sixth edition introductory chemistry - gbv · sixth edition introductory chemistry ... chapter...
TRANSCRIPT
SIXTH EDITION
IntroductoryChemistry
Concepts and Critical Thinking
Charles H. CorwinAmerican River College
Prentice Hall
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
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Contents
About the Author iv
Preface xv
A Guide to Using This Text xx
1 Introduction to Chemistry 2
1.1 Evolution of Chemistry 3
CRITICAL THINKING Rise and Fall of a Theory 5
1.2 Modern Chemistry 5
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION "Worth Your Salt?" 6
1.3 Learning Chemistry 7
Summary 9 • Key Terms 9 • Exercises 10
Chapter Self-Test 11
2 Scientific Measurements 12
2.1 Uncertainty in Measurements 13
2.2 Significant Digits 16
2.3 Rounding Off Nonsignificant Digits 19
2.4 Adding and Subtracting Measurements 20
2.5 Multiplying and Dividing Measurements 21
2.6 Exponential Numbers 22
2.7 Scientific Notation 24
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION A Student Success Story
2.8 Unit Equations and Unit Factors 26
2.9 Unit Analysis Problem Solving 27
CRITICAL THINKING World Trade Center 30
2.10 The Percent Concept 31
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION The Coinage Metals 33
Summary 33
Key Terms 35
Chapter Self-Test 39
Problem-Solving Organizer 34
Exercises 36
3 The Metric System 40
3.1 Basic Units and Symbols 41
CRITICAL THINKING Nanotechnology 43
3.2 Metric Conversion Factors 44
3.3 Metric-Metric Conversions 45
3.4 Metric-English Conversions 48
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION The Olympics 52
VI
CONTENTS
3.5 Volume by Calculation 52
3.6 Volume by Displacement 55
3.7 The Density Concept 57
CRITICAL THINKING Lower Gasoline Bills 61
3.8 Temperature 62
3.9 Heat and Specific Heat 64
Summary 68 • Problem-Solving Organizer 68
Key Terms 69 * Exercises 70
Chapter Self-Test 73
4 Matter and Energy 74
4.1 Physical States of Matter 75
4.2 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 77
4.3 Names and Symbols of the Elements 80
CRITICAL THINKING Aluminum or Aluminium? 82
4.4 Metals, Nonmetals, and Semimetals 83
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Elements 104 and Beyond 86
4.5 Compounds and Chemical Formulas 89
4.6 Physical and Chemical Properties 91
4.7 Physical and Chemical Changes 94
4.8 Conservation of Mass 96
4.9 Potential and Kinetic Energy 97
4.10 Conservation of Energy 99
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Recycling Aluminum 101
Summary 102 • Key Terms 103 • Exercises 104
Chapter Self-Test 107
5 Models of the Atom 110
5.1 Dalton Model of the Atom 111
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION John Dalton 111
5.2 Thomson Model of the Atom 112
5.3 Rutherford Model of the Atom 112
5.4 Atomic Notation 115
5.5 Atomic Mass 118
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Heavy Water 121
5.6 The Wave Nature of Light 121
5.7 The Quantum Concept 123
5.8 Bohr Model of the Atom 124
CRITICAL THINKING Neon Lights 128
5.9 Energy Levels and Sublevels 129
5.10 Electron Configuration 130
5.11 Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 132
Summary 135 • Key Terms 136 • Exercises 136
Chapter Self-Test 140
6 The Periodic Table 142
6.1 Classification of Elements 143
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Dmitri Mendeleev 144
6.2 The Periodic Law Concept 145
6.3 Groups and Periods of Elements 146
CRITICAL THINKING IUPAC Group Numbers 148
6.4 Periodic Trends 149
6.5 Properties of Elements 151
6.6 Blocks of Elements 153
6.7 Valence Electrons 155
6.8 Electron Dot Formulas 157
6.9 Ionization Energy 158
6.10 Ionic Charges 160
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Evolution of Chemical Elements 162
Summary 163 • Key Terms 164 • Exercises 165
Chapter Self-Test 169
7 Language of Chemistry 170
7.1 Classification of Compounds 171
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Antoine and Marie Lavoisier 174
7.2 Monoatomic Ions 174
7.3 Polyatomic Ions 177
7.4 Writing Chemical Formulas 179
CRITICAL THINKING Nutritional Potassium 181
7.5 Binary Ionic Compounds 182
7.6 Ternary Ionic Compounds 184
7.7 Binary Molecular Compounds 186
7.8 Binary Acids 188
7.9 Ternary Oxyacids 189
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION IUPAC Nomenclature 189
Summary 190 • Nomenclature Organizer 191
Key Terms 192 • Exercises 192
Chapter Self-Test 196
8 Chemical Reactions 198
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Fireworks 199
8.1 Evidence for Chemical Reactions 200
8.2 Writing Chemical Equations 201
8.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 202
8.4 Classifying Chemical Reactions 207
8.5 Combination Reactions 208
8.6 Decomposition Reactions 211
8.7 The Activity Series Concept 214
8.8 Single-Replacement Reactions 217
8.9 Solubility Rules 219
8.10 Double-Replacement Reactions 220
8.11 Neutralization Reactions 221
CRITICAL THINKING Household Chemicals 223
Summary 224 • Key Terms 225 • Exercises 226
Chapter Self-Test 230
9 The Mole Concept 232
9.1 Avogadro's Number 233
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Analogies for Avogadro's Number 233
9.2 Mole Calculations I 234
9.3 Molar Mass 237
9.4 Mole Calculations II 238
9.5 Molar Volume 241
9.6 Mole Calculations III 244
9.7 Percent Composition 246
9.8 Empirical Formula 248
9.9 Molecular Formula 250
CRITICAL THINKING Avogadro's Number 252
Summary 252 • Problem-Solving Organizer 254
Key Terms 255 • Exercises 255
Chapter Self-Test 258
1 0Chemical Equation Calculations 260
10.1 Interpreting a Chemical Equation 261
10.2 Mole-Mole Relationships 263
CRITICAL THINKING Iron versus Steel 265
10.3 Types of Stoichiometry Problems 265
10.4 Mass-Mass Problems 266
10.5 Mass-Volume Problems 269
10.6 Volume-Volume Problems 272
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Manufacturing Ammonia 274
10.7 Limiting Reactant Concept 275
10.8 Limiting Reactant Problems 277
10.9 Percent Yield 281
Summary 282 • Problem-Solving Organizer 283
Key Terms 284 • Exercises 284
Chapter Self-Test 288
1 1 The Gaseous State 290
11.1 Properties of Gases 291
11.2 Atmospheric Pressure 291
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION The Greenhouse Effect 292
11.3 Variables Affecting Gas Pressure 294
11.4 Boyle's Law: Pressure-Volume Relationships 296
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Robert Boyle 299
11.5 Charles's Law: Volume-Temperature Relationships 299
11.6 Gay-Lussac's Law: Pressure-Temperature Relationships 302
11.7 Combined Gas Law 304
11.8 The Vapor Pressure Concept 306
11.9 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 307
11.10 Ideal Gas Behavior 310
11.11 Ideal Gas Law 312
CRITICAL THINKING Conceptualizing Gases 313
Summary 314 • Problem-Solving Organizer 315
Key Terms 316 • Exercises 317
Chapter Self-Test 320
12.1 The Chemical Bond Concept 323
12.2 Ionic Bonds 324
12.3 Covalent Bonds 328
12.4 Electron Dot Formulas of Molecules 330
12.5 Electron Dot Formulas of Polyatomic Ions 335
12.6 Polar Covalent Bonds 338
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Linus Pauling 340
12.7 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 341
12.8 Coordinate Covalent Bonds 342
12.9 Hydrogen Bonds 343
12.10 Shapes of Molecules 344
CRITICAL THINKING Diamond versus Graphite 347
Summary 347 • Key Terms 348 • Exercises 349
Chapter Self-Test 352
13.1 Properties of Liquids 355
13.2 The Intermolecular Bond Concept 355
13.3 Vapor Pressure, Boiling Point, Viscosity, and Surface Tension 357
13.4 Properties of Solids 362
13.5 Crystalline Solids 362
13.6 Changes of Physical State 364
13.7 Structure of Water 367
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Water Purification 368
13.8 Physical Properties of Water 369
13.9 Chemical Properties of Water 371
13.10 Hydrates 372
CRITICAL THINKING Bottled Water 376
Summary 376 • Key Terms 377 • Exercises 378
Chapter Self-Test 382
322
354
1 4 Solutions 384
14.1 Gases in Solution 385
14.2 Liquids in Solution 387
14.3 Solids in Solution 389
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Colloids 390
14.4 The Dissolving Process 391
14.5 Rate of Dissolving 392
14.6 Solubility and Temperature 393
14.7 Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions 394
14.8 Mass/Mass Percent Concentration 397
14.9 Molar Concentration 399
CRITICAL THINKING Water Fluoridation 401
14.10 Dilution of a Solution 402
14.11 Solution Stoichiometry 403
Summary 404 • Problem-Solving Organizer 405
Key Terms 406 • Exercises 406
Chapter Self-Test 410
1 5 Acids and Bases 412
15.1 Properties of Acids and Bases 413
15.2 Arrhenius Acids and Bases 415
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Svante Arrhenius 418
15.3 Bransted-Lowry Acids and Bases 419
15.4 Acid-Base Indicators 419
15.5 Acid-Base Titrations 421
15.6 Acid-Base Standardization 424
15.7 Ionization of Water 426
15.8 The pH Concept 428
15.9 Advanced pH Calculations 430
CRITICAL THINKING Acid Rain 432
15.10 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 433
15.11 Net Ionic Equations 436
Summary 439 • Problem-Solving Organizer 440
Key Terms 441 • Exercises 441
Chapter Self-Test 445
uilibrium 448
16.1 Collision Theory 449
16.2 Energy Profiles of Chemical Reactions 451
16.3 The Chemical Equilibrium Concept 455
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION The Ozone Hole 457
16.4 General Equilibrium Constant, KBq 458
16.5 Equilibria Shifts for Gases 462
16.6 Ionization Equilibrium Constant, K\ 465
16.7 Equilibria Shifts for Weak Acids and Bases 467
1 6Chemical Eq
CONTENTS Xi
xii CONTENTS
16.8 Solubility Product Equilibrium Constant, Ksp 469
16.9 Equilibria Shifts for Slightly Soluble Compounds 471
Summary 472 • Key Terms 473 • Exercises 474
Chapter Self-Test 477
1 7 Oxidation and Reduction 480
17.1 Oxidation Numbers 482
17.2 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 487
17.3 Balancing Redox Equations: Oxidation Number Method 490
17.4 Balancing Redox Equations: Half-Reaction Method 494
17.5 Predicting Spontaneous Redox Reactions 497
17.6 Voltaic Cells 500
17.7 Electrolytic Cells 503
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Hybrid Vehicles 505
Summary 505 • Key Terms 506 • Exercises 506
Chapter Self-Test 510
1 8 Nuclear Chemistry 512
18.1 Natural Radioactivity 513
18.2 Nuclear Equations 514
18.3 Radioactive Decay Series 518
18.4 Radioactive Half-Life 519
18.5 Applications of Radionuclides 521
CRITICAL THINKING Nuclear Medicine 522
18.6 Induced Radioactivity 523
18.7 Nuclear Fission 525
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Nuclear Power Plant 528
18.8 Nuclear Fusion 528
Summary 530 • Key Terms 530 • Exercises 531
Chapter Self-Test 534
1 90rganic Chemistry 536
19.1 Hydrocarbons 537
19.2 Alkanes 538
19.3 Alkenes and Alkynes 543
19.4 Arenes 547
19.5 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 548
19.6 Organic Halides 550
19.7 Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers 552
19.8 Amines 554
19.9 Aldehydes and Ketones 555
19.10 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides 557
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION Forensic Chemistry 560
Summary 561 • Key Terms 562 • Exercises 563
Chapter Self-Test 566
CONTENTS
20 Biochemistry 568
20.1 Biological Compounds 569
20.2 Proteins 571
20.3 Enzymes 576
20.4 Carbohydrates 578
20.5 Lipids 581
CRITICAL THINKING Vitamins 585
20.6 Nucleic Acids 586
CRITICAL THINKING Left- and Right-Handed Mol
Summary 590 • Key Terms 591 • Exercises 591
Chapter Self-Test 594
AppendicesA Weights and Measures 597
B Physical Constants 598
C Activity Series of Metals 599
D Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds 600
E Vapor Pressure of Water 601
F Properties of Water 602
G Answers to Concept Exercises 603
H Answers to Key Term Exercises 608
I Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 610
J Answers to Chapter Self-Tests 627
Glossary 633
Photo Credits 643
Index 645