Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, 10/eCh. 15 & 16: Argumentation

• An argument is a line of reasoning intended to persuade the reader or listener to agree with a particular viewpoint or take a particular action.

• When writing an argument, an author’s job is make a point and support his/her point with adequate and relevant support.

• When reading an argument, a reader’s job is to identify the author’s point and evaluate his/her support.

Argumentative Writing• Topics are controversial in nature—that is,

there is more than one side to the argument.

Should the drinking age be lowered to 18?

YES NO

The Parts of an Argument1. Issue: A concern or problem about which people disagree

(e.g. The welfare system)2. Claim: The writer’s opinion about the issue

(e.g. The welfare system is unjust and needs reform)3. Support: The details that demonstrate the claim is correct and should be accepted. (e.g. people cheat the system, deserving people can’t get benefits, and it costs taxpayers too much money.)

There are three types of support: • Logical appeals (reasons with evidence)• Emotional appeals • Ethical appeals

See Ch. 3B (pp. 18-19)

Aristotle’s modes of persuasion

EthosEthical appeal to the authority or

credibility of the writer (we tend to believe people we respect)

PathosAppeal to the readers’ emotions and

motivations with vivid emotional language and sensory details

LogosAppeal to the readers’ sense of

logic; provide evidence to support a claim

Logical Appeals Types of Evidence for Arguments:

• Facts: objective truths; facts should appeal to readers’ sense of logic

• Statistics: numerical data (figures, percentages, averages) from credible sources

• Quotations and citations: statements from an authority/ recognized expert on the subject

• Examples: descriptions of situations used to illustrate or explain a point; typical anecdotes to demonstrate truth

• Personal experiences: personal stories/accounts• Analogies: comparisons to similar cases

Emotional Appeals

Emotional appeals focus on readers’ values, needs, and feelings – Values: hard-work ethic,

patriotism, kindness . . . – Needs: desire to feel

attractive and liked . . . – Feelings: sympathy,

compassion, etc. . .

Support this organization to stop animal cruelty

Use this toothpaste for a beautiful smile that shines

Ethical Appeals Ethical appeals focus on your trustworthiness as a writer. Tips for creating an ethical appeal: • Present yourself as an authority on your topic (What

makes you an expert on the topic?) • Write a well-reasoned argument that avoids fallacies • Avoid over-using emotional appeals • Raise and counter objections (i.e. acknowledge the other

side)• Create goodwill

Journal promptArgue a claim about one of these issues:

• Immigration laws• Climate change/global warming

• Athletic scholarships • A longer school year for K-12• Censorship of the Internet

Issue + Claim + Support = Argument

Tips for Reading Arguments Effectively

1. Read once for an initial impression 2. Read the argument several more times;

Identify the claim and support 3. Annotate as you read—record your thoughts 4. Highlight key terms; look up unfamiliar words

Sample Argument Essay • Read “Why Organic Foods are Worth the

Cost” by Alex Garcia, pp. 179-185• Answer (pair/share): – What issue does this student raise? – What claim does this student make on this issue?

(That is, what is this student’s thesis?)– What evidence does this student provide to

support her thesis?– Does this student present a convincing argument?

(That is, do you agree/disagree and why?)

Writing Argument EssaysESSAY STRUCTURE

Introduction

• “Hook” your reader• Provide background info on the

controversy• State your thesis

2-4 Body Paragraphs

• Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that directly supports your thesis

• Include plenty of supporting evidence (reasons, facts, examples, statistics, quotes, etc.)

Conclusion• Summarize your argument• Discuss plans for action or consequences

Writing Argumentative EssaysTHESIS STATEMENT

Your thesis statement in an argumentative essay must be strong and to the point. Often persuasive thesis statements include the words “should,” “ought,” and “must.”

Examples: •The death penalty should be abolished. •Cigarette smoking should be banned. •Teens who are are caught texting while driving ought to have their licenses revoked. •Tuition rates must decrease.

Conducting Research(Part 3: Source-Based Writing and Part 4: Research & Documentation)

• Many assignments in college require you to locate and read several sources of information on a topic and then use them to support your ideas in an essay.

Use sources in an essay to support your own ideas

Information gathered through research can help support the main points you want to make in your essay.

You can support your thesis by including these in your essay

• Important statistics • Technical information • Background information • The opinion/view of an expert or

authority, or an explanation from an expert/authority

Tips for Finding Appropriate Sources1. Ask a reference librarian for help 2. Start with general reference sources—like Wikipedia—and then

move to more specific sources 3. Use current sources (nothing more than five years old; or even

more recent, depending on the topic)4. Sample a variety of sources—websites, journal articles,

newspaper articles, books, etc. 5. Preview articles by reading abstracts and summaries6. Read selectively—just read the portions of the article that are

relevant to your research7. Choose reliable, credible, trustworthy sources 8. Look for sources that lead to other sources9. Take notes!

Library databases• Library databases are

indexed collections of magazine, journal and newspaper articles that have been checked for accuracy and reliability by publishers and then licensed for distribution online.

• College libraries subscribe to a variety of databases as a service for students.

Library Databases vs. The InternetLibrary Databases The Internet

Purchased by school libraries; free for students to use

Free to anyone with Internet access

Content is evaluated for accuracy and authority

Anyone can publish anything they want to the web; there are no checks for accuracy or authority

Information is stable; you can search for articles published today or 30 years ago.

Websites come and go—information is not stable

Articles are organized and indexed by librarians so content can be easily searched, managed and updated.

No official body oversees the organization, cataloging, and evaluation of sources.

Offers options to search by subject, keyword, author, source, etc.

Only searches by matching keywords entered by the user

Offers options to limit search results (refine search)

It can be difficult to narrow down results; often a “grab bag” of information

Use the SCC library to locate sources

You can access the library from the SCC homepagewww.salemcc.edu

How to access the library databases at Salem Community College

• Go to our website www.salemcc.edu and click on “Cettei Memorial Library”• Click on “Subscription Databases—Subject”

– When you are on-campus, you will automatically have free access to these databases

Popular Databases

LexisNexis ERIC

*These databases are a good starting point for your research. Remember to preview (skim) articles and read selectively.

Only print out articles that you really need.

TOPICsearch

EBSCO Host

Points of View Database

Evaluating your sourcesTo determine the usefulness of your sources, ask yourself the following

questions:

• Is the material recent enough? (some topics like the health care law debate require the most up-to-date materials)

• Does the author have suitable credentials? • Is the author expressing a fact, an opinion or

both? • Is the source reputable? (sources such as The New

York Times, a major newspaper, would be considered reputable, whereas unrecognized sources like a personal blog would not be considered reputable)

Take notes on your sources

• Write down title, author, publication information, and page numbers for all of your sources (you will need this information for your works cited page)

• Paraphrase information you may want to cite in your essay—that is, write notes in your own words.

Avoiding Plagiarism• Using someone else’s words or ideas without properly giving

them credit is called plagiarism. • All sources must be cited!!! That is, you must mention the

source of all information/ideas you learned in your research. Even if you don’t write those ideas word-for-word, you still must credit the source.

• See Chapter 19 of your textbook and the “Avoiding Plagiarism” handout in your green course syllabus for more information.

Caution!

• You want the majority of your essays to be your own ideas in your words.

• In a short essay, you should only include 2-4 short citations maximum!

• Avoid lengthy quotes!

Writing Parenthetical Text Citations• Introduce source material in the present tense

– Joan Smith agrees . . . – Another researcher remarks . . . – According to the American Academy of Pediatrics . . .

• Paraphrase, directly quote, or summarize the source material– Joan Smith agrees that corporal punishment is not a legitimate

form of discipline in schools (104). – Another researcher remarks, “Corporal punishment teaches

children to solve problems with violence” (Hayes 20). – According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, all corporal

punishment should be banned in schools (“Corporal Punishment in Schools”). *Note, this source did not have a named author or page number.

Writing the Works Cited Page • In addition to introducing your source

material and providing parenthetical text citations, MLA documentation requires that you also provide a works cited page at the end of your essay.

• The works cited page is a alphabetical listing all sources from which you paraphrased, summarized, and quoted (it is not a listing of all the sources you consulted during your research).

• Consult your textbook and the Purdue Owl Website for instructions on how to format your works cited page.

Resources in Simon & Schuster’s Handbook for Writers

• Part 3: Source-based writing– Ch. 18: Quoting, paraphrasing and

summarizing– Ch. 19: Avoiding plagiarism

• Part 4: Research and documentation – Ch. 21: Starting and planning research

projects – Ch. 22: Finding published sources – Ch. 25: MLA documentation – MLA sample paper on pp. 350-360