seventh edition elaine n. marieb -...

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slides 2.21 – 2.40

Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 2 Basic Chemistry

Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook

Matter and Energy

Slide 2.1 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)

• Energy – the ability to do work • Chemical • Electrical • Mechanical • Radiant

Composition of Matter


• Elements • Fundamental units of matter

• 96% of the body is made from four elements • Carbon (C) • Oxygen (O) • Hydrogen (H) • Nitrogen (N)

• Atoms • Building blocks of elements

Atomic Structure


• Nucleus • Protons (p+)

• Neutrons (n0)

• Outside of nucleus • Electrons (e-)

Figure 2.1

Identifying Elements


• Atomic number • Equal to the number of protons that the

atoms contain

• Atomic mass number • Sum of the protons and neutrons

Atomic Weight and Isotopes


• Isotopes • Have the same number of protons

• Vary in number of neutrons

• Atomic weight • Close to mass number of most abundant

isotope

• Atomic weight reflects natural isotope variation

Radioactivity


• Radioisotope • Heavy isotope

• Tends to be unstable

• Decomposes to more stable isotope

• Radioactivity • Process of spontaneous atomic decay

Molecules and Compounds


• Molecule – two or more like atoms combined chemically

• Compound – two or more different atoms combined chemically

Chemical Reactions


• Atoms are united by chemical bonds

• Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken

Electrons and Bonding


• Electrons occupy energy levels called electron shells

• Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted

• Each shell has distinct properties • Number of electrons has an upper limit

• Shells closest to nucleus fill first

Electrons and Bonding


• Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer shell (valence shell)

• Full valence shells do not form bonds

Inert Elements


• Have complete valence shells and are stable

• Rule of 8s • Shell 1 has 2

electrons • Shell 2 has 10

electrons • 10 = 2 + 8

• Shell 3 has 18 electrons • 18 = 2 + 8 + 8

Figure 2.4a

Reactive Elements


• Valence shells are not full and are unstable

• Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons • Allows for bond

formation, which produces stable valence

Figure 2.4b

Chemical Bonds


• Ionic Bonds • Form when electrons are completely

transferred from one atom to another

• Ions • Charged particles

• Anions are negative

• Cations are positive

• Either donate or accept electrons

Chemical Bonds


• Covalent Bonds • Atoms become stable through shared electrons • Single covalent bonds share one electron • Double covalent bonds share two electrons

Figure 2.6c

Examples of Covalent Bonds


Figure 2.6a, b

Polarity


• Covalent bonded molecules • Some are

non-polar • Electrically neutral

as a molecule • Some are

polar • Have a positive

and negative side Figure 2.7

Chemical Bonds


• Hydrogen bonds • Weak chemical bonds

• Hydrogen is attracted to negative portion of polar molecule

• Provides attraction between molecules

Patterns of Chemical Reactions


• Synthesis reaction (A+BAB) • Atoms or molecules combine

• Energy is absorbed for bond formation

• Decomposition reaction (ABA+B) • Molecule is broken down

• Chemical energy is released

Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions


Figure 2.9a, b

Patterns of Chemical Reactions


• Exchange reaction (ABAC+B) • Involves both synthesis and decomposition

reactions

• Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

Biochemistry: Essentials for Life


• Organic compounds • Contain carbon • Most are covalently bonded • Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)

• Inorganic compounds • Lack carbon • Tend to be simpler compounds • Example: H2O (water)

• Title: Inorganic Compounds

• Essential Question: How are inorganic compounds important to the human body?

Important Inorganic Compounds


• Water – 2/3 of the body • Most abundant inorganic compounds

• Vital properties

• High heat capacity • Prevents sudden changes of T° due to

outside environment



• Water continued

• Vital properties continued

• Polarity/solvent properties • Universal solvent

• Chemical reactions depend on solvents

• Can transport and exchange medium

• Lubrication of body



• Water continued • Vital properties continued

• Chemical reactivity • Important reactant

• Hydrolysis adding water to break down large molecules



• Water continued • Vital properties continued

• Cushioning • Cerebrospinal fluid protects brain

• Amniotic fluid protects fetus



• Salts

• Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water



• Salts cont.

• Vital to many body functions • Na+ and K+ nerve and muscle impulses

• Cl- regulation of body fluids

• HCO3- (bicarbonate) buffer in the blood



• Salts cont.

• Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents



• Acids/Bases • pH

• Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions

• Range of 0-14 • pH 7 = neutral • pH below 7 = acidic • pH above 7 = basic



• Acids/Bases • pH cont.

• Change of 1 pH unit represents a tenfold change of hydrogen ions

• pH H+ basic

• pH H+ acidic



• Acids/Bases • Acids

• Sour • Can release detectable hydrogen ions proton donors • pH 0-7 • Hydrochloric acid digestion • Acetic Acid metabolism of fats • Carbonic Acid buffer in blood



• Acids/Bases • Bases

• Bitter and slippery • Proton acceptors • pH 7 – 14 • HCO3

- (Bicarbonate) is a buffer in the blood



• Acids/Bases • Buffers

• Weak acids/bases that can regulate pH change

• Title: Organic Compounds

• Essential Question: Why are biomolecules essential for life?

Important Organic Compounds


• Carbohydrates • Function: primarily used for energy in the body;

stored in the liver and muscles in the form of glycogen



• Carbohydrates • Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose, glycogen,

and starch



• Carbohydrates • Structure:

Carbohydrates


Figure 2.12a, b

Carbohydrates


Figure 2.12c



• Lipids • Function: energy storage; forms membranes around

our cells; forms vitamins and steroids



• Lipids • Examples: saturated and unsaturated fats, cell

membranes, cholesterol, hormones, bile salts, Vitamin D



• Lipids • Structure

31 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.14a, b

Lipids

32 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.14c

Cholesterol


Slide 2.33a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Proteins • Function: building tissues; form immune system cells

(antibodies); involved in catalyzing chemical reactions; forms some hormones; forms transport molecules



• Proteins • Examples: Enzymes, Insulin, Hemoglobin, antibodies



• Proteins • Structure:

Enzymes


• Act as biological catalysts • Increase the rate of chemical reactions

Figure 2.16



• Nucleic Acids • Function: Provide blueprint of life



• Nucleic Acids • Example: DNA, RNA, ATP (universal energy

compound used by all cells of the body)



• Nucleic Acids • Structure:

http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/genetics/images/nucleotide.jpg�

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)


Figure 2.18a

How ATP Drives Cellular Work


Figure 2.19

• Title: Cellular Transport

• Essential Question: How does the selective permeability of the plasma membrane allow substances to move into and out of the cell?

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slides 3.20 – 3.37

Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 3 Cells

Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook

Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport


• Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out of the cell



•Passive transport •Molecules move due to Kinetic Energy,

but no energy is added to the system

Passive Transport Processes


• Diffusion • Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a

solution • Movement is

from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient

Figure 3.8



• Types of diffusion •Simple diffusion •Unassisted process

•Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores

•Size of molecules and temperature determines the rate

Factors Affecting Diffusion

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/cross_memb.htm�

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/cross_memb.htm�


• Facilitated diffusion • Allows lipid insoluble substances (i.e. glucose) to pass

through using a protein carrier

Facilitated Diffusion Animation

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/GLUT1.htm�



Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane


Figure 3.9


Slide 3.24b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Types of diffusion •Osmosis – simple diffusion of water

•Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane

Osmosis & Diffusion Animation

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/osmosis.htm�



• Hypotonic Solutions:

• contain a low concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

• water diffuses into the cell, causing the cell to swell and possibly explode.



• Hypertonic Solutions:

• contain a high concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

• water diffuses out of the cell, causing the cell to shrivel.



•Isotonic Solutions: •contain the same concentration of solute as an another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

•water diffuses into and out of the cell at the same rate.

Animation

http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/sbi3a1/cells/osmosis.htm�

Tonicity Examples!!

Example #1

Cell with 0.9% NaCl

Cell membrane is not permeable to NaCl.

Solution is 3% NaCl

Show -What will happen to the cell? -Where will most of the NaCl solutes be? What direction will it move? -Where will most of the water molecules be? What direction will it move? -Is the solution hypertonic? Hypotonic? Isotonic?

Example #1

Cell with 0.9% NaCl

Cell membrane is not permeable to NaCl.

Solution is 3% NaCl

0.9% NaCl 99.1 % Water

3% NaCl 97% Water

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

S

S

S

S

-Water leaves the cell -NaCl does not move -Cell shrinks

Solution is Hypertonic

• Hypertonic Solutions:

• contain a high concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

• When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water diffuses out of the cell, causing the cell to shrivel.

Hypertonic Example

• If red cells are placed in sea water (about 3% salt), they lose water by osmosis and the cells shrivel up. Sea water is hypertonic to their cytosol.

• Similarly, if a plant tissue is placed in sea water, the cell contents shrink away from the rigid cell wall. This is called plasmolysis.

Hypertonic Example

• Sea water is also hypertonic to the ECF of most marine vertebrates. To avoid fatal dehydration, these animals (e.g., bony fishes like the cod) must continuously drink sea water and then desalt it by pumping ions out of their gills by active transport.

Hypertonic Example

• Marine birds, which may pass long periods of time away from fresh water, and sea turtles use a similar device. They, too, drink salt water to take care of their water needs and use metabolic energy to desalt it. In the herring gull, shown here, the salt is extracted by two glands in the head and released (in a very concentrated solution — it is saltier than the blood) to the outside through the nostrils. Marine snakes use a similar desalting mechanism.

Example #2

Cell with 60% NaCl

Cell membrane is permeable to NaCl.

Solution is 10% NaCl


Example #2

Cell with 60% NaCl


Solution is 10% NaCl

60% NaCl 40% Water

10% NaCl 90% Water

Solution is Hypotonic

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

S S

S

S

-Water moves into the cell -NaCl moves out of the cell -Cell swells

• Hypotonic Solutions:

• contain a low concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

• When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water diffuses into the cell, causing the cell to swell and possibly explode.

Hypotonic Example

• A red blood cell placed in a hypotonic solution (e.g., pure water) bursts immediately ("hemolysis") from the influx of water.

• Plant cells and bacterial cells avoid bursting in hypotonic surroundings by their strong cell walls. These allow the buildup of turgor within the cell. When the turgor pressure equals the osmotic pressure, osmosis ceases.

Example #3

Cell with 0.9% NaCl


Solution is 0.9% NaCl


Solution is Isotonic

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

S

S S

S

-Water moves into and out of the cell equally -NaCl moves into and out of the cell equally -Cell stays the same

•Isotonic Solutions: •contain the same concentration of solute as an another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).

•When a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, the water diffuses into and out of the cell at the same rate. The fluid that surrounds the body cells is isotonic.

Osmosis is important!

A report in the 23 April 1998 issue of The New England Journal of Medicine tells of the life-threatening complications that can be caused by an ignorance of osmosis.

• Large volumes of a solution of 5% human albumin are injected into people undergoing a procedure called plasmapheresis.

• The albumin is dissolved in physiological saline (0.9% NaCl) and is therefore isotonic to human plasma (the large protein molecules of albumin have only a small osmotic effect).

• If 5% solutions are unavailable, pharmacists may substitute a proper dilution of a 25% albumin solution. Mixing 1 part of the 25% solution with 4 parts of diluent results in the correct 5% solution of albumin.

• BUT, in several cases, the diluent used was sterile water, not physiological saline.

• SO, the resulting solution was strongly hypotonic to human plasma.

• The Result: massive, life-threatening hemolysis in the patients.

Source: http://users.rcn.com

http://users.rcn.com/�

It’s your turn!!

• You and your partner write an example where the solution is either hypertonic or hypotonic.

• Give the example to the partners across from you, and vice versa

• Solve the problem!

• Be ready to share out!

• Title: Cellular Transport

• Essential Question: Describe how various transport processes account for the directional movements of specific substances across the plasma membrane.



•Active transport •The cell must provide metabolic energy

Active Transport Processes


• Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion • They may be too large • They are not lipid soluble. • They may have to move against a concentration

gradient



• Solute pumping •Amino acids, some sugars and ions are

transported by solute pumps

•ATP provides the energy to move substances against the concentration gradients

Na/K Pump

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/NaKpump.htm�



Figure 3.10



• Bulk transport •Exocytosis •Moves materials out of the cell •Material is carried in a membranous vesicle •Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane •Vesicle combines with plasma membrane •Material is emptied to the outside



Figure 3.11



• Bulk transport •Endocytosis

•Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vescicle

•Types of endocytosis

•Phagocytosis – cell eating

•Pinocytosis – cell drinking



Figure 3.12

Endocytosis

http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/active4.html�

• Title: Cellular Diversity

• Essential Question: Explain how the structure of a cell determines the special function of that cell.

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Connect Body Parts • Type of Cell:

•Fibroblast •Description of Cell:

•Elongated, abundant RER and large Golgi to make and secrete proteins

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Connect Body Parts • Type of Cell:

•Erythrocyte (red blood cell) •Description of Cell:

•Carries O2 in bloodstream, concave shape, no organelles, just cell membrane, filled w/hemoglobin

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Cover and Line Body Organs • Type of Cell: Epithelial Cell •Description of Cell: Hexagonal shape to help pack together in sheets

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Move organs and body parts •Type of Cell: •Skeletal muscle •Smooth muscle •Cardiac muscle •Description of Cell: Elongate, filled with contractile filament to enable movement

http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/IDS_101_histo_resource/images/103.jpg�

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Stores Nutrients • Type of Cell: Fat cell •Description of Cell: Large, spherical shape

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Fights Disease • Type of Cell: Macrophage •Description of Cell: Extends pseudopods to move through tissue to infection site. Abundant with lysosomes.

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Gathers information and controls body function • Type of Cell: Neuron •Description of Cell: Long processes for receiving/transmitting information

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Reproduction • Type of Cell: Oocyte (egg) • Description of Cell: - Largest cell in body, many copies of all organelles

Cell Diversity


• Cell Specialty: Reproduction • Type of Cell: Sperm • Description of Cell: - Long and streamlined w/flagella for movement

• Title: The Cell Cycle

• Essential Question: Explain the importance of mitotic cell division.

Cell Life Cycle


• Cells have two major periods • Interphase

•Cell grows

•Cell carries on metabolic processes

Cell Life Cycle


•Cell division

•Cell replicates itself

•Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes

DNA Replication


• Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells

• Occurs toward the end of interphase

• DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template

Figure 3.13

Events of Cell Division


• Mitosis •Division of the nucleus •Results in the formation of two daughter

nuclei

Events of Cell Division


• Cytokinesis •Division of the cytoplasm •Begins when mitosis is near completion •Results in the formation of two daughter

cells

Stages of Mitosis


• Interphase •No cell division

occurs

•The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth

Stages of Mitosis


• Prophase •First part of cell

division

•Centromeres migrate to the poles

Stages of Mitosis


• Metaphase •Spindle from

centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell

Stages of Mitosis


• Anaphase •Daughter

chromosomes are pulled toward the poles

•The cell begins to elongate

Stages of Mitosis


• Telophase •Daughter nuclei

begin forming

•A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form

Stages of Mitosis


Figure 3.14; 1

Stages of Mitosis


Figure 3.14; 2

seventh edition elaine n. marieb -...

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