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Editor-in-Chief Sergey Y. YURISH
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Volume 152, Issue 5, May 2013
www.sensorsportal.com ISSN 2306-8515 e-ISSN 1726-5479
Editors-in-Chief: professor Sergey Y. Yurish, Tel.: +34 696067716, e-mail: [email protected]
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Sensors & Transducers Journal (ISSN 2306-8515) is a peer review international journal published monthly online by International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA). Available in both: print and electronic (printable pdf) formats. Copyright © 2013 by International Frequency Sensor Association.
All rights reserved.
SSeennssoorrss && TTrraannssdduucceerrss JJoouurrnnaall
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Volume 152 Issue 5 May 2013
www.sensorsportal.com ISSN: 2306-8515 e-ISSN 1726-5479
Research Articles
Research on the Structure and Signal Transmission of Rotary Piezoelectric Dynamometer Zhenyuan Jia, Yongyan Shang, Zongjin Ren, Yifei Gao and Shengnan Gao........................... 1 Piezoelectric Sensor of Control Surface Hinge Moment Zongjin Ren, Shengnan Gao, Zhenyuan Jia,Yongyan Shang and Yifei Gao ............................ 11 Research Algorithm on Building Intelligent Transportation System based on RFID Technology Chuanqi Chen ............................................................................................................................ 18 Using Displacement Sensor to Determinate the Fracture Toughness of PMMA Bone Cement Yongzhi Xu, Youzhi Wang ......................................................................................................... 27 Study on the Applications of Fiber Bragg Grating and Wireless Network Technologies in Telemetry System of Atmospheric Precipitation Han Bing, Tan Dongjie, Li Liangliang, Liu Jianping ...................................................................................................................................... 33 An Energy-Efficient Adaptive Clustering Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network Lü Tao, Zhu Qing-Xin, Zhu Yu-Yu ............................................................................................ 41 A Case Study of Event Detection Performance Measure in WSNs Using Gini Index Luhutyit Peter Damuut, Dongbing Gu ........................................................................................ 51 Fault Diagnosis of Tool Wear Based on Weak Feature Extraction and GA-B-spline Network Weiqing Cao, Pan Fu, Genhou Xu............................................................................................. 60 The Research Abort Concept Restructuring of the Sensor Semantic Networks Guanwei ..................................................................................................................................... 68 Coordinating Reasoning Method for Semantic Sensor Networks Shi Yun Ping .............................................................................................................................. 76 A Novel Intelligent Transportation Control Supported by Wireless Sensor Network Zhe Qian, Jianqi Liu. .................................................................................................................. 84 Research on the Special Railway Intelligence Transportation Hierarchy and System Integration Methodology Meng-Jie Wang, Xi-Fu Wang, Wen-Ying Zhang, Xue Feng ...................................................... 89 Application of a Heterogeneous Wireless Framework for Radiation Monitoring in Nuclear Power Plant Gu Danying ................................................................................................................................ 98
Acoustic Emission Signal Analysis of Aluminum Alloy Fatigue Crack Wenxue Qian, Xiaowei Yin, Liyang Xie...................................................................................... 105 A New Ultra-lightweight Authentication Protocol for Low Cost RFID Tags Xin Wang, Qingxuan Jia, Xin Gao, Peng Chen, Bing Zhao....................................................... 110 AGC Design in Frequency Modulation System for Voice Communication via Underwater Acoustic Channel Cheng En, Chen Sheng-Li, Li Ye, Ke Fu-Yuan, Yuan Fei ......................................................... 116 Joint Source-Channel Coding for Underwater Image Transmission Chen Hua-Bin, Chen Wei-Ling, Li Ye, Cheng En, Yuan Fei...................................................... 122 Study on the Applications of Cross-Layer Information Fusion in Target Recognition Xing Liu, Shoushan Jiang .......................................................................................................... 129 A Simple Tree Detector Using Laser and Camera Fusion D. Wang, J. H. Liu, J. L. Wang, T. Li.......................................................................................... 137 Simulation and Analysis of T-Junction Microchannel Kainat Nabi, Rida Rafi, Muhammad Waseem Ashraf, Shahzadi Tayyaba, Zahoor Ahmad, Muhammad Imran, Faran Baig and Nitin Afzulpurkar................................................................ 146 Mass Flow Measurement of Fluids by a Helically Coiled Tube Tian Zhou, Zhiqiang Sun, Zhenying Dong, Saiwei Li, Jiemin Zhou........................................... 152 Comparative Creep Evaluation between the Use of ISO 376 and OIML R60 for Silicon Load Cell Characterization Ebtisam H. Hasan, Rolf Kumme, Günther Haucke and Sascha Mäuselein .............................. 158 Development of Noise Measurements. Part 3. Passive Method of Electronic Elements Quality Characterization Yuriy Bobalo, Zenoviy Kolodiy, Bohdan Stadnyk, Svyatoslav Yatsyshyn ................................. 164 Application of Mixed Programming in the Simulation of Lorenz Chaotic System's Dynamics Characteristics Based on Labview and Matlab Peng Zhou, Gang Xu, Liang Chen............................................................................................. 169 A Nanostructure with Dual-Band Plasmonic Resonance and Its Sensing Application Zongheng Yuan, Jing Huan , Xiaonan Li and Dasen Ren. ........................................................ 174 A Glucose Sensor Based on Glucose Oxidase Immobilized by Electrospinning Nanofibrous Polymer Membranes Modified with Carbon Nanotubes You Wang, Hui Xu, Zhengang Wang, Ruifen Hu, Zhiyuan Luo, Zhikang Xu, Guang Li......... 180 The Platform Architecture and Key Technology of Cloud Service that Support Wisdom City Management Liang Xiao .................................................................................................................................. 186
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Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 152, Issue 4, May 2013, pp. 27-32
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© 2013 by IFSAhttp://www.sensorsportal.com
Using Displacement Sensor to Determinate the Fracture Toughness of PMMA Bone Cement
1 Yongzhi Xu, 2 Youzhi Wang, 3Guozhi Tian
1,2 School of Civil Engineering, Shandong University, Jingshi road 17923#, Jinan, 250061, PR China 3 Shandong Transport Vocational College, Weifang, 261206, China
2 Tel.: 13153600920, fax: 0531-88392696 2 E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 14 April 2013 /Accepted: 15 May 2013 /Published: 27 May 2013 Abstract: Polymethylmethacrylate-based (PMMA) bone cements incorporating multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as a means of reinforcement were prepared, and their structure and properties were investigated by displacement sensor and chevron-notched test method. The aim of this study was to determine the transverse-direction fracture toughness (KIv) in PMMA bone cement by using the displacement sensor. Three major advantages of the displacement sensor test method are: (1) It is easier to achieve the plane strain requirements; (2) Not required to make the fatigue-precracking; (3) It is considerable easy to produce stable crack propagation before completely fracture. The fracture toughness values of PMMA bone cement and PMMA/MWNCTs bone cement were measured to be 1.2350.15 MPa m1/2 and 1.7250.15 MPa m1/2, respectively. Based on the microstructures shown in SEM images, the improved fracture toughness of PMMA bone cement was contributed to the incorporation of surface functionalized MWCNTs. Copyright © 2013 IFSA. Keywords: Strain transducer, Fracture toughness, Mechanical properties, Chevron-notched.
1. Introduction
In the recent years, there is an increasing interest in
the area of artificial organ material transplantation and surgical reconstruction [1, 2]. Polymethylmethacry- late (PMMA) based bone cement has been widely applied in orthopaedic surgery for prosthetic fixation. However, PMMA bone cement presents a considerable brittle properties under tensile/flexure loading, restricting their application to non-load bearing areas.
There is a lot of literature reporting methods to improve the mechanical and physical properties of PMMA bone cement [3-6]. Many of these studies have incorporated various additives into the polymer matrix, such as polyethylene fibres, glass fibres, long macroscopic carbon fibres, and titanium fibres. However, most of the use of these additives has been unsuccessful for the poor fibre-polymer matrix bonding and poor additive dispersion. Reinforcement
of bone cement with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) can substantially enhance its strength and toughness and has been one of the potential methods to overcome the present mechanical limitations of bone cement [4]. MWCNTs reinforced PMMA bone cements thus generates the feasibility to facilitate the use of bone substitutes in load bearing applications. Fracture toughness (KIv), which measures a material’s resistance to brittle fracture when a sharp crack is present, has been suggested a better index regarding the mechanical performance of bone cement than strength or elongation at fracture [7, 8].
In this study, MWCNTs/PMMA bone cement nanocomposites were synthesized using surface functionalized MWCNTs (f-MWCNTs). We used a chevron-notched [9, 10] (CN) short rod test to study the fracture toughness of PMMA bone cement with the international standard for acrylic resin cements [11]. The CN specimen test has at least three
Article number P_1188
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advantages than previous methods [12-14]. First, it is easier to achieve the plane strain requirements. Secondly, not required to make the fatigue-precracking, which reduces the cost of sample preparation greatly. The previous tests may not form sharp cracks unless special techniques are used. The third, it is considerable easy to produce stable crack propagation before completely fracture, avoiding an overestimation of fracture toughness value.
2. Materials and Methods The terminology used in this article is shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Terminology.
a0 Initial crack length a1 Average of a11 and a12 a11 Cutting depth of the chevron notch on one side
a12 Cutting depth of the chevron notch on the other side
B Diameter of specimen (m)
KIV Critical stress intensity factor; fracture toughness
W Length of specimen (m)
Pcrit Load that caused fast crack propagation at testing
Pmax Maximum load applied at testing Si Inner span of the four-point flexure S0 Outer span of the four-point flexure t Width of the chevron notch
*minY
Stress intensity factor coefficient
2.1. Materials and Preparation of the Bone Cement
The MWCNTs with a length of 5-15 μm (purity > 95 %, outer diameter 40-60 nm) were purchased from Shenzhen Nanotech Port Co., Ltd. The bone cement used was Radiopaque bone cement containing gentamicin (Biomet Orthopaedics Switzerland GmbH), which comprised of PMMA powder (40 g) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) liquid monomer (20 mL) (Table 2). The PMMA bone cement is created by mixing the solid (powder) components with the liquid in accordance with ISO 5833, usually in the ratio 2 g powder/1 ml liquid.
MWCNTs (0.5 wt%) were incorporated into the MMA monomer prior to mixing the PMMA powder. Specimens for mechanical testing were prepared by injecting the bone cement into PTFE moulds, which were cured at ambient temperature for 24 h. Subsequently, the rough specimen edges were sanded by 1000 μm grit silicon carbide abrasive.
Fracture toughness (KIv) by this method is relative to a slowly advancing steady state crack initiated at a chevron-shaped notch, and propagating in a chevron-shaped ligament (Fig. 1). The dimensions of specimens and testing apparatus followed ASTM E1304-1997 (2008). Specimens were cut into
cylinders of 12 mm length and 6 mm diameter. The chevron notches were prepared using a low-speed diamond wheel saw. The notches were cut parallel to the axes of the specimens, which resulted in a lengthways fracture during testing. The nominal width of the blade is 145 m. The specimens were tilted 20 using a precast holder at the time of cutting. A chevron notch was then formed after two cuts from two opposite sides. To assure the second cut matched the plane of the first cut, a razor blade was used to make a slit along the first cut. The diamond wheel was then placed along the slit to make the second cut. The definite dimensions of the chevron notch are shown in Fig. 2.
Table 2. Composition of PMMA bone cement.
Constituent Mass
(g) Volume
(ml) PMMA 40 / Benzoyl Peroxide 0.3 / Zirconium dioxide 6.1 /
Powder
Gentamicin sulphate 0.8 / Methyl Methacrylate / 20
Liquid N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine
/ 0.27
Fig. 1. Schematic Diagrams of a Chevron-Notched Short Rod.
The requirements of a qualified CN sylinder test include: (1) All surfaces to be 64-μin. (2) Side grooves may be made with a plunge cut with a circular blade. In this case, (shown in Fig. 3) is the angle between the chords spanning the plunge cut arcs, and it is necessary to use different values of and a0, to ensure the front crack has the same width. (3) The dimension a0 must be achieved when forming the side grooves. (4) Grip groove (shown in Fig. 4) surfaces are to be flat and parallel to chevron notch within ±2°. (5) Notch on centerline within ±0.005B and perpendicular or parallel to the surfaces. (6) The imaginary line joining the displacement sensor seats must be perpendicular (± 2°) to the plane of the specimen slot.
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Fig. 2. Definite dimensions of a chevron-notched cylinder specimen.
Fig. 3. Slot Bottom Configuration.
Fig. 4. Suggested Loading Grip Design.
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Fig. 5. Tensile Test Machine and Test Configuration.
Specimens were tested using a universal testing
machine (XDLL1000N, Jixiang corporation, Shanghai) at room temperature (22 C). The test configuration (Fig. 5) recorded the applied force versus displacement sensor digitally by computer and formed an x-y plotter. The displacement rate of the actuator was 0.005 mm/s. After the tests, the load–displacement curves of each sample were closely examined to determine its critical load.
Fracture toughness (KIv) was then computed by the following equation (1) (as given in ASTM E1304-1997):
5.1
6i0crit*
minlvBW
H10)SS(PYK (1)
where KIv is the fracture toughness using CN beam test with unit MPam1/2, Pcrit is the critical load (in Newtons), So and Si are the outer and inner spans (in meters), B and W are the diameter and height
(in meters) of the specimens, and *minY is the stress
intensity factor coefficient determined by the equation (2) :
)(0130.0)(23174)(5056.3)(9686.2000.1
)(6379.0)(23127)(2017.4)(0919.33874.0
),(Y
Wa3
Wa2
Wa
Wa
3Wa2
Wa
Wa
Wa
Wa
Wa*
min
0000
0000
00
(2)
3. Results There were three types of load–displacement
curves observed in this study as shown in Fig. 6. The first one is a curve of a stable crack growth in which the critical load (Pcrit) is equal to the maximum load (Pmax), shown in Fig. 6 (a). The second is a curve of a stable crack growth in which Pcrit is a little lower than its Pmax, shown in Fig. 6 (b). The third is a curve of an unstable crack growth in which the specimen snapped at Pmax, shown in Fig. 6 (c).
Fig. 6. Three types of load–displacement curves were recorded in this study: (a) stable crack growth with the critical load (Pcrit) equal to the maximum load (Pmax); (b) stable crack growth with the Pcrit slightly lower than Pmax, and (c) unstable crack growth in which the specimen snapped at Pmax.
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Twenty PMMA bone cement without MWCNTs specimens were tested and eighteen of them were valid. Of the two invalid specimens, one was due to a large plane mismatch ( 0.35 t) and the other was due to an overcut of a0 (0.90 mm). Average fracture toughness of the eighteen valid tests was 1.235 0.15 MPa m1/2.
For the twenty specimens incorporating functionalized MWCNTs (PMMA/MWNCTs), seventeen were valid. Two of the three invalid specimens were because of unstable fracture and the third one was due to a large plane mismatch ( 0.35 t). Average fracture toughness of the seventeen valid tests was 1.725 ± 0.15 MPa m1/2. Using a oneway anova with α=0.05, the fracture toughness value for PMMA/MWNCTs bone cement was significantly greater (40 %) than that of PMMA bone cement.
The microstructure of the specimens was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (JEOL JSM 6400, JEOL USA, Peabody, MA). As shown in Fig. 7, we observed that MWCNTs were effective in bridging the initial crack and preventing crack propagation, further enhancing the fracture toughness of the PMMA bone cement.
(a) PMMA bone cement without MWCNTs.
(b) PMMA/MWNCTs bone cement.
Fig. 7. The fracture surface of the PMMA bone cement.
4. Discussion and Conclusion The results of this study demonstrated that adding
MWCNTs (0.5 wt%) to the PMMA bone cement improved the fracture toughness of the resultant cement. This weight loading was chosen due to MWCNTs high surface area, small loadings can provide significant mechanical reinforcement [15]. In addition, lower levels of MWCNTs loading can reduce the tendency for MWCNTs agglomerations.
Average fracture toughness of PMMA bone cement without MWCNTs was measured as 1.235 0.15 MPa m1/2, and average fracture toughness of PMMA/MWCNTs bone cement was measured as 1.725 ± 0.15 MPa m1/2. It is confirmed that PMMA bone cement has lower fracture toughness than PMMA/MWCNTs bone cement. Based on the microstructure of the two tested bone cement (Fig. 6), the greater (40 %) fracture toughness of PMMA/ MWCNTs bone cement could be attributed to the incorporation of surface functionalized MWCNTs.
Limitations to the present study include the incorporating MWCNTs at only one concentration level (0.5 wt%) and using carboxyl functionalized MWCNTs. The effects of adding higher concentrations of MWCNTs to PMMA bone cement using a clinically relevant process, or using other functionalized MWCNTs are unknown. This study did not quantify the dynamic properties of the nanocomposite bone cements, only static mechanical properties were measured by displacement sensor.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank all editors for their help with the paper proofreading. This study was carried out with financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (50779032), Postdoctoral Foundation of China (20090451330) and Shandong Province Natural Science Foundation Project (ZR2010EM024).
References [1]. Charnley J., Anchorage of femoral head prothesis to
the shaft of the femur, Bone Joint Surg Br, 1960, 42, 1, pp. 28-30.
[2]. J. Charnley, Acrylic Cement in Orthopaedic Surgery, The Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1970.
[3]. Lewis, G., Xu, J., Madigan, S., Towler, M. R., Influence of two changes in the composition of an acrylic bone cement on its handling, thermal, physical, and mechanical properties, J. Mater. Sci., 18, 8, 2007, pp. 1649-1658.
[4]. Marrs, B., 2007. Carbon nanotube augmentation of a bone cement polymer, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Kentucky, US.
[5]. McClory, C., McNally, T., Brennan, G., Erskine, J., Thermosetting polyurethane multiwalled carbon nanotube composites, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 105, 2007, pp. 1003-1011.
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[6]. Eitan, A., Fisher, F. T., Andrews, R., Brinson, L. C., Schadler, L. S., Reinforcement mechanisms in MWCNT-filled polycarbonate, Compos. Sci. Technol., 66, 9, 2006, pp. 1162-1173.
[7]. Bonfield, W., Advances in the fracture mechanics of cortical bone, Journal of Biomechanics, 20, 1987, pp. 1071–1081.
[8]. Lucksanasombool, P., Higgs, W. A. J., Higgs, R. J. E. D., Swain, M. V., Fracture toughness of bovine bone: influence of orientation and storage media, Biomaterials, 22, 2001, pp. 3127–3132.
[9]. ASTM E1304-1997, Standard Test Method for Plane-Strain (Chevron-Notch) Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials, ASTM, March 2009.
[10]. De Santis, R., Anderson, P., Tanner, K. E., Ambrosio, L., Nicolais, L., Bonfield, W., Davis, G. R., Bone fracture analysis on the short rod chevron-notch specimens using the X-ray computer micro-tomography, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 11, 2000, pp. 629–636.
[11]. British standard for implants for surgery: Acrylic resin cements, BS ISO 5833, 2002.
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[13]. Munz, D., Bubsey, R. T., Shannon Jr., J. L., Fracture toughness determination of Al2O3 using four-point-bend specimens with straight-through and chevron notches, Journal of American Ceramic Society, 63, 1980, pp. 300–305.
[14]. Calomino, A. M., Ghosn, L. J., Optimum notch configurations for the chevron-notched four-point bend specimens. International Journal of Fracture, 72, 1995, pp. 311–326.
[15]. Peigney, A., Laurent, C., Flahaut, E., Bacsa, R. R., Rousset, A., Specific surface area of carbon nanotubes and bundles of carbon nanotubes, Carbon, 39, 4, 2001, pp. 507-514.
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