shuyi liao thesis
TRANSCRIPT
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Building
partnerships
as
a
key
strategy
in
developing
an
event
management
model
for
an
international
dance event: a case study of the 2008 WDA (World Dance
Alliance)
Global
Summit,
Brisbane,
Australia
by
SHUYI LIAO
BA
Submitted for the degree of Master of Arts at the Queensland University of
Technology
January, 2009
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I
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... I
Keywords ................................................................................................................................. VII
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... VIII
Statement of original authorship ....................................................................................IX
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................X
Chapter 1: Background to the study ............................................................................... 1
1.1 The purpose of the study .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Concepts of event management .................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Definitional perspectives ....................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 The application of a project management approach in the events field ..... 5
1.2.3 An event management model: EMBOK .............................................................. 9
1.3 Event management strategies (model) for not-for-profit arts event ................ 11
1.3.1 The definition of an arts niche event ................................................................ 11
1.3.2 The characteristics of not-for-profit management ......................................... 12
1.3.3 Challenges for implementing an international not-for-profit arts event ... 12
1.3.3.1 A tourism perspective .................................................................................. 13
1.3.3.2 Market oriented events ................................................................................ 14
1.4 The role of partnerships in not-for profit arts events ........................................... 16
1.4.1 Partnership definitions ......................................................................................... 16
1.4.2 Partners as stakeholders ..................................................................................... 17
1.4.3 Categorisations of stakeholders ......................................................................... 17
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II
1.4.4 Fundamentals of social capital ........................................................................... 21
1.4.5 Partnerships and social network ........................................................................ 23
1.4.6 Trust ......................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 27
2.1 Paradigm: Realism ........................................................................................................ 28
2.2 Qualitative methodology ............................................................................................. 29
2.2.1 Case study approaches ........................................................................................ 30
2.2.2 Ethnographic approach ........................................................................................ 32
2.2.3 The researcher’s role ............................................................................................ 34
2.3 Data collection ............................................................................................................... 35
2.3.1 Participant observation ........................................................................................ 36
2.3.2 Semi-structured interviews ................................................................................. 37
2.3.3 Questionnaire survey ........................................................................................... 39
2.3.4 Documents and archive records ........................................................................ 40
2.3.5 Triangulation .......................................................................................................... 41
2.4 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 43
2.5 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................. 46
Chapter 3: History and structure of host organisations, World Dance
Alliance and Ausdance ........................................................................................................ 47
3.1 Background .................................................................................................................... 47
3.2 Relationship between World Dance Alliance (WDA) and Ausdance ................... 49
3.3 Evolution of organisational goals ............................................................................... 51
3.4 Evolution of organisational structure ........................................................................ 53
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III
3.5 Membership strategy ................................................................................................... 55
3.5.1 The role of chapters ............................................................................................. 55
3.5.2 The relationship between chapters and national organisations .................. 56
3.5.3 The role of networks ............................................................................................ 57
3.6 The role of events ......................................................................................................... 59
Chapter 4: The conceptualisation and implementation (outcome) of 2008
WDAGS ...................................................................................................................................... 65
4.1 The bidding process...................................................................................................... 65
4.2 Program design and branding .................................................................................... 66
4.3 Realising the event ....................................................................................................... 72
4.3.1 Dates and venues ................................................................................................. 72
4.3.2 Implementation ..................................................................................................... 73
4.3.2.1 Dance Dialogues ............................................................................................ 73
4.3.2.2 Performative Dialogues ................................................................................ 74
4.3.2.3 Physical Dialogues ........................................................................................ 79
4.3.2.4 Networking Dialogues .................................................................................. 84
4.3.2.5 Performances and Associated Events ....................................................... 85
Chapter 5: Partnerships & their relationship to the event management
model of 2008 WDAGS ....................................................................................................... 87
5.1 Event management structure ..................................................................................... 87
5.1.1 The overarching committee ................................................................................ 87
5.1.2 The executive committee .................................................................................... 90
5.1.3 Staffing structure .................................................................................................. 92
5.1.3.1 Administration and management .............................................................. 93
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IV
5.1.3.2 Student volunteers ....................................................................................... 94
5.1.3.3 Professional volunteers ................................................................................ 97
5.1.4 The conference committee.................................................................................. 97
5.2 Partnerships ................................................................................................................. 100
5.2.1 Identifying partners ............................................................................................ 100
5.2.1.1 Funding partners ......................................................................................... 102
5.2.1.2 Program partners ........................................................................................ 110
5.2.1.3 Operational Partners .................................................................................. 114
5.2.3 Partner inter-relationships ................................................................................ 115
5.2.4 Maintaining partnerships ................................................................................... 117
5.2.4.1 Subjective successful factors ................................................................... 118
5.2.4.2 Objective successful factors ..................................................................... 120
Chapter 6: Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 125
References ............................................................................................................................. 129
Appendix A: Interview questions ................................................................................. 138
Appendix B: Questionnaire survey .............................................................................. 140
Appendix C: Consent form .............................................................................................. 141
Appendix D: Masterclass information ........................................................................ 144
Appendix E: The inaugural meeting of conference committee ........................ 153
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V
List of Tables
Table 1: Key roles in the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit 38
Table 2: Comparison of initial goals of the WDA with current goals
(2008) of WDA-AP ...................................................................................... 52
Table 3: WDA-AP Annual Events & Global Summits .............................. 60
Table 4: WDAGS from 2000 ........................................................................ 62
Table 5: Feedback from QUT Event Management survey ..................... 76
Table 6: Executive Committee members ................................................. 90
Table 7: Student volunteer/supervision relationship & roles ............... 96
Table 8: Cash funding partners ................................................................ 105
Table 9: Unsuccessful applications for cash support ............................ 106
Table 10: 2008 WDAGS Program Partner involvement ....................... 114
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VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: The EMBOK framework ................................................................. 9
Figure 2: The stakeholder relationship to events ................................... 18
Figure 3: Overarching structure ................................................................. 53
Figure 4: WDA-Asia Pacific Board structure ............................................. 54
Figure 5: The Image of 2008 WDAGS ....................................................... 69
Figure 6: Selected photos of performance presentation ....................... 79
Figure 7: Selected photos of Choreolab .................................................... 83
Figure 8: The initial event management model ...................................... 88
Figure 9: The actual event management model ..................................... 89
Figure 10: Staffing structure ...................................................................... 93
Figure 11: The pyramid figure of logos .................................................. 101
Figure 12: Distributed Financial Model ................................................... 110
Figure 13: The relationship of partners .................................................. 116
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VII
Keywords : partnerships; international dance event; project/event
management; Australian case study; not-for-profit arts organisations
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VIII
Abstract
With the increasing growth of cultural events both in Australia and internationally,
there has also been an increase in event management studies; in theory and in
practice. Although a series of related knowledge and skills required specifically
by event managers has already been identified by many researchers (Perry et
al., 1996; Getz, 2002 & Silvers et al., 2006) and generic event management
models proposed, including ‘project management’ strategies in an event context
(Getz, 2007), knowledge gaps still exist in relation to identifying specific types of
events, especially for not-for-profit arts events.
For events of a largely voluntary nature, insufficient resources are recognised as
the most challenging; including finance, human resources and infrastructure.
Therefore, the concepts and principles which are adopted by large scale
commercial events may not be suitable for not-for-profit arts events aiming at
providing professional network opportunities for artists. Building partnerships are
identified as a key strategy in developing an effective event management model
for this type of event.
Using the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit (WDAGS) in Brisbane 13-
18 July, as a case study, the level, nature and relationship of key partners are
investigated. Data is triangulated from interviews with organisers of the 2008
WDAGS, on-line and email surveys of delegates, participant observation and
analysis of formal and informal documents, to produce a management model
suited to this kind of event.
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X
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my principal supervisor A/Prof.
Cheryl Stock and associate supervisor Ms Rachel Pedro. As an international
student who just started her academic journey, I have been fortunate to acquire
enormous support from the supervision team not only for the thesis itself, but
also in other aspects such as improving my English skills and in my daily life.
During almost one year and a half, I was rewarded by a learning experience that
went beyond my research. Again, special thanks to A/Prof Cheryl Stock for her
untiring commitment, intellectual advice, and valuable time.
Secondly, I would like to extend my thanks to those organisers of the World
Dance Alliance Global Summit including the key staff of the conference
committee and the members of the executive committee, who were so
supportive of my research. It has become more than a research project to
encompass a learning process about many aspects of the field of dance and
arts management.
Finally, this thesis would never have been completed without the
encouragement and help of my friends and family.
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XI
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1
Chapter 1: Background to the study
1.1 The purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to identify the status of building partnerships as a
key strategy for developing an effective event management model for not-for-
profit arts events through a single case study: the 2008 World Dance Alliance
Global Summit (WDAGS), held in Brisbane, Australia. The following research
questions arising from the nature of the case study delineate a framework for
the investigation.
1. How do dance activities that aim to provide networking and professional
development opportunities for artists to extend their practice, attract
investors or support?
2. How important is the establishment of partnerships for not-for-profit arts
organisations which do not aim to provide commercial outcomes?
3. How did WDAGS build partnerships and why was this particular
partnership combination selected?
4. Were these partnerships effective?
5. How did these partnerships influence the event management model?
In order to contextualise the research topic and the surrounding issues above, a
survey of current relevant literature on event and project management, the
nature of partnerships and their relationship to events, was undertaken. This
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literature review provides a theoretical perspective to inform the study and
provides existing event management models on which to draw.
There appears to be an increasing growth in events both in Australia and in an
international context, ranging from small local community festivals to large
complex international events (Allen et al., 2008). Subfields of such events are
proposed by Goldblatt (1997, p.6), including ‘civic events, conventions,
expositions, fairs and festivals, hallmark events, hospitality, incentive travel,
meetings and conferences, retail events, reunions, social life-cycle events, sport
events, and tourism’. In terms of size, function, form or content, these different
types of events above reflect the particular contexts which make it difficult to
agree on a standard definition of the nature of an event. However, all events
have the common characteristics of being ‘temporary’ and ‘unique’, ‘stemming
from the blend of management, program, setting and people’ (Getz, 2005, p.16).
The Accepted Practices Exchange (APEX) Industry Glossary of terms
(Convention Industry Council, 2004) defines an event as ‘an organized occasion
such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala dinner, etc.’ When
referring to ‘special events’, Goldblatt (2005, p.6) describes an event as a
‘unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific
needs’, while Getz (2005, p.16) talks about the term ‘event’ from the
perspectives of both event organisers and customers/guests. Although similar
principles can be shared to profile events, it is important to recognise that each
event is motivated by different objectives which lead to diverse participants,
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management strategies and style. However, it would seem that previous event
management models are quite generic. Getz (2007, p.295) has argued that ‘little
related research is being done to test concepts and evaluate methods specific
to different types of events and event settings’. Apart from lack of specific
methods for certain types of events, much of the key literature is discussed in a
corporate context (such as in O’Toole & Mikolaitis, 2002). Since this research
focuses on a non-corporate cultural context in a service-based environment, it is
necessary, on one hand, to identify whether applying those event management
models is suitable in terms of the specific characteristics of not-for-profit arts
events and, on the other hand, to explore effective strategies for successfully
realising such events.
Previous research on event management with a particular focus on project
management models is discussed, and EMBOK (Event Management Body of
Knowledge) is introduced as a useful structure to relate to this study. In terms of
the changing roles of the event industry, the challenges for event management
have also been identified especially in relation to the specific event type of an
international dance global summit. Finally, the role of partnerships is examined
in response to challenges for not-for-profit arts events.
1.2 Concepts of event management
1.2.1 Definitional perspectives
Goldblatt (1997, p.4) emphasises the function of event management is to
support ‘human assembly for the purpose of celebration, education, marketing,
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and reunion’. Getz (1997, p.11) lists the necessary components of event
management as comprising ‘organising and coordinating; leadership; planning,
evaluating, and controlling; human resources (or staffing); financing; and
marketing’. Thus, it is not surprising that much knowledge and many skills of
event management are borrowed from closely related disciplines such as
tourism, sport, arts administration, leisure studies and recreation (Getz, 2007).
Despite varying definitions of event management, most are generally based on
Henri Fayol’s famous four functions of the management process, ‘planning,
leading, organising and controlling’ (as cited in Byrnes, 2003, p.12).
Despite generic theories and methods provided from the traditional
management area, events still have their own characteristics which require
particular management styles. Getz (1997, p.11) points out that a combination
of ‘creativity and operational skills’ is also needed in ‘programming and event
production’ (Getz, 1997, p.11). Similarly, Silvers et al. (2006, p.185) describes
the principle of event management as a ‘multidisciplinary occupation’ which
attracts persons ‘who possess creative talents and organisational skills’.
In fact, with the development of event management, a series of related
knowledge and skills required specifically by event managers has been
identified by some researchers (Perry et al., 1996; Getz, 1997; Royal & Jago,
1998). Based on a survey conducted at the Australian Events Conference in
Canberra, Perry et al. (1996, p.88) identified 19 knowledge areas and attributes
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required by event managers. The survey results demonstrate that the aspects
most valued include:
• project management• budgeting• time management• relating to the media• business planning• human resource management• marketing• contingency management
• obtaining sponsorship• networking
Specifically, an events manager with particular skills in project management is
considered one of the most important attributes, according to the views of 105
managers (Perry et al., 1996, p.88). Most importantly, Getz (2000) proposes a
‘two-level conceptual framework’ extracting the necessary skills of event
managers from both a generic management perspective and an event specific
perspective.
1.2.2 The appl ication of a project management approach in the events f ield
Similar in nature, project management is well established and thus can
contribute to the general event sector. Emerging from engineering, project
management has been defined as ‘a response to the inability of traditional
organisational structure and methods to deal with the new economic fluidity’ (O’
Toole & Mikolaitis, 2002, p.22). In terms of this research, a project management
approach is employed to examine the different facets of, or projects within, a
large event.
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‘A project is a complex nonrouting one-time effort limited by time, budget,
resources and performance specifications designed to meet customer needs’
(Gray & Larson, 2000, p.4). According to the definition, a discrete time period is
emphasised which distinguishes it from the concept of ongoing management.
An event, at this point, can be considered as a project.
Based on the traditional project management provided by PMBOK 2000TM ( P
Management Body of Knowledge), five phases and nine knowledge areas are
identified by Allen et al. (2008) to describe the processes involved in event
project management. A textbook approach is employed to examine the
advantages and disadvantages of adopting ‘project management’ in an event
context.
According to Allen et al. (2008, pp.163-165), a project will pass through five
phases described as:
1) Initiation2) Planning3) Implementation4) Event5) Shutdown
A traditional project management considers implementation as a final phase, as
it often results in a tangible outcome such as a building. Extra phases are
needed for an events context which will involve the examination of the event.
Generally, there is a lot of work to be done post-event, both on-site and off-site.
The former requires packing up and re-setting the environment for the next
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event, while the latter includes a debrief and evaluation of the management
team and structure. A shutdown may lead to a perceived failure of an apparently
successful event if the post-event management is not well handled, since it
involves the evaluation of the events’ outcomes and possibly preparation for the
next event. Therefore, the shutdown phase may in fact be better described as
the debrief phase( Allen et al., 2008, p.165).
It should be noted that some of the event knowledge areas are described
differently in project management. For example, cost is called finance in event
management. This is because event managers need to search for suitable
sponsorship and funding which may not be a problem in traditional project
management. Additionally, some extra areas are identified in event
management such as marketing and stakeholder management. In event
management, marketing can be recognised as a ‘feed-forward control
mechanism’ and as a ‘risk management tool to minimize uncertainty’ (Allen et al.,
2008, p.166). In other words, successful marketing is thought to ensure a high
level of participation in the event. Stakeholder management is considered a
major function for an event manager who is most probably dealing with a
number of projects with various stakeholders (Allen et al., 2008, p.129). Instead
of just meeting the needs of its audiences or participants, an event is judged by
its ‘success in balancing the competing needs and interests of a diverse range
of stakeholders’ (McDonnell et al., 1999, p.39).
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The advantages of using project management strategies and theories for events
have been identified as including establishing a systematic approach to all
events under the following headings (O’ Toole and Mikolaitis, 2002, pp.23-25):
• Depersonalizing the event• Facilitating clear communication• Conforming to the methodology used by other departments• Ensuring accountability• Increasing the visibility of event planning• Facilitating training•
Developing transferable skills• Establishing a diverse body of knowledge
From the description above, one can see that many techniques from traditional
project management have been well absorbed by the event sector such as ‘the
scope’ and ‘work breakdown structure’ (WBS) (O’ Toole and Mikolaitis, 2002,
p.27). To apply a WBS technique means the tasks are classified into
manageable units so that event management structure can be build up from
component break down information. However, although project management is
a widely accepted management framework for events, there are still limitations
which have been identified by some researchers (Shone, 2001; O’Toole &
Mikolaitis, 2002). Instead of a solid defined asset and stable management
environment as in a traditional project management context, event management
needs to be more flexible in terms of new opportunities and challenges that
could emerge at any time across all five phases, such as new funding policies
and new marketing information. Therefore, it is challenging for event
managers/organisers to face the ‘intangible nature’ and ‘ever-changing
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environment’ of an event (Allen et al., 2008, p.188). More flexibility is thus
required for leadership in an event context than in a typical business setting. As
Van der Wagen, suggests, one must sometimes be ‘autocratic, as in a crisis,
and at other times collaborative and appreciative’ (as cited in Getz, 2007, p.259).
1.2.3 An event management model: EMBOK
Based on an examination of previous studies, Silvers et al. (2006) have
developed the Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK). The
conceptual EMBOK model, as illustrated below, is based on three dimensions
that correspond to the core values, process, and phases of project management.
In addition, knowledge domains have also been identified and classified into
sub-areas.
Figure 1: The EMBOK framework
(Source: Silvers et al., 2006, p.193)
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Since Silvers et al. (2006) argue that the project management is often mistaken
as the representation of the entire event management system, the five phases
of project management are only one of three dimensions which should not be
viewed in isolation, as shown in Figure 1.
Most importantly, the core values of creativity, strategic thinking, continuous
improvement, ethics, and integration are the values that must permeate all
decisions throughout event management regarding every element, phase, and
process. Especially in an arts event, artistic expression and creativity could be
regarded as essential qualifications for an effective event manager. Core values
become crucial criteria when making decisions in response to the ever changing
event environment.
Silvers et al. (2006) argue that the output of the process such as tourism and
destination marketing should not be confused with the event management
process. Unlike a pure business model which emphasises outputs, Silvers et al.
(2006, p.195) suggest that, ‘A major use for the EMBOK is in the recognition of
event management as a process’ and can be described as ‘an integrated,
sequential, and iterative system associated with each element of each class of
each domain at each phase in the event management process, with tools and
techniques that may be used for each’ (Silvers et al., 2006, p.194).
This model solves the dilemma of the perceived inability to describe processes
appropriately, which has been considered a major constraint for the
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development of event management research. As Getz (2007, p.288) comments,
‘the EMBOK project is intended to provide the body of knowledge necessary to
permit licensing’ which accelerates the professionalism of event management.
However, in terms of the diverse nature of different events, it is difficult to
achieve the same standard across all components of the event. As Harris (2004)
argues, a lack of common purpose and unity stemming from the diversity of
events currently precludes the assurance of standard professional status.
1.3 Event management strategies (model) for not-for-profit artsevent
1.3.1 The definition of an arts niche event
Although this research will focus on a specific global dance summit, it is helpful
to define its characteristics under the bigger picture of cultural events, and the
more specific nature of an arts event. A global summit can be defined as a
professional gathering to discuss specific issues in relation to its targeted field
from an international perspective. Thus, a dance global summit can be defined
as a gathering of dance professionals and specialists with the purpose of
sharing and discussing crucial issues emerging from the dance discipline.
Unlike an international dance festival event whose program is usually to curate
showcase performances with paying audiences, the nature of a global dance
summit can be described more in terms of ‘meetings and conferences’, which
‘primarily deals with educational seminars providing networking opportunities for
association members’ (Goldblatt, 1997, p.8). However, in a dance global summit,
this does not mean that dance showcases are not included. In a physical art
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form, in-studio professional development, sharing performance work and
masterclasses are equally important as discussions and conference papers. To
ensure maximum efficacy of a dance event, a series of different activities with
diverse forms are combined, often under the umbrella of a particular theme.
Thus, in this context “summit” means much more than ‘meetings and
conferences’.
1.3.2 The characteristics of not-for-profit management
The common features among this sector include: ‘centrality of values,
complexity of revenue generation, reliance on volunteers, difficulty in judging
performance, accountability and Board/staff conflict in relation to economic
contribution’ (Allen Consulting Group, 2002, p.36). The leader’s responsibility in
a not-for-profit organisation thus includes recruitment and development of board
or committee members, fundraising, engaging in advocacy and creating a
shared strategic vision and mission.
1.3.3 Challenges for implementing an international not-for-profit arts event
With changing economic environments and cultural policies, cultural events
have experienced a series of evolutions. Instead of being a forum for celebrating
community and seasonal change which is described from an anthropology
perspective (Alomes, 1985), it would seem that this evolution has seen a
broadening role for cultural events. Rather than a pure celebration of community,
Schuster (2001) describes festivals from an ‘arts and urban development’
perspective, whilst Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007, p.106) further expand
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the idea and highlight the status of a festival as a ‘catalyst’, which can contribute
to ‘urban renewal, attracting tourists and capital investment, enhancing a city’s
image and creating new jobs’. In citing van Elderen, they also describe the
meaning of cultural festivals as a ‘symbolic transformation of public space to a
particular form of cultural consumption’ (Crespi-Vallbona & Richards, 2007,
p.106).
In terms of the broadening roles which cultural events play in our contemporary
society, many researchers have become interested in the economic contribution
of events, rather than their content or symbolic importance, and begin to view
such events from a tourism perspective, and from a market orientation.
1.3.3.1 A tourism perspective
From a tourism point of view, an event manager meets visitors’ needs, using
that information internally to create programs that will satisfy them (Mayfield &
Crompton, 1995). However, Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007, p.106) argue
that although tourism has been identified as ‘one of the main conduits of
modernization and commoditization for cultural events’, there are very few not-
for-profit cultural events which are directly related to tourism in terms of
economics connected to urban renewal. Cultural events are often organised by
volunteers from community or professional associations, with differing levels of
public or private sector support. Especially in recent years, in relation to the
meaning and value of cultural events, research which only concentrates on the
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replacement of local, traditional culture by globalised, popular culture has been
criticised (Crespi-Vallbona & Richards, 2007).
1.3.3.2 Market oriented events
‘In general, it can be said that marketing has dominated the events literature in
terms of management topics, including sponsorship and motivational,
satisfaction and segmentation studies’ (Getz, 2007, p.375). The adoption of the
concept of market orientation seems to be advantageous to management
models of arts festivals trying to satisfy the need of audiences. However, ‘many
events exist in the realm of public policy or social services, and do not need to
respond only to market forces’ (Getz, 2007, p.279). Mehmetoglu and Ellingsen’s
(2005) research based on a survey of 13 small Norwegian festivals, concludes
that none of these events adopt a market oriented concept.
It would seem that the changing roles of cultural events nowadays, present
challenges to traditional event management practices, not only in terms of type
of events and their context but also their function. In the Australian context,
government and related sectors have become interested in the events sector
largely due to their potential economic contribution. Rentschler (1998) and
Radbourne (1997) state that cultural policy has shifted from supply to market
oriented, especially since the Creative Nation policy produced by the Federal
Government in 1994. In order to encourage partnerships between business and
the arts, which saw a shift to more visible and commercial outcomes for the arts,
an advisory body called AbaF (The Australian business for the arts Foundation)
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(AbaF, 2002) was funded by the Australian Government. Its task is to foster
sponsorship relationships between arts and business. Despite the increasing
interest of sponsors, government and funding agencies in the event sector as
mentioned above, their focus largely concentrates on an event’s ever-increasing
attendance and the ability to return a profit (AbaF, 2002).
However, the event which is volunteer-driven by nature with a focus on
networking opportunities and professional participation rather than profit, may
find it difficult to attract investment. For most events of a largely voluntary nature,
insufficient resources are still recognised as the most challenging; including
finance, human resources and infrastructure (Allen et al., 2008).
As Hadley (2007, p.2) argues, previous research about events pays much
attention to the degree of formality with which they are programmed, managed
and positioned in the marketplace. In other words, they cater for ‘external
market environments’, and are predominantly product/outcome driven. At this
point, tourism and some market-oriented management models which are
suitable for larger-scale sports, arts and food festivals with an attraction for
major sponsors can be counterproductive for smaller events, especially if they
focus exclusively on this strategy. In response to the limited resources available
when holding small scale community-based events, Hadley (2007) proposes a
strategy which can be described as a ‘partnership strategy’ based on
‘cooperation, trust and social capital’. The following section draws on the
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significance of building partnerships in not-for-profit arts events and the
strategies to achieve an effective outcome, not just in marketing terms.
1.4 The role of partnerships in not-for prof it arts events
1.4.1 Partnership definitions
The term partnership has been used to describe the relationship of cooperation
among private enterprises (Kanter, 1994; Koza & Lewin, 1998; Hemphill &
Vonortas, 2003). More recently it has also incorporated public-private
partnerships (PPP) (Miller & Ahmad, 2000; Rowe & Devanney, 2003). Nicholls
(2005, p. 6) describes partnerships as a relationship ‘where two or more parties,
having compatible goals, form an agreement to work together in a mutually
beneficial manner, often doing things together that might not be possible alone’.
Googins and Rochlin (2000) specifically emphasise the importance of financial
reciprocity when judging the effectiveness of partner relationships in a cross-
sector context.
Partnership, in event management terms, can be very broad and is used across
a range of disciplines. It can be considered ‘a critical factor to attract resources
to plan, manage and evaluate the event’s marketing strategies’ (Allen et al.,
2008, p.331). In a not-for-profit voluntary context, the benefits of partnerships
can be found in Halseth and Ryser’s (2007) research, which concludes that
partnerships can be used for expertise, to access resources and for networking.
In particular, funding is evidently crucial in determining the value of partnerships,
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and, as Halseth and Ryser (2007) suggest, partnerships have increasingly been
a requirement to access some government funding programs.
Based on the definition and benefits of partnership as discussed above, the
following section will discuss the range of partnerships in an event context.
Some related concepts including stakeholders and the fundamentals of social
capital theory will also be reviewed to frame an effective partnership strategy.
1.4.2 Partners as stakeholders
In terms of the diversity and complexity of partners and other relationships in an
event, a stakeholder theory is useful to help analyse the different nature of
partners and examine their varying relationships.
As Getz (1997, p.15) states ‘Stakeholders are those people and groups with a
stake in the event and its outcomes, including all groups participating in the
event production, sponsors and grant-givers, community representatives, and
anyone impacted by the event’. In the ‘Event Management Profession model’,
Goldblatt (1997, p.4) emphasises stakeholders’ various motivations such as
what they ‘financially, politically, emotionally, or personally invested in an event’.
1.4.3 Categorisations of stakeholders
A number of stakeholder categorisations are revealed in the event management
literature such as those defined by Shone and Parry (2001) as comprising the
‘public, private and voluntary sector’, examining event stakeholders from a
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social angle, whereas McDonnell et al. (1999) looks at stakeholder relationships
from a functional angle.
According to McDonnell et al. (1999), from a functional point of view, there are
six major event stakeholder groups which are illustrated below:
Figure 2: The stakeholder relationship to events
( Adapted from McDonnell et al., 1999, p. 39)
The functional approach to stakeholder analysis developed by McDonnell et al.
(1999) identifies event stakeholders according to their roles, as above, in
implementing the event through a web of relationships among them. This fits
well with cultural events, where there are a wide range of stakeholders involved
in the development, production and consumption of the event.
Sponsors are considered major stakeholders in event management literature,
and so characteristics of partnerships and sponsorships can be interchangeable
Participants& Spectators
Hostorganization
Hostcommunity
Co-workers
Media
Sponsors
Event
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in some situations. As Bowdin et al. (2006, p.228) suggest, ‘events and festivals
must view sponsorships as working business partnerships’. Partners can be
sponsors who become involved in an event through financial participation and/or
in-kind contributions. Some sponsors may emphasise their commercial interest
in the event, while others are looking for more intangible benefits. As
Meenaghan (1983, p.9) suggests:
Loosely defined, sponsorship can be regarded as the provision ofassistance either financial or in-kind to an activity [e.g., sport, musicalevent, festival, fair, or within the broad definition of the Arts] by acommercial organization for the purpose of achieving commercialobjectives.
This kind of sponsorship can be viewed as ‘a strategic marketing investment’
(Bowdin et al, 2006, p.228). In this scenario, arts sponsorship can be
considered to be a communication tool in the business world in order to market
their product or service (Meenaghan, 1998). In other words, the art is used to
sell a product. However, partners in a volunteer based arts event may not be
driven by the motivation of commercial benefit. As Waterman (1998, p.69)
argues, due to declines in public subsidies, arts festivals have been driven into
competing for business sponsorship, as a result of which ‘the festival becomes a
medium for business image making, as well as an arena characterised by less
adventurous and less expensive programming’. It seems that festivals can be
easily made as an economic tool, failing to meet social and cultural goals.
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A host-organisation is the organisation responsible for running the event. The
different natures of host organisations determine the various ranges of
stakeholders. In a not-for-profit voluntary context, from a social perspective as
suggested by Shone and Parry (2001), voluntary bodies as host organisations
can organise a whole event based on solely voluntary work or a mixture of
voluntary work and receiving support from other stakeholders like local
authorities, other voluntary organisations, or partially commercial organisations,
companies, and sole traders. The host community provides a geographic
context for the event. However, the same event can be culturally diverse in
terms of the differing nature of the host communities.
Another possible major partnership can exist between the co-workers and the
host organisation(s). Co-workers can include administrative and technical staff
as well as volunteers for different parts of the event. Labor and support provided
by co-workers for the event can be exchanged as either payment or in-kind of
rewards by the host organisation(s). Thus, the relationship between the co-
workers and host organisation(s) can be a long term relationship from the very
beginning to the closure of the event.
Participants and spectators comprise the event’s audience, who pay to attend
the cultural/arts events and seek quality content and service from the organiser
and the event. It should be noted that participants and spectators can have very
different relationships with the host organisation. The former are usually much
more involved in an event such as a conference presenter who may participate
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from the pre-event to the post-event whist spectators mainly only focus on the
actual event itself and their observation of it. Although the different nature of
stakeholders can influence an event and various possibilities of partner
relationships between event and stakeholders, this research focuses on those
stakeholders who are involved directly in the development and production of the
event and therefore can be considered partners. Thus, stakeholders as
participants and spectators will be only considered as a way of evaluating the
case study event.
Consequently, the range of partners can involve event staff and volunteers, as
well as commercial sponsors and public or private funding bodies and
institutions. A partner relationship can exist, on one hand, between the host
organisations and other stakeholders which consist of external partners such as
sponsors; and on the other hand, within the host organisations and their teams.
Additionally, the degree of participation of different partners should be taken into
account. Some of them may have a close and long term relationship sharing
many resources including organisational structure and staff, while others may
be less involved in the process of the event. The balance of these factors
influences the effectiveness of the partnerships.
1.4.4 Fundamentals of social capi tal
Getz (2007, p. 352) has argued that ‘Event studies fits best into Social Science,
mainly because of its heavy reliance to the human and behavioral disciplines’.
The terms from the sociology discipline such as ‘social capital’, ‘social network’
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and ‘trust’ become useful. As Portes (1998, p.7) states, ‘Whereas economic
capital is in people’s bank accounts and human capital is inside their heads,
social capital inheres in the structure of their relationships’. Social capital ‘refers
to connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity
and trust that arise from them’ (Putnam, 2000, p.19). In this sense, partnerships
are similar in definition to social capital in that they are based on reciprocity or
mutual benefit, and involve people coming together to achieve a common goal
(Wallis, 1998). In terms of voluntary organisations which are coping with limited
financial resources by accessing other forms of support, ‘social capital’ theory is
particularly useful in examining the effectiveness of partnerships amongst
voluntary organisations.
Hadley (2007) emphasises the crucial use of ‘social capital’ in the specific
context of small cultural festivals. Although this research focuses on an
international arts event which may distinguish it from the small cultural festivals
mentioned above, they still have something in common especially in
emphasising values as outcomes rather than economic contribution and tourism.
Additionally, this type of professional arts event normally has limited budgets
and resources. Thus the use of ‘cooperation, partnerships and social capital’
can help minimise the need for major financial resources. One way, as
suggested by Hadley (2007, p.3), is to ‘encourage other organisations to
contribute to their programming’, rather than paying for or commissioning
program items.
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1.4.5 Partnerships and social network
‘Network theory’ is closely related to stakeholder theory. A ‘social network’
consists of individual ‘actors’ and the ties between them, either formal or
informal. Getz (2007, p.58), discussing ‘social network’ in an event context,
suggests that the more ties an actor has (e.g., event organization) the more
social capital it will accumulate. Putnam (1993) identifies two types of networks:
horizontal and vertical. Vertical networks have strong bonds, closure, and
solidarity. Horizontal networks have the capacity to bridge different groups of
peers and use weak ties to nurture cooperation between groups for society’s
benefit. Therefore, effective communication should contain both horizontal and
vertical networks. Both types of network can be a valuable resource for
individuals and organisations.
Applying Social Network (SN) theory to sponsor/sponsored organisation
relationships, Daellenbach et al. (2006, pp.81-82) propose that social networks
are not only an effective event management strategy, but also a useful way to
examine stakeholder relationships surrounding event policy and management.
Daellenbach et al. (2006, p.82) suggest:
The ties between sponsor and sponsored organization…. can becomemore than economic and legal, to embrace the creative andcomplementary use of heterogeneous resources such as, national reach,branding, identity and finance; to embrace the sharing of information ontarget markets as well as the management of network- building hospitalityevents.
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This strategy thus helps develop a perspective that shows whether and how
organisational actions and decisions may be embedded in social networks.
Since not-for-profit organisations are mission-driven, it is challenging to find
suitable partners without compromising the event’s discrete identity and its aims.
1.4.6 Trust
Putnam (1993, pp.163-165) emphasises trust as an important component of
social capital in terms of creating reciprocity or voluntary association. Giddens
(2000, p.78) also takes up the notion of “trust”, writing:
Social capital refers to trust networks that individuals can draw upon forsocial support, just as financial capital can be drawn upon to be used forinvestment. Like financial capital, social capital can be expanded;invested and reinvested.
Elkington (1998, p.397) also discusses ‘trust’, as ‘[a] measure of the ability of
people to work together for common purposes in groups and organizations. A
key element of social capital is the sense of mutual trust’. However, researchers
point out the difficulties of measuring social capital (Winter, 2000, p.35). To
overcome lack of ‘measurement’, a core principle is proposed by Putnam (2000,
p.415) that ‘no single source of data is flawless, but the more numerous and
diverse the sources, the less likely that they could all be influenced by the same
flaw’. Bridger and Alter, also argue that ‘the critical thing is to avoid
generalisations about how beneficial social networks can be, and instead
identity specific factors that build the trust, bridges and social networks that will
encourage partner producers to commit programming to a festival’ (as cited in
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Hadley, 2007, p.5). Therefore, whatever the challenges, it appears that the
building of social capital is a positive action for any community.
Voluntary association membership is usually considered as an important
element in building trust with reference to social capital theory. However, recent
theory and research suggest that not all voluntary associations are positive in
building trust, whist the diverse types of voluntary associations can result in
different effects (Paxton, 2007). In a not-for-profit event, the source of leaders
and participants are largely drawn from the membership of the organisation, and
so event producers develop their social capital based on their membership
goals and vision, and the needs of the members and type of membership thus
has a great influence on these events. How to create and reinforce the
membership relationship should be considered as a potential element of event
management. It is thus necessary to examine whether or not the membership
strategy in WDA is effective in generating trust.
This chapter has explained a number of theories and strategies to support the
aim of the study, which is to develop a successful event management model
that is partnership driven for not-for-profit arts events. In examining the
effectiveness of generic management approaches applied to an event context,
project management is considered as an event management strategy since
theory in this area is well established and a number of benefits can be found by
using a project management approach. Whereas previous research of event
management tends to concentrate on economic function and contribution,
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alternative concepts and methods are scanned for different types of events and
event settings, to apply in particular to the cultural and arts sector. Not-for-profit
service-based organisations which differ from corporate events are the focus of
this chapter and study. From this review of literature, building partnerships has
been identified as a key strategy and an effective way when confronting limited
resources and a not-for-profit mission-driven orientation.
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Chapter 2 Methodology
The aim of this chapter is to explain the research approach and the methods of
data collection and analysis used to address the research issues, arising from
the previous chapter and the case study itself.
Beginning with a comparison between the epistemologies of qualitative
(naturalist/constructivist) and quantitative (positivist) research paradigms, a
realism paradigm which possesses the characteristics of both constructivism
and positivism is employed with regard to the nature of this research.
Epistemologically, a qualitative methodology is adopted and examines a single
case study, the 2008 WDAGS (World Dance Alliance Global Summit), from the
point of view of event management theory with a particular focus on
partnerships. An ethnographic approach is adopted in relationship to the
dynamics of the leadership team and the participants’ views leading up to and
during the actual event. Methods of data collection, related to both case study
and ethnographic approaches, include personal recorded interviews, a
questionnaire, an on-line survey, participant observation and document analysis.
Finally, a three step analytical strategy has been employed to manage data and
extrapolate findings.
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2.1 Paradigm: Realism
According to Guba and Lincoln (1994, p.105), a paradigm can be regarded as
the ‘basic belief system or worldview that guides the investigator’. They
synthesise scientific paradigms into four categories: (1) positivism, (2) realism,
(3) critical theory, and (4) constructivism. In general, quantitative research is
predominated by positivism assuming that science quantitatively measures
‘independent facts’ about ‘a single apprehensible reality’, whereas qualitative
research is based on a relativistic, constructivist ontology believing that there is
no objective reality (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Healy & Perry, 2000). Realism, as a
philosophical paradigm, has elements of both positivism and constructivism. It is
also known as critical realism or postpositivism (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
Although the realism paradigm shares the common recognition with the
positivism paradigm that there is a ‘real’ reality ‘out there’, it emphasises that the
reality is ‘imperfectly and probabilistically apprehensible’ instead of ‘a single
apprehensible’ one (Perry, Alizadeh & Riege, 1997, p.547). Thus, a realism
researcher recognises that more valid development models can be derived from
a mixture of theory and field data, even if precise knowledge of reality remains
uncertain (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
As the aim of this research is to identify which factors can contribute to building
a model for a not-for-profit arts event, different theoretical event management
models have been examined. However, in terms of lack of research in these
specific types of event, the theories need to be examined in a real world setting.
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Therefore, the researcher’s responsibility at this point is not to find a ‘perfect’
management model for this type of event, but rather the most suitable.
A realism paradigm has also been adopted because previous research shows
that this particular paradigm has been adapted from market research about
business networks (Borch & Arthur, 1995). Although the author is not
undertaking a marketing research study, part of the nature of this research is to
look at partnership strategies which are quite similar to this kind of marketing
research in its endeavor to capture real-world complexity. As a result, the
realism paradigm has been chosen as the most appropriate for an event case
study.
2.2 Qualitative methodology
For the reasons above, a qualitative inquiry is employed in this study, as
characterized by Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p.3):
Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive,naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitativeresearchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to makesense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bringto them.
Getz (2007), in his book Event Studies, outlines a series of research traditions,
methods and methodologies in an event context. As a closely related field to this
research, the study of leisure and tourism is usually based on large-scale social
surveys and quantitative analysis. However, there is a shift towards learning
more about why people did what they did, and what it meant to them, instead of
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just measuring and forecasting what they did. In this study, therefore, a
‘functionalist’ tradition is less appropriate than the more contemporary
qualitative methods (Getz, 2007, p.57).
Getz (2007, p.364) also suggests that a qualitative approach emphasises
‘discovering people’s attitudes, feelings, motives, or perhaps meanings attached
to an event experience’, which are salient factors of my study. In order to elicit
meaningful and experiential rather than statistical or accumulated data, a single
case study is chosen to generate data. Additionally, in this research, elements
of an ethnographic approach are drawn in terms of participant observation and
being embedded in the study both as a participant/volunteer and as a
researcher.
2.2.1 Case study approaches
As one of the most common approaches to qualitative inquiry, case study is
considered as ‘what is to be studied’ instead of a ‘methodological choice’ (Stake,
2000, p.435). Yin (1994, p.7) also emphasises that various disciplines can
employ a case study approach, particularly in work settings, such as in policy
and public administration research, and for organisational and management
studies. In this research, a single case study 2008 WDAGS is employed in a
particular and discrete workplace setting.
Stake (2000) states that in the selection of a case, it can be categorised as
intrinsic or instrumental. The reason why this single case is chosen is largely
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due to an intrinsic preference. Unlike an international dance festival whose
program is to curate showcases through performances with paid audiences, the
unique nature of WDAGS is that it is a dance advocacy and networking model
which brokers different activities ranging from in-studio professional
development through to sharing of performance work and masterclasses, as
well as presenting seminars, conferences and performances. However, besides
the intrinsic interest in the case itself, another agenda of this research is to
explore issues arising from this specific event in relation to general event
management and re-examine event management strategies through learning
about the case. Therefore, an instrumental interest in the case is included to
provide other understandings of the case. The instrumental aspects can thus
make this single case study as a ‘critical case’, which is one of the three
rationales for single-case design suggested by Yin (1994). As the nature of a
‘critical case’ is to ‘test a well-formulated theory’ (Yin, 1994, p.38), the
relationship and management style which emerges from WDAGS is therefore
examined in relation to existing theoretical models of event management, with
specific relevance to partnerships.
The limitation of a single case study is that it is difficult to generalize. Unlike
more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a
case study is to offer new variables, experiential insights and questions for
further research. Thus, rather than ‘statistical generalization’, this study will
explore ‘analytic generalization’ (Yin, 1994, p.13). In other words, through
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analysis of a single case, one can identify some general attributes that can
apply to similar cases. Yin also suggests the researcher should ‘try to generalize
findings to “theory”, analogous to the way a scientist generalizes from
experimental results to theory’ (Yin, 1994, p.13). Although the aim of the
research is not to emphasise generalisation, some generalisable findings
gradually emerged from the case and thus could contribute to event
management theories. This case study will therefore look at extracting elements
that may be generalisable to other not-for-profit international arts events.
This study also adopts an ethnographic approach as a way to address the
potential ‘vulnerability’ of a single-case design, since ‘ethnographic procedures
allow us to grasp subjective aspects of life that other procedures neglect’ (Burns,
2000, p.395).
2.2.2 Ethnographic approach
The word ethnography, literally ‘writing about people’ is described by Burns as
encompassing ‘any study of a group of people for the purpose of describing
their socio-cultural activities and patterns’ (Burns, 2000, p.393). Ethnographers
describe in detail events and people in their particular context. More recently,
Johnson (2000, p.111) defines ethnography as ‘a descriptive account of social
life and culture in a particular social system based on detailed observations of
what people actually do’.
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Although this approach is commonly used by anthropologists to study specific,
and often ancient cultures, Spradley (1979, p.3) suggests that it is also a useful
tool for ‘understanding how other people see their experience’. He emphasises,
however, that ‘rather than studying people, ethnography means learning from
people’ (Spradley, 1979, p.3). As in-depth experiential perspectives of detailed
partnership relationships are crucial in this research, a deeper understanding of
the internal environment which may reflect much more about the people’s
professional modus operandi is required, to provide experiential perspectives in
their natural settings. ‘Learning from people’ in order to gain a holistic
perspective in the context of this study, centers on how to build and maintain
relationships of trust internally with the leadership and membership, and
externally with the partners. Therefore, the ethnographic approach provides an
effective protocol for the researcher to implement a detailed observation.
An ethnographic researcher is asked to ‘enter into close and relatively
prolonged interaction with people in their everyday lives’ (Tedlock, 2000, p.470).
In this research, it is the professional working areas and the participants’
professional life which are emphasised instead of their personal ‘everyday lives’.
The researcher thus needs to get a feeling for the dynamics of the leadership
team and the participants who are involved in this event at different levels. The
value of acquiring a detailed insight into a particular group can be well explained
by the ‘postmodern experimental, ethnographic research’ that Denzin and
Lincoln (2000, p.17) refer to as the ‘fifth moment’ which emphasises how ‘the
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study in the choices I make about the data whilst not consciously imposing my
own conceptual framework.
My involvement as the researcher allows me to see, to hear and to experience
various aspects, but not all, of the event. Interaction between the researcher
and the researched becomes an important issue due to the demand for the
researcher to become an ‘insider’ where he or she collaborates, spending time
in the field with participants in order to lessen distance between them (Creswell,
1998, p.75).
Burns (2000, p.404) suggests, ‘ethnographers try to avoid sharpening their
problems into specific research hypotheses until considerable exploratory
investigation has occurred (a process termed “progressive focusing”)’. Similarly,
Yin (1994, p.41) recommends ‘not to commit oneself to the single case until
these major concerns have been covered’.
As I began to do my research from the pre-event stage of WDAGS, she was
able to look at the event through different stages. Thus, the gradual
development of the whole process led to the ‘progressive focusing’ of my
research.
2.3 Data collection
As I began investigating WDAGS in the pre-event stage, this provided an
opportunity to look at the life cycle of the event. A living involvement in the event
created some first-hand data. However, in order to gain a holistic understanding
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of the nature of the event and the management style, other data collection
methods were used and designed during various stages of the event.
2.3.1 Participant observation
As one of the most common and demanding methods for qualitative data
collection, participant observation has been characterised as ‘the mainstay of
the ethnographic enterprise’ (Hodder, 2000, p.703).
The basic methodological argument for participant observation, explained by
Guba and Lincoln (1989, p. 193), is to ‘maximize the researcher’s ability to
grasp motives, beliefs, concerns, interests, unconscious behaviors and the like’.
Thus, an ‘analytic ethnography’ can be employed that ‘utilizes data based on
deep familiarity with social setting or situation that is gained by personal
participation or an approximation of it’ (Berg, 1998, pp.120-121).
My fieldwork began in September 2007 which was the pre-event of the study
stage, although bidding and planning began from August 2006. The main site of
my fieldwork was the meeting place of the conference committee. I specifically
focused on the conference committee as it seemed to be the most important
and complicated part of the summit. All accounts and observations as field
notes were taken during committee meetings which I observed in an
ethnographic way. It should be noted that although I was an observer in the
conference committee before the opening of the event, I was not involved in the
actual management process. Thus, the risk of being too ‘subjective’ in the
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Table 1: Key roles in the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit
name position
*Mr. Marcus Hughes Executive Director, AusdanceQueensland, Program Director
*A/Prof. Cheryl Stock Program Chair/Curator, ConferenceConvenor, WDAGS Vice-President(Pacific) WDA-AP, AssociateProfessor, Creative Industries FacultyQUT
Ms Denise Richardson Conference Project Officer, WDAGS
Ms Amy Piekkala-Fletcher QUT Events Manager *Ms. Julie Dyson National Executive Director, Australian
Dance Council—Ausdance andSecretary of WDA-AP
Prof. Mohd Anis Md Nor Anis President of WDA-AP
Dr Urmimala Sarkar Munsi Chair of WDA-AP network: Research& Documentation
* Members of Executive Program committee
Since this research topic focuses on how to implement an international dance
event, a series of questions around the management of this event were
designed ahead of time. The specific questions were related to the factors
contributing to partnership strategies as discussed in Chapter 1. However, a
fully structured interview may not have revealed meaningful data for this
research. In terms of the ‘inflexible, standardized and predetermined’ (Fontana
& Frey, 2000, p.650) nature of this type of interview, there is little room for the
interviewer to know much about the interviewee’s personal inspiration and their
relationship with others. However, in terms of the not-for-profit nature of the
case study, the leaders’ personal motivations and preferences could be
considered crucial factors influencing the effect and outcome of the event. Thus,
encouraging the interviewees to talk about themselves was vital for the
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researcher to achieve a multi-facetted and rich understanding of the leadership
team. Therefore, some aspects of unstructured interview methods were used ‘to
understand the complex behavior of members of society without imposing any a
priori categorization that may limit the field of inquiry’ (Fontana & Frey, 2000,
p.653). Finally, the semi-structured interview was employed in order to provide a
fairly open framework. Based on the general questions within the context of
event management, some specific questions could be improvised during the
interview process. The structured questions can be found in Appendix A (pp.
134-135).
2.3.3 Questionnaire survey
A questionnaire survey was also conducted in order to acquire perspectives
from the personal experiences of delegates during the actual event. The
questionnaires were included in the delegates’ packages and twenty-seven
responses were received via e-mail, post-event. Borrie and Brizell , suggest that
there are four approaches to studying visitor experience: the ‘satisfaction
approach’, ‘benefits approach’, ‘experience-based approach’ and ‘meanings-
based approach’ (as cited in Getz, 2007, p.372). Four questions in eight were
designed as open-ended questions with a particular emphasis on a ‘benefits
approach’ and ‘meaning-based approach’. The other four questions in the
survey refer to the background information of respondents as quantitative data.
However, the main aim of the survey was to look at feedback from the delegates’
point of view rather than to collect statistical data. The quantitative data was
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only considered as identification for individual respondent types (age, gender,
professional expertise).
In addition, an evaluation survey designed by the conference event manager,
with forty-six respondents, was received in the form of anonymous on-line
feedback with a focus on the ‘satisfactory approach’ of the event, and was also
accessed by the researcher. In addition, personal emails from the delegates to
the Program Chair post-event, have also been accessed as more open-ended
feedback, in terms of unsolicited responses. Therefore, the latter two sources of
data can be considered complementary sources of information. Appendix B,
(p.136) includes the research questionnaire and the feedback questions.
2.3.4 Documents and archive records
Other sources of evidence in the form of documents and archives were used to
complement interviews and participant observation (Yin, 1994, pp.79-80). The
data used in this study ranges from administrative documents to published
articles outlined as follows:
• applications for funding
• conceptual documents
• minutes of meetings
• correspondence
• published program book
• articles about the event (pre & post event)
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In terms of the important role of the international host organization, as a main
stakeholder in the event, WDA deals with different levels of relationships with
other stakeholders involved. Therefore, the descriptive data including the nature
of the WDA and its management structure is identified mainly through internal
documents on the history, philosophy and past activities of the organization. To
a lesser extent, Ausdance Queensland, the co-host organization of the event,
has also been examined in terms of structure and management style.
Most significantly, the researcher has been granted access to the funding
applications and acquittal reports of 2008 WDAGS, both successful and
unsuccessful. 2008 WDAGS covers different forms of fundraising including
government, philanthropic and corporate sponsorship. As most not-for-profit
organizations rely heavily on funding subsidies, either cash or in-kind support,
the analysis of different funding sources reveals how WDAGS matches their
various priorities. The number of funding applications (successful/unsuccessful)
can also be considered as effective quantitative data.
2.3.5 Triangulation
In order to increase the credibility of a single-case design, Yin (1994, p.41)
suggests that this kind of design requires ‘careful investigation of the potential
case to minimize the chances of misrepresentation and to maximize the access
needed to collect the case study evidence’.
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On this point, triangulation is needed as a validation strategy. It can be defined
as ‘the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some
aspect of human behavior’ (Burns, 2000, p.419). Denzin and Lincoln (2000,
p.179) identify four types of triangulation including ‘triangulation of data’,
‘investigator triangulation’, ‘methodological triangulation’ and ‘triangulation of
theories’. In this research, ‘methodological triangulation’ is the major type used
to test the validity of the data collected and analysed. As the central concept of
Guba and Lincoln (2000, p.179), methodological triangulation ‘involves a
complex process of playing each method off against the other so as to maximize
the validity of field efforts’. These multiple perceptions also coincide with the
nature of a realism paradigm rather than exploring only a single ‘reality’. Healy
and Perry (2000) also discuss investigating the reality of a social phenomenon
through ‘the triangulation of cognition processes’. Therefore, the triangulation of
different research methods is not only a validity technique but also a
philosophical need which makes it possible to capture different aspects of the
research study.
In this study, data is collected through participant observation, interviews and
documents which provide the opportunity for cross-checking interpretations.
However, the triangulation approach is not without problems. Schroeder (1999,
p.50) notes that ‘the fundamental problem with triangulation is that we lack a
theoretical framework for specifying the precise manner in which the different
methods actually observe, or “measure”, the “same object”’. In this research,
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although much of the data about event management is obtained through
interviews, field notes and internal documents and other data, theories of event
management theory have also been accessed via current literature in the field
as outlined in Chapter 1. The main theoretical areas are in reference to:
• Partnerships/Stakeholders
• Not-for-profit cultural organisations
• Event management
Thus, in response to the limitations of triangulation, a theoretical and broad
contextual background is provided to widen and contextualize this ethnographic
case study.
2.4 Data analysis
In writing about qualitative data analysis, Miles and Huberman (1994) state that
the focus is on data in the form of words. In this research, words came from the
interviews conducted, participant observation, questionnaire surveys and
documents. The processing, structuring and interpretation of these words is a
form of analysis. In terms of analysis of the case itself, the data provides the
material for further theory building, but an analytic strategy is important to
precede the research (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994).
The benefit of a general analytical strategy at the beginning, as Yin (1994, p.103)
suggests, is that it can reduce potential analytic difficulties. In relation to case
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studies, this provides the researcher with a system by which he/she can set
priorities for what he/she needs to analyse and why.
According to Yin (1994, pp.103-104), ‘Relying on theoretical propositions’ is the
most common general analytical strategy to assist with the findings in
comparison with previous studies. In this research, therefore, the collection of
data emerging from the case study is compared with research coming from
previous studies on event management and partnership.
In terms of insufficient specific event management theory for not-for-profit arts
events, theoretical propositions may not be enough as a general analytic
strategy. Therefore, ‘developing a case description’ which has been proposed
as the second general analytic strategy by Yin (1994, p.104) is also employed.
Although the objective of this research is not primarily descriptive, the detailed
description of the background and history of the host organization WDA and the
process of the whole 2008 event WDAGS is crucial to set the context in which
the event takes place.
Miles and Huberman (1994, p.10) define data analysis as ‘consisting of three
concurrent flows of activity: (1) data reduction, (2) data display, and (3)
conclusion drawing/verification’.
‘Data reduction’ involves selecting, focusing, simplifying and transforming the
raw data. Beginning with a careful reading of interview transcripts,
questionnaires, field notes and documents, all the materials were categorized
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and connected to particular codes in order to reflect the research issues and
emergent themes. Comparing the data obtained directly from the case with
previous event management theories, the researcher looked at how findings
from all the data sources fit previous findings.
As the second major activity, data display is considered to be ‘a major avenue to
valid qualitative analysis’ (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p.11). Data display involves
taking the reduced data and displaying it in an organised, compressed way so
that conclusions can be more easily drawn. Although data display is best used
in cross-case analysis, it