard to the constriction, hang, drape or wrap-ping of garments. These contortions can be a response to the imposition of garments that are perceived to be too small, exactly fi tting or too big for the body.

The relationship between the body and the garment is formed in the negotiation of body and the garment. This relationship is troubled; as Lehmann (2000, p. 201) remarked: ‘. . . One object [inorganic commodity] in particular, because of its spatial and metaphysical proximity to the subject itself, came to express the intricate and varied aspects of modernity – that is, sartorial fashion, adorning and enveloping the human body and comprising a faceted multitude of garments and accessories.’ The body movements simultaneously minimize and maximize the interstitial space between body and fabric and modify the hang of the garment until some degree of aesthetic and spatial comfort or acceptance is achieved. According to Merleau-Ponty (1962, p. 93), this type of action is habitual, the body–mind relationship is a perceptual faith where its articulation is concurrent. The subject and the object, the mind and body, self and world, are interdependent or chiasmically related. This action (and these dual-isms) tell us something interesting about fi t: comprehension of fi t depends upon exceedingly marginal measurements; the notion of good and bad fi t advances signifi cant debates, notably among designers, researchers of anthropometrics, fashion wearers, and critics of fashion. (In July 2001, SizeUK, the National Sizing Survey, was mounted. A unique collaboration between the Department of Trade and Industry, leading British retailers and academics sought to discover the shape, size and height of the British


population. The data gathered in this exercise have helped the clothing, medical, car and travel sectors plan for future needs.) In regard to garment size (especially in extreme body types), good and bad fi t, like cut, are somewhat elusive. Signifi cantly, it is my assertion that absolute expressions of fi t do not exist. If fi t can only be accessed as an approximation, then, when fashion changes from tight fi tting to loose fi tting, the concept of fi t is further displaced. Questions of what is good fi t are illustrated in the case of a baggy extra-sized T-shirt or a smock. The intangibility of mea-surement is accentuated in the judgments about the garment’s aesthetics. Fashion’s cyclical gyration from close fi tting, to baggy, to close fi tting dem-onstrates a continuous movement from singularity to vulgarity (Hazlitt, 1991). Because fashion is only understandable in its context of the moment, its natural course is to undertake drastic alterations when its expressions become jaded. In the classic scholarship (Simmel, 1904; Flugel, 1956; Ben-jamin, 2002), fashion is defi ned by change; the mechanism of interpreting the motivations of the wider society is a major characteristic of fashion behavior.

Rene König (1973, pp. 54–55) asserted: ‘. . . the compulsion for change is only complete when adoption takes place’. König’s assertion is intended to describe the extended period of fashion adoption but, in this context, König’s ideas are applied to the micromoments (of fashion’s synchronicity) when the wearer tries on a garment to examine and judge the cut, fi t and fabrication of the garment. Fit is a primary characteristic that affects fashion in a profound way, a fact that is supported in fashion history. Late Elizabethan corsets, with their static and suppressive fronts manipulate the fi gure into a look that is fl at and cylindrical with a deep cleavage. Compare this with the fl apper silhouette of the 1920s, a look that featured a suppres-sion of the bosom with the goal of attaining a boyish fi gure. The Elizabe-than corset and other forms of structured suppression and fi gure-molding garments have been infl uencing the shape and therefore the fi t of garments on a women’s body up to and until the 1960s when fashion’s leadership became less dictatorial and more democratic.

11.4 Fit, size and re-forming the body

In its various incarnations, the corset was worn as a functional foundation, a fashion item and a fetish item. Each guise of the corset has called for a different type of personal fi t in regard the end use. During the last 100 years the corset has undoubtedly transformed fashion and the possibilities of body posture and body size; further the corset has enabled the shape of the women’s body to be manipulated, both conspicuously and artifi cially. This reappraisal of form affected garments in two ways: as corsets clinched the waist, dresses gradually inched away from the corset; the second effect


was that corsets continued to be integrated within the dress. According to Langer (1991, p. 294), ‘The ancient desire for the slenderness of the waist-line existed in the ample bosoms of our mothers.’ This assertion expresses the fact that most types of corset did not reduce the bust; in fact the wasp-like waist of the corset and corset-type undergarments (corselets) encour-aged a reshaping of the bust, notably by way of pointed and padded bras. Corsets coax and maneuver the body into varying states of refi gurement; the effect is a formulaic remodeling of the female body. An absurdity of the corset is that it drastically alters the shape of the body whilst suppress-ing a body size dimension. Tight lacing can reduce the waist size by up to 4 inches. Such extreme deformations have the effect of reconstituting the body into forms that are antithetical to nature. In its various guises as a foundation garment and as an outer garment the cult of the corset was a mainstream phenomena until the feminist movement of the 1990s took a fundamental position against the restrictive markers of female subjuga-tion. In the early 1980s, the fashion corset in a modifi ed form became a garment that was worn over the top of blouses and was fully and perma-nently revealed. In the early 1980s the French designer Chantal Thomass presented the corset as a diacritic of femininity; other designers followed this lead. In its modern introduction the relationship of the corset to the body varied in the amount of fi gure suppression introduced; British designer Vivienne Westwood used the corset to create a grotesquely beautiful alter-ation of body proportions. The corset’s original purpose proved to resist comprehensive change; it continued to present a reality of general purpose, that of various levels of suppressive fi t and restraint. The Westwood corset is anachronistic, a historical pastiche that is out of step with the general direction of current fashion. In this postmodern period, outer garments (dresses, jackets and overcoats) have relied less upon artifi cial reshaping as a method of promoting body size reduction. My suggestion is that it is at this moment that misfi t, scaling up and scaling down of clothing in rela-tion to the body became a device undertaken without the aid of artifi cial suppression.

11.5 Size as a spectacle

To what extent should the wearer observe her own body? To what extent should the fashion subject recognize how the fashion establishment and fashion history inform her about her own body? The (re)creation of one’s self into a spectacle (Debord, 1967) becomes effective through thinking deeply about clothes, how they look and how they feel.

The fashionable women’s approach to gaining an understanding about fashion is driven by a need to interpret change and acknowledge difference.


The fashion subject asks how she looks in comparison of others, and then she underwrites her assumptions in either the acceptance or rejection of the opinions and self-visualization of others. The desire to reformulate herself is motivated from fashion’s characteristic for self-preservation. As a feature of the fashion system, the fashion subject forgoes individual expression for collective subjectivity that affects the fashion trend. The mass adoption of fashion trends are at the kernel of fashion’s initiatory process; consequently it is my contention that fashion trends are at the starting point of the disconnection between sizing, body fi t and fashion design.

The fashion subject gazes into the mirror when she tries clothes on; this action takes her toward a transformation (Lacan 1977; Freud 1995) of herself. In tensing and fl exing her muscles she satisfi es her sense of narcis-sism; in doing this, she attempts to reconcile imagined body with her actual body shape. Fashion demands the constant activity of the transformative fi gure, one that demonstrates a narcissistic status, which often confounds the painful suppression of tight and restrictive fi t, fi nding compensation in the aesthetic image. For Lacan (1977) the imago or mirror provided a refl ection of the fashion subject as an object, somewhat removed from the image of ‘perfection’ that is in her mind. However, the viewer (the fashion subject) is removed from the mental refl ection, which is of a perfect body. In attempts to capture their imagined fantasy, the fashionable wearer sets out on her foremost task, namely that of building a body map based upon what she sees in the mirror and what she imagines her body to be. Size and fi t are negotiated psychologically; another way of saying this is that the act of dressing benefi ts the mind fi rst, as the wearer asks the question: ‘How do I look?’

The perception that women suffer for their fashion is circulated in accounts of women who decline comfort for the sensory condition and status bestowed on those wearing highly ‘fashionable’ objects such as shoes.

Rose was interviewed in London in 1998: ‘I was about sixteen; I had an interview; so I decided to wear a pair of Italian shoes that I had bought in a sale but never worn, except in the house. It was not until I was on the tube (London Subway) on the way to the interview that I realized that the shoes were pinching my feet. I suffered until I left the interview. I then had to take the shoes off and walk in my stockings, which I supposed looked unusual because it was late autumn and quite cold.’

Jane was interviewed in New York in 2005: ‘I was an intern and the only girl in the offi ce; so I always wore really cute clothes and shoes. So I walked a lot doing errands; the subway was off; so I walked from midtown to downtown where the offi ce was. I got awful blisters, which I ignored for a week. On the Saturday I woke up with pain and red streaks up my legs,


I went to the hospital and was diagnosed with blood poisoning; I still have the shoes and I have worn them again; they are really cute.’

The truth about the women’s fashioned body is found in its reconstitu-tion to greater or lesser degrees. The concept of drive transformation is at the core of fi t, which we shall see is an aspect of the inner source where truth is battled and sometimes muted. In Freudian supposition, the trans-formation of the pleasure principle into the reality principle is an action that corresponds to the distinction between the unconscious and conscious processes. The individual is governed by different mental processes and principles that are based on generic conditioning.

In some cases the wearing of fashionable clothing rouses individuals to gain pleasure despite any pain that might be endured. It is not that these individuals strive for unpleasantness; rather unpleasantness is obligatory to achieve primary ends. Realization is traumatic; it occurs when the individual recognizes that full and painless gratifi cation is not possible. She begins to accept and give up momentary uncertainty and destructive plea-sure for delayed, restrained and assured pleasure. For Freud, the triumph of the reality principle offers both safeguards and modifi cations to the pleasure principle rather than a complete elimination.

So far in this chapter, an attempt has been made to draw out the relative fi xity of fashion as a formulation from which wearers are reluctant to transgress. The modifi cation that the body has historically undertaken in pursuit of fashion has some affect upon the individual’s preparation and reaction to fi t. When she considers her image, the fashion wearer presents an idealized front (Goffman, 1959) which is an interaction of the ritual of being and adjusting to being. In mind is the wearer’s role as the presenter of stigmatic or prestigious symbols of fashion; how she portrays these symbols is negotiated (Goffman, 1959, pp. 43–44). The signifi cance of social signifi cation and presentation draws upon a contingency of the body and its relationship to both portable and surrounding environments and systems (such as the fashion system).

In working out the proper pose, position and manner, the wearer interacts with her clothes by taking a series of rapid judgments, which are based upon touch. The cause and affect of haptic or touch-based judgments is an important feature in the way that fashion wearers demon-strate fi t.

11.6 Menswear and scale

Before looking at haptics in detail, it is important to contrast the extreme fashions of littleness and bigness, with regard to men’s fashions. In very recent times, a key factor in the confi rmation of urban menswear’s exis-tence has been the wearing of oversized clothes. Casual jackets, T-shirts


and trousers have been worn in extra-large sizes. Almost simultaneously urban men’s fashion and sections of the mainstream caused a rift, provid-ing an escape from the culturally dominant tradition of precision tailoring. This rift resonates in some ways with another time of male sartorial diversion, the Zoot suit of the 1940s. In each case the exaggeration of body shape is a statement about formality, respectability and bodily condition. The oversized sports jacket adopted by modern urban men enables the wearer to translate uncomfortable issues such as black male invisibility into a sartorial event. The jacket shares a relationship with other apparel objects such as T-shirts and shoes. The looseness and immensity of urban clothes are a foray into the manner of cultural marginality. Wearers such as New Yorker Jesse Washington, editor for an international news service, wore ‘baggy knee-length shorts, Afrocentric tee shirts, sneak-ers, and Negro League baseball caps’ to work. His dilemma came with a promotion to management and the question of whether he should now wear a suit, and what type of suit should he choose to express his characteristic style. He resolved the problem by buying baggy suits (Washington, 1996, p. 88).

The innovative mainstream designer Giorgio Armani developed jackets in the 1980s with a loose soft silhouette that lacked the multitude of internal linen and horsehair canvases that historically provided shape, structure and form. The difference between the sack-like drape jacket worn in America during the mid-1990s and Armani’s jacket silhouette is out-lined in Holly Brubach’s A Dedicated Follower of Fashion (1999). Brubach noted that the Armani jacket ‘is tapered so drastically from the nape to waist allowing the wearer to appear as if a member of some super-race’. Tailored men’s apparel is usually based on the idea of well-cut apparel in which the closeness of fi t is constructed to enhance the human form by following the contour of the body. Armani’s clothes are based on the 1930s silhouette, which was known for supersizing men by creating a silhouette with a proportionally large torso and extending the shoulders into very square horizontals. Sharply peaked reveres structured the chest, providing a V pattern that added the illusion of girth to the front of the body. In regard to precision tailoring, the suits of the 1930s broke the rules. The drape and ease applied to these suits had much to do with the external environment and was a reaction to the American Wall Street crash of 1929 and the need for middle- and upper-class men to reassert themselves after their calamitous experiences. Armani’s jackets, like the jackets of other designer’s who made their names in the period between 1980 and 1990, yielded to the improvements in textiles, production and the gym-enhanced bodies of modern men which were apparent in that period. The scale of the Armani loose cut was not sustained; it did not demonstrate the changing circumstance of men, nor did it demonstrate the new function


of youth that was formed in a new confi dence. Very recent men’s fashion has reversed the supersizing of the torso as a way of demonstrating the polyvalent assertions drawn from of the new man, the post-machohomo-sexual male, the metrosexual and the post-metrosexual. (These terms, the new man, post-machohomosexual male, the metrosexual and the post-metrosexual, are used to segment time and the contrasting body types that were imposed in the early 1980s, mid-1980s, late 1990s and 2000 respectively.)

The skinny suit has now become the staple in recent men’s fashions. The skinny suit’s evolution started in the mid-1980s when Jean Paul Gaultier re-examined the 1960s three-buttoned suit; this refl ected the feminization of menswear that was counterpoint to the cult of the ‘cute’ that young women aspired to in the post-1980s. A phalanx of menswear designers starting in the 1990s with Helmut Lang, followed by Raf Simons, Carol Christian Poell and then Hedi Silmane developed the skinny suit into a caricature of masculinity. At its poles, the continuum of menswear has established the muscle-bound jock at one end and nerd or skinny boy at the other end. Poell and Silmane especially have developed the skinny into a concept of male fashion that is politically and attitudinally a precise determination of epochal menswear. Silmane’s suits are the slimmest; his vision of men requires an ectomorphic body. This vision of masculinity is based upon the dressing expressions from gay fashion and nerd dressing, both expressions are oppositional to the jock expression. ‘. . . Gay styles have ricocheted from post-punk to rockabilly, from Doc Martined Buffa-loes to L.L. Bean-shirted Bears, including on the way leather-clad bikers and moustachioed, short-haired clones.’ according to Elaine Showalter (2001). Elements of the nerd and gay expressions have engendered conven-tional sentiments, such as delicateness, compassion and intelligence. Inter-estingly these expressions are also oppositional; popular myths suggest that the nerd is indifferent in regard to fashion and the physical develop-ment of the body, whereas the gay is enthusiastic about the body develop-ment and fashion.

In this brief review of the post-modern men’s suit, a resistance is demonstrated, namely the opposition between the littleness and bigness; littleness is implied in femininity and bigness is implied in masculinity. These polarities exist at the basis of fi t. In the body’s attempts to character-ize itself towards one or another pole, males and females idealize them-selves in a segmented section of their continuum (which runs male to female or female to male). Gender is of course an ambiguous concept. Given the way that gender is exercised within fashion, it is reasonable to make some assumptions about littleness and fi t, and bigness and fi t. Littleness evokes body narcissism and display; bigness evokes selfl essness and concealment and is therefore oppositional. Gender ambiguities are


apparent in the negotiation of scale and the amount of suppression designed into garments.

11.7 The perfect body

In the attempt to cover the body and to provide the silhouettes that will fulfi ll everyone’s desired image of perfection, textiles are cut into shapes that are excessively big, small and everything in between. The construction of the perfect body is an arbitrary undertaking. The body and the material covering become attached and united, to the extent that the visual sensation of the body’s form is seen as an impression through clothing. The material fabric is not a passive concomitant; rather the textile covering becomes the body and the body textile becomes a covering.

The continuity between body and garment have been discussed by Rene König (1973, pp. 190–191) who wrote concerning the way that old tech-niques have helped to stimulate new ways of dressing. Knitwear for women, and to a lesser extent men, has liberated bodies from the restrictive confi nes of the woven garment. König wrote that the sweater allowed women to adopt postures that enhanced erotic sensitivities; this happened in many ways, but in the main this occurred in the 1950s, when Left Bank Bohemian Juliettte Gréco and American ‘sweater girls’ used the littleness of the sweater and tightness of bullet brassieres to emphasize the shape of their bodies. The conjunction of the interaction of tactility and the aesthetic vision are annunciated in the creation of the sweater girl. Based upon assumptions of her own aesthetics, the sweater girl responds by cultivating a demeanor in which the close incidence of body–material tactility promotes an experience where the tangible experience of touching is incorporated into the intangible sensory experience of seeing. A conse-quence is that the wearer forms a tactile impression about herself and her sexuality; the performance becomes confi gured as an implicit value.

It might be useful for the sake of erudition to separate the wearer and the material covering and to speak about the two bodies, the human body and the material body: one refl ecting the other, one gazing back and attempting to establish functionality. Together both bodies establish a haptic space that objectifi es the fashion look. The perceptive space is dimensionally spatial, doubled in intensity and in this regard lacking any forthright control. However, we are aware that the human entity is able to manipulate, alter and manage the event of wearing clothes. The idea that the wearer is predominant does to some extent disregard the sheer independence of the human form, the body itself as a sentient entity. The body is bifurcated from the cognitive self especially in the way that invol-untary actions such as movement and memory occur. Individuals wearing highly fashionable and purposeful clothes cannot continually act out the


sets of mannerisms that promote the most superlative wearing of any particular design. Yet the particular features of any garment design call for involuntary actions if the garments are to be worn in a relatively fl uent manner. The management of items such as mini skirts is an expression of this; mini skirts are routinely tugged back into place if the wearer senses a breach of her intended expression and comfort. The conscious nature is at times susceptible to the bodies’ deportment, which is separated by the unpredictability of movement. The seemingly ongoing struggle that the body and the wearer experiences is analogous to a dance where one partner is bound to react to the other partner; further, the dance could be read as an indication that human perception (which is led by sensation and reactions to the garment) is an extension of the body’s disruption of composure.

11.8 Beauty, the individual and the fashion image

It is interesting here to consider the idealized fashion image especially in its extra-symbolic sense. The fashion image appearing in fashion maga-zines is both static and ambivalent to authenticity. This position sets up the fashion image as a precedent that is ripe for intra-individual interpreta-tion. Fashion images used in fashion advertising and editorials are not presented as truth and not replete with meaning; rather fashion images offer templates that few, if any, wearers can achieve. Fashion images found in fashion magazines pose the problem of the artifact’s fascination and strength, like the images of the human body in sports advertisements. These bodies are the pinnacle of technological accomplishment, further embellished by computer graphics to artifi cially perfect apparel, skin tone, make-up and hair (Brooks, 1980). Articulations of fashion are created and determined within the continuous fl uctuation and eventual change in the fashion trend. In its undistorted essence, the trend underwrites the fashion image which is understood as the superlative code of the brand. The wear-er’s ambition is to capture and personify this code; how else would she claim to be wearing the brand? Lukács (1971) recognized that the success of the commodity requires a broad acceptance. Emulation results in the fact that the fashion image becomes subjugated by the wearers’ conscious-ness, to the extent that the reifi cation of the fashion image fi nds expression in the rationalization made by the combined set of all wearers. Wearers are individual, and each differs somewhat from the template demonstrated in the fashion image; this piece of information underpins the many diverse reactions that are found in advertising or editorial spreads. Lipovetsky (1994, p. 4) reminded us that fashion has a triple logic of inconsistency, organizational mutations and aesthetic mutation; he also pointed out that both body and attitude fashion are (Lipovetsky, 1994, p. 102) inextricably


connected to youth. The age of self-surveillance since 1966 has distin-guished fashion as a democratic and individualist event. This claim is borne out in the rise of the ethnographic fashion moment. Magazines have countered claims of fashion’s hegemonic elitism by proposing new defi nitions of beauty; these have been constituted through magazines that are oppositional to the magazines which view the stereotype of the fashion designer, fashion model and fashion garment as a binding triangulation. The beautiful invention of the fashion image is a fable cast by marketing planners to do nothing more than maximize profi ts rather than append society with democratic conduits or moral direction. Certainly the patchwork of fashion images that have featured in magazines showing prêt-à-porter fashions no longer concur with the formulation of beauty structured in the fashions that are based in haute couture’s hegemony.

Beauty and the pursuit of perfection are found in haute couture’s hegemonic certainty that is formulated in the ‘idea’ that an original type exists and should be followed if perfection is to be claimed. Plato’s certa idea of beauty lies at the kernel of the description of beauty, which is impos-sible to attain for the reason that the original beauty is the most beautiful. The less beautiful, the more distant followers of fashion, are derived from this ideal. For fashion, the certa idea is incontestably young, white, anti-feminist, very thin and bourgeoisie, with looks that represent the faces established in classicism. Any deviation from this notion of perfection is deemed to be contrary to fashion. Certainly, the perception of the perfect beauty is commonplace in society. In an attempt to accomplish this idea image, some fashion wearers attempt to modify their bodies; the bleaching of skin, diets and cosmetic surgery are perennially popular. The idea that a singular type of beauty might be attained has sustained fashion for generations.

The porous nature of perfection in beauty allows the inclusion of other arrangements of beauty. Such arrangements express a synthesis of the broader culture and a tension which the fashion phenomena thrives upon. The composition of diversity within cultural views is disquietingly confrontational, but society’s preoccupation with difference has its bene-fi ts; stratifi cation has invited a slow, plodding and at times regressive and yet persistent acceptance of non-certa beauty. Fashion’s demonstration of inclusiveness is based upon the fetishization of difference, rather than a celebration of diversity. In this maladroit understanding of diversity, fashion has launched a classifi cation system that purveys examples of difference once it (the fashion system) has offered its own inauthentic rendition. In playing with difference, fashion reroutes ‘other’ if not oppositional forms of beauty into caricatures. What emerges is a questionable and sometimes disrespectful rendition of otherness.


The physical guise of the fashion body is realized in the commodifi cation of ordinariness as seen in some of British photographer Jason Evan’s 1991 photographs of young black men wearing stuffy traditional English clothes such as tailored hunting jackets and plus fours (Fig. 11.1) and loose contemporary clothing (Fig. 11.2). Evans comments that the work is an attempt to break down stereotypes; it would seem that the stereotypes are of the environmental context and the aesthetics of privilege as indicated by fi t.

Sizing and fi t surface are present as an imbalanced host. Designers begin to experiment with size and the appropriation of other forms of beauty as a trope that wages war. The most avant-garde practitioners, such as British designer Vivienne Westwood and Belgian designer Martin Margiela, regularly seek out the mystery of the other kind of beauty and position ideas that challenge stereotypes. In a range of collections, these designers have attempted to deal with the whole female body rather

11.1 The dominance of fi t is often culturally informed. The earliest example of a garment shaped for the contours of the body is military armor. An example of cultural difference in fi t is demon-strated in bronze friezes from the kingdom of Benin. Some of the bronze friezes feature Portuguese soldiers in full tailored armor.


11.2 To some distraction, sections of the fashion industry (notably denim manufacturers) use ‘urban’ and ‘regular’ as fi t guides, thereby compounding age and fashionability into notions of fi t. The loose fi t of the urban men’s fashion has its former distinction in pre-modern dress. The juxtaposition of traditional African form with contempo-rary Western men’s fashion has allowed for extemporization and in some sense a distancing of the cultural segregation that formally indicates social status

than the fragmented body that is independent of the certa idea. Although these designers remain compliant to the fashion system, by showing their work on models that fi t the concept of the certa idea of beauty, their clothes and philosophies are mimetic of Rei Kawakubo and Yohji Yamamoto.

The otherness of those not complying with fashion’s ideal of beauty is best revealed in an examination of the human body and its differences from this ideal. To do this, we must consider the corporeal divergences that generate ubiquity into certain body types. In these other bodily forms, bigness and littleness of clothes are interchangeable with bigness and littleness of bodies. Trained by the fashion image system our critical gaze focuses upon the various transgressions of fashion. However, are they transgressions? Are these not the conscious display of burlesque, masquerade and parody, an articulate understanding of the post-certa condition?


The wearer in Fig. 11.3 is dressed to unhinge all we have come to acknowledge as a normal exhibition of fashion. She wears shorts in the vernacular of hip-hop. Any awkwardness that we feel towards the wearer is based on our expectation of bigness and smallness. In fact, the wearer demonstrates a highly refi ned rather than a primal expression of fashion. She is secure in her post-modernity and creates a dramatic gesture; in doing so she references the ideals of beauty that have perforated all cultures. This expression plays upon the memory of yesterday’s fashion and today’s fashion imagery that have become popular in the many urban music videos. The hot pants of the 1960s are committed to an antithetical revision, which parodies the archetypal sexuality of that time and also reaches back and fi nds succor in the erroneous idea that fertility is linked to fat deposits and the posterior. This dramatic gesture can be seen as a

11.3 The wearer breaches ‘normal’ codes to create an impression that is visually contemptuous. This wearer has mannered herself into a mode championed by physically less diminutive women; in doing so she drew both derision and admiration


reference to steatopygia (a genetic trait found in Andamanese aboriginal people and the Khoisan of South Africa which is popularized by the image of the Hottentot Venus), and the myth that women with large stores of fat in the posterior are more apt to rear offspring successfully. This contention is lost in the clamor for an aesthetic determination that is intertwined into cultural claims of a signifi cation of difference and desirability. If, as is speculated in the research, the steatopygian was a result of survivalists instincts that were induced by the Ice Age, popular culture’s interpretation of steatopygian women asks for a separation of the primitive and the modern. As MacCannell (1992) noted, the posterior is regarded as the most primeval part of the women’s body although in contemporary popular culture the posterior is given a post-mythic charac-terization. Women who are slim in other dimensions are celebrated for their outsized posteriors. Certain types of clothing are use to outline and emphasize the posterior. These include jeans, which are often worn too small or are made with fabrics that stretch, and that use design features such as yokes, robust-looking stitching and pockets to emphasize the form. A recent trend for jeans that are low cut at the back to reveal cleavage has come about in tandem with a trend for thongs that are also made in a stretch fabric and are worn peeping over the top of the jeans waistband. This combination of garments draws attention to the posterior, and these garments encourage the wearer to interact with clothing from a close range. The close fi t of the thong against skin, and the looser denim fabric against the thong are not visible to the wearer but the garment’s performance can be imagined on the basis of the haptic response to the body–clothing interaction.

11.9 Conclusions

Infl ections of exaggeration and emphasis vary in accord with the wearer’s ideas about presentation, and gesture adds artifi ciality to the way that fashion objects are dressed on the body. A trouser belt might be pulled extra tight and worn long rather than being pushed through the belt loops; male hipsters are popular women’s jeans that suggest a certain poise and intent. The iconographic merit of particular fashion items is illustrated in the extent that clothes are essentialized on the body. The philosopher Marx Wartofsky has argued for a radically culturalist reading of the visual and artifact experience. He concluded that human vision is in itself an artifact, produced by other artifacts and visuals (Wartofsky, 1979). Engestrom (1990) developed a hierarchy of artifacts and noted that tertiary artifacts are imaginative or visionary and give ‘identity and overarching perspective to collective activity systems’ (Engestrom, 1990, p. 174).


Physical contact is the unconsciousness of vision; in touch, hidden tactile experiences determine the sensuous quality of the perceived object and enable the wearer to accept or reject the invitation. How we feel in clothes is always negotiable. Environment, the center of society’s traditions and mores, and memory that ignites comparisons of how others appear all affect our mannerist impression of ourselves. The term mannerist in this context is pertinent as it connotes the departure from the concept of the body as representing nature and therefore truth. In this context a formation of self is based on the idea that in considering visual self we must abrogate some of this creation to the form of garments. Therefore, the idea of wearing clothes is concerned with fi nding some legitimacy for the body and its relationship to clothes. The rules of dressing are erratic and are not fi xed, and through the use of a kind of synthetic interaction (reality and perception of reality) the body is able to accommodate little-ness or bigness.

11.10 References

Benjamin, W. (2002), The Arcades Project (Ed. R. Tiedemann) (Transl. H. Eiland and K. McLaughlin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Brooks, R. (1980), ‘Double-page spread – fashion and advertising photography’, Camerawork, (January–February), 1–3.

Brubach, H. (1999), A Dedicated Follower of Fashion, Phaidon, Boston, Massachusetts.

Debord, G. (1967), Society of the Spectacle (Transl. 1977 F. Perlman and J. Supak), Black & Red, Detroit Michigan.

Engestrom, Y. (1990), ‘When is a tool? Multiple meanings of artifacts in human activity’, in Learning, Working and Imagining: Twelve Studies in Activity Theory (Ed. Y. Engestrom), Orienta-Konsultit Oy, Helsinki, 174.

Featherstone, M. (2000–2001), ‘Speed and violence, sacrifi ce, in Virilio, Derrida, and Girard’, Anthropoetics, 6 (2), 53–68.

Flugel, J.C. (1956), The Psychology of Clothes, Hogarth Press, London.Freud, S. (1995), The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud (Transl. Ed. A.A. Brill),

Modern Library, New York.Furby, L. (1978), ‘Possession in humans: an exploratory study of its meaning and

motivation’, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 49–65.Goffman, E. (1959), The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Doubleday, Garden

City, New York.Hazlitt, W. (1991), Selected Writings, Oxford World’s Classics, (Ed. J. Cook),

Oxford University Press, Oxford.König, R. (1973), A La Mode: On the Social Psychology of Fashion (Transl.

F. Bradley), Seabury Press, New York.Lacan, J. (1977), The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I, as revealed

in psychoanalytic experience, in Écrits: A Selection (Transl. A. Sheridan) W.W. Norton, New York, pp. 3–9.


Langer, Lawrence (1991), The Importance of Wearing Clothes, Elysium, Los Angeles.

Lehmann, U. (2000), Tigersprung: Fashion in Modernity, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Lipovetsky, G. (1994), The Empire of Fashion: Dressing Modern Democracy (Transl. C. Porter), Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Lukács, Georg (1971), History and Class Consciousness, (Trans. R. Livingstone), London.

MacCannell, D. (1992), Empty Meeting Grounds, Routledge, London.Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962), Phenomenology of Perception, Transl. C. Smith,

Routledge and Kegan, London.Showalter, E. (2001), ‘Fade to Greige’, London Review of Books, (4 January),

pp. 37–39.Simmel, G. (1904), ‘Fashion’, International Quarterly, 10 (1), 130–155; Reprinted

in (1957), American Journal of Sociology, 62 (6), 541–558.Sproles, G.B. (1985), ‘Behavioral science theories of fashion’, in The Psychology

of Fashion (Ed. M.R. Solomon), Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts, pp. 55–76.

Wartofsky, M.W. (1979), Models: Representation and the Scientifi c Understanding, D. Reidel, Boston, Massachusetts.

Washington, J. (1996), ‘A hip-hop brother in suit and tie’, Emerge, (September), 88.

12Sizing for the home sewing industry

S.P. ASH DOW N, L .M. LY M A N- C L A R K E A N D P. PA LM ER


12.1 Introduction

Before the availability of ready-to-wear clothing in the early nineteenth century, most clothing was either made in the home or custom made for the wealthy by tailors or dressmakers. Women who were not wealthy were expected to know how to ‘sew plain’, and the creation of clothing (some-times from fi ber to fi nished garment) was part of the homemaker’s job. Women made patterns to clothe their families using the simple and expedi-ent method of taking apart an existing garment and cutting around the pieces. Fashionable and fi tted garments were made by professional tailors and dressmakers; women sewing for their families made simple practical clothing that probably often looked home made. With the introduction of ready-to-wear clothing in the nineteenth century, home sewing became less of a necessity. By the 1880s, most garments for men were available as rela-tively affordable ready-to-wear clothing. However, women’s garments required complex construction, and styles changed frequently, which limited the early manufacture of ready-to-wear clothing for women to corsets and cloaks (Kidwell, 1974). In the 1860s the development of the paper pattern industry made the home sewing of stylish and well-fi tted garments a reality (Kidwell, 1979). Now the home sewer was not limited to ‘plain sewing’ only but had the means to create garments rivaling the professional dressmaker’s art.

In the 1890s the styles of women’s fashionable garments were simplifi ed, making ready-to-wear clothing for women more feasible. By the 1910s all types of women’s clothing were available and very soon ready-made clothing was perceived as less expensive and better made than home-made clothing (Kidwell, 1974). Now home sewing fi lled two main purposes: either to expand the variety of garments available on a budget, or as a creative outlet and a method for creating unique garments that expressed the personality of the wearer. Today with the easy affordability and great variety of ready-to-wear garments available and the relatively high cost

328

Sizing for the home sewing industry 329

of fabric sold retail off the bolt, the home sewer generally cannot make garments any less expensively than they can be purchased. Most people who are engaged in sewing for themselves or their families are interested in the creative aspects of the process, or in making better-fi tting or better-proportioned garments than can be found in ready-to-wear clothing.

Modern paper patterns are a great facilitator of home sewing as they relieve the sewer of the need to learn how to draft and grade patterns, so the sewer can concentrate on fabric choice, construction and adornments of the garment. Paper patterns have been available for the last two centu-ries but, for the fi rst 50 years, patterns were not provided in multiple sizes nor was sizing information included. The introduction of sized patterns for home sewers provided an excellent tool for creating well-fi tting clothing, further reducing the pattern development knowledge needed. However, given the variation in body types, proportions and postures, even graded and well-sized paper patterns do not solve all fi tting problems for the home sewer. Self-help books, magazine articles, workshops and more recently Internet resources have been developed to help the home sewer to make modifi cations in the paper pattern to create well-fi tting garments. Recently the introduction of body scanning has made custom-fi tted paper patterns created from individual body measurements available for the home sewer.

12.2 The development of the home sewing

pattern industry

Patterns began to be published for home sewers in the nineteenth century. Both full-sized and scaled patterns with sewing directions were included in fashion magazines and other clothing-related periodicals, while full-scale paper patterns were also made available for purchase, fi rst to tailors and dressmakers and later to home sewers. Early published works such as The Taylor’s Complete Guide (intended for professional tailors and seam-stresses) and The Lady’s Economical Assistant (intended for the education of home sewers) published fashion plates and patterns but did not indicate measurements or a system for cutting garments to fi t (Seligman, 1996).

Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, publishing became less expensive, and the number of publishers of magazines, books and articles about cutting, sewing and drafting patterns almost doubled. In England the largest and most widely known of these publishing fi rms was the Tailor and Cutter who had published 27 separate works by 1887 and 50 works by 1885 (including books, magazines and trade journals). The Tailor and Cutter continued to be an infl uential force in apparel publishing


until the 1960s. In the USA the John J. Michell Company published many works and also conducted a school for pattern making for professionals and sold ‘standard’ patterns to tailors and cutters. As companies grew and became more specialized three main types of publication were written: technical publications intended for professional tailors and dressmakers, publications for the home sewer, and instructional publications designed to teach sewing and dress making in schools (Seligman, 1996).

Even before these drafting and pattern-making publications became available, women’s magazines were disseminating fashion together with their other offerings. Magazines published information on homemaking, etiquette, cooking, art, literature, etc., as well as fashion plates showing the most recent trends. With these plates they sometimes included scaled or full-sized patterns, with or without drafting and cutting instructions. In some publications all the pattern pieces for a style printed one on top of another were often included on a large supplemental sheet (Fig. 12.1). The home sewer would trace each of the pieces on to their own pattern tissue. However, these patterns still did not contain sizing information.

In 1864, Mme Demorest’s Quarterly Mirror of Fashion advertised ‘waist patterns cut by measure’ which provided patterns cut to specifi c body

12.1 Sets of pattern pieces printed on top of one another in a fold-out supplement from Harper’s Bazaar (1885)


measurements. Women were instructed to send money to cover the cost of the pattern (20–25 cents) together with their bust, waist and underarm length measurements (Kidwell, 1979). These custom-fi tted patterns were the beginning of sized patterns for the home sewer.

The beginning of the paper pattern industry for home sewers as we know it today did not occur until about 1850; however, one can trace the origins and early development of this industry in the popularity and growth of the publication of periodicals on fashion and trade journals (Seligman, 1996). At fi rst, publications included the pattern tissue for tracing the patterns that were printed in the journal. Sometimes the whole printed pattern was sold separately as a supplement to the journal. These supplements eventually turned into their own trade and were offered for sale independently of the publications. There are advertisements in journals from both London and Paris around the beginning of the nine-teenth century offering standard patterns as well as custom patterns made specifi cally to a set of measurements. Patterns were also available as retail purchases in stores; however, most of the pattern business was carried out by mail order. By 1850 the practice of selling paper patterns separate from journals was well established (Seligman, 1996).

S.O. Beeton is often cited for his popularization of the paper pattern as a publication supplement as well as mail-order product. Beeton, with his wife, began a mail-order pattern business in England in 1860 by bringing patterns from Paris of the latest fashions, and their company had immedi-ate success. They are generally regarded as the company responsible for the establishment of the paper pattern industry in England. A Beeton employee by the name of Weldon began the fi rst major commercial pattern company in England in 1879, publishing fashion magazines containing plates and patterns as well as offering cut-out tissue paper patterns for mail order (Seligman, 1996).

At this time, multiple companies fl ourished that published and sold fashion plates, scaled patterns, pattern sheets with multiple overlaid printed patterns, premade patterns and custom patterns, in both America and Europe. Just as with patterning and drafting publications the earliest scaled patterns were originally intended for experienced tailors and dressmakers and were later simplifi ed and reworked for home sewers and as an educa-tional tool.

Educational publications, home sewing publications and patterns for the home sewer grew even more numerous in the early 1900s. Because of the First and Second World Wars and the depression of the 1930s the skills of the home dressmaker became more necessary economically. This resulted in an increase in home sewing for practical purposes, and therefore an increase in the popularity of the commercial paper pattern. With the reduction in the number of tailors and dressmakers


that occurred at the same time owing to the increasing availability of well-made ready-to-wear clothing, the focus of publications shifted away from professional journals; now publications supplied the demand from the home dressmaker and from schools and fashion institutes (Seligman, 1996).

12.3 The development of sizing for the home

sewing pattern

In 1863, Ebenezer Butterick, a trained custom tailor from Sterling, Massachusetts, joined the pattern industry and established E. Butterick and Company with J.W. Wilder and A.W. Pollard. They began by produc-ing patterns for men and boys and were producing patterns for women by 1867. In 1872, Butterick offered basic patterns to accommodate the correct measurements of the wearer. These were the fi rst sized patterns; they were paper patterns in graduated sizes (Seligman, 1996). The Metropoli-tan, the publication created by Butterick to promote his patterns, reported that at its beginning E. Butterick and Co. had ‘invented and elaborated a system of graduated patterns to fi t all sizes. Others had been hampered by the idea that these things must be done according to correct laws of proportion found in antique statues’. The Butterick Company, however, had ‘recognized the fact that these true proportions are not often found, and by a series of practical experiments best known to themselves, perfected a system suitable for all’ (Kidwell, 1979). The initial sized pat-terns were cut from stiff paper and later cut from tissue and sold with instructions.

James McCall was a Scotsman who began his career in Glasgow selling drafting tools but eventually began to sell patterns for home sewers. He immigrated to New York in 1870 to continue his pattern business and to begin a design partnership with Mr Moschcowitz, a lead designer in New York. McCall advertised: ‘Every pattern we issue will be the product of the ablest and most experienced gentlemen dressmakers in the country, all under the supervision of Mr Moschcowitz, a gentleman who stands at the head of his profession, and who is unquestionably the ablest dressmaker in the United States. What Worth is to Paris, Moschcowitz is to New York – the highest authority on all matters pertaining to fashion’ (Harper’s Bazaar, 1871).

McCall’s was the fi rst pattern company to offer patterns with printed seam lines, notches and grain lines in 1919. Before this, patterns were blank tissue paper cut to shape, with cut-out matching notches and grain lines indicated with holes punched in the paper. McCall’s was also the fi rst to print in full color on their pattern envelopes in 1929. Many more


companies soon joined these early pattern companies, selling patterns in their own and in other’s publications and in retail stores. Some of the pattern companies of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century include The Domestic Pattern Company (1873), Standard Fashion Company (1888), Vogue (1899), Pictorial Review Companies (1899), The Home Pattern Company (1905) and Simplicity (1927) (Kidwell, 1979). Simplicity sold ‘three-in-one’ style patterns, a popular innovation in the depression years.

Burda is a pattern company that was founded in 1949 by Aenne Burda in Offenburg (southwest Germany). In 1952, the Aenne Burda publishing company began to create separate sewing patterns. Burda Fashion is now published in 89 countries and 16 languages and is the world’s best-selling sewing magazine for home sewers. It is published monthly, and each issue presents 50 new garments, many fashion and styling tips, as well as a detachable supplement with comprehensive instructions and sewing pat-terns. Burda also produces a line of sewing patterns independently of the magazine.

Paper patterns and, specifi cally, sized paper patterns have been a huge success for the home sewing market from their inception. In 1871, Butter-ick boasted that he was selling four million patterns in the USA (The Metropolitan, 1872). Sized paper patterns reduce the required knowledge of the sewer by providing her with appropriate shapes, relative proportions and sizes that generally corresponded to her measurements. Most compa-nies were producing sized (proportionally graded) patterns by the late 1880s but this did not automatically solve all fi tting problems. Women still had to alter the patterns to fi t themselves and to create a fashionable silhouette, but those fi t issues were less diffi cult to deal with than drafting a pattern from scratch. Patterns also allowed for the creation of more varied clothing styles because the sewer could purchase each new design for pennies rather than spending time drafting the pattern or purchasing expensive custom-drafted patterns from a dressmaker (Kidwell, 1979).

After the 1950s the number of pattern companies decreased as the larger companies consolidated the market by absorbing the smaller companies. In the USA, Butterick acquired Vogue, a company started in 1899 when a popular society magazine began to sell paper patterns. McCall’s then acquired Butterick and Vogue. McCall’s currently markets patterns under all three names, concentrating on more classic styles under the Butterick name, more contemporary fashion under the McCall’s name, and elaborate couture styles under the Vogue name. Simplicity distributes Burda patterns in the USA.

Paper patterns are sold in a wide variety of venues today. Modern patterns are still available via mail order through magazines and


catalogues, and are also sold in specialty and fabric stores. However, as is true with many modern products; the widest range of patterns is currently available online. The four major US pattern companies (McCall’s, Vogue, Butterick and Simplicity) continue to produce a wide range of fashion patterns for men, women and children ranging from basics to fashion to specialty items and costumes. However, there are also hundreds of small- and medium-sized companies that create unique patterns of all types. A selected set of these companies and their specialties is listed in Table 12.1. This is by no means an exhaustive list and only serves to illustrate the wide variety of home sewing patterns available.

Table 12.1 A variety of pattern companies from the Internet

Type of pattern Company Websitecompanies

Large companies Burda http://www.burdamode.com Simplicity http://www.simplicity.com New Look http://www.simplicity.com (division of Simplicity) McCalls http://www.mccallpattern.com Butterick http://www.butterick.com (division of McCalls) Vogue (division http://www.voguepatterns.com of McCalls)

Small companies Hot Patterns http://www.hotpatternsstore.com Neue Mode http://www.neuemodestil.de Kwik Sew http://www.kwiksew.com Lorraine http://www.lorrainetorrence.com Torrence Design Textile Studio http://www.textilestudiopatterns.com Patterns

Custom patterns Unique Patterns http://www.uniquepatterns.com Modern Sewing http://www.m-sewing.com

Large sizes Sew Grand http://www.sewgrand.com My Sisters http://www.mysisterspatterns.com Patterns Petite Plus http://www.petitepluspatterns.com Patterns

Wearable art Art to Wear http://www.bettegant.com

Specifi c fabrics Stretch and Sew http://www.gmidesign.com/ stretch/home.html

Active wear Jalie http://www.jalie.com The Green http://www.thegreenpepper.com Pepper


Table 12.1 cont’d

Type of pattern Company Websitecompanies

Specialty and Harper House http://www.longago.com costumes Folkwear http://www.folkwear.com Walker’s Walker’s western wear Western Wear (http://www.westernpatterns.com) Madame X Belly Belly dancing (http://www. Dancing madamexcostumes.com) Sewing Central http://www.sewingcentral.com New York City http://www.home.earthlink.net/ Theatrical ~brinac/Education.htm Costuming Resource (links)

Vintage Vintage Sewing http://www.sewfunpatterns.com Patterns Rusty Zipper http://www.rustyzipper.com

Special needs Clothing for the http://www.tu-rights.com physically challenged

Pattern clearing Sewing http://www.sewingpatterns.com houses or set Patterns.com of links About.com http://www.sewing.about.com/ od/patternsprojects/ The Sewing http://www.thesewingplace.com Place Denver Fabrics http://www.denverfabrics.com/ pages/static/sewingpatterns.htm

Custom pattern Wild Ginger http://www.wildginger.com software for Modern Sewing http://www.m-sewing.com home sewers LEKO Pattern Programs Dress Shop® 2.5 http://www.livingsoft.com PatternMaker http://www.patternmaker.com Software Personal http://www.wfsinc.com Patterns® 3+

12.4 Measurements and sizes of paper patterns

As the paper pattern industry grew and developed, the patterns changed to refl ect the different styles and silhouettes of the time. Pattern-sizing concepts and labeling also changed together with changes in fashion related to fi t, silhouette and size designations. When Butterick graded the fi rst paper patterns he used numerical size names based on the age and bust size of the wearer. Misses sizes 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 referred to the


age of the wearer and were coupled with comparable bust sizes for those ages (28 inches, 30 inches, 32 inches, 34 inches and 36 inches respectively) (Table 12.2). Once past the age of 18, girls were considered women and so their size was listed as their bust size (e.g. 36 for a 36 inch bust). Ready-to-wear manufacturers and paper pattern manufacturers used roughly the same sizing system through the late 1920s. As sizes changed, both pattern and ready-to-wear companies eliminated the bust measurements for ladies sizes. Eventually the term ‘misses’ replaced ‘ladies’, and size codes (the original age designations) replaced bust measurements as the size code, while the term ‘junior’ was substituted for what once had been called ‘misses’ (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

Sometime in the early 1930s, ready-to-wear manufacturers began slowly to change their numbering system, assigning the same body measurements to a smaller size designation. For example a 34 inch bust that once fi t a size 16 would now fi t a size 14. In 1967, US pattern companies followed the manufacturers’ lead in an attempt to standardize their sizes and to align them more closely to ready-to-wear sizes. They used as a guide the mea-surements determined by a US Government National Bureau of Standards study made in 1940 (National Bureau of Standards, 1958). Commercial patterns and ready-to-wear clothing were then similarly sized until the early 1970s. However, the ready-to-wear market continued to reduce the size numbers while keeping the body measurements the same, so that by 1983 a 34 inch bust fi tted a size 10 while currently a 34 inch bust fi ts a size 4 or a size 6. This reduction in the numerical value of the size name is referred to as vanity sizing and is a result of the fact that women often prefer to buy clothing in smaller sizes. Generally, the more expensive the clothing, the smaller size you wear in that brand, adding even more cachet to the smaller sizes. Ready-to-wear has no overall sizing standards; each clothing manufacturer decides its own size standards and can label them with any size of its choosing (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

US pattern companies tried to keep up with the ever-changing size designations perpetuated by ready-to-wear manufacturers and vanity sizing. Between 1931 and 1972, pattern companies changed the body measurements that were used for each size four times (Table 12.3). In 1972, pattern companies collaboratively decided upon a sizing standard and have kept the same measurements for each size since then, in order to simplify sizing for their customers. At this time the pattern companies also made other changes to accommodate changes in underwear and body stance. The bust line was lowered 5–8 inch to fi t the softer bra styles that had been adopted by women, and the waist was increased by 1 inch as girdles were no longer commonly worn. The back waist was also length-ened to accommodate the more rounded back that had become more common.

Table 12.2 Identical patterns for a misses size 14 (age designation) and a ladies size 36 from the 1940s compared with a modern misses size range (data courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (2002), available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

Current American Pattern Company charts: toddlers to girls’ size 14Size (by age) 2 4 6 7 8 10 12 14Chest (inches) 21 23 25 26 27 28.5 30 32

Bust sizes pattern companies used for misses in the 1930s and 1940sMisses size 10 12 14 16 18 20Bust (inches) 28 30 32 34 36 38

Today’s pattern company standard measurementsMisses size 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24Bust (inches) 29 29.5 30.5 31.5 32.5 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

Note that the 1940s misses chest measurement for sizes 12 and 14 are identical with the chest measurement of today’s girls’ ages 12 and 14, suggesting that the evolution of numbers for sizes originally came from ages.


Today Vogue, Butterick, McCall’s and Simplicity all utilize the same size designations and matching measurements as agreed upon in 1972. It is particularly vital for a pattern company to maintain size continuity since customers cannot try on the product before buying it. With a ready-to-wear product you can try multiple sizes and purchase the size that fi ts you best; however, with patterns you must construct the product fi rst before discov-ering the fi t (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

Current standardized US pattern sizes run from a size 6 to a size 34 with the bust measurement increasing by 1 inch between sizes up to a size 10, then a 1.5 inch increase between sizes 10 and 12, and a 2 inch increase between sizes 12 and 14 and all larger sizes. Sizing for European companies such as Burda is slightly different. Burda increases the bust measurement by an even 4 cm per size up to size 46 and then 6 cm per size between sizes 46 and 60 (Table 12.4). A European size 32 is approximately equivalent to an American size 6. European sizes were initially named for half of the total bust circumference measurement in centimeters, although their sizes have fallen prey to vanity sizing as well. Technically a European size 40 should measure 80 cm in the bust; however, in reality an 80 cm bust is only a size 32 while a size 40 fi ts a 92 cm bust (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

Pattern companies have recently begun to print their patterns as multi-sized patterns in one package (generally three or more sizes printed together). These multisized patterns use less paper and give consumers more size choices. At fi rst, consumers found these patterns confusing, but most pattern companies responded to consumer complaints and improved their format. As home sewers became used to this concept, there was less confusion, and now many home sewers fi nd them very useful for custom-izing the fi t of their patterns (e.g., a dress can be cut using the size 10 at the bodice merging to a size 12 in the skirt). Multisize patterns work the

Table 12.3 Changes in size 16 pattern dimensions from the 1930s to current standards (data courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (2002), available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

Year 1931* 1956 1967† 1972 (to current)

Size 16 16 16 16Bust (inches) 34 36 38 38Waist (inches) 28 28 29 30Hip (inches) 37 38 40 40

* Based on recommendations of the National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce.† In 1967, new sizing was adopted to refl ect moderate priced ready to wear and catalog sizing.

Table 12.4 American and European size charts for pattern companies (data courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (2002), available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

American sizes (McCall’s, Simplicity, Vogue and Butterick)Size 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26w 28w 30w 32w 34wBust (inches) 30.5 31.5 32.5 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 (cm) 78 80 83 87 92 97 102 107 112 117 122 127 132 137 142Waist (inches) 23 24 25 26.5 28 30 32 34 37 39 41.5 44 46.5 49 51.5 (cm) 58 61 64 67 71 76 81 87 94 99 105 112 118 124 130Hip (inches) 32.5 33.5 34.5 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 (cm) 83 85 88 92 97 102 107 112 117 122 127 132 137 142 147

European sizes (Burda)Size 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60Bust (inches) 30 31.5 33 34.75 36.25 37.75 39.5 41 43.5 45.75 48 50.5 52.75 55.25 57.5 (cm) 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 110 116 122 128 134 140 146Waist (inches) 23 24.5 26 27.75 29.25 30.75 32.5 34 36.25 38.75 41 43.5 45.75 48 50.5 (cm) 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 92 98 104 110 116 122 128Hip (inches) 32.5 34.75 35.5 37 38.75 40.25 41.75 43.5 45.75 48 50.5 52.5 55.25 57.5 60 (cm) 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 116 122 128 134 140 146 152


best when only three or four sizes are included in a packet and when the size ranges of patterns with different sets of sizes overlap (e.g. 8, 10, 12 sold in one package and 10, 12, 14 sold in another). This way, many more com-binations of top and bottom sizing are available in the same pattern. For example, if the pattern sizes did not overlap and were sold in combinations of 8, 10, 12 and 14, 16, 18, a customer who was size 10 on the top and size 14 on the bottom would have to buy two patterns. McCall’s sells their pat-terns with overlapping sizes which makes their multisized patterns very user friendly (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

Pattern companies have worked very hard during this past hundred years to create patterns to fi t anyone in the population by developing many dif-ferent size and shape categories. Yet many of the categories that were experimented with in the past did not sell well enough to produce and have been eliminated. One such category is a miss petite size defi ned as approxi-mately 5 feet 2 inches, an average bust, short in the torso (short waisted) and slightly larger than misses’ sizes in the waist. The term petite refers to height only, and so technically a person that weighs 200 lbs can still be ‘petite’. Someone who is a petite size overall would be shorter proportionately in every part of her body than an average height person (Fig. 12.2). However, a person who is 5 feet 2 inches or under is actually not necessarily petite overall, as she can be short in the legs only. Some women who measure petite in stature are actually longer in the waist and crotch than a tall person. A comparison of a misses size 14 with a miss petite size 14 shows that the measurement differences are minor; so pattern making companies generally do not make petite patterns today (Table 12.5).

Half-size is another category that is no longer produced. It is not clear where the term half-size came from. Generally this is a category for older, shorter and stouter people. A half-size woman is approximately 5 feet 2 inches tall, has a low full bust, short waist (and therefore a longer crotch) and is thicker in the middle than a misses size. The size range for half-sizes is size 10 1–2 to size 24 1–2. A measurement comparison between a misses size 14 and a half-size 14 1–2 shows many differences between these size categories (see Table 12.5). Women’s sizes are also rarely produced today. This size category is for a woman of average height (around 5 feet 6 inches), average bust position, average waist length, more rounded in the back and thicker in the middle than the misses size. A comparison of misses sizes and women’s sizes shows a difference only in the waist circumference (see Table 12.5).

One size modifi cation that has been incorporated into sizing was intro-duced by McCall’s for their fi t pattern (and not for their style patterns). A fi t pattern is designed to fi t the body very closely and is used to compare one’s body to the sloper that forms the basis of the pattern company’s designs, to determine what changes need to be made to achieve a perfect


12.2 Two petite fi gures: the woman on the left is short in stature but is relatively long in the body and can use a misses pattern with no length alterations; the woman on the right is short throughout her body and will need to shorten the misses pattern above and below the bust, and at the hem (images and text courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (2002); available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

fi t. These changes can then be applied to the style patterns. Palmer/Pletsch has created a set of fi t patterns for McCall’s with different bust sizes based on bra cup sizes. This allows women with identical frame sizes, including shoulder width and underbust and waist measures, but different bust sizes, all to fi nd fi t patterns that will accommodate their body type.

One size category that some home sewers feel would be benefi cial is patterns sized for older women. Our bodies do change with age, but every-one changes differently and at different rates. Therefore it would be hard to produce a ‘mature’ pattern size that would fi t everyone. Palmer and Alto, with their experience fi tting patterns for over 100 000 people in fi tting and sewing workshops have identifi ed the kinds of changes that commonly occur with age, including shoulders that move forward, a back that becomes more rounded, shorter overall height, a thicker waist, a lower and fuller


Table 12.5 Comparison of petite sizes, regular sizes, half-sizes and women’s sizes (data courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (2002), available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

Misses Misses Misses Misses Women’s size size petite size half-size size 38 (Misses 14 14 141–2 20 size 20w)

Bust (inches) 36 36 37 42 42Waist (inches) 28 28.5 31 34 35Hip (inches) 38 38 39 44 44Back waist 16.5 15.5 15.5 17.25 17.25length (inches)

bust, a rounder abdomen, smaller hips, fl atter buttocks and a tilted waist-line (higher in the front and lower in the back). Creating good fi t by modi-fying the pattern to accommodate these body changes is critical for older women to look good and not to draw attention to their changing shape and proportions (Palmer and Alto, 2002).

12.5 Altering patterns to fi t

Many different systems have been devised by the home sewing industry to help sewers to alter patterns to fi t. The most accurate method is to make the garment in an inexpensive fabric such as gingham or muslin, to fi t it and to transfer the changes to the paper pattern before cutting the fi nal fabric. However, this method is very time consuming and costly. Tissue patterns can also be pinned together and fi tted to the half-body, a method that Pati Palmer and Marta Alto have perfected and teach in 4 day fi t workshops and that they illustrate in their book (Palmer and Alto, 2002) (Fig. 12.3). However, proper fi t is related to many different factors, including body proportions (proportions determined by both bone structure and body shape), age and posture. Palmer and Alto (1998) also have developed a method of creating a body graph, a full-sized accurate silhouette of the body, in order to identify body proportions and asymmetries.

Other methods of pattern alteration are based on body measurements, and adjustments are made fl at on the table to the pattern pieces. Farmer and Gotwals (1982) described the following methods: slashing and spread-ing patterns to match body measurements (the internal method), measur-ing out desired dimensions on a paper and sliding the original pattern to each mark and tracing the edges of the pattern (the slide method), and


12.3 Altering patterns to fi t: 1, fi tting a gingham shell; 2, the unal-tered pattern tissue; 3, the altered pattern tissue (images courtesy of Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, adapted from Palmer and Alto (1998); available at www.palmerpletsch.com)

extending seam lines to the desired dimensions (the seam-line method). The slide method and the seam-line method do not accommodate some changes for curvier fi gures and are not recommended for more than small and simple alterations. Liechty et al. (1992) described the slash method, a pivot method in which patterns are shifted, pivoted and traced to match desired measurements, and a seam method, in which the edges (seam allowances) are cut, pivoted and spread to alter the pattern. All the mea-surement methods, when applied correctly, will improve the fi t of the pattern, but some method of fi tting the resulting pattern on the body is generally necessary to check and refi ne the fi t.

12.6 Summary and future trends

The modern home sewing industry has changed and grown in many ways. Publications for home sewers today are well written with informative articles on sewing and fi tting techniques. The pattern-making industry provides a wide range of styles that make it possible for the home sewer to create clothing easily that follows current fashions. Publications such as Threads magazine assist home sewers in expanding their repertoire of skills, introducing them to fabric and decorative techniques that make it possible to create garments closer to the wearable art tradition than the ready-to-wear tradition. However, the fi t of a home-sewn garment is still the most critical element to the success of the garment.


If we consider the changes that have happened in the pattern industry for home sewers since its inception in the 1800s, it seems that we are coming full circle in some ways. Perhaps the ‘waist patterns cut by measure’ for 25 cents from Mme Demorest’s Quarterly Mirror of Fashion in 1864 were inexpensive compared with today, but technology is making relatively inexpensive custom patterns for the home sewer available once again. Unique Patterns, founded in 1994 by Tanya Shaw Weeks, is a Canadian company that provides custom-made patterns to the home sewing industry. Patterns can be ordered over the Internet using measurements taken in the traditional way, or customers can attend one of the events held across North America in local fabric shops and sewing conventions where they can have measurements taken with a three-dimensional body scanner. Unique has developed their own scanner, the BodyskannerTM, in conjunc-tion with Dalhousie University’s DalTech iDLab facilities in Halifax, Nova Scotia. This scanner can be easily moved, set up and calibrated and has a small footprint suitable for use in a retail space. Unique Patterns is also initiating a new program, Fit Place, in which scanners will be permanently installed at many locations including Jo-Ann fabric stores and independent retailers. Unique has scanned over 20 000 customers and provided more than 100 000 custom patterns for customers in USA, Canada, England and the Caribbean. Once a customer has been scanned, their measurements are kept on fi le, and they can order more custom patterns over the Internet. Patterns are created using Unique Pattern’s own proprietary computer-aided design (CAD) software for pattern automation. They are then printed and shipped to the customer.

Modern Sewing (http://www.m-sewing.com) is an entirely Internet-based company that makes patterns using an automated system, LEKO. This system was developed for Modern Sewing in 1989 by specialists of Vilar Soft Ltd, a software developer. Modern Sewing makes patterns based on the customer’s measurements and then either ships the printed pattern to the customer or sends the pattern in a digital format over email that can be printed in sections by the customer’s home computer and then taped together. These print-on-demand patterns are a new innovation for the home pattern industry that can eliminate the cost of printing and shipping patterns.

Body scanning offers a method of taking reliable body measurements, an important factor in creating affordable automated custom patterns for the home sewer. The availability of population measures from anthropo-metric studies conducted with the body scanner can also benefi t the indus-try by helping them to improve their sizing for traditionally sized patterns. The scanner technology has ensured that anthropometric studies are much more affordable than was possible using traditional anthropometric tools, making up-to-date population data available. One use of body scanning


being investigated for ready-to-wear sizing that could also benefi t the pat-ternmaking industry is the ability to look at body proportions and body shapes in relation to sizing.

CAD for the home sewer is yet another segment of the home sewing industry that is being driven by new technologies. Software systems such as Wild Ginger, LEKO, Dress Shop, Patternmaker and Personal Patterns have been developed for the home sewing industry. These software systems allow the customer to choose a style and then to type in individual body measurements to automatically alter the pattern to fi t their body.

All these technologies will continue to be developed to make the creation of well-fi tting clothing by the home sewer easier and more suc-cessful. The home sewing industry can use technology to help introduce the next generation of sewers to the creative potential of home sewing, and to provide their current customers with the tools that they need to continue their dedication to the art and craft of making clothing.


12.7.1 History and overview of the industry

Kidwell, C. (1974), Suiting Everyone: the Democratization of Clothing in America, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Kidwell, C.B. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Palmer, P. and Alto, M. (2002), Fit for Real People, Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, Portland, Oregon.

Seligman, K. (1996), Cutting for All! The Sartorial Arts, Related Crafts, and the Commercial Paper Pattern, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois.

The Commercial Pattern Archive at The University of Rhode IslandURI Library Special Collections15 Lippitt RoadKingston USA RI 02881Phone: 401-874-2713www.uri.edu/library/special_collections/COPA/index.html

Kevin L. Seligman Library and Archives at the Doris Stein Research and Design Center for Costume and TextilesLos Angeles County Museum of Art5905 Wilshire BoulevardLos Angeles USA CA 90036Phone: 323-857-6085www.lacma.org/art/DorisStein.aspxemail: [email protected]


12.7.2 Books and articles for the home sewer

American Sewing Guild, www.asg.org.Andriks, S. (1999–2000), ‘Choose the correct pattern size’, Threads, 86, 14, 16.Bergh, R. (2000), Sewing Class Clothes that Fit, Betterway Books, Cincinnati,

Ohio.Betzina, S. (2003), Fast Fit: Easy Pattern Alterations for Every Figure, Taunton

Press, Newtown, Connecticut.Butterick, http://www.butterick.com.C.D. Incorporated (1987), The Perfect Fit, Creative Publishing International,

Minnetonka, Minnesota.Deckert, B. (2002), Sewing for Plus Sizes: Creating Clothes that Fit and Flatter,

Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.Editors of Threads (1996), Fitting Solutions: Pattern-altering Tips for Garments

that Fit, Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.Emodi, B. (1997–1998), ‘Stop! . . . Are you sure that pattern will work?’, Threads,

74, 42–47.Hazen, G.G. (1998), Fantastic Fit for Everybody: How to Alter Patterns to Flatter

your Figure, Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania.Home Sewing Association, http://www.sewing.org.Howland, K. (1998), ‘Your sloper as a fi tting tool’, Threads, 79, 48–55.Illian, K. (1999), Bodymapping: The Step-by-step Guide to Fitting Real Bodies,

Krause Publications, Iola Wisconsin.Lazear, S. (2004–2005), ‘To fi t your body, measure your clothes’, Threads, 116,

54–57.McCalls, www.mccallpattern.com.Morris, M., and McCann, S. (2002), Customize your Sewing Patterns for a Perfect

Fit, Lark Books, Asheville, North Carolina.National Make It Yourself With Wool, www.sheepusa.org.Page, A. (2002), ‘To judge a pattern, start with its cover’, Threads, 100, 48–51.Palmer, P. and Alto, M. (1998), Fit for Real People, Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated,

Portland, Oregon.Palmer, P. and Alto, M. (2003), Pants for Real People, Palmer/Pletsch Incorpo-

rated, Portland, Oregon.Palmer, P. and Alto, M., Pants for Real People, Fitting Techniques DVD, Palmer/

Pletsch Incorporated, Portland, Oregon.Professional Association of Custom Clothiers, www.paccprofessionals.org.Simplicity, http://www.simplicity.com.Singer (1989), Sewing Pants that Fit, Cy DeCosse Incorporated, Minnetonka,

Minnesota.Tilton, M. (2006), ‘Fit the tissue and get sewing sooner’, Threads, 123, 42–46.Vogue, www.voguepatterns.com.Zieman, N.L. (1995), Fitting Finesse. Oxmoor House, Birmingham, Alabama.

12.8 References

Farmer, B.M., and Gotwals, L.M. (1982), Concepts of Fit: An Individualized Approach to Pattern Design, Macmillan, London.


Harper’s Bazaar (1871), 671.Harper’s Bazaar (1885), Supplement.Kidwell, C. (1974), Suiting Everyone: the Democratization of Clothing in America,

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Kidwell, C.B. (1979), Cutting a Fashionable Fit, Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington, DC.Liechty, E.G., Pottberg, D.N., and Rasbard, J.A. (1992), Fitting and Pattern

Alteration: A Multi-method Approach, Fairchild, New York.National Bureau of Standards (1958), ‘Voluntary Commercial Standard CS 215–58

Body Measurements for the Sizing of Women’s Patterns and Apparel, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

Palmer, P., and Alto, M. (2002), Fit for Real People, Palmer/Pletsch Incorporated, Portland, Oregon.

Seligman, K. (1996), Cutting for All! The Sartorial Arts, Related Crafts, and the Commercial Paper Pattern, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois.

The Metropolitan (1872), (May), 333.

13Production systems, garment

specifi cation and sizing

S.P. ASH DOW N, L .M. LY M A N- C L A R K E , J. SM I T H A N D S. LOK ER


13.1 Introduction

The ultimate goal of manufacturers and retailers of clothing is to provide clothing for the whole range of their target market that consistently fi ts well to increase customer satisfaction, and ultimately sales. According to Brown and Rice (1998, p. 140), ‘Consistent fi t within a brand builds customer loyalty because the customer can rely on fi nding a good fi t where he or she has found it before’. However, this is a diffi cult goal to meet in apparel production. According to some estimates as much as 20% of clothing that is produced will not meet expected standards, a percentage that would be unheard of in most other manufacturing environments.

Within the clothing production and distribution process there are many points at which constraints are introduced that limit the range of sizes that can be effectively produced and sold, thus limiting the range of body types in the target market that can be well fi tted within the sizing system. The intended size and/or fi t of a garment can also be compromised during clothing production, resulting in an inconsistent product. Anything from a problem with the pattern or fabric through a marking, spreading, cutting, sewing, garment processing or labeling mistake can alter the size of a product. Problems that impact sizing and fi t of garments during production are particularly diffi cult to control, as new issues may emerge when differ-ent fabrics or styles are introduced. Many consumers recognize the lack of reliable sizing, even within a single style and size. Experienced shoppers will often bring several identical garments (the same style and size) into the fi tting room as they know that one garment may fi t them better as there will be differences between these supposedly identical garments. Toler-ances for garments, which are made from soft and fl exible material, can never be as tight as tolerances for products made of hard plastic or steel. Maintaining very tight tolerances in apparel is more costly; so it is impor-tant to know one’s target market and to provide the appropriate trade-off between reliable fi t and the price point at retail.

348

Production systems, garment specifi cation and sizing 349

It is necessary to monitor the overall processes of developing new designs, testing prototypes and producing the garments and to devise strategies to track and to correct problems as they develop in order to maintain appro-priate sizing increments. Every person who works in an apparel factory has the potential to affect adversely the fi nal outcome of the garments pro-duced. The lack of true automation in apparel manufacturing makes main-tenance of accurately produced products an issue that is ultimately vested in the individual workers. Three aspects of the process are particularly important in creating consistent sizing and fi t in a company’s products: creating a company culture that clearly expresses the relationship between quality, profi tability and individual responsibility to employees, appropri-ate training for all workers, and an effective and effi cient quality control process.

13.2 Quality control and specifi cations

Problems that impact the sizing of the fi nal product decrease the quality of the fi nished product and will affect consumer confi dence in a brand, ultimately reducing sales. Many manufacturers maintain a quality control department which checks fi nal garments to ensure that they meet standard specifi cations for measured size and quality (Fig. 13.1); however, in this case, quality control is a misnomer since the garment is fi nished and beyond the ‘control’ of the inspector. These fi nal inspectors are often referred to

13.1 Inspector checking coat construction (courtesy of Cornell University Photography; all rights reserved)


as quality assurance instead of control. Three basic types of quality inspec-tion are generally carried out in a factory setting:

1 In-line inspection to catch problems at an early stage of construction.2 Trimming and inspection at the end of the line to catch problems

missed earlier or in the wet processing phase.3 Final audits just before the product is shipped (Brown and Rice, 1998).

The more frequently a garment is checked during production (including measuring for appropriate dimensions), the better the chance that the fi nal garments will exhibit a high quality that maintains the size and fi t estab-lished at the pattern stage.

The goal of any production facility is to maintain the desired fi t and fashion for each individual piece as the garment is taken through the pro-duction process (Hudson, 1980). As Hudson (1988) stated, ‘Quality can be controlled only by production workers as they make the product.’ Thus the role of management and the quality control department is to provide support to the production workers in the goal of meeting the garment specifi cations. Experts in clothing production emphasize that the most effective means of controlling the quality of garments is a well-trained production team that checks the product and their own work at every stage in production. Therefore employee involvement is vital to high-performance work systems (Loker, 2002). The staff needs to be well trained to understand how to do their job; they must be properly rewarded for quality, vigilant to defects in the raw materials and products coming to them and encouraged to point out errors and fi x mistakes before the next process is completed. Attention to detail is crucial during every step in the process. This process of producing quality garments, particularly when there is great variety in materials and styles, is not a simple task; therefore training is essential. The training must focus on more than just describing a process or directing the employee on how to accomplish a task; rather it must communicate the ultimate goal of creating well-sized clothing. In this case the ‘why’ of an instruction can be more important than the ‘how’ or ‘what’, so that rules and correct processes are interpreted and changed appropriately for the differences and exceptions that will occur when the product style changes rapidly (Solinger, 1980).

Within this chapter we shall review the major areas of production and the challenges faced with regards to maintaining true sizing during garment manufacturing. We shall also discuss issues in the distribution of the product that affect sizing.

13.3 Preproduction: design and pattern making

All garments begin as a concept. The quality of the design is determined by its fashionability, functionality and construction. A garment that fi ts


well but is not styled or proportioned appropriately for the current fashion or for the target market will not be purchased. On the other hand, a highly fashionable garment that is constructed poorly and fi ts badly may be pur-chased once, but the consumer is not likely to return to the same brand again and can infl uence others in their perception of the brand. A garment that does not fi t well is generally unattractive and will often also be uncom-fortable to wear (Brown and Rice, 1998). Garments need to be designed such that they fi t, look good and maintain those characteristics over many wear and care cycles of the garment. Without good design a product is doomed long before it ever makes it into the production stage.

The fi rst interpretation of the design comes from the pattern maker, who creates a base pattern for the design working with the designer to fi nd the best aesthetic look while maintaining appropriate fi t and also engineering the pattern to work well within the production process. The fi t of this base pattern is refi ned by trying a prototype garment on a fi t model. The fi t model is carefully chosen to have body proportions and measurements appropriate for the target market for which the garment is produced. Use of a live fi t model for refi nement of the pattern instead of a dress form is critical as it allows the fi t of the garment to be judged as the wearer engages in everyday activities: sitting, walking, driving or reaching for a subway strap. A good fi t model can also sense small variations in fi t that cannot be seen just by looking at the way that the garment falls on the body (Bye and LaBat, 2005).

The size of this fi t model will generally be on the lower end of the size range as the prototype garment developed for this process can then be used for marketing as well as fi t testing. However, if the fi t model is too close to the small end of the range, then the grading of the pattern into the larger sizes may be compromised. Issues with the fi t model can also arise as body dimensions of any person will fl uctuate to some extent day to day, and even from early in the day to late in the day. It is important to measure a fi t model regularly to keep track of these fl uctuations, as body variations that can affect the garment size up to a half-size can occur. Use of sizing speci-fi cations can also help to keep the base size consistent, but changing styles can make it impossible to maintain the same measurements for different styles. For example, as waist heights of pants vary from low rise to high rise, the waist circumference will vary; so waist specifi cations for different styles must also vary and can best be determined on a fi t model with an appropriate body shape and size.

Creating the appropriate fi t on the fi t model will often require much iteration with many pattern adjustments and prototype fi ttings. The pattern must be developed with care in order to preserve the look as well as the size, fi t and manufacturability of the style. Much attention to detail is needed to avoid matching notches that do not meet correctly, seams of different lengths or incorrectly placed darts. These and any other


number of pattern-making errors will result in ill-fi tting or badly balanced garments.

The pattern maker or grader will then grade the pattern up and down from the base size, creating a range of sizes for each pattern. If the grading process is not done correctly the true size and/or the desired proportions of the garment can be compromised (Bye and DeLong, 1994). Some pattern makers and graders do not work from a set of standards or grade rules, which can lead to inconsistent grading between different styles of garments or even within one garment on different pattern pieces. A well-tested and documented set of grade rules are vital to ensure a consistent grading process and to maintain the correct size and proportions of a garment as it is graded up and down from its initial base size.

Different grade rules are generally developed for garments of different types and for different size categories. Within a size category and garment type the grade rules are the same, even for garments with different fi ts and silhouettes, to maintain the same fi t across the size range of all similar garments for a brand. Each different set of grade rules should be tested and documented and sample garments constructed in each size and checked for correct style and fi t by both the designer and the technical designer. Many companies will focus resources on perfecting fi t on the base size fi t model but will neglect fi t testing to validate the range of sizes in the system when they create their grade rules. This is a diffi cult process, as one cannot hire a set of proportionally matched fi t models in different sizes; however, it is a critical step in creating a set of grade rules appropriate for one’s target market.

Collaboration between the designer and pattern maker is vital as certain aesthetic qualities and garment proportions can be lost during the pattern-making and grading process while certain construction and fi t issues may not be taken into account during the design process. An understanding of different material properties, the production machines available and their limits, and available production processes is necessary in order to ensure that the resulting pattern can be reliably manufactured within specifi ed parameters. Understanding different types of seaming and the allowance necessary for each seam type is also a critical factor. The depth of a seam allowance for a felled seam may vary for different thicknesses of fabric. Garments such as blue jeans and men’s dress shirts commonly contain many different types of seam, each with its own requirements for an allow-ance. Establishing and communicating these different allowances correctly is an essential part of the pattern development and specifi cation process. Retailers and product developers who source their manufacturing to dif-ferent production facilities must understand the production capabilities of different manufacturing facilities thoroughly and communicate clearly with each different factory. The machinery, production processes, level of


quality control, and skill of the operators at a manufacturing facility must be appropriate for the particular application.

13.4 Preproduction: prototypes and development of

size specifi cations

Standards are established by apparel companies to codify the expectations that they have for the products that they produce and/or sell. Specifi cations must be established by the pattern designer, engineer, quality control per-sonnel and sales. Then, manufacturing must follow the guidelines and specifi cations to obtain an acceptable product for the customer. Standards not only encompass the dimensions of the various sizes and size ranges of the products but also can include other factors such as material properties, design features, style components, appearance aspects and the ultimate performance of the product (Kadolph, 1998). All these other factors can ultimately have an impact on the sizing and fi t of the garment. However, the most important aspect of the standards for sizing is the size specifi ca-tion that is developed and used throughout the pattern design and produc-tion process to ensure that garments are manufactured reliably to produce the correct size.

Size specifi cations are lists of the critical measurements needed to main-tain the fi t and style of a garment across sizes. These measurements may or may not correlate to body measurements used for pattern and fi t devel-opment. Size specifi cations for an individual style are generally created by the pattern maker from the prototype garment once the fi t is approved. The garment measurements of the prototype are adjusted for larger and smaller sizes based on the increments between sizes embodied in the grade rules. A specifi cation sheet is then created that generally has a technical sketch of the garment showing measurement points, codes or names of the measurements, a ‘point of measure’ describing the measurement proce-dure, tolerances, the size category and the size range. Tolerances are the differences between the specifi ed measurement and the actual measure-ment and are the acceptable amount of error allowed, given the issues of working with fl exible materials and human sewing error (Myers-McDevitt, 2004). Tolerances are generally determined by what is acceptable for a product by the company and price point of the garment. Less expensive garments may have larger tolerances than a very expensive garment, even if both are identical types of clothing, as maintaining high tolerances is expensive. An example of a tolerance is a sleeve length that was intended to be 25 inches but has a tolerance of ± 1–2 inch; this sleeve could measure anywhere between 24 1–2 inches and 25 1–2 inches inclusive and still be accept-able. Although tolerances differ depending on the type and quality of the


product being produced, they generally fall within a similar range. Most seam allowances are ± 1–16 inch. Length tolerances are usually ± 1–2 inch while waist size may not vary over 1–2 inch and even then should always be towards the positive end of the tolerance. The exception to the tolerance rule is in washable products that have not been prewashed. Denim, khaki and other products that will shrink after laundering have higher waist tolerances. Waist variance still must vary in a positive way from the specifi cation but could vary anywhere from 0 inch to 1 inch.

In preparation for putting a garment into production it is sometimes necessary to conduct several iterations of specifi cation measurement, to ensure good communication between the technical designer and the factory and to refi ne the pattern further. A sample garment, sometimes called a ‘sew by’, will be sent to the factory altogether with the specifi cations. The factory will then sew a garment, the ‘counter sample’, from the pattern and send this to the technical designer for approval. If the garment is sewn using the proper seam allowance and without unwanted stretching of the fabric as it is handled (e.g. a stretched-out armscye), then it should match the specifi cations. If a correctly sewn garment from the factory does not match the specifi cations, then the pattern may need to be adjusted once again. If the fault is in the sewing, then the factory makes a new sample. Care must be taken at this point to ensure that the problem is actually identifi ed and corrected at the source, as sometimes the tendency is to take in or let out side seams enough to match the specifi cation, leaving the original problem unresolved. A fi nal set of samples, the ‘top-of-production’ samples will often be made to confi rm specifi cations before production begins, which can occur once the technical designer and the factory agree. The process using multiple samples measured by both the technical designer and the manufacturer also helps to ensure that measurements are being taken the same way at both locations, as variation in how the tape measure is held, and whether the tape follows the contour of the seam or is pulled straight across the garment will result in different measurements. Another little recognized source of variation can be in the measuring tools used. Tape measures are not identical and can easily vary from one another.

13.5 Preproduction: fabric testing and approval

Inspection and quality control of fabric yardage are vital. Fabric inspectors set the tolerances for width and color variations as well as inspecting and rating defects. Fabric must be both tested and visually inspected. Fabric manufacturers specify certain levels of fi ber content, shrinkage, color fast-ness and launderability, color and shade; however, swatches of fabric should be submitted to a laboratory (either in house or out of house depending on the size and resources of the manufacturer) to verify that the fabric


meets the agreed-upon specifi cations. Rolls of fabric that fall outside the tolerances for any these standards are often returned to the manufacturer or obtained at a discounted price (Fig. 13.2). These rolls are then manipu-lated to gain the best product from the fabric (i.e. defects are worked around, shades are grouped with other like shades, compensations are made for width or length inconsistencies, etc.)

Different fabric defects can affect the size and fi t of garments differently. Fabric that shrinks more than specifi ed or inconsistently can result in smaller garments than anticipated after wet-processing in production, or garments can shrink during laundering after purchase. Inconsistent tension in woven or knit fabric within a roll can result in pattern pieces that do not hang correctly or garments made from one section of a roll that fi t differ-ently from those made from another section. Fabric defects can also create areas of slippage in seams. Selvages that are too tight or too loose can cause wavy or strained fabric when spread to be cut that will result in inconsis-tently sized pieces. Wrinkles and creases in the fabric from manufacturing or from poorly rolled or stored fabric can also create inconsistencies in pattern piece sizes. Defects such as slubs or runs in the fabric that would show and be aesthetically displeasing in the clothing require special atten-tion to place pattern pieces around the defect. Most defects are either ignored and garments are sewn with fallout as seconds, or the defects are cut out of the roll. The fabric is then overlapped an appropriate amount in

13.2 A fabric inspector checking the fabric for fl aws (courtesy of the Social Responsibility Project, © 2006 University of Delaware; all rights reserved)


spreading and coordinated with the marker placement to ensure suffi cient full pieces.

Another fabric issue that can affect the fi t of the garment occurs if a different fabric is substituted for the original fabric specifi ed, either to introduce a less expensive fabric to reduce costs or if a garment is more popular than anticipated and the original fabric is no longer available. Fit properties will be affected unless the two fabrics are nearly identical in their properties; so substitution of a different fabric may require reworking the pattern from the beginning.

13.6 Preproduction: marker making

During the marker-making process, all the pattern pieces for each size are arranged to best fi t the width of the fabric being cut. Markers can be made manually by manipulating the pattern pieces by hand or on a com-puter, with the goal of fi nding a layout that maximizes the effi ciency of the fabric usage. Marker makers generally use computer programs that make it possible to create layouts that utilize fabric effectively very quickly. Some computer programs can also be used to create an initial layout automati-cally or to suggest the width of fabric that would allow the most effi cient layout of pieces. These computer programs generally require a certain amount of time to run and, the longer that they are allowed to run, the more effi cient marker they will create. Automated marker maker computer programs systematically check each possible layout permutation and thus the number of pieces involved and the length of time allowed can impact the overall effi ciency of a marker. Tilt in marking, rotation, etc., can also affect fi nished products.

The quality of a marker is based on many parameters that must be set based on the style, the material and the cutting machinery. Computer-generated markers (Fig. 13.3) can be printed on paper for manual cutting or can be digitally set to an automatic cutting machine. Where markers are printed on paper the copies can sometimes vary in length from the original because of possible errors in accuracy and scale during the print and/or instability of the medium being printed on. Line quality on a printed marker for hand cutting can be an issue, as a faint line will not give a clear indication for the cutter to follow, and a thick line will result in a loss of precision. Size variation will occur depending on whether the cutter cuts on the line, to the inside or to the outside of the line. It is generally recom-mended that cutting by hand be done to the outside of the line, so that any variation can be seen. Another issue is the knife clearance freedom. If there is not enough tolerance in the placement of the pieces for the cutting machine to be manipulated around tight curves and angles, then precision will be lost in the cutting process. Methods of appropriate labeling are


also critical, so that pieces for the various sizes are correctly identifi ed. Differences between sizes can be minimal in individual pieces; so mislabel-ing one piece of a set or a whole set of pieces may not be detected and will result in incorrect sizing (Solinger, 1980).

The pressure to create effi cient markers can be enormous. Modern apparel manufacturing makes use of cutting systems that can cut many plys of fabric at once. Although a normal lay-up is generally a few inches high and consists of 24 to 32 plys, some lay-ups will be stacked as high as 14 inches and can include in the range of 500 plys (Brown and Rice, 1998). As the number of plys increase, the pressure to create an effi cient marker and minimize expensive fabric waste becomes greater. In an attempt to achieve the greatest effi ciency in fabric usage, marker makers might change pattern details, such as reducing a pleat or the amount of fabric in a gath-ered design feature (creating a lower shirring ratio), narrowing the hem allowances, changing the grain lines, splitting a large piece into two pieces with a seam or piecing the crotch. Marker makers might also be tempted to scale pattern pieces down slightly or to overlap pieces slightly to fi t on to a narrow space.

Each of these changes allows the pieces to fi t more effi ciently on the marker but may also change the aesthetics and/or fi t of a garment. Just as the pattern maker must work with the designer to achieve the best possible pattern for a design, the marker maker must also work with the pattern maker and designer such that their changes to pattern pieces to enhance fabric usage do not change the look or fi t of the fi nal garment. Slight

13.3 A computer marker as seen on the screen


changes in the grain line of a pattern piece introduced by tilting a piece may or may not affect the fi t of the garment, depending on the garment style and fabric properties. Fit problems that can be introduced with incor-rect grain include unbalanced garments that hang badly or that twist around the body. This type of fi t problem may not be apparent in the garment when fi rst purchased but may occur over time as the garment is washed. Time effi ciency must also be balanced against fabric usage. Often piecing and seaming techniques, such as adding a seam down the middle of a large piece or piecing the crotch, may result in more effi cient fabric use initially but the extra seam may require too much added time during the sewing process and ultimately add more to the overall cost. In some instances the added time, effort and increased possibility of error might outweigh the savings from the more effi cient use of fabric.

13.7 Spreading

Spreading prepares the fabric in layers for cutting, and how the fabric is spread can affect the dimensions of the pattern pieces and ultimate fi t of the garment. Spreading fabric into layers off the roll can be achieved manu-ally with one or two people walking the fabric back and forth (Fig. 13.4). Mechanical fabric spreaders and cutters can be used to make the unrolling and cutting processes easier, but the operators are responsible for the

13.4 Spreading and cutting systems: 1, 2, manual fabric spreaders; 3, automatic spreader and cutting system; 4, automated conveyor-ized pattern-cutting system (courtesy of Eastman Machine Company; all rights reserved)


alignment of the fabric edges and for keeping the correct tension on the fabric. A semi-automatic process using a manual or automatic spreading carriage with an operator walking the fabric back and forth along a table is also commonly used. In this case there are built-in mechanisms that assist with aligning the fabric edges and smoothing the plies. Some large production facilities have totally automated processes using a computer-ized spreader (Eberle et al., 1996).

The type of fabric determines how the plies are spread in relation to one another. In a one-way spread, each layer of fabric is laid the same way up (face up), with the grain or pattern running in the same direction. For this spread, each layer must be cut at the end of the table and the roll carried back to the beginning of the table. For a face-to-face spread the plies are laid face to face, but the grain or pattern runs in the same direc-tion. In this case the roll is carried back to the beginning of the table and is also fl ipped. In a two-way spread, which is used when there is no nap or directional pattern, the fabric is laid face to face and is carried back and forth accordion style from one end of the table to the other end of the table (Eberle et al., 1996). Generally the marker will specify the spreading method to prevent errors.

Each spreading method will have different issues in maintaining the proper fabric tension. A quality spread will have each ply aligned correctly along the selvage and with regard to the face and direction of the fabric, consistent tension, no misaligned grain or bowing in the grain, appropriate splices where a new roll is introduced or where there were fabric fl aws, and no excessive static electricity produced in the process of spreading (Solinger, 1980). Some fabrics such as knits, fabrics with spandex, and stretch velvets must be spread and then left for some amount of time to allow them to relax and contract. Other fabrics require a layer of paper such as a waxed paper as a buffer between layers to help to prevent shifting. Some slippery, heavy or stretchy fabrics benefi t from layers of tissue paper between every other layer, giving the fabric a little more body if it is light and keeping it from sticking to the layers above or below if it is heavy. Some fabrics may need to be sent out for sponging to stabilize the fabric before it is cut and sewn.

The most important factors in spreading as regards sizing and fi t of gar-ments are the edge alignment, the grain alignment and especially the tension of the plies. Fabrics that are spread too tightly (stretching them) will result in smaller pattern pieces as the pieces contract once the tension is released after cutting, while fabrics that are spread too loosely will result in pattern pieces that are too large. Fabrics that are spread too loosely will also often contain wrinkles and creases which can alter the overall shape of pattern pieces and introduce inconsistency to the cutting. Certain fabrics such as knits must be spread particularly carefully as their extensibility allows for the fabric to be deformed and stretched during spreading. Fabrics


which have a light or slippery nature such as microfi bers and silks also need to be spread with care as shifting layers can alter pieces during cutting. Fabrics that have engineered prints, plaids or other surface decorations that require specifi c placement on the pattern must be aligned very carefully to ensure that each layer lines up with the layer above it and thus the plaid or pattern is correctly placed on each piece. If the fabric is not cut correctly in this case, pieces may be shifted in relation to one another incorrectly by the sewers in order to match the pattern, to the detriment of the fi t of the garment. Spreaders must also be careful to spread fabrics of the same shades together, by matching the dye lots noted on the fabric rolls to achieve pattern pieces with matching colors, and also should be aware of defects that may have been missed during the fabric inspection process.

13.8 Cutting and bundling

When errors occur in processes that are simultaneously performed on many units at the same time, such as cutting, they have an impact on more than one garment (Brown and Rice, 1998). During the cutting process the marker is laid over the spread fabric layers and each of the pattern pieces on the marker is cut. Several different cutting methods are used (Fig. 13.5).

13.5 Common cutting tools: 1, a straight knife; 2, round knives; 3, rotary cutters (courtesy of Eastman Machine Company; all rights reserved)


Circular cutters have a rotating circular blade and are effective for straight cuts and gradual curves. Straight knife cutters have a vertical blade which reciprocates up and down and can be used for tight curves and corners. Knife cutters are the most common choice for volume manufacturers. Band knives have an endless steel band that moves vertically through the layers of fabric. In this case the fabric layers are moved against the blade instead of moving the blade through the fabric. A die cutter is a shaped die that is used to stamp through the layers of fabric and is suitable for pieces such as pocket shapes where the same patterns are used over and over. Automatic computer-controlled cutting machines use a variety of cutting methods including vertical knives, laser beams, high-energy plasma, high-pressure water jets or dies as the cutting medium (Solinger, 1980). Many of the computerized systems use a vacuum system consisting of a perforated table with an air-moving system used in conjunction with a plastic layer on top of the fabric. When air is removed from the layers of fabric there is less chance that fabric layers will shift as they are cut.

Most commonly cutting is performed with a mechanical knife operated by hand or by computer. In some high-technology production facilities, computerized laser cutters are employed. Certain fabrics, including some foams, vinyl and leather are cut using pressurized water. Die cutting is often reserved for small garment pieces including collars or pieces that need to be very exact such as pattern pieces that need to match plaids or prints at a seam.

Irrespective of which cutting system is used, sizing and fi t are compro-mised if pattern pieces are not cut with precision. Generally effi cient markers have many common pattern lines such that, if the cutter misses the exact cut line, he or she makes one piece too large while making the abutting piece too small. Leaning stacks of fabric that are too tall or too slippery can cause a cutter to make the pattern pieces on the bottom of the spread stack of a different shape from the pieces on the top of the stack while a tilted die can have the same effect on a straight stack of fabric. During manual cutting with a knife it is also possible for the cutter to achieve the same inaccuracy by tilting the cutting knife (Fig. 13.6). Other

13.6 The uneven cutting of stacked fabric as a result of a tilted knife


issues introduced with cutting errors that can ultimately affect the size and fi t of a garment include frayed, fused or scorched edges, problems with the size, placement or alignment of notches or drill holes, and rips or pulled yarns (machine clogs) (Solinger, 1980).

Cutting errors can be reduced through careful spreading, monitoring of fabric to reduce shifting, and monitoring of the angle of the cutting blade. Cutting knives should be sharp and the blade the correct length to cut the number of fabric layers present. Computerized laser cutting is the most precise method, but in many situations the cost of the technology is prohibi-tive and manual knife cutting is used.

13.9 Interfacings and sewing

Most interfacings today are fused to the face fabric, a process that has great potential to cause dimensional problems and which can affect the fi t of the garment. Fused interfacings must be as compatible as possible with the fabric used in shrinkage properties. If not compatible, the difference in shrinkage between the fused interfacing and the fabric will cause puckers and fabric distortion after a few washings. There are three main types of fusing: roll fusing in which the full roll of fabric and the interfacing are spread together and fused, block fusing in which the face fabric and inter-facing are cut into appropriate sized blocks, layered ply for ply and fused, and then stacked for cutting, and piece fusing in which face fabric and interfacing pieces are put into markers and cut separately and then layered on top of one another in pairs and fused. For piece fusing, the interfacing may be a different shape from the face fabric piece, e.g. when a narrow strip of interfacing is fused to the hem of a jacket.

Every interfacing and fabric combination is different and will require different treatments for successful fusing. Interfacing fabrics can be thin or thick, woven or knitted, with variable amounts of adhesive and variable deposit patterns of the adhesive. Each different fabric–fusible combination will require a different speed of processing, temperature and duration. Whether or not steam should be used is also important, with fabrics such as wool needing steam; on the other hand, acrylic will not fuse with the moist heat of a steam process. The most critical of these factors in achiev-ing a quality fusing process is to ensure that the fusing machine is set at the proper temperature according to the specifi cations for the fusible being used. Also, when piece fusing, cutting the interfacings from the marker must not be carried out at too high a speed as the friction of the knife through the fabric can generate suffi cient heat to fuse the edges of the stacked fabric together. Cutting woven interfacings on the correct grain is also important. The grain should generally match the face fabric grain perfectly, except in a case where the grain of the interfacing can be used


13.7 Different ways to organize sewing assembly processes: 1, a bundle system; 2, unit production systems; 3, a modular system; 4, automatic sewing (images 1 and 3 courtesy of [TC]2, Cary, North Carolina, http://www.tc2.com; all rights reserved)

to control stretch. For example a bias waistband may be stabilized with an interfacing that is cut on the grain.

There are many different production methods for assembling garments that are suited to different products, supply systems and distribution systems. The type of production has an impact on the method and timing of inspections and correction of production errors. The different methods also require different levels of training for operators, which can impact on production issues that will affect sizing and fi t. The following assembly methods are used for apparel (Fig. 13.7).

1 The progressive bundle system is a traditional assembly line in which bundles of pieces for multiple garments are assembled together with identifi cation tickets. In this system, operators in a line (in the order designated by engineers) do assigned tasks and then pass the work on to the next worker in a plastic or wooden tray. These systems are also sometimes referred to as straight-line systems.

2 In the unit production system, pieces for each individual garment are assembled together and sent to the various operators’ stations using


computer-controlled overhead transporters. Operators are cross-trained for several jobs so that they can change to a new job to prevent bottle-necks in the manufacturing process.

3 In modular manufacturing, operators work as a team or module. The team as a whole works on one garment at a time, and operators are trained on three or more operations. Workstations are set so that opera-tors can stand and rotate easily to different machines. Operators also inspect and correct their team’s own work throughout the process.

4 In fl exible manufacturing, combinations of various manufacturing tech-niques are used, each one optimized for the product being produced.

5 Some processes in apparel production facilities are automated, using technologically advanced production equipment, which is often compu-terized, to complete complex construction processes such as shirt collars and welt pockets (Brown and Rice, 1998).

Garments in production are generally assembled by joining pieces in a specifi c order. This process is referred to as assembly of ‘parts, pieces, panels, products’. In a bundle system, once pieces are cut, they are bundled by part (minor garment parts, such as collar pieces, cuffs or pockets) and by panel (major garment sections, such as fronts and backs). The garment is then assembled by fi nishing subassemblies such as collars and cuffs, attaching pockets and seams to create the major pieces (i.e. front and back) of the garment and then joining them to create the fi nal garment. Brown and Rice (1998) summarized this sequence in the equations ‘parts + panels = pieces’ and ‘pieces + pieces = products’. The steps of this process most critical to the sizing and fi t of the garment are the fi nal joining of the pieces and panels, although errors at any stage in the process can have an impact.

During sewing processes, trained and skilled workers are vitally impor-tant to assemble garments correctly and to create fi nished products as intended. The size and fi t of a garment can be changed during many dif-ferent sewing processes. It is possible to reduce the size of a garment by sewing with more seam allowance than allowed on the pattern, taking excessive trim with sergers (Fig. 13.8), trimming excessively with scissors or knives, or overloading folders on a welt machine so that more material than intended is caught up in the fold. Each of these mistakes reduces the overall size of the piece being sewn and can cause matching errors as panels are assembled. On the other hand, taking too shallow a seam allow-ance, not trimming suffi ciently with sergers, or underloading a folder for a felling machine will result in too large a garment. It is also possible to change the fi t through sewing errors such as not matching guide points or notches, incorrect easing of one piece into another, seam puckering (making the seam shorter than intended) or incorrect tension of either the thread or one of the fabric layers. Other problems that can occur in sewing are


13.8 Serger with excess trim

the use of a different type of seam from that specifi ed and provided for in the pattern, fi ndings that are inserted incorrectly, or insertion of items such as elastic that are not the correct length or with an incorrect shirring ratio. In addition, sewing machines that are not maintained or adjusted correctly will reduce the ability of the operator to use proper handling and feeding techniques. Improper handling can result in stretch and puckering, which contributes to ill-fi tting garments. Sewing machines should be adjusted for low foot pressure, should have unworn and properly adjusted feed dogs and must be maintained continually. Garments with seams that are joined via fusing, welding, adhesives or molding can also be joined incorrectly result-ing in misfi tting garments.


Since all these errors are directly dependent on the operator performing each sewing operation, it is vital the operators are expertly trained to do their jobs correctly and to recognize errors. An operator should be trained to check for errors in the work that comes to them as well as in the work that they perform. Proper compensation should be allowed for catching errors before they continue on through the garment construction line.

13.10 Finishing and labeling

During the fi nal phases of the garment production process the size and fi t of a garment can be altered during fi nishing or mishandled during labeling. Wet processes applied to the fi nal garment are particularly critical, as they are applied to multiple garments at one time; so unanticipated changes can occur to many garments before corrections can be made.

Wet processes include softening processes such as garment rinsing or garment washing in industrial machines to give a broken-in look and feel, color removal processes such as bleaching, stonewashing or acid washing, and color addition such as dyeing or overdyeing (Brown and Rice, 1998). These processes can cause fi nished garments either to shrink or to stretch. All fabrics need to be tested by the producer or an outside laboratory before production begins so that any shrinkage or stretching of fabric can be taken into account and built into the pattern before production is initiated. All other materials used in the garment (trims, interfacings, linings, zippers, etc.) must also be tested for shrinkage because, if any of these materials shrink more or less than the face fabric, the appearance and the fi t of the garment will be affected.

The advantage of wet processing is that garments that are prewashed are essentially preshrunk for the consumer. Therefore, when consumers try on these garments at the point of sale, they know exactly how the garment will fi t (Brown and Rice, 1998). For garments that are not prewashed, issues related to any shrinking or stretching that will occur for the con-sumer after the garment has been sold must be made clear on the garment packaging, laundering instructions and hang tags.

Finishing processes such as steaming, molding or pressing can either shrink fabric that is vulnerable to heat and/water shrinkage or stretch and misshape garments. Many such processes are used in garment manufacture including mangling, plating, blocking, buck pressing, expansion-form press-ing, iron pressing (Fig. 13.9), creasing and die pressing. These processes are designed to change the shape, form and surface texture (also at times the density) of a garment by applying one or more of the three basic ele-ments of heat, pressure and moisture (Solinger, 1980). The potential also to change the size of the garment is great.


13.9 Workers ironing garments (courtesy of the Social Responsibility Project, © 2006 University of Delaware; all rights reserved)

Once all processing is complete, a fi nal inspection will be conducted. This fi nal inspection generally includes measurement of some percentage of the garments in order to ensure that the correct size has been main-tained throughout production and that fi nishing processes have not changed garment dimensions in an unanticipated manner.

The size and fi t of garments can be incorrectly communicated either when labels are attached to the garment (normally in the fi rst stages of the construction process) or when hang tags and/or hangers with size labels are introduced during the packing and labeling process. Any garment that is mislabeled as the wrong size will lead the consumer to believe that they are trying on a different garment from the garment that they are actually trying on. This could lead the consumer to purchase the wrong size or to impair their trust in the brand’s sizing and labeling system. Great care must be taken in labeling the garments correctly, packaging them correctly and shipping them properly. Care during each of these steps will ensure that the products go where needed, are displayed appropriately and are labeled such that consumers can identify their size correctly.

13.11 Prevention of errors

The errors that impact sizing and fi t discussed above can be present during the manufacture of any type of garment and any type of production system, although certain systems seem to generate fewer errors. Solely having a fi nal inspection is only useful for sorting out garments that are incorrectly manufactured and does not allow for in-process correction of mistakes (when seams are more accessible and corrections may be easier) since


garments are already fi nished. Inspection systems that have inspectors checking work at each step are useful; the more inspection sites and the higher the inspection standards, the fewer errors are made and the higher is the quality of the resulting garments. It is also possible to reap the gains of a multitude of inspections during the process without actually looking at each garment. Statistical sampling of a specifi ed number of pieces can provide quality control with a good picture of what is happening during manufacturing without taking the time and personnel to examine every garment. Most effective inspection comes from each individual working at each step during the process. Each of the staff needs to be trained to understand their jobs and to check the materials and work coming to them and the materials or work leaving their station. If employees can be trained and rewarded to take the time to check incoming and outgoing work for errors, then an actual inspection staff is obsolete. Some companies have found that team manufacturing processes allow for better products since the whole team is invested in the fi nal product output, while other produc-tion facilities fi nd that the bundle process results in a better-fi nished product since each operator is more highly skilled at the single job for which they are responsible.

13.12 Distribution

The apparel supply chain’s global nature and emerging technologies are changing the capacity and organization of distribution channels. The intro-duction of global marketing has led to a variety of country- and region-specifi c sizing offerings that affect distribution choices. Analysis of sizing and distribution systems within offshore, domestic and regional clustering production approaches offers some insight. For example, when producing clothing from offshore locations, multiple sizing systems are produced at the same time for many different companies. Not only are the patterns, machine set-ups and fi tting requirements variable for each order, but the distribution of each order may be to a variety of countries. The confu-sion is compounded when a company uses country- or region-specifi c sizing. Suddenly the number of stock-keeping units (SKUs) geometrically increases. Some fi rms divide their production: offshore for large-lot basic designs, regional based on specialized offerings and owned or contracted production capacities, and domestic for quick turn-around. These strate-gies are good for the production process but create distribution challenges requiring logistical technologies and strategies to accommodate country- or region-specifi c sizing and smaller, faster, more frequent shipments of fi nished clothing. It is vitally important that all clothing being shipped to and sold in the same country has the same specifi cations, tolerances, label-ings and size systems.


New technologies and strategies are being introduced to address these sizing and distribution challenges. Article-level tracking with bar codes and radio-frequency identifi cation (RFID) codes is one of the most useful trends. Bar codes have been used in the clothing industry for many years, but predominantly at the order or SKU level. At the SKU levels of track-ing, fi rms know how much and where in process, for example, hot-pink boat-necked knit shirts in size medium are located. With article-level tracing, country or regional sizing, and multiple production facilities, each article of clothing will be tracked uniquely from its inception through to its distribution. This is especially useful with smaller orders, custom orders and orders with specialized or region-specifi c sizing.

Bar codes and RFID technologies can provide article-level tracking but this is more expensive than the order-level or carton-level tracking cur-rently used throughout the industry. Implementation of article-level RFID codes will require large capital outlay for technology and for integrative software to read, organize, sort and apply these data for smooth logistical operations. Although the costs and benefi ts of these technologies will determine their adoption, the advantage for sizing at the time of distribu-tion is getting the right size in the right color from the right production facility to the right distribution point.

Other changes that are happening in distribution channels for clothing are the increase in electronically accessed channels of distribution for clothing over the Internet or the Internet in combination with in-store and print catalog distribution methods. For those distribution methods that preclude trying on garments, sizing is challenging, fi rstly, because of the diffi culty of acquiring body measurements to identify a person’s clothing size and, secondly, because of the strategies used to distribute and return clothing that has not been tried for fi t before purchase.

Virtual try-on and size selection services are now available online. Virtual try-on offers the consumer a view of selected garments on an online model developed to represent the consumer’s body shape to evalu-ate the style but not the fi t of the garment. Size selection services recom-mend styles and sizes of clothing to consumers based on their body measurements or body scan (e.g. http://www.mvm.com or http://www.intellifi t.com (Fig. 13.10)) (see section 8.2.4 for more information).

A signifi cant problem with all online sizing options is how to obtain accurate measurements. Most online and catalog clothing fi rms rely on customer-taken measurements that range from ‘close’ to ‘inaccurate’. When body scanning becomes more readily available and consumers are more interested and comfortable with scanning, scan measurements can be used. This future option will do much to reduce the return rate for ill-fi tting garments purchased online and smooth the effect of sizing of distribution logistics.


13.13 Future developments

The future of production is not clear, but many exciting possibilities for apparel are on the horizon, from new ways to size ready-to-wear clothing, to co-designed mass-customized goods available with the click of the mouse, to true three-dimensional (3D) automated custom goods automati-cally made for individuals (Loker et al., 2006). Each of these scenarios has its own special issues related to production.

There is much room for improvement in sizing systems for ready-to-wear garments. Current sizing systems were created on the basis of non-representative anthropometric data, modifi ed to maximize sales but with little real information to make decisions about successful and unsuccessful systems. That situation is changing with the availability of reliable data on the anthropometrics of the civilian population and other data from 3D body-scanning technology (http://www.sizeusa.com). Data-driven analy-ses of existing systems and creation of new systems have the potential to improve ready-to-wear sizing. Although there are issues in making the transition from legacy sizing systems to data-driven sizing systems without alienating current customers, these issues can be resolved. Ready-to-wear sizing can be developed that better serves a range of target markets in the apparel industry (Loker et al., 2005).

13.10 Screenshot from the Intellifi t software predicting the size of jeans most likely to give the fi t preference required for the specifi c input measurements of the consumer (courtesy of Intellifi t; all rights reserved)


New production technologies such as automated custom pattern making, rapid one-high laser cutting systems and modular sewing systems are making the production of affordable customized and mass-customized clothing possible. Many computer-aided design (CAD) companies are working on 3D draping and the creation of systems that will develop patterns directly from individual body scan data (http://www.optitex.com, http://www.browzwear.com). Companies such as Lands’ End, in conjunc-tion with Archetype are successfully selling customized clothing over the Internet using self-measurement (http://www.landsend.com and http://www.archetype-solutions.com). With increased access to body-scanning consumers will have an effective method for acquiring custom-fi tted clothing, and also access to size selection of the best fi tting ready-to-wear options available.

Any shift from a ready-to-wear model to a custom model where the customer cannot try on garments before purchase will require attention to quality in other areas. Quality fabric with little variation between rolls will be critical. Pattern development demands will grow exponentially for mass-customized offerings in which the customer can choose one of a variety of fabrics and fi ts. Generally different colors of the same fabric can be offered with no additional pattern development, but offering a variety of fi ts in different fabrics will require perfecting the pattern for each com-bination. An early provider of custom jeans, IC3D listed on their website three different basic fi ts (form fi tting, natural and relaxed), three thigh fi ts (slim, wide and classic), two waist styles (classic and low) and ten fabrics (regular denim, stretch denim, corduroy, twill, stretch twill, stretch wool, linen, velvet, suede and leather). Although this company was creating custom patterns from body measurements using their own software, and not creating sized patterns, pattern development to determine the appro-priate ease values for each combination would be a necessary part of the process. This set of choices results in 180 possible combinations and, as the jeans were offered for both men and women, 360 different pattern solutions would be required. Once this investment was made, it would be essential to maintain a supply of fabrics with identical properties in order to avoid the necessity of creating a new set of patterns every season. Eventually a technological solution to this issue may be developed, as CAD companies are working on 3D draping that incorporates fabric properties but, at this point in the development of the technology, traditional pattern develop-ment is a necessary part of the process.

Another issue that must be resolved for customized and mass-customized clothing is the process of setting size specifi cations for each individual garment produced, and the development of rapid and reliable measurement procedures for the garments. Levi Strauss developed an in-house software to use in conjunction with a measuring tape with an


electronic readout to simplify the process of measuring their Original Spin blue jeans. This type of technology will be necessary as customer expecta-tions of good fi t for custom clothing will be higher than for ready-to-wear garments, so quality control to ensure accurate dimensions for every piece of clothing produced will be a critical piece of the process.

Advances in production equipment to increase precision have generally been incremental and do not solve the essential issue of human error in placing and manipulating the fabric as it is sewn. Although some automa-tion is well established in apparel factories for tasks such as pocket setting and creating rows of buttonholes, a system of fully automated apparel construction has been an elusive goal for researchers. A recent European project has been initiated which funds development in some promising new directions. The Leadership for European Apparel Production from Research along Original Guidelines is a group of research organizations and textile and apparel fi rms who are working on the development of intel-ligent apparel manufacturing concepts and technologies. Many of the ini-tiatives that they are working on have the potential to automate and reduce the variation that makes maintaining tolerances so diffi cult in apparel manufacture including distributed online process and quality control for fabric manufacture, robotic automated fabric handling (including research into ways to stiffen the fabric temporarily, and research into the use of electrostatic adhesion), alternatives to traditional joining including laser and ultrasonic seams, and research into ways of directly creating 3D shapes of complex garment areas (Anon., 2006) (http://www.leapfrog-eu.org). This promising research may eventually achieve a level of automation in the apparel industry that has been present in other industries for years.


More information on these subjects can be found by consulting industry outreach organizations listed below, and from industry magazines and academic research journals such as Apparel Magazine (formerly Bobbin), Apparel Manufacturer, Clothing and Textile Research Journal, Interna-tional Journal of Production Research, Textile World, Textile Outlook International, Canadian Apparel, World Clothing Manufacturer, Clothing Industry Magazine and Clothing. The Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management is available online and is easily accessible (http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm).

The apparel industry is very diverse. Some aspects of the industry, such as body scanning, are recent technology developments which are changing daily, while other operations such as manual sewing have contin-ued relatively unchanged for 50 years. Because of the nature of the industry it is possible to fi nd useful and relevant articles from 20 years ago in some


journals; however, it is also vital to stay on top of the latest technical advances with current publications. Because the apparel industry is so widespread and of general interest to other economic sectors, it is also possible to fi nd pertinent information in non-industry publications. General news publications such as the New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, The Economist and Popular Science often run articles discussing aspects of the industry and can be resources for learning about new research initiatives.

13.14.1 Industry organizations[TC]

2

211 Gregson DriveCaryNC 27511USAPhone: 919-380-2156Toll Free: 800-786-9889Fax: 919-380-2181

Fashion Business Incorporated127 East 9th StreetSuite 212Los AngelesCA 90015USAPhone: [email protected]

Garment Industry Development Corporation15th fl oor, 275 Seventh AvenueNew York NY 10001USAPhone: 212-336-6160email: [email protected]

Canadian Apparel FederationSuite 504, 124 O’Connor StreetOttawaOntario K1P 5M9CanadaPhone: (613) 231-3220Website: http://www.apparel.ca


13.14.2 Books

Books with general technical information relating to apparel production relevant to sizing are as follows.

Bryant, M.W., and DeMers, D. (2001), The Spec Manual, Fairchild Publications, New York.

Carr, H., and Lantham, B. (1988), The Technology of Clothing Manufacture, BSP Professional Books, Oxford.

Fasanella, K. (1997), The Entrepreneur’s Guide to Sewn Product Manufacturing, Apparel Technical Services, Fort Stanton, New Mexico.

Fashiondex (1998), The Apparel Design and Production Handbook, Fashiondex, New York.

Meyers-McDevitt, P.J. (2004), Complete Guide to Size Specifi cation and Technical Design, Fairchild Publications, New York.


Many thanks are due to Christopher Stoia and Robert Garner for review-ing this chapter for corrections and additions.

13.16 References

Anon. (2006), ‘Garment technology: closing the circle’, The Economist, 15 July, 79.

Brown, P., and Rice, J. (1998), Ready-to-Wear Apparel Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Bye, E.K., and LaBat, K. (2005), ‘An analysis of apparel industry fi t sessions’, Journal of Textile and Apparel Technology and Management, 4 (3), 1–5, http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/volume4issue3/articles/Bye/Bye_full_129_05.pdf.

Bye, E.K., and DeLong, M.R. (1994), ‘A visual sensory evaluation of the results of two pattern grading methods’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12 (4), 1–7.

Eberle, H., Hermeling, H., Hornberger, M., Menzer, D., and Ring, W. (1996), Cloth-ing Technology . . . From Fibre to Fashion, TEKOT International, London.

Hudson, P.B. (1980), ‘The role of fi t and fashion on apparel quality’, Bobbin, (July), 108–122.

Hudson, P.B. (1988), Guide to Apparel Manufacturing, MEDIApparel, Greensboro, North Carolina.

Kadolph, S.J. (1998), Quality Assurance for Textiles and Apparel, Fairchild Publications, New York.

Loker, S. (2002), ‘People and technology management in fl exible manufacturing: An apparel industry case study’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 20 (1), 26–32.

Loker, S., Ashdown. S.P., Carnrite, E., and Lyman-Clarke, L. (2006), ‘Dress in the third dimension: on-line interactivity and new meanings’, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Invited Paper, Focus Issue on the Future, (in press).


Loker, S., Ashdown, S.P., and Schoenfelder, K. (2005), ‘Size-specifi c analysis of body scan data to improve apparel fi t’, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technol-ogy and Management, 4 (3), 1–15, http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/volume4issue3/articles/Loker/Loker_full_136_05.pdf.

Myers-McDevitt, P.J. (2004), Size Specifi cation and Technical Design, Fairchild Publications, New York.

Solinger, J. (1980), Apparel Manufacturing Handbook: Analysis, Principles and Practice, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Index

a posteriori segmentation 126–9a priori segmentation 114–25acceleration protection 288–9accommodation rate 64, 77ACORN classifi cation 116Adams variable drafting system 12aesthetics 309–26

beauty 320–5fashion 309–10, 314–16menswear 316–17perfect body 319–20re-forming the body 313–14scale-size relationship 310–13, 316–19taste 311–12

age segmentation 117–18AIOs (activities, interests and opinions)

128air gaps 281–2Alcega, Juan de 5altering patterns 342–3altitude protection 288–9anthropometry 17–21, 94–8, 118–19, 194–5,

238body landmarks 174data collection 65, 80databases 207disconnection with size charts 152recruitment for studies 119

anti-g suits 288–9Apparel Research Network (ARN) 301Archetype 371Armani, Giorgio 317armscye 189assessment of fi t 265, 272–4ASTM Standards 88, 89, 92–3, 95, 102automation 254, 356, 364

Bailly, Michel 17ballistic vests 203–5, 284–6band knives 21, 361bar codes 369Barde, F.A. 14

barrier protection 283–4base size patterns 158beauty 320–5Beck, Christian 13Beeton, S.O. 331behavioural segmentation 126–7benefi ts segmentation 126–7Bernhardt, J.G. 17bespoke garments 2, 36, 213–14, 249

designer clothes 309for men 36for the military 298, 299for women 22–30see also mass customization

best-fi t software 122biological protection 283–4, 300–1bivariate distributions 68Bivolino 209blending 164block fusing 362block patterns 138–9body armor 203–5, 284–6body landmarks 174–5body mass index (BMI) 111body measurements

and fi t 206–7history of measurement systems 7–9and mass customization 256–8and paper patterns 335–42tables 88units of measurement 3–6

body scanners 82–4, 143–4, 206–7, 238–9and anthropometric surveys 96, 120, 122and mass customization 250, 255, 257and military garments 302and the paper pattern industry 344–5

body typeand ethnicity 125, 292in Japan 70–1in military populations 292–4and segmentation 120–3size groups 57–9

377

378 Index

subgroups 64of women 120, 228–31

body weight see weightboot camp 296bras 270British size designations 99British Standards (BSI) 43–4, 47bundling 360–2Burda, Aenne 333burn protection 280–3bust darts 183–4, 188bust measurements 68, 75bust point 174, 184Butterick, Ebenezer 332Byfi eld, R. 14, 17

CAD technology 250–1, 273–4see also body scanners

cardinal points 158, 163–4, 175chemical protection 283–4, 300–1Chico’s 100children 44–5, 117–18China 101–2circular cutters 361circumference measurements 174

and the iliac spine bone 207co-design 310combination measurement systems 7comfortability tools 145Commercial Mosaic 116communication

consumer to manufacturer 233–8manufacturer to consumer 221–33

Compaing, Guillaume 17complex grading systems 161–2computer grading systems 195confi gurator tools 252consistency of fi t 222–3, 348consumers see customerscontrol dimensions 63–4, 66–71

bust measurements 68, 75crotch measurements 67and garment type 66girth measurements 67hip with account for abdomen

protrusion 70length measurements 67and limb measurements 69stature combination systems 69–70and weight 67, 68

Cook, M. 6, 7corsets 22, 313–14counter samples 354crotch measurements 67cultural differences 115–16customers

consumer to manufacturer communication 233–8

expectations 111–12

needs and behaviours 112profi le development 247satisfaction 57, 59, 126–7, 348

customised clothing see bespoke garments; mass customization

cutting systems 360–2

d3o material 274dart legs 188data collection 65, 80databases 207demand chain 143demographics 111, 116–25deployment garments for the military

297–8design ease 266design quality 350–3designer clothes 309die cutters 361digital manikins 207direct measurement systems 7distribution 368–70divisional measurement systems 7drape of fabrics 271dress forms 130–2, 145, 158, 252–3drop of a sizing system 64–5dry suits 283–4duty station garments 297

ease 61, 81, 266economies of scale 249edge changes 164–7elderly people 118, 237–8entry standards for the military 292–3error prevention 367–8ethnicity 111

and body shape 125, 292and girth 125and segmentation 124–5and stature 125and weight 124–5

European size designations 99Evans, Jason 322

fabric testing 354–6see also materials

face-to-face spreads 359factory production see production systemsfashion 309–10, 314–16FAST (fabric assessment by simple

testing) 270fi nishing methods 366–7fi t 81–2, 89, 130–46, 203, 206–17

assessment and perception 265, 272–4body dimensions 206–7consistency of fi t 222–3, 348customer satisfaction 126–7, 348dress forms 130–2, 145ease of garments 61, 81, 266

Index 379

human fi t models 133–8, 145, 351–2in-store shopping 141–2Intellifi t system 240judgment framework 265–7mapping 207–10mass customization 251–2, 255, 257–8and materials 270–2military garments 278, 280online shopping 141and quality 130testing for fi t 134–8, 266–7thermal aspects 214–17trapped air volume 210–12, 216ventilation 215–17virtual fi t models 138–42, 143–4, 253

fi t models 133–8, 145, 158, 265, 351–2fi t patterns 340–1Fitlogic size labels 239fl ame-resistant clothing 280–3fl exible manufacturing 364foot 3, 5formability 270French foot (pied) 3, 5fusing systems 362

g suits 288–9garment ease 61, 81, 266garment fi t see fi tgarment returns 108, 141garment-body relationship 310, 312gender segmentation 117generic size codes 223geodemographic segmentation 116geographic segmentation 114–16girdles 273girth measurements 67

and ethnicity 125global fi t teams 91goals

of grading 189–92of mass customization 246–7of standard sizing 88

Golding, J. 7grade breaks 168–70, 180–2grade rules 164, 171–84, 196, 352

assumptions 179–84body landmarks 174–5bust darts 183–4bust point 174, 184cardinal points 175circumference measurements 174grade breaks 168–70, 180–2horizontal measurements 173, 182–3join-point regression analysis 179use of measurement information 173–5scan data 196shoulder width rule 182–3size chart comparisons 175–9TEST set 184–9, 191, 193

TRAD set 184–9, 191vertical measurements 173, 180

grading systems see pattern gradinggrain line 158Groves, S. 5

half-sizes 340Hancock, Thomas 268hand evaluation of fabrics 271Haptex project 145harnesses 286–7heat transfer 214–15Hecklinger, Charles 27height, entry standards for the

military 292–3Hertingfordbury pattern book 3Hicks, Mrs John 23high-altitude protection 288–9hip with account for abdomen protrusion

70home sewing industry 328–46

altering patterns 342–3pattern development 329–32size designations 335–42sizing developments 332–5

horizontal measurements 173, 182–3hosiery market 264, 272hot pants 324hourglass shape 97House of Fraser 117human fi t models 133–8, 145, 158, 265,

351–2human movements 205Humphries, T.D. 35Hungarian Standards Offi ce 101Hyam, Leslie 19

iliac spine bone 207immersion protection 283–4in-store shopping 141–2inches 5innovative materials 274inspection systems 349–50, 367–8

for pattern grading 189–90, 193–4Intellifi t system 240, 254–5interfacings 362–6international standards 46, 61–2, 100–2,

206–7international surveys 46–8intersize intervals 71–3interval of indifference 72–3ISO see international standards

jackets 22, 26–7Japan

body types 70–1Industrial Standards Committee 100

jeans 325join-point regression analysis 179

380 Index

Kawabata Evaluation System (KES) 270–1key dimensions see control dimensionsknife cutters 361

clearance freedom 356knitwear 319Korean Standard Association 100, 101

labeling 46, 59, 62, 220–1, 366–7consumer preferences 235–6Fitlogic size labels 239generic size codes 223global standard 227–8and inconsistency of fi t 222–3military garments 290–1standardization 98–100, 223–8vanity sizing 100, 102, 115, 234see also size designations

landmarks 174–5Lands’ End 371lead times 112Leeds sizing 42, 45length measurements 67Levis 240, 254, 371–2lifestyle segmentation 127–9limb measurements 69Lindsay, W. 17load-bearing systems 287London sizing 42Lowe, Richard 2

McCall, James 332–3McIntyre, A. 9–10made-to-measure clothing see bespoke

garmentsMail Order Association of America

(MOAA) 94–5manikins 207, 274mantua makers 2manufacturer to consumer

communication 221–33mapping fi t 207–10Margiela, Martin 322marker making 356–8market misfi t 143marketing 109–14

customer needs and behaviours 112and industry environment 109–12market misfi t 143mix 112–13pen portraits 130target markets 109, 126–7, 129–30, 221–2see also segmentation

marketing mix 112–13mass customization 246–61

automated alterations 254body measurement selection 256–8body scanning 250, 255, 257for business customers 252–3confi gurator tools 252

consumer interest in 259customer profi le development 247defi nition 246design choices 247–8fi t evaluation 251–2, 255, 257–8goals 246–7information and advice 260–1pattern-making 250–1, 254production processes 248size development 249–50size prediction services 254–5strategies 252–6style evaluation 251–2tracking individual pieces 248virtual visualizations 255, 260

mass productioneconomies of scale 249history of 21, 38see also production systems

materials 264–75drape of fabrics 271effects on fi t and sizing 270–2fabric testing 356–8FAST (fabric assessment by simple

testing) 270hand evaluation of fabrics 271information and advice 275innovative materials 274non-stretch materials 267–8stretch materials 268–70

mature woman market 127measurement systems 7–9

units of measurement 3–6mechanical properties of fabrics 270–1mefures en papier 3menswear

aesthetics 316–17bespoke garments 36ready-made garments 33–7sizing systems 42

standardization 231–2metric system 5, 44, 45–6military garments 2, 33, 213, 277–308

Apparel Research Network (ARN) 301ballistic vests 203–5, 284–6barrier protection 283–4body scanning 302body size variation in the military 292–4at boot camp 296burn protection 280–3customised garments 298, 299on deployment 297–8at duty station 297fi t 278, 280information and advice 303–5labels 290–1load-bearing systems 287pilots’ suits 202, 280–1, 282–3, 288–9principal-components analysis 301

Index 381

requisition forms 298–9retention systems 286–7shortages 300–1sizing system 294–6

number of sizes 278–80standardization 90

stock control 299–300supply system 296–301at training command 297turn-ins 298uniforms 277–8see also protective clothing

miss petite size 340MOAA (Mail Order Association of

America) 94–5Modern Sewing 344modular manufacturing 364moisture transfer 214–15, 268–9Moses, Elias 19–21multiple-regression analysis 74–5multisize patterns 338–9

NATO sizing system 208, 212–13neck measurements 185neck seals 283nested grades 189–90, 193–4non-stretch materials 267–8notched parchment strips 3, 6number of sizes 73–4, 278–80

Oasis 117obesity 111, 117Oliver, Thomas 8one-size-fi ts-all 83–4one-way spreads 359online shopping 141, 239–40optimization methods 76–8

paper pattern industry 329–32altering patterns 342–3multisize patterns 338–9size designations 335–42sizing developments 332–5standardization 338

parachute harnesses 286–7pattern development

CAD pattern-making programs 273–4history of 2–3, 6–21for the home sewing industry 329–32and mass customization 250–1, 254preproduction 350–3quality of patterns 191–2for stretch clothing 269

pattern grading 42–3, 152–98accuracy 189–90, 191–2and anthropometry 17–21armscye 189base size patterns 158blending 164

bust dart 188cardinal point 158, 163–4, 175complex grading 161–2computer grading systems 195edge changes 164–7goals of grading 189–92grade breaks 168–70, 180–2grade rules 164, 171–84, 196, 352grain line 158history of 9–17, 153–7incremental increments 170–1information and advice 197–8intervals of changes 158, 170–1neck measurements 185nested grades 189–90, 193–4and pattern quality 191–2proportional grading 167–8relative increments 170–1shifting techniques 163–4shoulders 185side seam 189simple grading 162systems of grading 161–3techniques of grading 161, 163–8vector grading 167virtual fi t models 197visual inspection 189–90, 193–4waist seam 188–9walking the seam 191for women’s clothing 153–4zero point 158

pen portraits 130perception of fi t 265, 272–4perfect body 319–20petite size 340piece fusing 362pilots’ suits 202, 280–1, 282–3, 288–9Poole, B.W. 42pregnant women 127pressure suits 288–9prewashing 366principal-component analysis 68–9, 79, 301product development 108–9, 110production systems 108–9, 110, 348–74

automation 254, 356, 364bundling 360–2cutting 360–2design quality 350–3distribution 368–70economies of scale 249error prevention 367–8fabric testing 354–6fi nishing 366–7fl exible manufacturing 364history of mass production 21, 38interfacings 362–6labeling 366–7marker making 356–8and mass customization 248

382 Index

modular manufacturing 364pattern making 350–3progressive bundle system 363prototypes 353–4quality control 349–50, 367–8sewing 362–6size specifi cations 353–4spreading 358–60tolerances 353–4unit production 363–4

progressive bundle system 38, 363proportional grading 167–8protective clothing 202, 278

ballistic vests 203–5heat transfer 214–15moisture transfer 214–15, 268–9standard sizing 90–1see also military garments

prototypes 140–1, 353–4psychographic segmentation 127–9pumping effect 216

quality control 130, 349–50, 367–8design quality 350–3

radio-frequency identifi cation (RFID) 369

re-forming the body 313–14Read, Benjamin 7ready-made garments 2, 6–7

for men 33–7in the United States 34, 36–7for women 21–2, 30–3, 157, 328

recruitment for studies 119relative increments 170–1requisition forms 298–9retention standards for the military 293retention systems 286–7return of garments 108, 141roll fusing 362Roman foot (pes) 3

Salusso-Deonier method 78–80scale-size relationship 310–13, 316–19scanners see body scannersseams 364–5secondary dimensions 64, 74–6segmentation 113–29

a posteriori 126–9a priori 114–25by age 117–18behavioural 126–7by benefi ts 126–7by body shape 120–3demographics 111, 116–25by ethnicity 124–5by gender 117geodemographic 116geographic 114–16

by lifestyle 127–9psychographic 127–9by size 118–19by social class 126

sewing machines 21, 362–6shearing properties 270Sheifer, N.S. 42shifting techniques 163–4shortages of military garments 300–1shoulder measurements 185shoulder width rule 182–3shrinkage 366side seam 189silver market 118, 237–8simple grading 162size charts 7, 8, 152, 154, 175–9Size Designation of Clothes 61–2size designations 59, 60, 65

British 99and cultural differences 115–16European 99in the paper pattern industry 335–42standardization 98–100, 223–7United States 98vanity sizing 100, 102, 115, 234see also labeling

size grade 64size groups 57–9size prediction services 254–5size range 64size scale 64size segmentation 118–19size specifi cations 353–4size step 72–3sizing effi ciency 209sizing systems 43–8, 57–84

accommodation rate 64, 77body size groups 57–9changing and adjusting 80–2and children’s clothes 44–5control dimensions 63–4, 66–71creating a system 59–60, 63–80

key decisions 59–60and customer satisfaction 57, 59drop of a sizing system 64–5future trends 82–4and garment fi t problems 81–2history of 2–6international surveys 46–8intersize intervals 71–3and market segmentation 118–19for men 42and the metric system 44, 45–6military garments 294–6

number of sizes 278–80NATO sizing 208, 212–13number of sizes 73–4, 278–80one-size-fi ts-all 83–4optimization methods 76–8

Index 383

principal-component analysis 68–9, 79, 301

Salusso-Deonier method 78–80secondary dimensions 64, 74–6unifi cation of sizing 60–3unisex sizing 289–91for women 38–42see also standard sizing

ski clothing 274skinny suit 318social class 126software systems 122, 356spandex 268special-size market 236–7specifi cation sheets 353–4spreading 358–60standard sizing 5, 88–104

and anthropometric studies 94–8ASTM Standards 88, 89, 92–3, 95, 102body measurement tables 88British Standards (BSI) 43–4, 47development of standards 93–4future trends 102–3and garment type 232–3global fi t teams 91goals of 88information and advice 103–4international standards 46, 61–2, 100–2,

206–7for men 231–2and military garments 90paper pattern industry 338and protective clothing 90–1purpose of standardization 91–2size designation standardization 98–100,

223–8vanity sizing 100, 102Voluntary Product Standard 91–2, 95for women 228–31

standard woman 75stature

and control dimensions 69–70and ethnicity 125secular trend 206

stock control 299–300, 368Stockman Ferries 99Stone, Charles J. 27stretch materials 268–70style evaluation 251–2styled patterns 139supply chain 368–70

for military garments 296–301survival vests 287swimwear 66

Tailor and Cutter 329tailored jackets 22, 26–7tape measures 5, 10target markets 109, 126–7, 129–30, 221–2

taste 311–12technology 238–9

see also body scannerstemplates 24, 26tertiary control dimensions 64TEST set 184–9, 191, 193testing

fabrics 356–8for fi t 134–8, 266–7

thermal aspects of fi t 214–17thickness of fabrics 271–2thongs 325tolerances 353–4top-of-production samples 354torso harnesses 286–7toxicological protection 283–4TRAD set 184–9, 191training command garments 297trapped air volume 210–12, 216turn-ins 298tweenagers 118two-way spreads 359

unifi cation of sizing 60–3uniforms 277–8

see also military garmentsUnique Patterns 344unisex sizing 289–91unit production 363–4United States

ready-to-wear trade 34, 36–7size designations 98

units of measurementhistory of 3–6standardization 5

VAL (values-and-lifestyles) classifi cation 128–9

vanity sizing 100, 102, 115, 234vector grading 167ventilation 215–17vertical measurements 173, 180Vetter, P.J. 27Vincent, W.D.F. 42virtual fi t models 138–42, 143–4, 197,

253virtual garment prototyping 140virtual try-on 369virtual visualizations 255, 260Vogue 333Voluntary Product Standard 91–2, 95

waist seam 188–9walking the seam 191Wampen, Henry 17, 19wearing ease 266weight

and control dimensions 67, 68entry standards for the military 292–3

384 Index

and ethnicity 124–5secular trend 206, 208

Westwood, Vivienne 322wet processes 366Williamson, John 34women

body types 120, 228–31bras 270customised clothing 22–30girdles 273hosiery market 264, 272hourglass shape 97mature woman market 127pattern grading 153–4

pregnant women 127ready-made garments 21–2, 30–3, 157, 328sizing systems 38–42

standardization 228–31special-size market 236–7standard woman 75unisex sizing 289–91see also home sewing industry

Woods, John 14

yardsticks 5–6

zero point 158Zoot suit 317

sizing in clothing: developing effective sizing systems for ready-to-wear clothing

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