Copy 3 MA UAL

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

SIGNALPHOTOGRAPHY

REFERENCE USE

ONLY

NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM LIBRARY

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY . JANUARY 1951

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

FM 11-40

SIGNAL

PHOTOGRAPHY

Washington: 1951

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYWASHINGTON 25, D. C., 10 January 1951

FM 11-40 is published for the information and guidanceof all concerned.

[AG 06.2 (22 Sep 50)]

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

OFFICIAL: J. LAWTON COLLINSEDWARD F. WITSELL Chief of StaffMajor General, USA United States ArmyThe Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

GSUSA (5); SSUSA _(5); Tech Svc (2); Arm &Svc Bd (1); AFF (10); OS Maj Comd (5); BaseComd (3); MDW (2); A (20); CHQ (2); D (2);B (2); R (2); Bn (2); C (1); FC (2); Sch (5)except USMA (2); Dep 11 (5); Tng Cen 11 (20);PE (5), OSD (SigO) (2) Ars (SigO) (1); Lab(SigO) (2); 4th & 5th Ech Maint Shops 11 (2);T/O&E 11-500 EK, FA, FB, FC, FD, FE, FF, FH,FI, FJ, FK, FL, FM, FG (2); SPECIAL DIS-TRIBUTION.

For explanation of distribution formula see SR 310-90-1.

CONTENTS

Paragraphs Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION …____________ 1-3 1

CHAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION

Section I. Theater of operations ____ 4-11 3. - -. -TI.-'Continental United States 12-15 11

CHAPTER 3. PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

Section I. Theater of operations ___ 16-32 14II. Continental United States 33-37 33

III. Security --------------- 38-40 40

CHAPTER 4. STILL PHOTOGRAPHY

Section I. Employment ____--------- 41-51 42II. Techniques ______-------- 52-66 55

II. Equipment ______--- __--- 67-70 82IV. Photographic laboratories_ 71-83 85

CHAPTER 5. MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY

Section I. General .__--.---------- 84-87 95

II. Techniques -------------- 88-103 99

III. Equipment _-.---------- 104-106 119

CHAPTER 6. TRAINING

Section I. Specialist training ___---- 107-110 125II. Field training _______---- 111-116 128

CHAPTER 7. SUPPLY

Section I. Procedures ______-------- 117-119 133II. Maintenance _____-------- 120-121 134

III. Storage and shipping ___ 122-127 136

CHAPTER 8. SIGNAL PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPANYSection 1. General---------------- 128-130 144

II. Headquarters platoon _____ 131-133 145.

III. Laboratory platoon _____-- 134-136 150

IV. Assignment platoon ___--- 137-141 154

INDEX ___----------------------------- ------- 158

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. PURPOSE

This manual is intended to provide militarypersonnel with a general orientation concerningtactical employment of military photography andthe functions, organization, and responsibilitiesof Signal Corps photographic units.

2. SCOPE

The subject matter includes tactical applicationand general techniques of still and motion picturephotography. Basic information is given on theoperation and employment of film libraries, photo-graphic laboratories, and Signal Corps photo-graphic companies and sections. Also included isspecific information on plans and training, func-tions of military photography, and methods ofsupply and storage peculiar to photographicequipment and supplies.

3. OBJECTIVE OF MILITARY PHOTOGRAPHY

The object of Signal Corps photography is toprovide all types of required photographic servicewherever military operations benefit or are sim-plified through such service. Dui_.ng combat, the

I1

camera essentially is a tactical tool. Through thephotographs it produces, the camera provides pos-itive information which is used to clarify, sub-stantiate, and support modern military operations.Complete understanding of the application of mili-tary photography by using units is necessary toinsure cooperation and full utilization of photo-graphic service.

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CHAPTER 2

ORGANIZATION

0

Section I. THEATER OF OPERATIONS

4. GENERAL

In a theater of operations, photographic activi-ties are widely dispersed. Photographic organiza-tion is flexible and varies with the situation, troopstrength, and type of operation. Most theaterphotographic activities are organized to meet therequirements of land-based operations. To insurea well-coordinated, efficient, and successful theaterphotographic service, a thorough working knowl-edge of the available photographic units in thetheater by signal officers and photographic officersis necessary.

a. Signal Officeirs. Signal officers at all echelonsare charged with the responsibility of militaryphotography (fig. 1). To provide theater, army,and corps signal officers with the necessary tech-nical and tactical photographic information, atleast one thoroughly qualified photographic officeris on each signal staff. Although the division sig-nal officer does not have a photographic officer onhis staff, necessary information is obtained fromthe photographic officer in the photographic sec-tion of the division sgfinal company.

3.

THEATER OF OPERATIONS

THEATER SIGNAL OFFICER

THEATER PHOTO OFFICER SPECIAL PHOTOTEAMS

ARMY SIGNAL OFFICER

COPSIGNAL PHOTO L ARMY PHOTO OFFICERCOMPANY'

CORPS SIGNAL OFFICER

CORPS PHOTO OFFICER CORPS PHOTOSECTION

DIVISION SIGNAL OFFICER

DIVISION PHOTO OFFICER

DIVISION PHOTOSECTION

Figure 1. Photographic technical channel for theater ofoperations.

b. Photographic Officers. At staff level, the sig-nal officer delegates technical responsibility andtactical control over the photographic units to thephotographic officer. Within.: the photographic

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companies and sections, photographic officers havedirect command and technical responsibility.

5. THEATER LEVEL

To meet photographic requirements at theaterlevel, a photographic service unit organized underT/O & E 11-500, 22 September 1944, is utilized.The photographic service unit normally operatesin the communications zone. However, teams fromthe unit may perform special photographic mis-sions in echelons as low as division. The unit isnormally large and flexible enough to be adaptedto meet many situations. The strength of thephotographic unit determines the size of the head-quarters section. This section is made up of ad-ministration, mess, and motor maintenance teams.The required operational elements are normallycomposed of the following cellular teams:

Photographic assignment (FA) team.Photographic laboratory (FB) team.Newsreel assignment (FC) team.Identification (FD) team.Telephoto transmission (FF) team.Photographic maintenance (FG) team.Signal photographic production (FH) team.Still picture (FL or FM) team.

6. ARMY

At army level the photographic requirementsare met by an organic photographic companywhich operates the army laboratory and provides

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photographic coverage at army headquarters. Ele-ments of the photographic company also operatein division areas to accomplish army photographicassignments. When necessary, elements of thephotographic company are used to augment corpsand division photographic activities. For addi-tional information on the company see chapter 8.

7. CORPS'

Personnel to accomplish the photographic cover-age and operate the corps photographic laboratoryare, provided by the corps signal battalion. Thephotographic section is a part of the headquarterscompany of the battalion. Personnel of the sectionoperate at corps headquarters and, when neces-sary, may augment the division photographic acti-vities. Whenever augmenting teams are needed atcorps, they are assigned from army and are at-tached to the photographic section of the corpssignal battalion. Normally, the augmenting per-sonnel use the corps laboratory facilities.

8. DIVISION

Photographic sections that are part of the divi-sion signal company are furnished to infantry,armored, and airborne divisions. Personnel fromthese sections provide basic photographic cover-age for the division. However, augmenting teams '

from the army or theater photographic agenciescan be requested to assist the division photo-graphic sections whenever additional assistance isnecessary.

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9. UTILIZATION OF CELLULAR TEAMS

a. Service Units. Signal photographic servicecompanies or detachments that are used at armyand theater level are formed by combining thenecessary cellular teams authorized by T/O & E11-500. These photographic service units operatein the same manner as an organic photographiccompany but are preferable in certain circum-stances because of their flexibility. They may beutilized by theater commanders when-

(1) Existing photographic facilities are notadequate.

(2) Photographic demands do not warrantan organic photographic company.

(3) More than the normal number of a cer-tain type of team is needed to complete aspecific photographic mission.

(4) An organic photographic company can-not meet the demands.

b. Augmenting Teams. Variation of the normalmission or work load of an organic organizationoccasionally requires an increase of personnel andequipment. Whenever this occurs locally and noton an army-wide basis, cellular teams are used forthe augmentation. Sufficient teams to meet thedemands of the situation are obtained and ab-sorbed by the organic unit. This form of augmen-tation is on a permanent basis.

c. Speeied, -eama. In a theater of operations,special teams-which are controlled by the Depart-ment of the Army are often utilized for specialcoverage. Normally, the signal photographic pro-

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duction team is used on these special projects andis attached to the theater photographic laboratory.This team usually functions in the communicationszone. Elements of the team, however, may operatein forward echelons.

10. TYPES OF TEAMS

Teams authorized by T/O & E 11-500 are usedin the formation of photographic units, augment-ing teams, and special teams. They are cellulartype teams and vary in size and functions. Typicalteams are:

a. Photographic Assignment Team. The missionof this team is to provide still and motion picturephotography in a combat area and to supplementthe activities of other photographic units. Identi-fying code designation-FA Team.

b. Photographic Laboratory Team. This teamnormally is the nucleus of the theater photo-graphic service unit and operates the theaterphotographic laboratory. Personnel and equip-ment are adequate for the processing of both stilland motion picture film. Identifying code designa-tion-FB Team.

c. Newsreel Assignment Team. This team pro-vides newsreel-type motion pictures and news-typestill photographs and operates in the communica-tions zone and combat zone. Identifying codedesignation-FC Team.

d. Identification Team. This team. is equippedto take and process identification pictures. Iden-tifying code designation-FD Team.

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e. Still Picture Laboratory Team; This team iscapable of processing material for two photo-graphic assignment teams and two newsreelassignment teams. A still picture laboratory teamis used when a photographic laboratory team isnot needed. Identifying code designation-FETeam.

f. Telephoto Transmission Team. This team in-stalls, operates, and maintains telephoto or fac-simile transmission equipment. Identifying codedesignation-FF Team.

g. Photographic Maintenance Team. This teamperforms depot maintenance of projector andphotographic equipment in a theater of operations.Identifying code designation-FG Team.

h. Signal Photographic Production Team. Thisis a basic photographic unit in the communicationszone which makes motion picture reports of per-sonnel, material, conditions, and techniques in thedevelopment and use of all weapons and means ofwarfare. It is provided particularly for the use ofstaff agencies but its use must be authorized bythe Department of the Army. When authorized bythe Department of the Army, this unit also pro-vides public information and historical motionpicture coverage. Identifying code designation-FH Team.

i. Still Picture Team. This team usually is at-tached to intelligence or public information sec-tions. Its personnel can provide news, identifica-tion, reconnaissance, and tactical or technical stillphotography. Identifying code designation-FLor FM Team.

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'. Film and Equipment Exchange Team, ClassA. This team serves a minimum of 75,000 troopsat a theater headquarters or other unit not servedby a class B or C film and equipment exchange. Ittrains projectionists and supplies troops with filmsand projectors for training, orientation, enter-tainment, education, and other purposes. The teamconsolidates requests for film, projectors, andother equipment necessary in the operation of thetheater film library. The theater film and equip-ment exchange stocks films and maintains controlof all film and equipment exchanges in the theater.Identifying code designation-FI Team.

k. Film and Equipment Exchange Team, ClassB. This team is capable of providing 60,000 troopswith films and projection equipment. Service isidentical to that provided by the class A film andequipment exchange team. The team performs or-ganizational maintenance of projector equipment.Identifying code designation-FJ Team.

1. Film and Equipment Exchange Team, ClassC. This team serves isolated units or schools of10,000 troop strength and performs the same func-tion as a class B film and equipment exchangeteam. Identifying code designation-FK Team.

11. FILM AND EQUIPMENT EXCHANGES

To provide the necessary instructional films,recreation films, and projection equipment in atheater of operations, a system of film and equip-ment exchange is established. Organization of theexchanges is dependent upon the situation andnumber of troops to be served. The signal officer

10

of the particular echelon served by an exchange isresponsible for its operation. Normally, at theaterlevel a class A film and equipment exchange teamis needed to provide a sufficient number of operat-ing personnel and equipment. At army level, per-sonnel and equipment are provided by a class Bexchange team. The theater exchange is consid-ered the central and controlling exchange andall other issuing agencies are designated sub-exchanges.

Section II. CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES

12. GENERAL

Since photographic operations within the con-tinental United States are on a much smaller scalethan in a theater of operations, photographic activ-ities are correspondingly smaller and are organ-ized under a different chain of command (fig. 2).Practically all photographic coverage within thecontinental United States is accomplished byphotographic laboratories. Organization of photo-graphic laboratories is discussed in chapter 4.

13. ARMY AREAS

a. Command. A central command directs allphotographic activities in the continental UnitedStates. This command directs, processes, and for-mulates policies and plans pertaining to militaryphotography. Authority and supervision are dele-gated through army photographic officers to the

CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES

ARMY AREA SIGNAL OFFICER

ARMY AREA PHOTO OFFICER

. IPOST SIGNAL OFFICER

SIGNAL PHOTO - PHOTO FILMCOMPANY LABORATORY LIBRARY

FM 6-3

Figure 2. Photographic technical channel for continental* United States.

various photographic organizations throughoutthe continental United States.

b. Army Photographic Officer. In each armyarea there is a photographic officer on the signalofficer's staff. The army photographic officer exer-cises operational control over all photographic ac-tivities and film libraries throughout the area. Thenumber of these activities depends upon the sizeof the army area and the installations it contains.The normal chain of command is direct to the in-stallation commander, who disseminates directives

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and instructions to photographic activities withinhis command.

14. FILM LIBRARIES

Film libraries in the continental United Stateshave the same organization and functions as filmand equipment exchanges have in the theater ofoperations. Film libraries distribute visual train-ing aids and equipment on a loan basis to all mili-tary organizations of an installation. A centrallibrary, which is operated at each army area head-quarters, functions as the controlling library. Allother installations in the army area are providedwith sublibraries. The army area commander isresponsible for all film library activities in thearmy area. For further details on film librariesand film and equipment exchanges, see SR 110-30-5.

15. PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPANYIn the continental United States, utilization of

organic photographic companies is very limitedbecause photographic requirements do not war-rant units of this size. A photographic companynormally is located at an army area headquartersand is under control of the army photographicofficer. The company's functions are training andthe accomplishment of special Department of theArmy projects. Teams from the photographiccompany may be utilized by the army photo-graphic officer to alleviate excessive work loads atany of the army installations or to complete addi-tional special photographic tasks.

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CHAPTER 3

PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

Section I. THEATER OF OPERATIONS

16. GENERAL

Good planning is a form of insurance. It givesspecific purpose to preparations and impetus tooperations. In photographic planning, effortshould be made to anticipate every possible factorwhich may affect photographic performance. Mili-tary photographers must participate in all typesof operations. Even under adverse conditions, andwith minimum equipment, they should be able,by intelligent use of field expedients, to providesatisfactory photographic service. Only good plan-ning insures such service in all military situations.Primary consideration in photographic planningis the type of military operation.

17. INFANTRY OPERATIONS

The pictorial service normally provided for in-fantry units represents the basis for planning forall types of operations. Photographic coveragemay include participation in reconnaissance mis-sions with scouting parties or intelligence teams.Coverage may be made from observation posts,vantage points, and reconnaissance airplanes. In

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most situations both still and motion picture pho-tography are employed to provide suitable photo-graphic coverage (fig. 3).

18. ARMORED OPERATIONS

In an armored unit, tactical photography pre-sents special problems because of the mobility ofthe unit. Photographic coverage usually is ob-tained from a leading tank or from an armoredvehicle on a reconnaissance mission. Processing of

pictures may have to be performed in an armoredvehicle and often while the unit is moving.

19. AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

Airborne operations require light, compactphotographic equipment. Processing equipmentmust be portable and easily assembled to facilitatetransportation and use. Such equipment isdropped and assembled immediately. Because ofthe nature of airborne operations, photographersmust carry enough equipment and film to functionindependently for sustained periods. Photo-graphic coverage begins with the initial stages ofthe operation and continues until the objective hasbeen reached. Tactical photographs should beprocessed as soon as possible after personnel havecompleted the jump and established a position.Photographers must have specialized training inthis type of operation.

20. SPECIAL OPERATIONS

Special methods and equipment are required forjoint amphibious landings and for hot and cold

15

Figure 3. Both still and motion picture photographs aresometimes employed.

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weather operations. In amphibious missions pho-tography is a coordinated effort between army, airforce, and navy personnel, with specific missionsdetailed to individual photographers. The navyphotographic service should be consulted on suchproblems as water-level photography and shorereconnaissance aerial photography, which is usedto determine water depth and suitability for land-ing troops. In hot and cold weather operations,the climate influences the choice of equipment andprocedures for maintenance and processing. Spe-cial equipment is provided for extremely coldweather so that cameras can be operated withgloves, films can be safely transported in thecamera, and camera equipment can be properlywinterized. In extremely hot climates, equipmentis moistureproofed and fungiproofed, films arestored with desiccators, and lenses are treated toprevent their destruction by bacteria and fungus.Processing requires temperatures within certainlimits and certain chemical processes. For generalinformation on use of equipment in hot or coldclimates, see TB SIG 189 and TB SIG 190.

21. RESPONSIBILITY

At each echelon, the signal officer is responsiblefor military photography. To insure the success-ful and efficient operation of photographic units,personnel must be thoroughly trained, equipped,and informed on their missions. The signal officersees that these requirements are met and main-tains control through periodic inspections of pho-tographic personnel and equipment. During in-

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spections of photographic units, the following im-portant details should be considered:

Cleanliness and condition of installation.

Space and arrangement for convenient workflow.

Speed and quality of photographic service.Care and maintenance of equipment.Supply control and records.Proper filing and captioning of negatives and

prints.

Security of classified material in accordancewith AR 380-5.

Fire precautions in storage.Transportation maintenance and records.

Military appearance and discipline of per-sonnel.

22. THEATER PHOTOGRAPHIC STANDING OPERATINGPROCEDURE

In a theater of operations, photographic plan-ning should specify assignment and utilization ofall photographic units-with particular referenceto activities that have precedence during combat.To eliminate the need for detailed orders, thetheater photographic officer prepares an SOP(standing operating procedure) which includesthe more permanent aspects of all photographicactivities within the theater. To insure a thoroughand efficient SOP, close coordination is necessarybetween the theater photographic officer and thevarious staff sections. Coordination and policy-

making with other services and allied forces arealso essential. The theater SOP establishes pro-cedures for-

Forwarding record and nonrecord negatives.Disposition, storage, and handling of classi-

fied negatives and prints.Handling and forwarding color film.Facsimile transmission of photographs.Expediting processed and unprocessed still

picture negatives.Theater training of photographic personnel.Issuing special photographic passes and iden-

tification cards.Coordination with G-2 and PIO (public in-

formation officer).Cooperation with authorized civilian photog-

raphers.Augmenting photographic units when neces-

sary.Personnel reports in event of critical MOS

(military occupational specialty) shortage.Critical shortage reports.Production reports of sublaboratories.Faulty or inadequate equipment reports.

The theater SOP should also establish-Regulations restricting photography of cer-

tain subjects.Policies governing aerial photography.Policy on official and unofficial photography.Operation of equipment under local climatic

conditions.Number blocks for still negatives and 35-mm

still rolls.

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Lists for normal and special photographicprint distribution.

Security specifications in accordance withAR 380-5.

Standards of photographic performance ex-pected in the theater.

Lists of special subjects for historical photo-graphs.

Method of handling captured enemy photo-graphic equipment and supplies.

Method of handling acquired enemy still andmotion pictures.

Special operational instructions for tacticaland combat photography.

Emergency instructions for a sudden ad-vance, retreat, or unprecedented action.

Disaster plans indicating the location andduties of every photographic unit and teamwithin the theater.

23. CHANGES TO SOP's

Although photographic SOP's are intended tocover military photography under all conditionsand circumstances, the following factors maynecessitate changes to the SOP:

Large scale tactical moves.Unprecedented enemy weapons and opera-

tions.Seasonal or climatic changes.Terrain changes resulting from tactical

moves.Logistical difficulties.

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24. ARMY PHOTOGRAPHIC SOP

For general organization and planning control,the army photographic officer prepares an SOPbased on the theater photographic SOP, the type ofcampaign, and the employment of photographicunits within the army. The theater SOP usuallycovers over-all photographic policy. The armySOP gives more detailed and specific informationdirected to specific units. Additional informationis obtained by the army photographic officerthrough coordination with the corps photographicofficers and the photographic company com-mander. The army photographic officer also con-fers with the army signal officer and various staffsections to facilitate execution of the SOP and toassure that requirements of photographic per-sonnel for transportation, subsistence, and equip-ment are met. He makes arrangements for pho-tographers to be given freedom of action in combatareas. Through the army signal officer he coordi-nates with theater, corps, and division, to meetstaff photographic requirements. During the plan-ning phases and the making of the army SOP, thephotographic officer should strive for a coordi-nated, cooperative, and productive operation.Essential considerations in making the armyphotographic SOP are-

Primary photographic mission.Special types of operations.Unusual tactical developments.Extreme climatic conditions.Dficult types of terrain.

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Use of unexpected weapons by the enemy.

Type and strength of enemy forces.

Number of available photographic units.

Sector assigned to each photographic unit.

Photographic supplies and equipment.

Transportation.

Individual equipment of personnel.

Supporting operations between photographicunits.

Supporting operations between terrestrial

and aerial photography.

Photographic service chain for processing

and distribution.

Location of processing teams and labora-

tories.

Emergency distribution list of tactical photo-

graphs.

Security measures.

Communications.

Captured enemy photographic equipment.

25. CORPS

There is no designated corps photographic offi-

cer. However the photographic officer of the corps

signal battalion may act in the capacity of corps

photographic officer if the signal officer so desires.

This photographic officer is concerned with photo-

graphic requirements and special requests fromtheater. He acts as technical advisor to the corps

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signal officer and as liaison officer in all matterspertaining to military photography. Planning bythe corps photographic officer should be directedtoward broad and thorough photographic cover-age. To accomplish the necessary coverage, aug-menting teams from the army photographic com-pany may be requested. Planning for photo-graphic activities within the corps should alsoprevent overlapping efforts between adjacentcorps. Corps photographic policies and SOP's are.based on the army SOP.

26. DIVISION

The division signal officer is responsible for thephotographic program within the division. Hecommands the division photographic section and,when necessary, consults the division photo-graphic officer on technical aspects of militaryphotography. The division photographic officer isin charge of the photographic section and directsits activities. He acts as advisor to the divisionstaff, recommends special equipment needs, andreports on particular problems and conditionswhich should be considered in planning. Thoroughplanning is essential to insure the maximum effi-ciency of the section. Better cooperation and co-ordination between photographic personnel andcombat unit personnel are achieved by assigningphotographic personnel to operate with the samecombat unit whenever possible. The divisionphotographic SOP is the responsibility of thephotographic officer and is based on the corpsphotographic SOP.

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27. PHOTOGRAPHIC UNIT

The operation of each photographic unit (com-pany, detachment, or section) is planned by theunit commanding officer. At times it may benecessary to reorganize the unit into operatinggroups to meet-the requirements of the signalofficer's operation orders. Only careful advancedplanning prevents confusion and laxness amongpersonnel of these operating groups when they arewidely dispersed for sustained periods. Planning-should also provide alternate solutions for prob-lems likely to be encountered during combat. Dis-semination of the completed plans is made by unitoperation orders and unit SOP's.

28. UNIT SOP

Unit SOP's are prepared by the commandingofficer of the photographic company, the corpssignal battalion photographic section and the divi-sion photographic sections. These SOP's are basedon the army SOP and on signal or operationorders. The'degree of detail necessary in a unitSOP is determined by the proficiency and trainingof the personnel who make up the unit. Newvlyorganized units require a more detailed SOP thando well-trained or seasoned units. A detailed unitSOP normally covers the-

System for maintaining liaison and coordina-tion between the photographic unit and theorganizations served.

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System used in filling pictorial requests fromthe public information office at division,corps, and army.

System used in filling special requests for thehistorical section.

Maximum time limits for each type of photo-graphic coverage. (Usually 24 hours forpublic information office assignments, 6hours for tactical photographs, etc.)

Distribution list of photographic prints.Detailed procedure for handling and forward-

ing films and negatives.Procedure for arranging electrical transmis-

sion of photographs.Location of photographic laboratory where

films are to be processed.

Route and number of daily trips betweenphotographic unit and photographic labo-ratory.

Type and number of vehicles available.

System for repair and maintenance ofvehicles.

System of resupply and periods when addi-tional supplies are available.

Ration points for unit mess, ration pickuppoints for individual photographers, orunit messes to which photographers areassigned.

Special instructions for personnel separatedfrom the unit because of sudden advance,retreat, disaster, or other emergency.

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Channels to be used for emergency supportof transportation, messing, or personalequipment.

Specific procedure for immediate replace-ment when camera equipment breaks downor is lost.

Handling of captured enemy photographicequipment.

List of enemy photographic supplies whichmay be used in emergencies.

Special instructions pertaining to securityand safeguarding military information.

Brief outline of the normal photographic pro-cedure for every type of photographiccoverage anticipated in a particular cam-paign.

Definition of the limits to which aerial pho-tography is supplied by Signal, Corpspersonnel.

Method of obtaining aerial photographic sup-port through channels.

Procedure for obtaining permission to usereconnaissance aircraft.

29. TEAM

a. Standing Operating Procedure. Often theunit SOP does not fully apply to individual teamsoperating on special assignments. When thisoccurs, it is necessary to provide the individualteams with SOP's. The applicable parts of theunit SOP are used with necessary additional in-

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formation. Additional factors to be considered inthe team SOP are-

Sectors of operation.Support of photographic personnel from ad-

jacent sectors.Climatic extremes.Difficult terrain.Available special equipment.Precautions and directions governing use of

special equipment.

b. Special Reports. It is essential for the unitcommander to require weekly operational reportsto be filed with the unit headquarters by personnelof a photographic team on detached service. Thesereports should contain information on the numberof photographs taken, types and number of proj-ects, special problems, supplies used, and requestsfor additional supplies. By means of these reports,control is exercised over the activities of thephotographic team and SOP's are adjusted tosolve specific field problems. These reports are alsovaluable sources of information for the supplysections. By checking requests for supplies againstphotographs taken, a close control can be kept ofexpenditures.

30. PERSONNEL

a. General. Basic personnel of all photographicunits include still and motion picture photog-raphers and laboratory technicians. Some unitsalso have camera repairmen for maintenance and

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repair, special operators for transmitting photo-graphs by means of facsimile equipment, andsound recording technicians. For successful com-bat and tactical photography, these men must bewell trained in their specialties and thoroughlyindoctrinated in the principles and purposes ofmilitary photographic service. Planning shouldprovide for such training and indoctrination, aswell as for refresher training in new techniquesfor improved individual and team performance.Standards of military conduct should be set, anda proper method of reporting to units for photo-graphic assignments should be established.

b. Identification. Official army photographersare issued an identification card (DA AGO Form11-176). This card (fig. 4) is an official militarydocument which establishes the occupationalstatus of the bearer. For visible identification,army photographers wear a dark blue brassardabove the left elbow. The brassard is 18 incheslong and 4 inches wide with words OFFICIALU.S. ARMY PHOTOGRAPHER in golden orangeon a black rectangle. This brassard is worn bythe photographer only when he is actually workingon a photographic assignment.

c. Reporting. When photographic units, teams,or individuals are assigned a photographic mis-sion, they report, through the adjutant or G-2, tothe officer in charge of the organization to whichthey are assigned. The purpose of this reportingis to make their presence and mission officiallyknown to the organization and to request any ne-cessary technical, operational, or administrative

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17" ARMYTHIS CARD CERTIFIES THAT

.Tr c#aLVw a. PULLMA s(OUDca) (FULL IAME)

IS AN

OFFICIAL U. S. ARMYPHOTOGRAPHER

He WILL NOT be interfered with in the ARMY SERIAL NO.performance of his official photographicduties. PA 000 52BY COMMAND OF: Gtab) K0JIET VOID AFTER

iti CARD No.

77Thi card ia issued for officia use of lth holder deslgnated hereon. Its Ie by t anyother person is unltour/l and ull make offender liable to hea/W penalty.

WD AG0 FORM 1-176I M A R I 11-4 17 47437-1 lPO

FM 6-5

Figure 4. DA AGO Form 11-176.

assistance. The manner of reporting should beclearly defined because it reveals the military-dis-cipline and training of photographic personnel. Italso creates an immediate basis of understandingbetween command and the photographic service.

31. FILM AND EQUIPMENT EXCHANGES

In a theater of operations, training films andfilm strips are made available for troop trainingprograms. These training films and film stripsare distributed by film and equipment exchangesat all echelons. Film libraries in combat zones mayalso distribute recreational films in forward

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echelons. These recreational films are receivedfrom the Army Motion Picture Service. Ex-changes must be ready at all times to supply tac-tical troops and to adapt themselves to servicesituations peculiar to different types of oversealocations. Because of this constant shifting of thecenter of activity, major problems in planningare-

Locating a good center for distributing thefilm after each move.

Distributing the projectors and film in a newarea.

Controlling the use of equipment and filmwhile units are moving.

Maintaining and repairing the projectionequipment.

Maintaining and storing the film.Finding a means for retaining mobility with-

out impairing service.

32. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

a. Aerial. Aerial photography by Signal Corpsunits is a supporting function. During the devel-opment of a tactical operation, aerial photo-graphs, maps, or reconnaissance information mayneed further clarification. From reconnaissanceaircraft, the military photographer can pin-pointand can make detailed photographs of the objec-tive. The policy on aerial photography is formu-lated through coordination of the signal officer,photographic officer, and G-2. This necessary co-ordination should be stated clearly in appropriate

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SOP's. This policy should establish the procedureto be followed in arranging for aerial photographyto supplement and support terrestrial photog-raphy and should define the practical limits to theuse of aerial photography by Signal Corpspersonnel.

b. Telephoto. Telephoto or telephotographiccoverage is photographic recording with specialcameras having extremely long focal length lenses.Through these long focal length lenses, distantdetails can be photographed for tactical analysis.This type of coverage is useful for artillery obser-vation and for intelligence work.

c. Facsimile. Photographs, as well as text ma-terial and maps, may be rapidly transmitted overwire or radio circuits by means of facsimile equip-ment. The equipment is available at corps andhigher headquarters and may also be found atdivision headquarters. It is installed and operatedby a telephoto transmission team which is madeup of specially trained photographic personnel,including photoradio operators and a darkroomtechnician. The equipment may be located in aphotographic laboratory or in a comcenter. Whenit is necessary to locate the facsimile equipmentsome distance from a photographic laboratory,additional equipment is necessary to facilitate theprocessing of received and transmitted material.The additional equipment is procured through nor-mal supply channels. Detailed information onfacsimile transmission is given in TM 11-375B,with portions superseded by TM 11-2258.

d. Emergencies. Since tactical situations arenot always favorable, planning should include pro-

31

visions for such emergencies as withdrawal, lossof equipment, and separation from normal supplychannels. Photographers must learn to accept un-favorable conditions and to accomplish their mis-sions with the barest essentials. Even the mostcareful advance planning cannot provide for everycontingency. Special planning may be necessaryto cover subject matter not previously consideredor to provide adequate results when difficult con-ditions cause either equipment or normal photo-graphic methods to fail. Introduction of unfa-miliar weapons by the enemy may also create spe-cial problems of photographic coverage. Initialplanning should outline procedures for photo-graphing details of construction and operation ofsuch weapons.

e. Field Expedients. Photographic field expedi-ents are adjustments, changes, or new applicationsof equipment during routine or emergency fieldoperations. Their purpose is to provide for con-tinued operation when standard equipment failsto operate or is not available. New photographictechniques or new methods of processing, filing,etc., may also be considered field expedients. Witha little ingenuity the signal photographer canwork out improvements in cameras or accessorieswhen necessary. With permission from G-2 orsignal intelligence he may use captured camerasto improvise new photographic equipment. Thecommanding officer should study each new expedi-ent or development within his unit. If the adjust-ments are worth-while, he should forward theinformation to the signal officer for consideration.

32

f. Static Situations. Victory in a theater ofoperations is often followed by a static situationwhen military forces establish law and order andorganize an acceptable form of government.During this period there are many opportunitiesfor historical, documentary, and public informa-tion photography (fig. 5). When military occupa-tional duties begin and a military governmentdirects national activities, photographic planningshould illustrate the following conditions of na-tional life:

Economic and physical state of the defeatedcountry.

Housing facilities, destruction of homes, fac-tories, and defenses.

Civilian cooperation.Climate and terrain.Condition of roads, public utilities, and trans-

portation facilities.State of security and extent of national or-

ganization of the territory.Political and police conditions, including

slave labor camps, concentration camps,and other violations of human rights.

Section II. CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES

33. GENERAL

In the continental United States, military pho--tography is on a comparatively smaller scale thanin a theater of operations-principally becausecivilian agencies supplement military photo-

33

L'

Figure 5. Shooting historical photographs in conquered,areas.

34

graphic coverage. Photographic interests are cen-tered on training and activation of photographicunits and the development of considerable publicrelations photography. Because the photographicinstallations are usually small and dispersedover a large area, operational control, supervision,and coordination are of great importance inplanning for efficient functioning of photographicinstallations.

34. ARMY AREAS

In each army area, the army photographicofficer is responsible for the planning and formu-lating of policy on photographic activities andfilm libraries. Detailed planning is necessary forthe efficient functioning of these installations.The following essential points in planning areincorporated in directives, administrative orders,etc., issued by army headquarters:

Channels to be utilized in forwarding nega-tive materials.

Numbering systems for still negatives andnegative strips.

Policy on nhotograDhic supply.Policies for coordination of photographic

projects.Supervision and coordination of film libraries

-including supply, special film procure-ment, and equipment maintenance.

Detailed training programs for photographicpersonnel.

-35

Special training programs for ROTC and re-serve units.

Lists of necessary equipment for special proj-ects and maneuvers in different temperatezones.

Types of maneuvers and extent of participa-tion by the various installations within thearmy area.

Procedures for issuing photographic passes.Distribution of pertinent regulations and

photographic data.Maintenance policies for photographic equip-

ment.Policies for the control and coordination of

civilian personnel employed in photo-graphic laboratories.

Detailed inspections of photographic installa-tions with emphasis on conservation, secu-rity, and efficient operation.

35. POST PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTALLATIONS

The extent of photographic .activities at anyinstallation is determined by the number of troopsand the type of photographic personnel assignedto the installation. Operational control of photo-graphic activities is usually delegated to the postsignal officer who, in turn, may delegate directcontrol and responsibility for planning and train-ing to a photographic officer. Photographic in-stallations in the continental United States areoperated by small units; therefore, it is essential

36 -

to have job rotation so that efficiency may not belowered by sudden loss of personnel. This rotationis possible because most of the duties within aphotographic activity overlap or are closelyrelated.

a. Laboratories. Photographic laboratories inthe continental United States are an integral partof most installations. Pictorial requests for iden-tification, portrait, copy, training, and publicrelations photography are processed by the labora-tories, which perform the complete cycle of photo-graphic operations. Photographic laboratories arediscussed in detail in chapter 4.

b. Film Libraries. Film libraries make avail-able on a loan basis to units within an army area,16-mm films, 35-mm film strips, 16-mm projectionequipment, transparencies, film slides, records,overhead projectors, and allied materials. Thelibraries train 16-mm projectionists for the usingagencies; provide required assistance in the audio-visual training program, and may also makerecommendations for new films and publicize theavailability of films through local army area pub-lication facilities. The libraries within the armyarea are divided into a central film library and intoas many sublibraries as are necessary to fill thetraining requirements of the area. Although allfilm library facilities within the area are under thestaff supervision of the army photographic officerwho formulates the photographic program,authority is delegated to the officer in charge ofthe central library to see that all facilities andsublibraries cooperate in the program. For de-

37

tailed information regarding the operation ofSignal Corps film libraries, see SR 110-30-5.

36. PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPANY

a. General. In the continental United States aphotographic company is normally located at anarmy headquarters. The company's functions aretraining and working on special Department ofthe Army projects. Teams from the photographiccompany may be utilized by the army photographicofficer to alleviate excessive work loads at any ofthe army installations or to accomplish specialphotographic tasks. Planning within the unit isthe responsibility of the company commander andis directed toward training, maneuvers, and spe-cial projects. The entire company does not ordi-narily engage in maneuvers, since teams or com-binations of teams can meet photographic require-ments. A portion of the company is normallyoperating in the field while remaining personnelare training under an organized program. Becauseof the company's pattern of operation, planningis generally directed toward individual teams.However, planning for full scale operations ne-cessitating the use of the complete company is ofequal importance.

b. Standing Operating Procedure. Detailedplans should be incorporated in an SOP for eachteam engaged in a mission that removes the teamfrom the immediate vicinity of the company head-quarters. The extent of the information in theSOP depends on the training status of personnelbut it should include-

38

Type of terrain in which the unit is to operate.Climatic conditions to be encountered.Need of additional equipment.Need to winterize or tropicalize equipment.Procedures for resupply and maintenance of

units separated from the company.Procedures for motor vehicle maintenance.Policies for communication with the parent

unit and other teams in the field.Types and number of operational reports to

be submitted.Numbering blocks for negatives.Channels for the return of still and motion

picture material.

Distribution of prints to using agencies.Designation of commander to whom the team

officer or noncommissioned officer in chargereports.

Arrangement for messing.Procedure for coordinating a march order

when a large number of teams are movinggreat distances by motor convoy.

37. MANEUVERS

Maneuvers are the only practical testing groundfor actual combat conditions. They provide ·oppor-tunities to test the photographic capacity- of aunit and of individual photographers, the supplyservice, processing methods, and the practicabilityof camera equipment. Planning for maneuvers

39

should be as thorough as for actual combat. Pho-tographic service which has been perfected underideal conditions should be tried under more diffi-cult conditions. Most military planning in thecontinental United States should not be based onthe assumption that photographers always func-tion with maximum equipment. Planning shouldencompass the possibilities of minimum equip-ment and climatic extremes. Systems functioningperfectly in good weather may fail miserably inheavy rain, snow, or extreme heat. Maneuversshould determine the practical value of photo-graphic equipment and operational methods undera variety of circumstances and should result inrecommendations for adjustments.

Section III. SECURITY

38. GENERAL

Regulations governing the taking, processing,and handling of classified photographs are givenin AR 380-5 and SR 110-5-1.

39. PHOTOGRAPHIC SECURITY

Signal Corps photographers are official Armyphotographers and as such are, authorized to pho-tograph, under the supervision of the appropriatecommander, classified material, equipment, andmilitary activities of the Department of the Army.The photographing of all classified matter must beaccomplished in accordance with AR 380-5 andSR 110-5-1.

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40. LABORATORY SECURITY

The making of prints from negatives of classi-fied material, equipment, and military activitiesmust be in accordance with AR 380-5. Only therequired number is produced, and the prints mustbe properly safeguarded during finishing andprocessing. Negatives and all prints of restricted,confidential, or secret photographs must be markedappropriately and conspicuously. Exposed filmswhich cannot be developed locally are forwardedwith proper security measures to army head-quarters for processing.

I H EQUA ['I'ET 1AS8TER

TECHNICAL LIBRARY

THE Q1A '-T i. I ' TllSTlI CENTERF',J,. 1, E., VlL[(iI A

41

CHAPTER 4

STILL PHOTOGRAPHY

Section I. EMPLOYMENT

41. INTRODUCTION

A clear understanding by command and allphotographic personnel of the functions of mili-tary photography and its tactical employment isnecessary for adequate photographic service. Thevalue of still photography lies in the speed withwhich pictures can be made available. Militaryphotography serves numerous tactical and tech-nical agencies with pictorial information neces-sary for the successful completion of an operation.Technical photographs of equipment and methodsalso have logistical and training value. Photog-raphers must thoroughly understand the nature ofthe photographic mission, and must have the tech-nical ability to accomplish it.

42. TACTICAL

a. General. Tactical photography is the appli-cation of the camera in combat. Using the cameraas an eye, the military photographer records pic-torial information that supplements, supports, orestablishes data related to combat operations

42

(fig. 6). Such photographic coverage includestroops in action, conditions under which theyoperate, and results of actual contact with theenemy. Additional information is obtained fromphotographs of enemy strong points, defenses,troops, weapons, and other equipment. Tacticalphotographs may be made on reconnaissance mis-sions, from observation and vantage points, orduring an advance or retreat. Photographs shouldbe processed immediately and made available tocommand since the pictures may contain informa-tion that will influence the tactical and operationalplanning of a combat unit.

b. Reconiaissance. This category of still pho-tography provides pictures to supplement or sup-port observations made during reconnaissanceassignments or information secured through tac-tical activities. Normally the photographer accom-panies a reconnaissance team and takes the neces-sary photographs requested by command.

c. Terrain Studies. Terrain studies are picto-rial records of terrain features that are of tacticalimportance to command. These photographs nor-mally depict one specific subject and are used tosupplement air force, engineer, and artillery pho-tographic material. Terrain studies amplify,clarify, and pin-point a subject. Bridges, riverfords, roads, obstacles, defenses, and other tacticaldetails of terrain which appear too small on mapsor aerial photographs are taken in detail by signalphotographers (fig. 7).

43

3

as ok~~~~~~r i w

44~~~~~~~~~~~~1II~~~~~~~~~~~

4'8·~

FM 6-0

Figure 7. Terrain photography supplements maps andaerial photography.

45

d. Action Photography. Action photography isthe pictorial recording of actual combat activities.Battle details are photographed to show the effec-tiveness of material, planning, and performanceand to indicate the need for operational adjust-ments. Action photography follows a militaryoperation from beginningto end. Complete photo-graphic coverage is necessary on all phases of acombat activity. For example, military photog-raphers should provide pictorial coverage not onlyof friendly artillery in action, but also of the re-sulting destruction of the target and accuracy ofartillery fire. Action photography also attemptsto show the enemy in action, especially where newenemy equipment and weapons are in use.

e. After-Action Photography. After an opera-tion has ended, a thorough photographic coverageshould be made of the combat area. After-actionphotographs show the effectiveness of friendlyweapons and methods used against defenses andtactical operations of the enemy. Such photo-graphs may also show reclamation and rehabilita-tion work (fig. 8). The detailed pictorial coverageincludes such subjects as tanks, armored vehicles,weapons, defenses, installations, and supply cen-ters. Photographs of captured military installa-tions and fortifications are of special importancesince these photographs may have great futurevalue. For example, if a large fortification is re-captured by enemy troops, photographs madeduring its occupation by friendly forces may serveas a basis for planning offensive measures.

46

47

43. TECHNICAL

a. General. Technical photography providesphotographic illustrations of equipment, methods,and techniques. It is usually accomplished underthe supervision of technical specialists who arefamiliar with the type of equipment to be photo-graphed and the purpose of the required photo-graphs. Photographic coverage should be detailed,complete, and of high definition and clarity(fig. 9).

b. Field Expedients. Alterations, modifications,and adaptations of equipment and methods bycombat troops are known as field expedients. Pho-tographs of these new techniques and methodsshould clearly show the nature and details ofrecommended changes of equipment and opera-tional methods.

44. PUBLIC INFORMATION

Photographs are used by public informationofficers to promote interest and understanding bythe public on military matters. These photographsmust be newsworthy and of general interest to thepublic. The photographer should portray phasesof military life that graphically explain the workand activities of the military service. These pho-tographs are widely distributed by the public in-formation office to publications and news services.

a. Public Information Officer. At all echelons,liaison between the commander and the public ismaintained by the PIO. Since providing photo-graphic coverage for the PIO is a function of the

48

E C

: ; E :! ~

:i :. h.I

Figure 9. Shooting technical photographs.

Signal Corps photographic service, close associa-tion and coordination between this officer and thephotographic officer is of greatest importance. Tothe photographic officer, the PIO can be a valuablesource of information as to possible or probablefuture events that will require photographiccoverage. In many situations, the PIO has knowl-edge of events that require no PIO photographiccoverage but may be of great interest to thephotographic officer.

b. Authorized Civilian Photographers. Civilianphotographers are often authorized by the PIO tocover military subjects of news interest. On suchoccasions, courtesy, coordination, and cooperationare essential between military and civilian newsphotographers. There should be a clear under-standing of the photographic requirements thateach photographer must meet. The military pho-tographer, while following instructions from hisheadquarters, should give assistance or advicewhen requested and when practicable to a civilianphotographer. He should bear in mind that thecivilian photographer has been cleared throughthe PIO for the required photographs. The civilianphotographer represents the press and his func-tion is to help the PIO tell the public what thearmy is doing. By courteous and proper militarybehavior, the military photographer can avoidcause for criticism and assure good publicity forthe army.

50

45. INTELLIGENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

a. General. Intelligence photography includescoverage of all enemy activities as well as capturedpersonnel and mat6riel. When photographers arespecifically assigned to cover subjects of concernto military intelligence, the cameraman shouldstress technical details where possible. Intelligencephotographs generally are not used as publicityor propaganda photographs because of the special-ized and technical nature of the subject matter andthe functional composition of the picture.

b. Captured Enemy Troops. Photographs ofcaptured enemy troops should feature the physicalfitness and general appearance of prisoners of warto indicate the logistical success or failure of theenemy. Photographs should clearly define theface, insignia, rank, and other uniform markingsplus any unusual personal equipment carried onthe person of the prisoner.

c. Captured Enemy Mat6riel. Photographs ofthis type include all kinds of captured enemyequipment, such as tanks, armored vehicles, com-munication equipment, weapons, ammunition, ex-plosives, transportation, and other mat6riel. Nor-mally, it is necessary to place a ruler or anotherobject of known size with the intelligence subjectfor a comparison of the dimensions of the intelli-gence subject. Photographs are usually madeunder direction of qualified technical personnel.

46. IDENTIFICATION PHOTOGRAPHY

Identification pictures are used on official passesand identification cards. This service is normally

a function of personnel in the photographic unitlaboratories, but may be performed by designatedphotographic personnel in other units. Picturesare normally made with a standard type of iden-tification camera and lights (fig. 10). Additionalinformation on identification photography is givenin SR 110-50-5.

47. ILLUSTRATIONS FOR REPORTS

Military reports are clearer and more compre-hensible when accompanied by specially preparedillustrations. The military photographer is oftenrequested to provide the necessary illustrativematerial. Detailed instructions concerning the re-quired photographs are furnished by the request-ing agency. The photographer should have ageneral knowledge of the report so that he maybetter understand the photographic requirements.Photographs may also be used to illustrate unsatis-factory equipment reports, accident investiga-tions, or other forms of military reports.

48. LEGAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Routine criminal investigation photography isnormally performed by military police or otherinvestigating agencies. However, signal photog-raphers are often directed to prepare photographsfor use by criminal investigating agencies. Con-siderable care must be taken when making photo-graphs that are to be used as evidence. Thephotographs must render the subject in true per-spective, tone separation, and size and must not be

'52

I.9

i

Fdgir 10. Id.,tijioation photogra*phy.

a3

retouched. All legal photographs must be accom-panied by related written data giving the photog-rapher's name, type of film, time of day, exposure,artificial light used, type of camera, and accessoriesused.

49. TRAINING PHOTOGRAPHY

Training photography is the pictorial recordingof any phase of military operations or equipmentto be used in a training program, usually as avisual training aid. These still pictures are oftenused in the production of film strips.

50. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Signal Corps photographers may sometimes berequired to perform aerial photography, such assimple vertical, low, or high obliques. Low obliquesshould be shot at an angle of at least 60 degreesfrom the horizontal. High obliques are picturesthat include the horizon. Such types of aerialphotography are used to supplement tacticalground photography.

51. MISCELLANEOUS

Since the phases of tactical and technical pho-tography are varied and extensive, numerous situ-ations may arise that are not familiar to themilitary photographer. Whenever advice is neces-sary, the photographic officer should be consulted.Routine missions in photography, such as a dailyphotographic record of a situation map, aredirected by the responsible signal' oficer.

54

Section II. TECHNIQUES

52. GENERAL

Most techniques of tactical photography arebased on field and combat conditions. Photographsshould have good definition, clear-cut contourlines, and tone separation. These qualities are ob-tained by giving attention to the following details:

Lighting.Exposure.Contrast.Arrangement or composition.Angle or perspective.

53. LIGHTING

a. Since lighting conditions usually are not idealduring tactical situations, the photographer mustlearn to make the best use of available naturallight. Flood lamps and flash bulbs may not alwaysbe available in the field. To depend on them is notgood practice. When the photographer has ac-quired some proficiency in working with naturallight, he is better prepared to undertake the realproblems of tactical photography.

b. In determining the value of light, considerthe source and direction of light and the amount ofreflected light. Natural light is weaker photo-graphically during morning and evening hours.An overcast sky diffuses light and softensshadows. Although this condition means a lossof light, it offers the' advantage of a more evenillumination and is useful for types of photog-

55

raphy requiring over-all soft tones and softshadows.

c. When the source of light is directly behindthe subject to be photographed, it is called back-lighting. This light effect is especially valuableto show depth and roundness of a subject. In-creased-exposure is usually necessary to bring outdetails in the shadows. Side lighting results whenthe source of light is directly to the right or leftof the ,subject. This is a striking and forcefullight effect which emphasizes texture and details.Whenever possible, supplement side lighting withreflected light from improvised reflectors or nat-ural scenic features such as a bright beach or awhite wall.

d. Light contrast is the differentiation betweenthe tones of the subject and its background. Thesubject or center of interest should never blendwith its surroundings or be lost among similartones. To obtain contrast, balance the light anddark tones so that the subject is distinct and standsout from the background. If the subject is darkin color or is in shadow, the background should belight. If the subject is of light color, choose anangle which will give a dark background.

e. If artificial light-such as flash bulbs, floodlamps, etc.-must be used, make certain thatsuch use does not violate security or blackoutregulations.

54. SHUTTER SPEED

a. A shutter is an adjustable mechanism in acamera through which light passes before it

reaches the film. When the shutter is released itopens for a definite period of time. The period oftime, during which the shutter remains open topermit rays of light to reach the film, is known asthe shutter speed.

b. If the movement of the subject is slow, theshutter speed may also be slow. If movement isfast, the shutter speed must be fast in order torecord the object in detail and clarity. Alwaysuse a shutter speed fast enough to prevent theeffect of camera vibration or movement of the sub-ject. Under normal conditions, hand-held shotsof stationary objects require a speed of not morethan 1oo second. If the camera is mounted on atripod or other steady support, speeds slower than%o second can be used. To photograph movingobjects, a shutter speed of greater than 0oosecond is normally used.

c. Shutter speed also controls exposure. Whena large amount of light is available and the lensaperture is set atfthe smallest opening, the shutterspeed is the only variable factor that controls thelight reaching the film. Shutter speeds rangingfrom one second to oo000 of a second are usuallysatisfactory for most photographic operations.

d. Cameras are equipped with time and bulbsettings for use when an exposure of more thanone second is desired. When the shutter is set atT (time) and released, the exposure lasts untilthe shutter is released a second time. When theshutter is set at B (bulb), the downward pressureagainst the shutter release opens the shutter andthe shutter remains open until pressure is with-

57

drawn. It is necessary to have the camera on arigid support when using time or bulb settings.

55. EXPOSURE FACTORS

Exposure is the act of permitting light to reachthe sensitive surface of a photographic negative.Basic factors which influence exposure are-typeof film, shutter speed, amount of available light,and setting of lens aperture. Correct exposure isthe result of controlling these factors. It is desir-able that the military photographer use only onetype of film and become thoroughly familiar withits characteristics. By doing this, one of the fac-tors which influence exposure is fixed. With givenlight conditions and a certain film type, the onlyvariable factors are the shutter speed and the lensopening. The faster the shutter speed for a givenlight and film, the larger must be the lens aperture.To determine the correct exposure for a giventype of film, it is necessary to consider the amountof light on the subject and anyp movement of thesubject. If light is limited, use either a large lensopening or a slower shutter speed. If the subjectis moving, the shutter speed cannot be decreased;therefore, the only solution is a larger lens open-ing. If the subject is well lighted by bright sun-light, it may be necessary either to decrease thelens opening or to increase the shutter speed, orboth. It is important to remember that for a giventype of film and for a fixed light condition, thereare two variable factors-size of lens aperture andspeed of shutter-which the photographer mustcontrol in order to obtain correct exposure.

58

56. ESTIMATING EXPOSURE

By setting the appropriate shutter speed andlens aperture, the photographer obtains a correctexposure of a moving or stationary subject. Thecorrect application of these photographic controlscan only be accomplished through practice andexperience.

a. If there is doubt as to the characteristics ofthe film used, the instruction sheet included withmost types of film is accurate enough to guide thephotographer in solving exposure problems.

b. To determine exposure, the quantity and typeof light during certain hours of the day and timeof the year should be considered. Improved rendi-tion of low contrast or extremely flat scenery-such as foggy or monochromatic landscapes, andexceptionally uninteresting terrain studies-ispossible through exposure control (fig. 11).

c. Dark objects--heavy vegetation, forests,dark clothing-require overexposure if details inthe shadows are to be recorded on the negative.Light bright colors and distant objects usuallyreflect more light and need less exposure. Con-siderably less exposure is needed for glaring whitebeaches, white cliffs, and snowy terrain than forterrain with vegetation.

d. When the estimate of an exposure is difficultor doubtful, three photographs of the subjectshould be taken. The first exposure should be onelens stop above, the second one stop below, andthe third at the estimated exposure. This pro-cedure usually gives one good negative.

59

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e. If correct exposure is difficult to obtain, thephotographer should take the picture and thenstate on the caption sheet that special attentionin processing is necessary. The relationship-be-tween various lens apertures and relative expo-sures is given in figure 12.

/6ct(ua'ac aad 4erke 'aam rdByd

//2./4 //5-6 /11 f/16 /2

l_ 1 2 4 8 16 32 64

Figure 12. Lens aperture and relative exposure.

57. EXPOSURE METERS

Exposure meters are delicate precision instru-ments calibrated in light values or foot-candles.They provide a means for converting light-valueinformation into proper combinations of lensaperture and shutter speed. They become unre-liable unless carefully handled. Consequently, themilitary photographer must be proficient in esti-mating exposure and in using the exposure meter.

58. COMPOSITION

The arrangement of subjects in a photographto make a harmonious scene is known as compo-sition. Principal elements of good composition

61

are simplicity and balance. A photograph shouldinclude only the details necessary to serve aspecific purpose or convey a desired meaning.Arrange and balance these details in an orderlymanner without affecting the naturalness of thesubject or the military value of the photograph.

a. Framing. Framing determines the picturelimits and is an important factor in composition.Do not include too many objects in the frame asthey may distract the eye and scatter interest(fig. 13). Emphasis on the center of interest, withelimination of unnecessary details, can often beattained by moving closer to the subject orchanging the angle of view.

b. Parallax. Although a photographer framesthe subject by looking through the optical viewfinder of the camera, there is usually a slightdifference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what is shown in the photograph. Thisdifference is known as parallax and is caused bya slight variance of the angle between the cameralens and view finder. The closer the subject is tothe camera, the greater the angle. Therefore, theeffect of parallax is more pronounced in close-upphotography. Without parallax correction, a pic-ture may fail to include all of the subject (fig. 14).To correct for parallax, most cameras have amechanical adjustment on the view finder. Thecloser the subject, the more accurate must be theadjustment. In some cameras, the view finder isautomatically corrected for parallax. If the me-chanical adjustment does not function, or thecamera cannot be adjusted for parallax, the pho-

62

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Figure 13. Examples of good and bad composition.

63

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At ;V , 1 ; >;

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Figure 14. Effect of paraZazs.

64

tographer should study his photographs and deter-mine how much extra space he must allow in hisview finder to prevent misplacing the subject inframing.

59. ANGLE AND PERSPECTIVE

a. Perspective is the optical effect which makesobjects appear to decrease in size as their distancefrom the eye increases. It is also the effect inphotography that adds depth to objects and areas.For example, if you stand in the middle of a streetwith houses of equal height on each side, and gazedown the center of the street, the lines of thesidewalk and the tops of the houses appear toconverge in the distance (fig. 15). The point wherelines meet is known as the vanishing point. Inperspective, all parallel lines appear to convergeat the same vanishing point. As seen by thecamera, the perspective of an object can beaffected or changed by varying lens-to-subjectdistances and using different focal length lenses.A large angle of coverage is obtained by using awide angle lens. This lens must be used correctlyor distorted perspective results. Telephoto lensesmagnify subjects and have a narrow angle c tcoverage.

b. By changing the angle at which an object isviewed, the perspective (with respect to the ob-ject) can be changed. By using different angles,the perspective can be varied and controlled.Avoid photographing high buildings at a low angleposition and pointing the camera upward in orderto include the entire building. The resulting photo-

61

66

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graph will be a distortion of the original subject.The building should be taken at a greater distancewith a normal or telephoto lens. If space is notavailable to move back, the photographer shoulduse a wide-angle lens and take the picture from apoint about half as high as the building.

c. In tactical photography, correct perspectiveis the photographing of an object from such anangle and in such a manner that there is no notice-able or objectionable distortion. For this reasonit is usually desirable to employ a long focal lengthlens. In tactical photography, special effects ofperspective are usually not desired.

60. NEGATIVE CONTRAST

Negative contrast is the degree of differencebetween the shades of tones forming the photo-graphic negative. Military photographers shouldproduce the type of negative which, under normalprocessing, yields a good range of tones and nor-mal contrast. A negative with normal contrasthas a full range of tones in the brightness scaleand maximum 9details in the shadows. It is abrilliant negative which retains soft middle tonesand, when printed, gives what is known as asnappy print. Overexposed negatives have lowcontrast or slight gradation of tone. Underex-posed negatives similarly have very low contrast.Slight overexposure or underexposure may stillgive a good negative with printing control.

67

61. LENS

a. Aperture. The lens aperture is the adjustablediaphragm between the lens elements which con-trols the amount of light entering the camera. Thegreater the lens opening, the more light reachesthe film. The smaller the aperture, the less lightreaches the film. Each lower stop of the aperturegives half the amount of light of the previous stop.

b. Angle. The normal camera lens has an angleof coverage of approximately 45° . Photographiclenses with angles smaller than 45' are long focallength, medium telephoto, and telephoto lenses.Photographic lenses with angles larger than 45°

are wide angle lenses. By using lenses of differentangles, the size of the center of interest can becontrolled from the same taking distance (fig. 16).For example, when photographing a completebuilding from across a narrow street, use a wideangle lens. The larger the degree of angle, thelarger the area of subject coverage. When photo-graphing an architectural detail on the same build-ing, use a telephoto lens which has a narrow angle.Telephoto lenses enlarge subjects which cannot beapproached closely enough to obtain the properimage size.

c. Focal Length. The focal length of a lens is anoptical characteristic which determines the size ofthe recorded image on the film. The normal focallength lens of a camera should be equal to thediagonal of the film size of the camera. For ex-ample, if the camera uses 4- by 5-inch film, thediagonal is 6%6 inches. The normal focal length

68

SHORT'FOCAL LENGTH LENS WIDE ANGLE

,- NORMAL ICAL LENGTH LENS STANDARD

LONG FOCPALLENGTH LENS- TELEPHOTO

Figure 16. Angles possible with interchangeable lenses.

69

lens for this camera is approximately 61/4 or 61/2inches. Often a shorter focal length lens is usedwith a 4- by 5-inch camera, -giving a slightly wide-angle effect but allowing a greater angle of cover-age and at the same time a greater depth of field.

d. Depth of Field. Depth of field is the distancebetween the nearest and farthest objects that aresharply registered through a lens at a given lensopening and a given distance. The depth of fieldvaries with the focal length of the lens. Depthof field of telephoto lenses is much less than thatof normal and wide angle lenses. If tables of depthof field are not available, use the graphic guidesshown in figures 17 and 18 for determining depthof field for different focal length lenses. The guideshown in figure 17 indicates settings of distanceand aperture for different focal length lenses toachieve sharpness or depth of field from 11 feetto infinity. Guides shown in figure 18 indicatedepth of field for various lenses at various dis-tances with aperture set at f/8 or f/16.

62. USE OF FILTERS

Military photographers normally use yellow,green, orange, or red filters to increase clarity,eliminate haze, give tone correction, and producecontrast. Filters give improved tone separationbetween colors. Filters require an increase in ex-posure time. The increase in exposure time fororange and light red filters may vary considerablydepending on the density of the filter. To deter-mine the necessary increase of exposure time,

70

7? O ase a ,eWt ai 7?dd

FOR FOCAL LENGTH

54" set f/22

3" set f/ 1

2" set f/8FM 6.1e

Figure 17. Guide for obtaining maximum depth of field.

check the instructions issued with each filter, orexamine the filter mount on which the time in-crease is usually marked. A chart showing theeffect of filters on various colors of the spectrumis given in figure 19. Before moving into combat,the photographer should be familiar with filtersand the necessary compensating time values.

63. STILL SERIES

To provide a complete view of an item of equip-ment or of a continuing phase of military action,

71

7. asft aVn i 74 %FOR VARIOUS FOCAL LENGTHS

FOR FOCAL SET TO GET DEPTHLENGTH DISTANCE OF FIELD

54" 62' 27'- Xo

3" 25' 14'-120'2" 12' 8'- 60'

FOR FOCAL SET TO GET DEPTHLENGTH DISTANCE OF FIELD

5 4" 62' 18'- 0o3" 25' :12'-

". 1 2' 6'-.: , ; - -,?, !,· F. M 6-1 9

Figure 18. Guides for determining various depths of field'

the photographer makes several related picturesthat are known as a still series. -Such a series ofpictures is comprehensive, and usually contains

72

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close-ups and over-all pictures. There are twotypes of still series.

a. One is of a stationary object-such as a pieceof captured enemy equipment-in which the seriesconsists of several photographs taken at differentangles. The combined set of pictures gives a com-plete view of the object from all sides.

b. The second type of still series is a runningphotographic record of a phase of continuing ac-tion. Each photograph is complete in itself, butconsecutive pictures show progressive changes inthe action (fig. 20).

c. A film strip essentially is a still picture serieswhich has been combined for clarity, simplicity,effectiveness, and practicability on one roll of35-mm (millimeter) perforated film.

64. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

a. General. Aerial photographs may be takenfrom a helicopter or a reconnaissance airplane.Photography from a helicopter allows slower shut-ter speeds and better control over pictorial results.When taking pictures from a standard type re-connaissance airplane, use a shutter speed of %0ooof a second or faster at an altitude of 1,000 feetwhen the ground speed is about 120 miles per hour.This shutter speed minimizes the effect of cameramovement and vibrations transmitted by the air-plane. At an elevation of 500 feet, use a shutterspeed of 400 of a second. By banking the airplaneand obtaining a view which is not at right anglesto the course of the airplane, a slower shutter

74

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Figure 20. Still series.

7Sr

Figure 20-Continued.

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Figure 20-Continued.

77

speed is possible (fig. 21). At lower altitudes,record the object directly from the front or rearof the airplane, or at an angle of 45 degrees or lessto the direction of flight. For extremely detailedcoverage at higher altitudes, long focal lengthlenses are necessary. The photographer shouldcoordinate his work with the course and flightdirection planned by the pilot.

b. Light. Time of day and direction of the sunare important considerations in aerial photog-raphy. Morning and afternoon are best becauselong shadows bring out details. Terrain contoursand heights of objects can best be determined bytheir shadows. In aerial photography, vegetationand the ground do not reflect a great deal of light.Accordingly, the shutter speed should be decreasedto compensate for less reflected light. Aerial pho-tographs should be made on clear, bright days.

65. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Use of color film is limited in tactical photog-raphy. Since it requires complicated developingprocesses, photographs are not available immedi-ately or in sufficient quantities to be of practicalvalue. Color film is unsatisfactory under poorlight conditions. However, it can be of great valuefor special purposes, such as photographic cover-age of terrain and camouflaged areas, when colorimproves contrast. It may show dead leavesamong normal vegetation, indicating camouflagedareas in enemy territory, and point out detailswhich are sometimes lost in black and whitephotography.

78

GOOD

GOOD

BAD

GOOD

FM 6-22

Figure 21. Flight directions for aerial photography.

7,

66. CAPTIONS

a. A caption is a statement of the vital factsabout a photograph. Every military photographtaken in the field must be accompanied by a cap-tion prepared on a caption data sheet (fig. 22).These sheets are issued in the photographer'scaption book (WD AGO Form 11-178). The cap-tion sheet should contain the date, the camera-man's full name, serial number, photographic unitdesignation, and any special mark or symbolassigned by the Department of the Army, unlessspecifically forbidden by the theater SOP. Spaceis given for special developing instructions for aparticular negative. This may be filled in by the-photographer. The file number is filled in by thelaboratory. If WD AGO Form 11-178 is not avail-able any suitable writing material should be used.Captions should be clear, concise, readable andaccurate.

b. Complete the remaining part of the captionsheet by answering the following questions:

Who?What ?When?Where ?How?

Give full names of persons photographed, theirhome towns, grade, army serial number, andbranch of service. Identify everything that hasbeen photographed. Include time of day, weatherconditions, and other influencing factors. Statethe location of the area covered in the picture. If

80-

PHOTOGRAPHER'S CAPTION DATA SHEET IDATE MaY 950J

PHOTOGRAPHIe LABORATORY (InwtallBTion)

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i Figure 22. Caption data sheet.

it is a terrain photograph, give geographicalnames,.map references and coordinates of objec-

tive, focal: length lens used, and location of camera..If it is an aerial photograph, include direction of

flight, altitude, time of day, and speed of airplane.Explain the.operation of the object photographedand the conditions under which it is employed.Inclose applicable maps,..charts, or documents.Use as many caption sheets as necessary. It isbetter to include too many details than too few.

Section III. EQUIPMENT

67. GENERAL

Camera equipment used by Signal Corps pho-tographers consists of many types and models,according to the photographic requirements. Forconvenience, still cameras can be considered inthree classes: the small size camera, medium sizecamera, and large size camera (fig. 23).

68. SMALL SIZE CAMERA

The small size camera uses a perforated filmwith a picture size 21/4 inches by 234 inches. Thiscamera is small and light in weight. It has no ex-ternal parts to obstruct operation or to becomeeasily damaged. It gives excellent photographicresults under difficult conditions which makecoverage impossible with larger equipment. Ad-vantages of the small camera over bulkier equip-ment. are in the speed and ease with which picturescan be taken and the adaptability of the equipmentto almost any requirement. Of great importancein combat is the small space taken up by the equip-ment and its light weight. A combat photographerequipped with such a camera, several lenses, film,and filters can accomplish a far more comprehen-sive coverage with less effort and in a shorterperiod of time than is possible with bulkier andless flexible equipment. An automatic film trans-port operated by a spring in conjunction with theshutter permits a series of still pictures to beproduced by the camera in rapid succession. The-

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shutter has a range of speeds from one second toV1ooo second. This camera is the ideal equipmentwhere action requires interchangeable lenses andwhere angles and perspective must be controlled.

69. MEDIUM SIZE CAMERA

a. Press Camera. The medium size camera isa typical press camera with a negative size of4 by 5 inches. Although this camera is utilized inthe field, it is somewhat limited in applicationbecause of its size and weight and the size of itsaccessories. This camera is best used for publicinformation subjects and after-action photog-raphy. The 4- by 5-inch negative serves to recorddetails in terrain studies which are impracticalto record with the small size camera, particularlywhen the area is extensive. The medium sizecamera has double bellows extension and is there-fore suitable for close-up photography withoutspecial accessories. It has a rear curtain shutterand a front between-the-lens shutter.

b. Aerial Camera. The lightweight K-20 camerais used by signal photographers to make rapid andaccurate aerial photographic coverage at a rangeoften as close as a few hundred feet. The camerahas a 4- by 5-inch negative size, weighs approxi-mately 11 pounds when loaded, can take 50 expo-sures with each roll of film, and is compact enoughto fit into the limited space of a liaison type air-plane. It consists of an f/4.5 lens of 63/8-inch focallength, a shutter, a lens cone, a film magazine, abuilt-in film transport, and a direct vision viewfinder. The shutter, which is released by a trigger

84

built into the camera handle, has speeds of 425s,

Y250, and o60 of a second. The lens and shutterunit has a bayonet type lock for attaching filters.The film transport moves and the shutter cockssimultaneously when the handgrip lever on theright side of the- camera is pressed. The handgripon the left side is designed only for holding thecamera.

70. LARGE SIZE CAMERA

The large size camera with a negative size of8 by 10 inches or larger is used mainly in photo-graphic laboratories of installations for certaintypes of technical photography, portraiture, grouppictures, and similar phases of still photography.The practical application of this type of camera islimited because of its size, weight, and slownessof operation. It is usually impractical for combatphotography.

Section IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORIES

71. GENERAL

Photographic laboratories in the continentalUnited States are service units which are usuallylocated at army headquarters or installations.Their function is to provide efficient, dependable,and fast photographic service.

72. RESPONSIBILITY

The commanding officer of a headquarters orinstallation is responsible for the operation of

85

the photographic laboratory. This responsibilityis delegated to the signal officer of the headquar-ters. In turn, the signal officer may assign a pho-tographic officer to supervise activities of theoperating personnel and establish a photographicproduction program to meet the requirements ofthe headquarters. He controls laboratory per-formance by selecting qualified photographic per-sonnel, by directing the maintenance of necessaryphotographic files and records, and by frequentinspections.

73. ORGANIZATION

The size and organization of a photographiclaboratory are determined by the requirements ofthe headquarters which it serves. The laboratoryis usually organized in two sections for adminis-tration and production (fig. 24). The number ofpersonnel in these sections varies with the workload of the laboratory. Organization and adminis-tration are kept flexible to meet the photographicrequirements.

74. TYPES

There are four types of photographic labora-tories 'A, B, C, and D. The type is normally de-termined by the amount of work the laboratorymust handle and the size of the headquarters itmust serve. Type A laboratories serve an armyheadquarters and other large agencies. Type Blaboratories are found at installations requiringno more than a 5-man photographic unit. Type C

86

PHOTOGRAHICLABORATORY

|ADMINISTRATION SECTION I - PRODUCTION SECTION

NEGATIVE FILES CAMERA ROOM SUBSECTION

CAPTION FILESIDENTIFICATION PICTURESCOPIES -PORTRAITSEXTERIOR PICTURES

SUPPLY ROOM SUBSECTION L t DARK ROOM SUBSECTION

NEGATIVE PROCESSINGCONTACT PRINTINGENLARGINGCHEMICAL MIXING

PHOTOGRAPHIC

ASSIGNMENT SUBSECTION FINISHING ROOM SUBSECTION

WORK ORDERSPRODUCTION RECORDS WASHING, DRYING,

ASSIGNMENTS INSPECTION AND SORTING

FM 6-25

Figure 24. Typical organization of a photographiclaboratory.

laboratories of 2 or 3 men serve a small troop con-centration. Type D photographic laboratoriesserve medical illustration sections. See SR 110-50-5.

75. LABORATORY PROCEDURES

Operating procedure of a photographic labora-tory consists of two major functions: administra-tive control and photographic production.

87

a. The administration section maintains recordsand reports and prepares work orders, schedules,and assignments. It also keeps files of photo-graphs, negatives, and captions for reference pur-poses. An additional function is the requisition-ing of equipment and expendable supplies throughthe signal officer.

b. Production includes the photographic cover-age of assignments in a studio or on location andthe processing and printing of pictures in the labo-ratory. The studio is used for identification, copy,and portrait photography. The darkroom serves;for chemical mixing, film processing, contactprinting, and enlarging. The finishing room isfor washing, drying, inspecting work, and sortingorders.

c. Still picture work is requisitioned from pho-tographic laboratories by means of DA AGO Form11-161, Still Picture Requisition and Work Order(fig. 25). This form, when properly completed inaccordance with instructions printed on the backof the form, shows authorization for processingthe work order, identification, priority of theorder, and routing schedule within the laboratory.It may be used for assigning photographers toperform the photographic assignments. It- alsoincludes information necessary for tracing ship-ment of finished material aid other data.

76. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Photographic laboratories perform severaltypes of photography. Principal types of coverage

88

STILL PICTDRE REQUISITION AND WORK ORDER

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are identification, portrait, copy, training, andpublic information photography. All types aretaken for a specific purpose and are based on offi-cial requests.

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77. PERSONNEL

Since personnel of a photographic laboratoryconsist of only a small group, it is desirable torotate men from one job to another. Photog-raphers should also be proficient in darkroom pro-cedures. Laboratory technicians are normallyemployed in the darkroom but may assist as iden-tification photographers and help the clerk withadministrative work. For an average size installa-tion laboratory, the following personnel arerecommended:

1 photographic laboratory chief.1 or 2 photographers trained in public infor-

mation photography.

1 portrait photographer.1 to 3 laboratory technicians:1 clerk.

78. LABORATORY ARRANGEMENT

The lay out of a photographic laboratory shouldgive prominence to production facilities. Thelaboratory ordinarily has the following divisions:administrative office, photographic studio, dark-room, finishing room, and supply room. Thestudio should be large enough to accommodatenecessary identification, portrait, and copy equip-ment. The darkroom should be designed to permitprocessing without time-consuming movementsand should be provided with an air conditioningunit. The finishing room should utilize naturallight or have sufficient artificial light for washing,

90

drying, and sorting of prints without unnecessaryeyestrain.

79. SUPPLIES

Supplies are requested through the signal officeraccording to procedures given in SR 110-50-5.

80. PROCESSING

a. The functions of a photographic laboratoryare the processing of exposed film and the produc-tion of prints.

b. Although the standard developing processusually gives good results, irregularities in expo-sure often produce negatives that are flat and havelow contrast, or negatives of low contrast that areextremely dense and underexposed. The labora-tory technician should attempt to produce the bestphotographs from either normal, overexposed, orunderexposed negatives by corrective processing(fig. 26).

c. A correctly exposed negative printed on anormal grade paper gives rich, snappy prints withpleasing contrast, excellent middle tones, deepblack shadows, and details in the lighter shadows.The resulting prints have force, detail, and depth.

d. Underexposed negatives, because of their lowcontrast, low density, and extremely short scaleof tones, must be printed on a hard grade paper.The improved photograph may have practicalvalue but can never equal the details in the middletones and the brilliance achieved by a normalnegative.

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e. Overexposed negatives have weaknesses sim-ilar to those of thin, underexposed negatives. Theyhave a short scale of tones and low contrast buthigh density. Accordingly, overexposed negativesmust be printed on soft paper to counteract-thepoor quality of the negatives.

f. The laboratory technician controls the finalcomposition of a picture through printing or en-larging. By masking, cropping, correcting thevertical lines, dodging, printing in clouds and sky,and spotting enlargements, the laboratory tech-nician can salvage and utilize many photographswhich otherwise would be discarded as useless.

81. RELEASE OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs which have been selected for publicinformation release must bear the following stampon the back:

PLEASE CREDIT

U. S. ARMY PHOTOGRAPH

The Department of Defense has no objectionto the use of this photograph in commercialadvertisement, provided copy and lay-out aresubmitted to the Department of Defense, Of-fice of Public Information, Security ReviewBranch, The Pentagon, Washington 25, D. C.,and written permission is obtained.

Additional information pertaining to the releaseof military photographs is contained in SR 110-50-5.

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82. RECORD NEGATIVES

Record negatives are negatives that have beenselected for possible retention in Department ofthe Army files. They are forwarded to the signalofficer for further screening before being sentthrough channels for final determination of valueand retention in the files. Record negatives includethe following subjects:

a. News photographs of nation-wide interestsuch as views of combat and base activities, newequipment, nationally known men in the service,and similar photographic material.

b. Photographs which have been released toany publications or news service for publicpresentation.

c. Photographs of interest to the Departmentof the Army, consisting of prints or negativesseized or acquired from enemy sources or obtainedfrom any other foreign source.

d. Instructional photographs showing trainingmethods or techniques, field expedients, or mate-rial for orientation, information, and education.

e. Photographs made specifically to illustrateor accompany reports.

f. Photographs which show the awarding ofcitations and decorations to U. S. Army personnel.

83. MISCELLANEOUS

Additional information on administrative andtechnical details such as negative numbering, cap-tioning, filing, work orders, and production re-ports is given in SR 110-50-5.

94

CHAPTER 5

MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY

Section I. GENERAL

84. EMPLOYMENT

Military employment of motion picture photog-raphy is equally as important as that of stillphotography. However, for immediate tacticaluse, its military value is limited because of thetime required to send film back for processing andthe difficulty of projecting film in the field. Con-sequently, most military motion picture photog-raphy is concerned with the production of train-ing, orientation, historical record, and publicinformation films. In motion picture photography,two types of action are employed.

a. Controlled Action. Controlled action photog-raphy is the filming of scenes that are plannedand rehearsed and which usually follow a writtenscenario. This type of photography permits con-trol of the film material, production period, typeand length of scenes, and continuity. Controlledaction photography is used in the production ofcomplete films or when it is necessary to stagescenes or phases of action which are specificallyplanned to fit in and complete a film consisting ofboth controlled and uncontrolled sequences. Infilming controlled action sequences, care must be

95

taken to insure natural and authentic action aswell as continuity in the scqnes. Controlled actionphotography enables the cameraman to retakescenes that prove unsatisfactory. This opportun-ity to correct mistakes and improve scenes is animportant advantage over uncontrolled actionphotography. Another advantage of controlled ac-tion photography is that desired weather condi-tions can be simulated in a studio.

b. Uncontrolled Action. Uncontrolled actionphotography is the shooting of spontaneous inci-dents. Action is unrehearsed and scenes are shotin any order permissible under given circum-stances. Normally, it is impossible to retake ascene in this type of photography. Therefore, thefirst take must be correct. Speed and alertness arenecessary in recording uncontrolled action. Thephotographer should make a preliminary mentaloutline of his course of action and take into con-sideration the following factors:

(1) Coordination with operational units toobtain advanced information.

(2) Coordination with other cameramen inorder to get a complete story.

(3) Location of an observation post that per-mits good over-all motion picture cover-age.

(4) Use of various focal length lenses forspecific details of action.

(5) Order and type of shots-extreme longshots, long shots, medium shots, close-ups, and extreme close-ups.

(6) Data necessary for caption sheet.

96

85. TRAINING FILMS

Training films normally are produced in a rearechelon of a theater or at military installations inthe continental United States. They generallyshow training methods, techniques, or applicationof equipment in the field (fig. 27). The Chief Sig-nal Officer is responsible for the training filmn pro-gram. Normally the chiefs of technical servicesinitiate the original request for training films.The requesting agency furnishes technical advis-ors to assist the cameraman, director, and crew.Although training photography is based on a scen-ario, uncontrolled action sequences of actual com-bat or after-action shots may be inserted duringediting to emphasize doctrines or to increase theeffectiveness of the film as a whole. Training filmsmust reflect realistic conditions, circumstances,and operations.

86. PUBLIC INFORMATIONJLMS

Most military motion picture coverage is suit-able for public information. Motion pictures takenduring training, combat, and occupation phasesoften provide desirable material for public infor-mation films. These films are used to convey apictorial story of military activities and are in-tended to keep the general public informed.

87. DOCUMENTARY AND HISTORICAL FILMS

Documentary.,films are essay type pictorial pro-ductions covering authentic conditions and situa-tions which are of general or special. interest to

97

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the public and military personnel. Examples ofsubjects that may be used in documentary filmsare special army training phases in a parachuteregiment, living conditions in a captured enemytown, the role played by scientific inventions inmodern war techniques, etc. Historical films aredocumentary films that contain pictorial informa-tion of lasting or permanent importance. Normal-ly, historical films are a compilation of varioustypes of military motion picture footage and ac-quired enemy films which have been expertlyedited for a definite purpose.

Section II. TECHNIQUES

88. PICTORIAL CONTINUITY

Pictorial continuity is the portrayal of a con-tinuing thought or action by logically connectedsequences to create a well-joined and coherent mo-tion picture story.

89. SEQUENCE

The sequence is the fundamental unit of pic-torial continuity. It is a related series of shotsconsisting of three basic working elements-theLS (long shot), the MS (medium shot), and theCU (close-up). These elements are similar to thethree stages in which a subject is viewed by thehuman eye. For example, in new surroundings theeyes first scan the over-all scene to establish thelocation. As the distance from the subject dimin-ishes, the eyes tend to eliminate the establishing

99

factors. Finally, the eyes stop scanning and focuson .the center of interest. In order to present asubject as naturally as possible, the motion pic-ture camera is used to imitate the eye throughutilization of the LS, MS, CU and other relatedshots (fig. 28).

a; Long Shot. The LS in motion picture pho-tography registers the over-all scene for orienta-tion in the same manner as the first glance of thehuman eye. Normally, this shot is the first onetaken in a sequence. It should be of sufficientlength to establish the scene properly. This firstshot usually is made from a stationary positionand should be taken from an angle that offers the.most interesting and pleasing effect.

b. Medium Shot. The eyes are constantly mak-ing a transition as their distance from a subjectdecreases. To copy this transition, the MS ismade. This shot is very useful in maintainingsequence continuity because it bridges the gapbetween the LS and CU. Without an MS, the se-quence would be jumpy and the subject build-upwould be too rapid. The MS is made at the best.angle and distance to achieve the proper transi-tion from the LS to the CU. Since the distancesfor these shots are relative, the position for tak-ing the MS in a particular sequence must be de-termined by circumstances, by the nature of thesubject, and by the cameraman's personal judg-ment.

c. Close-Up. The CU is the most difficult shotof the sequence to execute. It must present the

100

LONG SHOT-USING WIDE ANGLE OR NORMAL LENS.

MEDIUM SHOT -USiNG NORMAL LENS

LOSE, UP- USING TELEPHOTO OR NORMAL LENS .

Figure 28. Types of motion picture shots.

101

center of interest in the most detailed and strik-ing way possible, since it forms the climax of thesequence after the build-up by the LS and MS.The CU must be clear-cut and show the exactcenter of interest.

90. VARIATIONS OF BASIC SEQUENCE

a. General. To add interest and to preventstereotyped sequences, variations of the basic se-quence are necessary. By exercising imaginationand originality, the motion picture photographerlearns to shoot more complex and interesting se-quences. One of the simplest methods of prevent-ing stereotyped sequences is to vary the relativedistances of the three basic shots. Normally, thesize of the subject determines the relative dis-tances of the basic shots in a sequence. For ex-ample, in making an outdoor sequence of a parade,the LS may be made from a distance of severalhundred feet, but an indoor LS of an individualmaking a speech may be shot from a distance ofonly 15 feet. However, two photographers shoot-ing the same subject may have different prefer-ences and the distances of their shots also willdiffer. In addition to the basic shots, extreme longshots and extreme close-ups also are used to pro-vide variety.

b. Extreme Long Shot. The ELS (extreme longshot) is simply an exaggeration of the LS. It oftenis referred to as a location or situation shot be-cause it depicts a distant subject and its sur-roundings. Since specific details do not show at

102

great distances it is not necessary for the ELSto include any action. An aerial view-of a sub-ject is an ELS.

c. Extreme Close-Up. The ECU (extreme close-up) is an exaggerated close-up that is used to de-pict minute details. It is often referred to as aninsert. Relative distance applies to the ECU justas it does to other types of shots in the sequence.For example, when photographing a tank, it maybe desirable to make a shot of one of the treadsor a much more detailed shot of one of the tinycarburetor springs used in the tank. Either shotmay be an ECU.

91. REESTABLISHING SHOT

a. General. The purpose of an RS (reestablish-ing shot) is to achieve coherence and continuitybetween sequences. This shot may be either anLS or an MS. It is termed the RS because it estab-lishes the scene again in the same manner as theoriginal LS of the sequence. Since a motion pic-ture is composed of a large number of sequences,an RS is needed to reestablish each sequence andcarry the action over smoothly from one sequenceto another. The RS may be made in the originalsetting or in a new location. For example, a se-quence shows an army cook peeling potatoes at akitchen table. The first shot in the next sequencewill show him washing the potatoes in the sink.To provide a connecting link between the two se-quences, an RS is made that shows the cook car-rying the potatoes to the sink. This type of re-

103

establishing shot is commonly called the stand-offsince the photographer merely moves back suf-ficiently to show the general scene again when anew subject enters the scene or a new scene isnecessary.

b. Reverse-Angle Reestablishing Shot. Thereverse-angle reestablishing shot is more difficultto make than the stand-off shot. It is generallyused to show a subject changing location over adistance too great to show in a stand-off shot. Forexample, a sequence shows a soldier removing thebattery from a jeep in the motor park. The nextsequence will show him placing the battery on acharging rack in a distant motor shop. To showhow he moved to the motor shop, a reestablish-ing shot must be made. Since it would be im-practical for the camera to follow him over theentire distance, the reverse-angle shot is used.The first shot from the rear shows the soldierwalking away from the jeep carrying the battery.To complete the reverse-angle, a shot is madeshowing the soldier approaching the chargingrack. All reverse-angle shots are in two parts andrequire two separate shots to show the switch-one from the rear and one from the front of thesubject. The front and rear shots may be madeat different angles.

c. Pan Reestablishing Shot. The pan reestab-lishing shot is used to follow a subject from onelocation to another, usually over a short distance.To make this shot, the' camera is moved slowlyand smoothly, following the subject from the oldscene into the new (par. 98). When possible, how-

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ever, the stand-off and reverse-angle reestablish-ing shots should be used since they are much easierto make.

92. INCIDENTAL SHOTS

a. General. Incidental shots are used in additionto the basic shots for building and carrying thesubject action in a sequence. These shots areknown as cuts. Normally, they are CU's andECU's and are very brief. Although cuts are ofsecondary importance, they add interest and area valuable means of maintaining good continuity.

b. Cut-In. The cut-in shot is used to cut into themain subject action. By use of a cut-in, the actionof the subject can be more clearly shown. Forexample, a scene showing marching troops hasjust been made. Cut-ins of this scene might in-clude a close-up of the heads and shoulders of thetroops marching, a close-up of the marching sol-diers' feet, or a close-up of their arms swinging.All these. shots strongly emphasize the subject'smain action, which is marching. A cut-in must beclosely related to the mainsubject's action.

c. Cutaway. The cutaway is used to lead fromthe main subject's action to a related subject orseparate action which has been previously estab-lished. Normally, a cutaway is a CU or an ECU.In the. example given in b above, one of the cut-ins was a CU of the feet of marching soldiers. Acutway in this instance would be a shot of specta-tors applauding the soldiers, or it could be a shotof the reviewing stand. A cutaway must be re-

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lated in some way to the main subject's action.It also may be used to denote a lapse of time.

93. OVERLAP

Overlap footage and matching action are neces-sary-to provide smoothness and good pictorial con-tinuity in a sequence. An overlap is the reshoot-ing of a small part of the last subject action in ascene. For example, the last shot was an MSshowing a soldier fastening the top button of hisjacket. The next shot will be a CU of the soldieradjusting his cap. However, since an overlap isnecessary for smooth connection between the MSand CU, the CU must begin with the soldier re-peating a small part of the last action of buttoninghis jacket. If 'the CU were to be made only of thesoldier adjusting his cap, there would be a jump inaction because it would not be obvious how thesoldier's hands moved from buttoning his jacketto adjusting his cap. To complete the overlap andmatch the action, editing is necessary. The actionis matched by splicing the MS at the point wherethe soldier's hands are at the same position in bothshots. The overlap shot is the actual footage usedto make the overlap. Matching action is the processused in editing the overlap footage. Any footagethat causes duplication is discarded. Overlap doesnot always follow a definite pattern. Action canbe matched in an LS and an MS. It also is possibleto match the action of footage from differentsequences. To obtain overlap with one camera,

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controlled action photography is necessary. Whenshooting uncontrolled action, however, severalcameras are required.

94. DIRECTIONAL CONTINUITY

a. General. Directional continuity is the properportrayal of direction of moving objects with amotion picture camera. The direction of subjectmovement when viewed on a screen must be con-sistent. For instance, if the subject enters theframe from left to right it should continue in thesame direction throughout the sequence. Anychange of direction, unless carefully introduced,destroys continuity and creates audience confu-sion. For example, shots of a parade taken fromopposite sides of the street create a confusing se-quence because, on the screen, the parade will ap-pear to be moving first in one direction and thenin the opposite direction. This illusion is causedby the limitations of the screen which tend toeliminate the establishing factors by which theeyes normally would make the visual transitionfrom one side of the street to the other. There-fore, to avoid confusing reversals of direction, takeall shots in the sequence from the same side ofview, if possible.

b. Reversals. Certain reversals of directionthat are self-explanatory are permissible when thereversal can be shown within the screen. For ex-ample, a jeep enters the scene from the left andstops, a prisoner gets into the back seat with aguard, the jeep makes a turn and leaves the fieldof view. When it is impossible to avoid reversals

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of screen direction that are unaccounted for bythe action, make the reversals less obvious by thetechnique of distraction. This technique consistsof separating the scenes of the sequence by cut-ins and cutaways, thereby momentarily neutraliz-ing the directional action. When the new direc-tional action occurs, it is less apparent because theneutralization draws the attention of the audienceaway from the original direction of action. Cut-ins and cutaways used for this purpose must notshow any cross-screen direction.

95. LIGHTING

a. General. Lighting is critical for motion pic-ture photography because differences in exposurebetween sequences cannot be corrected easily dur-ing development of the film. For this'reason, ex-posures should be estimated carefully, and con-tinuity of lighting must be considered.

b. Continuity of Lighting. Consistent lightingthroughout successive scenes is necessary for con-tinuity. If a filter is used for one shot, the samefilter should be used throughout the sequence.Otherwise, the difference will be immediately ap-parent on the screen and continuity will be in-terrupted. Continuity of lighting is particularlyvital in outdoor sequences when intermittentclouds cause variations in the quality of light andlapses of time change the direction of light. It isessential, in outdoor sequences, to be careful thatchanges in the length of shadows do not betray alapse of time when none is supposed to occur.

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96. ANGLE

To prevent stereotyped continuity, change eitherthe size of the image, the camera angle, or both.Image sizes are changed in the basic shots of thesequence by varying the camera distance or byusing different focal length lenses. Interest andvariety are added to a sequence by varying bothimage size and camera angle. When properly used,camera angles provide the cameraman with oppor-tunities for originality in conveying the theme.Care must be taken, however, to avoid exaggera-tion and overuse of angles. The capabilities andlimitations of the various types of angles can belearned only through experience. Generally speak-ing, high camera angles (when shooting down)appear to reduce the height of a subject and slowthe subject's action. Low angle shots (whenshooting up) tend to exaggerate height and addspeed to the subject's action. To add depth andperspective to a subject, a side angle shot may beused. This shot gives a three-dimensional effectand can make a subject appear wider or thinner,depending on the degree of angle used. The flat-angle or head-on shot should be used sparingly,since it lacks interest and depth. Reverse-angleshots are used to add variety. They are made byshooting the subject from the reverse side ofview.

97. COMPOSITION

Composition is very important in motion picturephotography because corrections in composition

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when printing motion picture film are practicallyimpossible. In still photography, corrections incomposition can be made by cropping, enlarging,and dodging. However, these methods are not pos-sible in motion picture photography. Consequent-ly, it is necessary to film a scene exactly as it isto appear on the screen. The most important con-sideration in composition is to keep the center ofinterest sharp and free from distracting objects.Only the object or objects that are the center ofinterest should be included in a scene, regardlessof the type of shot used. To prevent excessiveforeground and cropped subjects, proper framingis necessary. Certain shots like the MS, cuts, orCU's require careful framing when being shot.Care must be taken in making these shots, sinceparallax may cause unwanted cropping at shortcamera-to-subject distances.

98. PANNING

A pan shot is used to record the subject's actiononly when other shots will not suffice. Although itcan be used effectively, the pan is a difficult shotand often is misused. Panning should never beattempted without having the camera on a sturdytripod. Direction of a pan usually is from left toright. The pan shot should be lengthy when pos-sible. Panning must be slow and smooth. Themovement of the pan should be level and in a con-tinuous direction, usually horizontal or vertical.Panning is necessary for certain subjects-suchas a race or an armored vehicle maneuvering-when a long shot may be impossible. If it is neces-

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sary to pan a subject from a moving airplane,boat, or vehicle, the pan must be made from thedirection of travel to the rear in the same direc-tion as the scenery appears to be traveling. Thepan should begin at a narrow and- acute angle tothe subject. To end the shot, the subject shouldbe permitted to leave the scene.

99. PLANNING FOR CONTINUITY

In addition to the motion picture techniquesbriefly described in the preceding paragraphs, cer---tain factors in planning are necessary to achievepictorial continuity. These factors include thescenario (when used), the story (mental or writ-ten), and plans for coordination with other camera-men.

a. Scenario. A scenario is a detailed plan orguide to the action of a motion picture production.It is a listing of all the scenes required for a mo-tion picture. It also is known as a script. Motionpicture films based on a scenario usually areproduced in a military studio or on location inthe rear echelon of a theater of operations or inthe continental United States. Although shootingfrom a scenario is not always possible in the field,the cameraman should think out a story for eachsection of action which he plans to shoot.

b. Story. The motion picture story is the plana photographer makes of the order and type ofshots needed to depict his theme or thought of thesubject. Before any scenes are shot, the photog-rapher first must analyze his subject and deter-

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mine how he desires to portray it. After a themehas been developed, the various shots necessaryto record the theme are determined. The motionpicture story should be written in detail, if pos-sible, and should describe the order and type ofshots needed to make the story. This writtenstory serves as a guide. Variations that improvethe original story are desirable during the actualshooting. If the order of shots is changed duringshooting, proper arrangement can be restored inthe editing process.

c. Coordination of Coverage. To complete astory properly and achieve good pictorial con-tinuity, coordination between photographers isnecessary. Since most military motion picturephotography is of the uncontrolled action type,several cameramen usually are employed to obtaincomplete coverage of a subject. When this is done,the story is very valuable in coordinating the ef-forts of all the cameramen. In planning the story,the responsibility of obtaining certain shots isdelegated to separate cameramen. For example,one cameraman may take the cut-ins and cuta-ways, while another cameraman takes the MS'sand CU's, and still another takes all the LS's andELS's. During editing, these separate shots arecombined to portray the theme of the story.

100. EXPOSURE

a. General. The factors of lens aperture andfilm speed are common to both still and motionpicture photography. However, shutter operationand the synchronized camera speed of motion pic-

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ture cameras are the great differences betweenstill and motion picture photography. The lensaperture, shutter opening, and shutter speed con-trol the light that reaches the film.

b. Shutter Opening. Most 16-mm motion pic-ture cameras have a fixed shutter opening. Studiotype 35-mm and certain 16-mm motion picturecameras have adjustable shutter openings. Mostfixed shutters have an opening of 170 ° . Adjust-able shutters give the cameraman an additionalcontrol over exposure. Combat cameras usuallyhave a fixed shutter opening.

c. Camera Speed. The speed of motion picturecameras is calibrated in frames per second. This isthe rate that film is transported, frame by frame,past the film aperture. The film movement is syn-chronized with the shutter to permit exposure ofeach frame. Most cameras have speeds that maybe set at 8, 16, 24, 32, and 64 frames per second.At 8 frames per second, the speed of movingobjects appears faster because motion occurringduring 1 second is represented by only 8 individualpictures. With 16 frames per second, the action ismore natural. Normally, 24 frames per second isused as the standard speed. At 32 and 64 framesper second, motion is slowed down considerably.These latter speeds are commonly employed toshow action in slow motion.

101. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Because of its slow speed and other character-istics, employment of color film in motion picturephotography is limited and exposure is critical.

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Color film usually requires more skillful handlingthan black and white film. Normally, only well-lighted subjects should be considered, preferablyin bright sunlight.

102. CAPTIONS

a. Field Caption Card. Motion picture captionsare explanatory notes pertaining to a particularroll of film. They are written by the cameramanon a field caption card (DA AGO Form 11-191)when available (fig. 29). Captions are prepared induplicate. The cameraman retains the duplicateand forwards the original caption card with thefilm. To prevent confusion in case of separation,the notes and film package must contain markingswhich identify them as belonging together. Cap-tions should answer the following questions ascompletely as possible:

(1) Who? (Give the full name of personsphotographed, grade, serial number,home town, and branch of service.)

(2) What? (Identify everything photo-graphed.)

(3) When? (Give date and time of day.)(4) Where? (State location as accurately as

possible.)(5) How? (Explain the operation of the sub-

ject and the special conditions and cir-cumstances connected with its function-ing.)

b. Caption Sheet. A caption sheet (DA AGOForm 11-198) is filled out by the photographer indetail and includes all the information given on

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MOTION PICTURE FIELD CAPTION CARD ( 125751. . .....CAMERAMAN SGT CIAR1LEQ.PttLLMA DATE 25 MAY1950

FILM TYPE 35-M PLS-X UNIT NO COMAT1

LOCATION M1IL OIDROP oN RO OAO ROLL NO l

SUBJECT ftLEMY PLAetS ATrAJ( CONVOY CO B 30i Bas

SCENE 5'i (oJ (.EGNO. FEET DESCRIPTION .o'1 It DIV

.. _ .._ . LS Co.VOY IZOLi,* TOWAa.S 8R0AD 'o WA

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Figure 29. Field caption card.

the caption cards pertaining to related rolls offilm (fig. 30). The completed forms are forwarded

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with the film to a photographic laboratory. At thelaboratory, another caption sheet (Form DA 11-198) is prepared. This form accompanies the filmto the next higher headquarters for processing.Caption sheets should be filled out as completelyas possible because they serve at a later date asthe source of information for the writing of com-mentaries.

103. SLATING

Slating is the photographic recording of a no-tation to establish identity of the film with its cor-rect caption sheet (fig. 31). This notation is a per-manent part of the film. All motion picture filmmust be slated, preferably at the beginning ofeach roll. When no slate is available, a wall, board,box, equipment container, or even sand, can serveas a surface on which the necessary data can bewritten and then recorded with the camera. Thefollowing information should be included:

Name of cameraman.Organization.Subject.Date.Place.Film roll number.Special symbols or markings assigned by the

Department of the Army.

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- a -FM 6-33

Figure S1. Slate.

Section III. EQUIPMENT

104. GENERAL

Military motion picture equipment normally isdesigned to operate under field conditions. Specialequipment is provided for studio production work.Motion picture camera equipment that will pro-vide satisfactory results under a variety of fieldconditions is constantly being designed and de-veloped. Weight, size, and performance under cli-matic extremes are important considerations indesigning new equipment for combat conditions.Both 16-mm and 35-mm motion picture camerasare used in military photography.

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105. 16-MM CAMERAS

The 16-mm motion picture cameras are lighterand more compact than the 35-mm equipment and,consequently, are used in situations where speedand ease of mobility are required. Accessories arerelatively light and compact. Much less film isneeded to cover the same footage required with a35-mm camera. For example, 100 feet of 16-mmfilm gives the photographer 4,000 individualframes which last for 160 seconds of continuousexposure at a camera speed of 24 frames per sec-ond; while 100 feet of 35-mm film will give thephotographer only 1,600 individual frames thatlast for 65 seconds, using the same camera speed.Another special advantage of the 16-mm camerais that it is particularly suitable for color photog-raphy.

a. PH-430. This motion picture camera, al-though somewhat larger and heavier than most16-mm cameras, is used for field assignments andproduction photography. It can be used with a100-foot or 200-foot magazine, and can be adaptedto handle special effects by mechanical adjust-ment or through the use of accessories. Thecamera has a spring-wound motor. The lens tur-ret :holds two lenses. A battery of various focallength lenses is available for this camera andgives it a wide range of application.

b. PH-430-A. This is a 3-lens turret-head,100-foot load camera of sturdy design. Becauseit is relatively small, compact, and sturdy, it isespecially adaptable for combat photography. It

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has a spring-wound motor. It is not designed tomeet the requirements of production work, al-though it can be used for supplementary back-ground shots and general motion picture coverage.

c. PH-481. This is an exceptionally small, lightcamera with a spring-wound motor. The film comesin a special 50-foot magazine which eliminatesthreading and is loaded automatically. It has asingle lens mount which will take lenses of variousfocal lengths. This camera is particularly prac-tical for combat situations.

106. 35-MM CAMERAS

The 35-mm motion picture cameras are primar-ily used for black-and-white production and gen-eral types of field photography. Certain cameramodels are designed for hand-held operation whileothers are used for studio shooting and must beoperated from a tripod.

a. PH-330-A through H and J. These modelsare typical newsreel cameras, exceptionally flex-ible and of rugged design. Although constructionis basically similar, certain models have turretsholding three lenses and allow the use of 100-footas well as 400-foot rolls of 35-mm motion picturefilm. Others are of the single lens mount type.The 400-foot rolls of motion picture film are loadedinto special magazines which can be attached tothe camera housing. These cameras can be usedfor practically all types of production work. Theyare especially suitable for documentary photog-raphy. Basic camera models have spring-wound

121.

motors. Advanced"'models have electricSmotorsand allow increased photographic applicationthrough the use of various accessories. The ad-vantages' of this camera are its rugged design anddependability.

b. PH-274-A. This is the production typestudio camera, large and heavy and superior forthe kind of photography for which it was de-signed. It is not employed in actual combat, al-though it may be used to cover after-action andcaptured areas., Application in the field is limitedto production work of training, educational, his-torical; and documentary films. This camera has:aneleytric~motor drive and all adjustments andaccess~ories of a-production camera. This cameracan be used with double-system sound recording.

c. PH-270. This is a sound-recording camera.It has all the features of a studio production mo-tion picture camera and, in addition, permits di-' !r~c o~d~ sound on film. The unit is largeand has numerous accessories which supplementits operation. This camera is used primarily inmilitary studios and for interior work.. Newsreeland public information photography are possiblewith this camera. It also is utilized in the pro-duction of training films and other military filmswhich require immediate synchronization of soundon film. This camera has an electric-motor drive.

d. PH-830-K. This motion picture camera is ofa unique design which is particularly practical formilitary application. It is relatively light and com-pact (fig. 32). By means of a reflex arrangement,the view finder allows direct pictorial control

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through the recording lens even while the camerais in operation. Because of this mechanical de-velopment, the camera needs no parallax adjust-ments, requires no additional view finders, and hasthe advantage of permitting continuous controlover the focus of the lens while the camera is inoperation. This camera generally is used with anelectric motor built into the handle. The motor isdriven by a portable battery which is carried ina case on a shoulder strap by the photographer.The electric motor may be removed and replacedby a spring-wound motor of similar shape whichalso is used as a camera handle to facilitate hand-held operation. The camera turret holds threelenses. Special 200-foot or 400-foot magazinescan be used with the camera. When a tripod isused, the motor is removed from the bottom andplaced on the side of the camera housing. Thiscamera is designed primarily for tactical field mo-tion picture photography but may be used to ad-vantage in most other types of military photog-raphy.

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Figure 32. Combat motion picture camera.

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CHAPTER 6

TRAINING

Section I. SPECIALIST TRAINING

107. PURPOSE

The purpose of specialist training is to preparephotographic personnel for combat duty with tac-tical units. Personnel are selected after basictraining is completed. Selection is based on ama-teur or professional background and experienceor aptitude of personnel. Selected' personnel aretrained in an appropriate photographic serviceschool.

108. SPECIALTIES

The following military specialties are availablein signal photography for enlisted personnel:

Still photographer (SSN 0152).Motion picture photographer (SSN 0043).Sound motion picture film recorder (SSN

0208).Laboratory technician (SSN 0945).Camera repairman (SSN 0042).Projector repairman (SSN 0206).

109. SERVICE SCHOOLS

Photographic service schools offer extensivetraining in the various phases of military still and

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motion picture photography. Primarily, trainingat the schools is concerned with the technicalaspects of field photography and with the prepa-ration of personnel for actual tactical assignments.In addition, basic photographic techniques, pro-cedures, and principles are included in the train-ing program so that students are able to performthe routine pictorial tasks required of militaryphotographers under various conditions at allechelons.

1 10. CRITIQUES

To determine the training progress of individ-ual students and, at the same time, offer construc-tive comment on photographic work, critiques oneach student's work are prepared at regular inter-vals by the instructors. The critiques are writtenor verbal comments that analyze the individual'swork. Such comments are categorically filed andoffer the school commander a source to check onthe ability and effort of every student. Since thestudent receives a copy of every critique, he canstudy his efficiencies and deficiencies and followthe given recommendations. The use of such cri-tiques is not limited to schools but can be carriedon also within photographic units. Critique sheetsare prepared by the unit. Responsible officers maywork out critique sheets covering all points thatare pertinent in pictorial coverage and techniques.These sheets should be prepared in duplicate, onecopy for the photographer and the second copy tobe retained in the personnel file. Several critiquesheets of one person's work indicate the degree

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of photographic progress made over a period oftime. The following is a suggested group of itemsgenerally stated on critique sheets:

a. Motion Picture Work. (Describe mistakesand merits.)

(1) Story-(a) Action.(b) Angles(c) Balance.(d) Sequence.(e) Coverage.(f) Selection of subject matter.

(2) Technical-(a) Exposure.(b) Focus.(c) Framing.(d) Lighting.(e) Panning.(f) Fogged or scratched film.(g) Slates.(h) Captions.

b. Still Photography. (Describe mistakes andmerits.)

(1) Story-(a) Story coverage.(b) Subject matter.(c) Balance.(d) Action.(e) Angles.

(2) Technical-(a) Exposure.(b) Focus.

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(c) Framing.(d) Lighting.(e) Movement of subject.(f) Captions.(g) Processing.

Section II. FIELD TRAINING

111. PURPOSE

Photographic field training familiarizes person-nel with the photographic requirements of combatunits. It indoctrinates men in photographic oper-ating procedures in the field under climatic ex-tremes and gives them pertinent information con-cerning the operations and tactics of the organi-zations with which they work. The training in-creases the service value of personnel and estab-lishes a standard of tactical photographic perform-ance and procedure throughout the army. Thetraining is divided into different categories, de-pending on the type of photographic unit. Variousphases and training steps increase photographicpreparedness until the necessary tactical readi-ness is reached.

112. UNIT TRAINING

Field training in photographic units is the appli-cation of basic principles to tactical, intelligence,identification, public information, historical, andother phases of field photography. The trainingusually is given by cadre personnel who are se-

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lected on the basis of previous military photo-graphic experience or training. Training may beaccomplished by individual instruction or by unitdeployment. Field training familiarizes personnelwith the operations and. organizations in a theaterof operations and with the role that photographyplays in the operations. Training should include-

Film processing procedures in the field.Shipping and handling of all types of film.An over-all outline of the photographic work

required at different echelons.A detailed treatise of the purpose and mission

of military photography in the field.An outline of the various types of photo-

graphic units employed in the field.A familiarization course of military organiza-

tions in a theater of operations.A discussion pertaining to photographic ad-

ministration and all phases of operations inthe field.

An explanation of photographic SOP's, oper-ation orders, signal annexes, and other mili-tary orders.

113. REFRESHER TRAINING

Photographers who have been away from theirunit for special training, or on detached service,should receive refresher training in their photo-graphic specialty upon return to the unit. Re-fresher training is necessary to reorient men incertain important photographic routines. It con-sists of lectures, orientation talks, reading assign-

129

ments, examinations, motion pictures, demonstra-tions, and practical exercises. Such training in-creases the over-all effectiveness of unit serviceand improves the performance of individual pho-tographers. The primary purpose of refreshertraining is to increase the quality of photographicperformance. In order to determine the progressmade by individuals engaged in refresher train-ing, the commander should observe personnel reg-ularly, inspect work, and encourage the traineesto increase their photographic knowledge and pro-ficiency. It is the responsibility of the command-ing officer to guide the personnel and to determinewhere further training is necessary.

114. ROTATION

When personnel are thoroughly qualified in onephotographic specialty, they should be rotated toanother assignment to acquire a secondary pho-tographic specialty. The aim is to have every manof the unit proficient in at least two photographicspecialties. For example, a still photographer whohas completed his training, and who has functionedas a still photographer for some time, is ready foradditional training in another photographic spe-cialty. Accordingly, the commanding officer di-rects that the photographer is to receive addition-al training as a laboratory technician. With thistraining completed, the photographer can readilybe assigned to one of two positions, depending onemergencies. Rotation is a form of insurance thatgives a man maximum training and the armymaximum service.

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115. LABORATORY

Training in a photographic laboratory is accom-plished through direct instruction and by rotatingduties. Laboratory personnel perform in their pri-mary military specialty until they become pro-ficient and are then rotated to other positionswhere they can acquire a secondary military spe-cialty. The aim is to increase the quality of thework and extend the limit of the laboratory pro-duction capacity. Additional training in the formof direct instruction is given by the noncommis-sioned officer in charge or by the photographic of-ficer. The purpose of individual instruction is tocorrect inadequate procedures discovered by theofficer during inspections and supervision of pho-tographic work. Such instruction also allows thephotographic officer to familiarize laboratory per-sonnel with new photographic methods and equip-ment.

116. TRAINING FILM LIBRARY

The instruction given to training film librarypersonnel is different from the training given toother signal photographic organizations. Person-nel of this organization are not engaged in theproduction of photographs. Since film librariesserve as centers of distribution which providevisual aids, training should insure maximum effi-ciency in distribution and maintenance of projec-tion equipment and films. The training of filmlibrary personnel includes instruction in the cor-rect way of showing training films and the proper

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use of projection equipment under all conditions,the 'way to fill out the necessary administrativerecords to make fullest utilization of equipmentpossible, and the method of keeping training per-sonnel of adjacent units informed of applicabletraining films, films strips, and other visual aidsthat are available.

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CHAPTER 7

SUPPLY

Section I. PROCEDURES

117. GENERAL

Procurement and distribution of photographicsupplies are essentially the same as for all typesof Signal Corps supplies. Local procurement mayalso be authorized for photographic units in anoversea command.

118. COMPANY

In a photographic company, the supply respon-sibility lies with the supply and maintenance sec-tion of the headquarters platoon. The supply andmaintenance section has a supply subsection whichis responsible for the storage and issue of suppliesand the maintenance of supply levels. Duringperiods when the company is located at such dis-tances from the portable laboratory that supplyrequirements cannot be readily filled, an additionalsupply subsection is maintained at the portablelaboratory and operated by the personnel of thechemical mixing room. The laboratory supplysubsection stocks only enough items for operation-al needs. The use of this subsection saves muchtime because it eliminates unnecessary traveling

between the laboratory and the supply subsectionat company headquarters. Supply procedures andrelated problems of photographic units, detach-ments, and sections are generally similar to thoseof the organic photographic company.

119. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLIES

Photographic supplies are grouped under sepa-rate designations as follows:

A-Photographic equipment.

B-Photographic paper.

C-Photographic chemicals.D-Film.

E-Photographic lamps.

F-Film library equipment.

P-Maintenance p a r t s for photographicequipment.

Section II. MAINTENANCE

120. GENERAL

Organizational maintenance is performed byphotographers operating the equipment as well asby maintenance personnel of the unit. Photog-raphers are responsible for preventive mainte-nance. Preventive maintenance includes care inoperating equipment, cleaning equipment, minoradjustments-such as tightening accessory screws-and frequent inspection of the equipment todetect the presence of fungus or corrosion. In

134

addition to performing routine preventive mainte-nance, photographers check their critique sheetsto determine if the pictorial results obtained indi-cate any mechanical failure of the camera equip-ment. If major adjustments are necessary, theequipment is given to maintenance-personnel forrepair. Maintenance personnel are responsible forthe replacement of worn parts; the adjustment ofsynchronizers, shutters, and range finders; andthe general overhauling of the equipment. Onlyqualified maintenance personnel should be per-mitted to repair or adjust operating mechanismsof photographic equipment.

121. ITEMS

Cleanliness of items and detection of faults arethe most important factors in preventive mainte-nance. In general, photographers are responsiblefor the care of the following items:

a. Lenses. Lenses must be kept clean and freefrom sand, dust, oil, and other foreign matter.To avoid scratching lenses when cleaning, dustshould be blown off or carefully removed with acamel's-hair brush or specially provided lens-clean-ing tissue. Use gentle, circular motions whilecleaning. In warm, moist climates, a lens-clean-ing fluid is used to check fungus growth. Al-though camera lenses are carefully checked andtested by the maintenance subsection before be-ing issued to photographers, it is important thatthe photographers check the lenses and look for:indications of loose components.

135

b. Motion Picture Cameras; Cameras must bechecked -daily- for appearance and condition ofcamerasaperture, gates, sprockets, magazines, andtake-up spools. Necessary' adjustments beyondcleaning or straightening the take-up spool are theresponsibility of maintenance-personnel and shouldbe reported immediately.

c. Still Cameras. Still cameras must be cleaneddaily and all accessible parts checked for correctperformance. Adjustments may be needed forrange finder, footage scale indicator, shutterspeeds, and synchronizers. These adjustments arehandled by maintenance personnel.

d. Batteries. Photographers using storage bat-teries for photographic equipment must check thebatteries before each assignment and must makesure that the batteries have been properly chargedby maintenance personnel. It also is necessary tocheck and replace dry cell batteries frequently.

Section III. STORAGE AND SHIPPING

122. GENERAL

Storage and shipping are important phases inthe link from the production line to the using or-ganization. Supplies must be quickly and properlyshipped to their point of destination. They mustbe correctly stored and cared for in transit to in-sure that they are in usable condition when is-sued. If the quality of supplies is affected in thisprocess, replacement is usually necessary. Replace-ment means n6t only loss of time and money but

136

a decrease in the military efficiency of the unitawaiting the item of supply. Consequently, thestoring and shipping phase of the supply systemis very vital.

123. PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLIES

a. General. Because of their physical proper-ties, special storage and shipping precautions arenecessary for photographic supplies. Films, pho-tographic papers, and chemicals must be stored ina cool, dry place, and inflammable film must bestored in fireproof vaults or shipped in fireproofcontainers. Photographic supplies that deterio-rate with age should be stored in such a mannerthat the oldest stock is used first. Appropriatetraining manuals, technical bulletins, army regu-lations, and other publications specify in detailthe precautions and proper methods for the stor-ing and shipping of photographic supplies.

b. Unexposed Film. Still and motion picture filmusually is packed in containers that provide pro-tection from the climatic conditions prevailing inthe area where it is to be used; however, addition-al protection should be given film by storing it ina cool, dry place. In the tropics, refrigerated stor-age should be provided for film. The ideal storagetemperature for unexposed film is 60° F. with arelative humidity of 40 to 60 percent. The hu-midity may be checked by the use of wet and drybulb thermometers. Film required for an assign-ment should be removed from storage approxi-mately 24 hours before being used, since a sud-den extreme change of temperature will cause

137

condensation. By keeping the sealed container inthe new temperature for approximately 24 hours,accumulation of moisture on the film can be pre-vented. To avoid film deterioration, it is necessaryto prevent contact with or storage near formalde-hyde, industrial gases, motor exhausts, and va-pors from solvent materials.

c. Exposed Film. Normally, film is processedimmediately after exposure. When immediateprocessing is not possible, exposed still picture filmshould be placed in the original package and keptcool and dry until it can be developed. Exposedmotion picture film which has not been processedmay be placed in the original film can, but shouldnot be sealed airtight unless the film has beenthoroughly dried. When the excess moisture isremoved, the film may be sealed in a containerand stored in a refrigerator or shipped to the de-veloping laboratory. Storage precautions are alsonecessary for exposed film that has been pro-cessed. Processed still film is placed in individualpaper preservers and stored in dustproof cabinets.Motion picture film has either a nitrate or acetatebase. Film with a nitrate base is highly inflamma-ble and requires storage in fireproof vaults. Ac-cordingly, special precautions must be taken whensuch film is stored. All other motion picture filmis considered safety film and may be stored inwooden buildings. Storage of the film at moderatetemperatures reduces the possibilities of emulsiondeterioration, fungus, or mold. It is also necessaryto protect exposed film against hydrogen sulfideand coal gas fumes.

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d. Other Supplies. Photographic papers nor-mally are stored under the same conditions as un-exposed film. Paper should be located at a safedistance from photographic chemicals, kept insealed containers, and stored in a cool, dry place.Precautions to be observed in storing chemicalsor other photographic supplies are usually printedon the labels of the containers.

124. FILM LIBRARY MATERIAL

Film libraries are responsible for the properstorage of film strips, training films, entertain-ment films, orientation films, and necessary pro-jection equipment.

a. Positive Film. The method used in the stor-age of positive motion picture film prints and filmstrips depends on the type of film base. Similarto negative motion picture film, positive film mayhave a nitrate or acetate base. The detailed pro-cedure for storing nitrate base film is given inAR 850-65. Safety type positive film stock re-quires no special attention and can be stored with-out special fire-prevention measures. Film stripsare always printed on safety type motion picturepositive film. In a humid climate, before storingeither type of film, place the film in a metal canwith a desiccating agent to remove any excessmoisture from the film. If containers with built-in compartments for the desiccating agent are notavailable, a simple desiccator (fig. 33) can be con-structed as follows: Solder the bottoms of twofilm cans together and drill approximately 20 holes

139

through both surfaces. Fill one of the cans witha moisture-absorbing material, such as silica-gel,rice, tea leaves, or dry paper, and then seal thecan. Place the film in the other can and seal thecan. This method of constructing a desiccatorusually gives satisfactory results. The life of themoisture-absorbing material depends on the hu-midity within the film library. Normally, the rela-tive humidity within the film can should be from40 to 50 percent at a temperature between 70 ° and75°F. Extreme cold weather creates special prob-lems in storing film. When exposed to extremelylow temperatures, film becomes brittle and easilybreaks in handling. Under such conditions, stor-age should be in any available shelter which willprotect the film from the effects of the tempera-ture.

b. Equipment. Since film library equipment isconstantly being issued and handled by manyusing agencies, it requires special attention whenreturned for storage. Upon receipt from the usingagencies, the equipment must be thoroughly in-spected for damage, rust, corrosion, fungus, mold,and moisture. The necessary corrective measuresmust be taken to insure that the equipment isclean and dry before storing. In a humid climate,a desiccating agent must be inclosed with theequipment to prevent the accumulation of mois-ture during storage. Detailed information con-cerning storage, shipping, and maintenance offilm library equipment is given in SR 110-30-5.

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2 FILM CANS (PREFERABLY 1000')

SOLDERED BACK TO BACK

DRILL HOLES THROUGH BOTH

BOTTOMS

_ P U T ~~PUT MOISTURE ABSORBING

MATERIAL IN ONE CAN

THEN PUT COVER

BACK ON AND SEAL IT

( PLACE FILM IN OTHER CAN,

PUT COVER OK AND SEAL IT

FM 6-35

Figure 33. Improvised desiccator.

125. PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

a. General. All photographic equipment mustbe cleaned and, where applicable, the mechan-isms should be lubricated before storing. Duringstorage, frequent inspections are necessary tocheck for the presence of rust, corrosion, fungus,or mold. Shutters, lenses, bellows, film gates, tur-rets, and camera accessories are the most likelylocations for the effects of deterioration. Whenpossible, the equipment should be kept in a well-ventilated place that has a low relative humidity.

141

b. Cold Climates. In extremely cold climates,either specially designed photographic equipmentor standard equipment with winterization modifi-cations is used. Special instructions are publishedconcerning the use and storage of all types ofequipment used in cold climates. Most moving-parts of the equipment are lubricated with aspecial winterization oil before storing. Equip-ment treated with the winterization oil must bekept in a dry place that has a constant cold tem-perature. Should the equipment be exposed to awarmer temperature, the special oil is rendered in-effective and the winterization process must be re-peated before the equipment can be issued for use.It is also necessary to prevent accumulation ofmoisture in the equipment because a drop in tem-perature may cause the moisture to freeze andform a thin coat of ice which impairs sensitiveparts. Desiccators suitable for use in cold cli-mates should be placed with the equipment toprevent moisture accumulation.

c. Hot Climates. In hot climates, steps must betaken to prevent rot, fungus, and moisture accu-mulation during storage of photographic equip-ment. Application of a thin coat of lacquer, wherepossible, is an excellent safeguard against rotand fungus. Desiccators are also used to preventmoisture accumulation within equipment storagepacking cases. In hot climates, equipment mustbe stored in a cool, dry place, when possible.

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126. SAFEGUARDING EQUIPMENT

Special precautions in shipping and storage arenecessary tfo safeguard photographic equipmentand supplies from loss by theft. Photographicteams on field assignments should be suppliedchests or boxes that can be locked. Equipmentwhich is not in use should be stored in these lockedcontainers. Such precautions discourage pilferingand thereby eliminate hours of work and costlydelay in getting replacement issues.

127. SHIPPING FILMS

Each parcel containing film should show on itsexterior the required identification and whetheror not the contents are inflammable, exposed, orprocessed. Identifying labels may be procuredthrough normal photographic supply channels.Current regulations determine the mailing proce-dures for photographic negative and positive ma-terial for any particular locality.

143

CHAPTER 8

SIGNAL PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPANY

Section I. GENERAL

128. MISSION

The signal photographic company furnishes thearmy commander with pictorial combat intelli-gence, as well as with technical, tactical, and rou-tine photographic service. The company may alsoprovide photographic coverage for theater andDepartment of the Army requirements as directedby the theater photographic officer; usually thetheater commander provides additional photo-graphic teams for this purpose.

129. FUNCTION

The function of the signal photographic com-pany is to provide military still and motion picturephotography in both black and white and color forthe army. The full values of photography as atactical aid to military operations, including com-bat, should be completely understood by all com-manders. The value of photography is limited onlyby the lack of imagination of those commanderswho do not fully utilize the available facilities.It is the responsibility of the signal photographiccompany to familiarize using agencies with avail-able facilities and services.

144

130. ORGANIZATION

The signal photographic company T/O & E 11-37 usually is assigned to an army. Normally, ele-ments of the company are attached or allotted tocorps or other headquarters in accordance withtactical requirements (fig. 34). The company ismade up of a headquarters platoon, a laboratoryplatoon, and an assignment platoon (fig. 35). Ifadditional personnel are required, the company isaugmented by units from other photographic ser-vice companies or by teams authorized by T/O &E 11-500.

Section II. HEADQUARTERS PLATOON

131. GENERAL

The headquarters platoon normally is locatednear the headquarters of the army to which thephotographic company is assigned. It is com-posed of a headquarters section and a supply andmaintenance section and performs the duties asso-ciated with administration, supply, mess, trans-portation, and certain photographic equipment re-pairs. It also coordinates the activities of thelaboratory and assignment platoons.

132. HEADQUARTERS SECTION

a. Administration. The administration subsec-tion is responsible for administrative duties of theheadquarters platoon. The subsection assists inany function for proper administration of the head-

145

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SIGNALPHOTOGRAPHIC

COMPANY

TEAbDONARTERSE| ASSIGNMENT LABORATORT| PLATOON . ... PLATOON PLATOON

|HEADUARTERS HEADOUARTERS 2-NEWSREEL PORTABLESECTION SECTION AlSSIGNMENT UNITS LABORATOR UNIT

UAINTENANCE N L 2-IDENTIFICATION 2-COUBAT 3-COMBATSUPPLT SECTION UNITS ASSIGNMENT UNITS LABORATORT UNIT

FM 6-37

Figure 35. Photographic company.

quarters platoon or of the company as a whole. Itassigns personnel, keeps company records and al-lied papers, and handles the necessary correspond-ence between the company and other organiza-tions. It coordinates all administrative reports ofcompany units.

b. Mess. The mess subsection operates the messfor members of the company and any other units,teams, or personnel stationed with the company.It is not responsible for the messing of personnelon detached service to corps or other headquar-ters. It maintains a complete field kitchen readyto operate at all times.

133. SUPPLY AND MAINTENANCE

The supply and maintenance section is composedof 1 warrant officer and 15 enlisted men. It per-forms the supply and maintenance duties for thecompany. The section is divided into supply, pho-tographic maintenance, and motor maintenancesubsections.

148

a. Supply. This subsection is responsible forobtaining, storing, and issuing all company andphotographic supplies and equipment used by thecompany and attached units. It is also responsiblefor resupplying the photographic requirements ofunits operating -way from the company. It main-tains supply levels in accordance with existingregulations.

b. Photographic Maintenance. This subsectionperforms the photographic maintenance functionof the supply and maintenance section. Its dutiesconsist principally of maintaining in efficient oper-ating condition all cameras, photographic labora-tory equipment, photographic accessories, and al-lied equipment of the photographic company andattached units. It maintains records of the volumeof work handled, type of repairs, and, wheneverpossible, the apparent reason for the break-downof the equipment. This subsection performs all or-ganizational and certain field maintenance. Theamount of field maintenance that can be performedis limited by its tools and the amount of spareparts. Equipment in need of repairs beyond thecapabilities of this subsection is sent to a signaldepot, signal base maintenance organization, orother units authorized to make such repairs.

c. Motor Maintenance. This subsection per-forms organizational maintenance for all vehiclesof the company, except for those vehicles whichare used by personnel on detached service and tem-porary duty away from the company. Field anddepot maintenance is performed by the appropri-

149t

ate automotive maintenance organization. If ad-ditional drivers are assigned to the photographiccompany, they may be attached to the motor main-tenance subsection. All drivers perform the or-ganizational maintenance of the vehicle to whichthey are assigned and are responsible for the com-pletion of trip tickets and for obtaining the sig-nature of the person using the vehicle.

Section III. LABORATORY PLATOON

134. GENERAL

The laboratory platoon is composed of 1 officerand 28 enlisted men. It performs the companyduties of processing and distributing still picturesin compliance with directives. Its headquarters isnormally established near the army headquarters.The platoon is made up of one portable laboratoryunit and three combat laboratory units.

135. PORTABLE LABORATORY UNIT

The portable laboratory unit is usually locatednear the platoon' headquarters. It processes stillpicture film exposed by units that are attachedor assigned to the company. This processing doesnot include the work done at the combat labora-tories. The unit edits still pictures, makes printsand enlargements, duplicates negatives as re-quired, and makes lantern slides, reproductions,and reprints. It compiles detailed photographiccoverage requirements for the assignment units.The unit also receives motion picture critiques

150

from the Department of the Army or motion pic-ture field laboratory and transmits' them to theassignment platoon commander. It receives re-quests for photographic material directly fromarmy headquarters agencies and determines theappropriateness and priority of handling such re-quests in accordance with the limitations imposedby combat, supply, SOP, the desires of the request-ing agency, and the existing work load of thelaboratory. In accordance with existing directives,the unit maintains files of negatives and prints(except identification pictures) and captions ofboth still and motion picture material made by thecompany.

a. Editing. Still picture editing is supervisedby the officer in charge and is done either by lab-oratory supervisors or by personnel furnished bythe army photographic officer. Editing work in-cludes

(1) Selection of negatives developed by theunit that are technically usable.

(2) Determination of whether any of thesubmitted material is duplicated in thefiles or duplicated by another mission.

(3) Selection of negatives to be retained forrecord or company reference purposes.

b. Editor and Assistants. The still picture edi-tor determines what material should be shipped tothe Department of the Army as record materialand what material should be retained in the com-pany files. After the laboratory personnel havecompleted the: printing of the negatives selected-

15t

by the editor, the editor's assistants compile ,thecaptions and assign file numbers. The editor thendetermines the distribution requirements and thenumber of prints to be made in addition to thoserequired by the requesting agency. Distributionis made in accordance with the SOP provided bythe army photographic officer. The SOP gives theeditor wide latitude in permitting special dis-tribution of prints of selected negatives to agen-cies which, in his opinion, should be informed forofficial military purposes. In some cases, the dis-tribution of captions alone serves to inform usingagencies of available prints. Then if such printsare desired they can be provided as requested. Theeditor periodically reviews the negatives and printsin the unit files in accordance with current di-rectives and prepares still picture critiques whennecessary.

c. Critiques. Technical critiques are preparedby the editor on photographs taken in the fieldby company members who'are unable to see theresults of their photography. These critiques usu-ally are sent to the team officer. This officer makesany necessary notations concerning techniquesand results and then sends the critiques to themembers in the field. The purpose of critiques isto keep the photographer informed of the tech-nical quality and usability of his work.

136. COMBAT LABORATORY UNITS

The laboratory platoon includes three combatlaboratory units which consist'of three men eachand which normally operate in forward areas such

152

as corps or similar headquarters. When operatingin forward areas, these units are under the super-vision of the photographic officer of the head-quarters to which they are attached. When notoperating in forward areas the units may be usedto supplement the portable laboratory unit. Theduties of combat laboratory units include-

a. Processing of Negatives. Normally, the unitsdevelop negatives made for a specific mission towhich they are assigned. Usually such a missionis to provide pictures requested by a specific com-bat commander for immediate local tactical em-ployment. Negatives processed by the units op-erating in forward areas are given a Preliminarynegative number for purposes of identification.Negatives are held by the combat laboratory untilthe immediate tactical requirements for printsfrom such negatives are fulfilled, at which timethey are sent to the portable laboratory unit to behandled with other incoming negatives. Photo-graphic material is processed by combat labora-tory units only if it pertains to the mission of com-bat unit. All other material delivered to the com-bat laboratory is sent to the portable laboratory.Combat laboratories, however, are not made col-lecting points for such material unless they re-ceive additional personnel to handle it.

b. Processing of Prints. The processing ofprints is kept to a minimum for the essential im-mediate tactical use. Prints are made in the small-est usable size in order to maintain the labora-tory's mobility and its ability to handle assign-ments with a speed consistent with its emergency

153

nature. In the event that the combat laboratoriesmay be required to develop and make prints fromnegatives made with aerial cameras, as is fre-quently the case in combat, provisions should bemade to anticipate such requirements by obtainingthe.necessairy processing equipment in advance.

c. Reports. Combat laboratory units operatingin forward areas are required to make daily re-ports of their activities and, if known, the em-ployment of material handled by them.

Section IV. ASSIGNMENT PLATOON

137. GENERAL

The assignment platoon consists of 15 officersand 71 enlisted men. It is normally establishednear army headquarters and in the same area asthe laboratory platoon or portable laboratory unit.The assignment platoon is responsible for the ac-tual picture-taking of the signal photographic com-pany. It performs the company duties of makingboth still and motion pictures. The platoon is madeup of a headquarters section, two identificationunits, two newsreel assignment units, and 12 com-bat assignment units.

138. HEADQUARTERS SECTION

The headquarters section is responsible for thetactical control of all units and personnel of theassignment platoon. In some instances, it-controls-the activities of the combat laboratory units. The

154

section receives work orders from the laboratoryplatoon for specific coverage and assigns the mis-sion to the applicable photographic field unit. Ifpossible, work orders should be written becausethey provide a basis for the photographic field unitto draw supplies. The headquarters section pre-pares and forwards to the army '-photographic of-ficer, through the company commander, a weeklydigest of the volume of still and motion picturefilms exposed and the purpose for which the filmswere taken.

139. IDENTIFICATION UNITS

The two identification units of the platoon takeofficial still pictures, either of military personnelor prisoners of war, for identification and securitypurposes or for such other purposes as may be di-rected by the army commander. Each unit is aself-contained operating unit and maintains itsown files and records. Identification photographstaken by the units are not subject to normal dis-tribution, except that G-1 may require prints forthe 201 files of the individuals concerned. Identi-fication photographs are considered nonrecord andare retained only as long as they are required forreference purposes by the army commander.

140. NEWSREEL ASSIGNMENT UNITS

The two newsreel assignment units, each con-sisting of one officer, three motion picture camera-men, one sound recorder, and two still picture pho-tographers, are normally employed in or around

155

army headquarters. These units usually cannotoperate in forward areas because of the size oftheir equipment; therefore, forward area missionsare generally assigned to the motion picture cam-eramen of the combat assignment units. The basicfunction of the newsreel assignment unit is to fur-nish controlled silent and sound motion picturecoverage and still picture coverage of technical,training, and historical subjects for the variousstaff agencies at army level and for theater andDepartment of the Army requirements. The stillpicture photographers of these units may supple-ment motion picture coverage or may be assignedindependent missions.

141. COMBAT ASSIGNMENT UNITS

The 12 combat assignment units may be util-ized anywhere in the army area and may be at-tached to any organization. Each unit is composedof an officer, two motion picture cameramen, andtwo still photographers. For a particular opera-tion, a ufiit may be divided into.two teams, witha motion picture cameraman and a still photog-rapher in each.

a. Mission. Combat assignment units usuallyperform missions of a straight reporting nature.In combat, they specialize in tactical, combat in-telligence, technical, and general coverage photog-raphy. It is possible for the unit to accomplishany photographic mission normally required ofthe signal photographic company, except thosemissions performed by the laboratory, newsreelassignment, and identification units.

156

b. Responsibilities. Whether on combat intelli-gence, tactical, or technical missions, the personnelof the combat assignment units must be familiarwith the equipment, operation, and objective ofthe organization with which they work. If pho-tographers are not provided with technical ad-visers, they must find out for themselves all per-tinent data necessary to perform the mission suc-cessfully. With or without technical supervision,the technique, manner of securing coverage, andfinal photographic results are the responsibilityof the man with the camera.

157

INDEX

Paragraph Page

After action photography--______-- 42 42

Angle:Motion pictures_ _----------- 96 109Still pictures---------------- 59 65

Aperture------------------------ 61 68Army SOP, photographic ______-- 24 21Brassard------------------------ 30 27Cameras:

Motion pictures_------------- 104-106 119Still pictures --------------- 67-70 82

Caption:Motion picture-------------- 102 114Still picture___-------------- 66 80

Caption data sheet -------------- 66 80Civilian photographers_ _-------- 44 48Close-up -___________-----------. 89, 90 99, 102Color photography --_________--- 65, 101 78, 113

Company, photographic.(See Photographic company.)

Composition_ _------------------ 58-97 61Controlled action _______________- 84 95Corps SOP, photographic_--__--- _ 25 22Credit_-------------------------- 81 93Cutaway shots --________-_________ 92 105Cut-in shots --___________________. 92 105Depth of field __---------------- 61 68Desiccator ----------- __--------- 124 139Division SOP, photographic------ 26 23Equipment:

Motion picture cameras______ -- 104-106 119Still cameras --------------- 67-70 82

Exposure:Motion pictures____________ - -100 112Still pictures --______________. 55, 56 58,59

158

Paragraph Page

Exposure meters ---------------- 67 82Field caption card _____________ 102 114Film and equipment exchanges---- 11 10Film and equipment exchange 10 8

teams.Film libraries ___________________ 14 13Film strips______________________ 63 71Filters …________________________ 62 70Focal length -------------------- 61 68Framing --______________________ 58,97 61, 109Identification_-__________________ 30 27Identification photography________ - -46 51Identification team_______________ - -10 8Incidental shots --________________ 92 105Insert_________________________ - -90 102Intelligence photography --________ 45 51Laboratories:

Arrangement --------------- 78 90General___________________ - -71 85Organization -_____-__-_____. 73 86Personnel-------------------. 77 90Post installations------------. 35 386Printing --_____________- __--. 80 91Procedures -_______________-. 75 87Processing --________________. 80 91Record negatives_--__________ 82 94Release of photographs______ 81 93Supply --_-------- ----------- 79 91Types_____________________ - -74 86

Legal photography_____________ - -48 52Lighting:

Motion pictures --____________ 95 108Still pictures ____._________… - 53 55

Location shot_- _____---_-- _------ 90 102Long shot_---------------------- 89,90 99, 102Matching action_----------------- 93 106Medium shot -------------------- 89 99

159

Paragraph Page

Motion picture caption card------ 102 114Motion picture photography -__ -- 84 95Motion picture techniques

Angles --------------------- 96 109Captions _______----------- -. 102 114Close-up --------------------. 89 99Color photography --_________ 101 113Composition_---_ __-------- .- 97 109Cutaway shots_--____------- - 92 105Cut-in shots -____-- ___----- _ 92 106Directional continuity-------- 94 107Exposure ___________________ 100 112Extreme close-up --___________ 90 102Extreme long shot___________ - -90 102Incidental shots ------------- 92 105Insert -_______________------ 90 102Lighting _____________------- . 95 108Long shot --____________-___- 89 99Matching action --_____________. 93 106Medium shot ---------------- 89 99Overlap footage ------------- 93 106Panning ______________------ 91, 98 103, 110Pictorial continuity _________. 88, 99 99, 111Reestablishing shot ---------- 91 103Scenario ______________----- . 99 111Sequence --_____________-- -__ 89 99Slating --___________________ 103 118Story ______________________. 99 111

Newsreel assignment team-_______ 10 8Officers, photographic --____________ 4 3Operations:

Aerial _____________________ 32, 50, 64 30,54,74Airborne____________________ 19 15Armored -___________-_______. 18 15Army_____________________ - -24 21Corps ______________________ 25 22Division____________________ -- -26 23

160

Paragraph Page

Operations--continuedFacsimile ____---------------- 32 30General _.…------------------- 16 14Infantry --------------------. 17 14Special __-__---------------- 20 15Team __-..------------------ 29 26Telephoto . _ - __------------- 32 30Theater _---_--------------- 22 18Unit ___-------------------- 27, 28 24Continental United States---- 33 33

Organization:Army ___________----------- 6 5Corps ---------------------- 7 6Division __------------------- 8 6Film and equipment exchanges 11, 31 10, 29Film libraries ___------------- 14, 35 13, 36Laboratories----------------- 35, 71-83 36, 85Photographic company_______. 6, 15, 36, 5, 13, 38, 144

128-141Post installations ------------ 35 36Teams __-------------------- 9, 10 7, 8Theater of operations ------- 5 5Continental United States_--- 12 11

Overlap footage _____------------ 93 106Panning __________-------------- 91, 98 103, 110Parallax____--------------------- 58 61Perspective --------------------_ 59 65Photographic assignment team _-- 10 8

Photographic company:Assignment platoon----------. 137-141 154Function _------------------. 129 144Headquarters platoon -_-----. 131-133 145Laboratory platoon__--------- 134-136 150Mission --------------------. 128 144Organization -______--------- 130 145Continental United States---- 15, 36 13, 38

Photographic laboratory team __. 10 8Photographic maintenance team---. 10 8

161

Paragraph Page

Pictorial continuity _____________- 88, 99 99, 111PIO photography _______________. 44 48Planning

Theater of operations________ 16 14Continental United States ___ 33 33

Printing -_______________________ 80 91Public information photography___ 44 48Reconnaissance __________-__----- 42 42Record negatives ________--_----- 82 94Reestablishing shot --______________ 91 103Release of photographs__________ 81 93Reversals--______________________ 94 107Reverse-angle shot _____________ 91 103Scenario -_____________________-- 98 110Security:

General_____________________ 38 40Laboratory__________________ 40 41Photographic________________ 39 40

Shipping films _________________- 127 143Signal photographic company.

(See Photographic company.)Signal photographic production 10 8

team.Situation shot__________________ -90 102Slating _________________________ 103 118Standing operating procedures:

Army ____________________-_ 24 21Corps -_____________________ 25 22Division____________________ -- 26 23Theater____________________ - 22 18Unit _______________________ 28 24

Stand-off shot -__________________ 91: 103Still cameras ___________________ 67-70 82Still picture laboratory team _____ 10. 8Still series -…-_________---------- 63, 71

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Paragra$ph Page

Still techniquesAngle ..__-. ________--------- 59 65Aperture ___---------------- 61 68Captions .-- ______------_-- _. 66 80Color ____----------------- -. 65 78Composition --_____________- . 58 61Contrast, light .______------ - 53 55'Contrast, negative ___-------. 60 67Depth of field __------------ 61 .68.Exposure ___--------------- - 55, 56 58, 59Filters -______--------------- 62 70Focal length ______----------- 61 68Framing _____________------. 58 61Lens ___-------------------- 61 68Lighting _____________------- 52 55Negative contrast ___--------- 60 67Parallax -------------------. 58 61Perspective ____-- ---------- 59 65Shutter speed --_______-_____ 54 56

Story _______________----------- . 98 110

Supply:Maintenance - -__________------- 120-121 134Procedures ___________------ . 117-119 133Storage and shipping _______ 122-127 136

Tactical photography ______----- . 42 42

Teams:Cellular -________---------- 9, 10 7, 8Service units ____ ___-------- . 9 7Special ___------.----------- 9 7

Technical photography _________- 43 48Telephoto transmission team -___- 10 8Terrain studies __--------------.- 42 42Theater SOP, photographic ____ 22 18

Training:Critiques -_____-------------- 110 126Field ----------------------- 111 128Film library ---------------- 116 131Laboratory _______----------- 115 131

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oI',p,{lA lh PIage

Training-continued

Refresher __________________. 113 129Rotation -___________________ 114 130Service schools -----________. 109 125Specialties -_________________ 108 125Unit--------________________ 112 128

Training films--________________-. 85 97Uncontrolled action----__________. 84 95Unit SOP, photographic---______. . 28 24

' U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1951-914938

r'jHEQUA RTEIRMASTESI

TfECGUNIUAL LIBRARY

THE QUARTE RMI STIWR CENTERFOIT L.-II, VIR1.IN1A

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