self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence

Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes:effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence

Nathalie Koivulaa,*, Peter Hassmena,b, Johan Fallbya,b,c

aDepartment of Psychology, Stockholm University, SE-106, Stockholm, SwedenbStockholm University College of Physical Education and Sports, Stockholm, Sweden

cHalmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden

Received 24 November 2000; received in revised form 9 April 2001

Abstract

The setting of high standards is an integral part of elite sports, and often beneficial for the athlete’sperformance. However, individuals who are characterized by frequent cognitions about the attainment ofideal, perfectionistic standards, have been shown to be likely to experience heightened levels of anxiety, dueto discrepancies between ideal and current self/situation. This could of course be detrimental to their sportperformance. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between different patterns of per-fectionistic dimensions and sport-related competitive anxiety and self-confidence, for elite athletes withdifferent self-esteem strategies. The results revealed that the relation between self-esteem and perfectionismdiffers depending on which dimensions of self-esteem and perfectionism that are being considered. Athleteswith a high self-esteem based on a respect and love for themselves had more positive patterns of perfec-tionism, whereas athletes who have a self-esteem that is dependent on competence aspects showed a morenegative perfectionism. Further, negative patterns of perfectionism were in the present study related tohigher levels of cognitive anxiety and lower levels of self-confidence. Hence, it seems that sport relatedanxiety is positively associated to certain patterns of perfectionism, patterns that are more common inindividuals with specific self-esteem strategies. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Elite athletes; Perfectionism; Personality; Anxiety; Self-confidence

Emotion related research in the sport domain has indicated that both cognitive and somaticanxiety may have differential effects on sport performance (Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990;Turner & Raglin, 1996). An important area of research therefore relates to factors that mayinfluence precompetition anxiety. Previous empirical findings have for example shown that

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personal goals and standards, and interpersonal comparison and winning, are significant pre-dictors of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence (Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1991; Lane, Terry, &Karageorghis, 1995). It has also been suggested that feelings of worry, anxiety, and depression,are likely to be experienced when there is a considerable discrepancy between desired goals orfuture plans, and the current self and situation (Borkovec, Metzger, & Pruzinsky, 1986; Flett,Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998). Based on the aforementioned, it seems plausible, as has alsobeen suggested (e.g. Flett et al.), that especially individuals who are characterized by frequentcognitions about the attainment of ideal, perfectionistic standards, are more likely to experiencenegative emotions and heightened levels of anxiety and depression symptomatology, due to theexisting discrepancy between ideal and current self/situation. This could of course be detrimentalto sport performance, and findings indicate that anxious individuals are particularly likely toexperience thoughts that interfere with goal-directed performances (e.g. Blankstein, Toner, &Flett, 1989).A certain degree of perfectionistic thoughts among elite athletes are not uncommon; in fact,

most elite athletes are probably striving towards perfection. They frequently attest to the idea thatthere must exist a perfect performance in their sport, whether it is a perfect hit, throw, run, orjump. The common coaching instruction that ‘‘practice makes perfect’’ conveys the widespreadbelief that given enough practice, athletes may eventually achieve the perfect performance. It haseven been suggested that the desire for perfection is essential, and may in time lead to cham-pionship performance (Ellis, 1982). Hence, setting high standards is an integral part of elitesports, and thereby often beneficial for the athlete’s performance, but when nothing but the per-fect performance is perceived to be good enough, these originally positive expectations mayinstead lead to the development of a negative self-concept, and a fear-of-failure syndrome (e.g.Williams & Leffingwell, 1996). Furthermore, it has been shown that individuals who are cate-gorized as perfectionistic have a tendency to engage in excessive cognitive rumination about theneed to attain perfection. They also tend to be overly concerned about mistakes, to have anexceedingly difficult time forgetting errors, and to have serious doubts about the quality of her/hisactions (e.g. Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990).The study of perfectionism and related constructs has resulted in the suggestion that perfec-

tionism must be viewed as a multidimensional concept. It includes both negative dimensions(such as concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, and fear of failure) and positive dimensions(high personal standards, positive achievement strivings, followed by a sense of satisfaction andenhanced self-esteem); see, for example, Frost et al. (1990), Hamachek (1978), Stumpf and Parker(2000), and Terry-Short, Owens, Slade, and Dewey (1995). It seems plausible that the study ofhealthy, positive perfectionism, as well as neurotic, negative perfectionism, among elite athletescould increase our understanding of the psychological dimensions of sport performance and shedlight on how different anxiety patterns develop.One of the few studies on perfectionism performed so far in the context of sport revealed that

athletes who scored high in concern over mistakes, also reported more anxiety and negativethinking before competition, less self-confidence in sports, greater difficulty in concentrating, aswell as negative reactions to mistakes. Athletes with a higher level of doubts about actionsexhibited lower self-confidence in athletic contexts, and reported more images of mistakes andworry about audience reactions (Frost & Henderson, 1991). In a study on perfectionism andperformance anxiety among musicians, it was shown that a certain pattern of perfectionism (high

866 N. Koivula et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 32 (2002) 865–875

concern over mistakes, high doubts about actions, and low personal standards) together with lowself-esteem correlated with performance anxiety (Sinden, 1999).Some researchers propose a mediation model where self-esteem is considered an important

mediator between perfectionism and mental health (Blatt, 1995; Preusser, Rice, & Asby, 1994;Rice, Ashby, & Slaney, 1998). This model is based on results indicating that aspects of mala-daptive perfectionism are associated with lower self-esteem and higher depression, leading to theconclusion that maladaptive perfectionists perhaps only experience depression when they alsoexperience chronic feelings of low self-worth and inadequacy (Rice et al.). But this indicates, asRice et al. argue, that also maladaptive perfectionists could have high self-esteem. A suggestionthat somewhat contradicts the ideas of perfectionism as either an antecedent or a consequence ofself-esteem (Adler, 1956; Hollander, 1965; Horney, 1950; Sorotzkin, 1985). Further, the findingthat adaptive perfectionism was not directly, or indirectly through self-esteem, associated withdepression, led Rice and colleagues to the suggestion that a positive association between adaptiveperfectionism and self-esteem only occurs, if at all, in performance or achievement contexts.These somewhat theoretically incongruent findings may, however, to some extent be explained

by the method used for measuring self-esteem. Firstly, the most common measures of self-esteemconsist of items in which the respondent is asked very directly about her/his evaluation of her/himself (cf. Johnson, 1997) but, more importantly in non-clinical settings, the self-esteem scalesmost often employed consider an individual’s global sense of self-worth, which often reflects notonly a general sense of self-worth, but also self-confidence and competence aspects. However, ithas been suggested that more situation-related concepts of the self, such as self-confidence, shouldbe kept distinct from self-esteem, and that self-esteem is constituted of two different components.One component reflecting the individual’s disposition to strive for success and competence forattaining self-worth, and another that is not related to perceived skills, competencies or other’sappraisals but to the individual’s basic self-acceptance (Johnson, 1997, 1998). Although self-esteem based on the feeling of being competent, to perform well, and to be appreciated by others,perhaps is more readily associated with certain dimensions of perfectionism, another dimensionbased on the individual’s basic self-acceptance might be related to perfectionism as well. So inorder to understand the association between self-esteem and both adaptive and maladaptiveperfectionism, a second dimension of self-esteem must probably be considered.Consequently, recent research suggests that two dimensions of self-esteem exist with different

origins, subsequently generating different self-attitudes, one dimension being a more static one,and defined as a more fundamental self-acceptance, love and appreciation for oneself, and refer-red to as basic self-esteem. The second dimension captures an individual’s need to be appreciatedand approved by others, to feel competent and in control, and to exert influence over other peo-ple (Forsman & Johnson, 1996; Johnson, 1997). This dimension is referred to as earning self-esteem, and can be regarded as reflecting self-esteem more of a state character (e.g. Heatherton &Polivy, 1991), being more temporary and sensitive to situational factors, and a process by whichan individual can earn self-esteem conditionally. It is further suggested that these two dimensionsare distinct, asymmetrical and hierarchical phenomena. This in turn suggests that the function ofcompetence for acquiring self-esteem is dependent on the degree of basic self-esteem, and thatindividuals can be categorized as having one of four different self-esteem strategies (Forsman &Johnson, 1996; Johnson, 1997; Johnson & Forsman, 1995). Given that these four groups differ intheir degree of general self-esteem, need of achievement, and level of fear of failure and test

N. Koivula et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 32 (2002) 865–875 867

anxiety (Forsman & Johnson, 1996; Johnson & Forsman, 1995), it is not improbable that thesedifferent self-esteem strategies in association with different patterns of perfectionism result invarious anxiety patterns and self-confidence levels.Based on the aforementioned, the aim of the present study was to investigate the relation of

different patterns of perfectionistic dimensions to sport-related competitive anxiety and self-con-fidence, for elite athletes with varying degrees of basic and earning self-esteem. The dimensions‘‘Concern over Mistakes’’ and ‘‘Doubt about Action’’ have shown to have stronger associationswith depression, anxiety, stress symptoms, and low self-esteem, than other dimensions of perfec-tionism (e.g. Cheng, Chong, & Wong, 1999; Frost & Henderson, 1991). It was therefore expectedthat especially these two dimensions would have an important role in contributing to competitiveanxiety and self-confidence. Although the study on perfectionism in female athletes by Frost andHenderson revealed several associations between specific dimensions of perfectionism and reac-tions to athletic competition, the results warrant further research on how certain perfectionisticpatterns, such as scoring relatively high or low on ‘‘Personal Standards’’ in combination withhigh or low levels on ‘‘Concern about mistakes’’ and ‘‘Doubts about Actions’’, are related tocompetitive anxiety and self-confidence. Also, the inventory employed to measure anxiety prior toathletic competition in the study by Frost and Henderson, is a measure of trait anxiety, as well asa measure that combines cognitive and somatic aspects of anxiety. In order to increase ourunderstanding of the association between perfectionism and anxiety in sport, it could be bene-ficial to use a measure of state anxiety, which is believed to significantly influence the quality ofthe athletic experience (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990). To distinguish betweencognitive and somatic anxiety could also be helpful since it has been shown that these have dif-ferent antecedents, and that performance expectations held before evaluation are more highlycorrelated with cognitive than somatic state anxiety (e.g. Alexander & Krane, 1996; Liebert &Morris, 1967; Morris, Brown, & Halbert, 1977; Morris & Liebert, 1970).Predicted results were that low basic self-esteem, especially in combination with high earning

self-esteem, would be associated with more negative patterns of perfectionism. It was alsoexpected that individuals with more negative patterns of perfectionism would report lower sport-related self-confidence and higher competitive anxiety. In particular cognitive anxiety was expec-ted to be higher for individuals with negative perfectionism because of the tendency of neuroticperfectionists to ruminate about the inability to reach perfectionistic standards, and becausecognitive anxiety is thought to emanate, as suggested by Martens, Burton et al. (1990), fromevaluative cues, negative feedback, and negative performance expectations.

1. Methods

1.1. Respondents

The Swedish Olympic Committee has established a program that includes all individual athletesin Sweden that are considered to be possible contenders at the Summer Olympics in 2004, or theWinter Olympics in 2006. In order to qualify for the program, each athlete must be judged bytheir own sport federation to presently be among the top eight athletes in their sport in Sweden.Hence, all 178 athletes in the present study were elite athletes of high standard, and either already


Olympians or considered as potential future Olympians. In total, 69 female (mean age=20.3,S.D.= 3.2) and 109 male (mean age=21.0, S.D.= 3.2) athletes completed the inventories.

1.2. Instruments

Self-esteem was measured by shortened versions of the Basic and Earning Self-Esteem Scales(Forsman & Johnson, 1996). Out of a total of 42 original items on the Basic Self-Esteem Scale(SE-B), 12 were used in the present study (e.g. ‘‘I’m satisfied with being the person I am’’). Thisscale is comprised of two dimensions; one reflecting warm relations to others and free access toemotions, the other representing a self-assertiveness and independence in expressing needs andopinions. Earning self-esteem was measured by 14 items from the original Earning Self-EsteemScale (SE-E) (e.g. ‘‘When people like me, my self-esteem is strengthened quite a lot’’). This scaleepitomises three related dimensions; one reflecting the sense of self-esteem that is dependent onmeeting certain standards, one reflects the high ambitions and demands that the individual placeson her/himself, and the third represents the individual’s need for control and power in order to beable to achieve the high standards he/she has. The longer and shorter versions of these two scaleshave been shown to have adequate internal consistency (Cronbach’s alphas ranging between 0.73and 0.92 for different subsamples) and appears to be reliable and valid measures (Forsman &Johnson; Johnson, 1997, 1998; Johnson & Forsman, 1995). The items used in the present versionof the scales are chosen so that they represent all the different dimensions of the scales and alsohave about the same number of items that have reversed and non-reversed coding. The itemsfrom each scale are presented in a randomized order in a single questionnaire and the respondentsare asked to indicate, on a five-point scale, the extent of agreement with each of the 26 state-ments; the scale ranging from 1 (‘‘Strongly agree’’) to 5 (‘‘Strongly disagree’’). The participantswere categorized in to one of four self-esteem groups based on their scoring on the two self-esteem scales. A mean split was used to categorize the participants as having a high or low scoreon each scale.In order to measure perfectionism, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), consisting

of six subscales was used (Frost et al., 1990). Each subscale corresponds to one of the sixdimensions of the Frost et al.’s (1990) model of perfectionism: 1. Concern over Mistakes (CM), 2.Personal Standards (PS), 3. Doubts about Actions (DA), 4. Organization (O), 5. ParentalExpectations (PE), and 6. Parental Criticism (PC). This instrument has been shown to have ade-quate internal consistency and validity for the individual scales and the whole instrument (e.g.Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Frost & Marten, 1990; Frost et al., 1990). Inthe present study, a Swedish translation by Saboonchi and Lundh (see Lundh, Broman, Hetta, &Saboonchi, 1994; Saboonchi & Lundh, 1997) was used, which also appears to be a reliable andvalid measure (e.g. Saboonchi, 2000). The MPS is a questionnaire in which the respondents areasked to indicate, on a five-point scale, the extent to which the respondent agrees with each of the35 statements. The response scale ranges from 1 (‘‘Strongly disagree’’) to 5 (‘‘Strongly agree’’).Only the scales PS, CM, and DA, were considered in the present study for reasons explained inthe Introduction. Mean splits were used to classify the participants as high or low scorers on eachscale.Finally, competitive anxiety and self-confidence were assessed by the 27-item Competitive State

Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) devised by Martens, Vealey et al. (1990). This sport-specific


instrument has been shown to measure three relatively independent states, namely self-con-fidence, cognitive state anxiety, and somatic state anxiety. The CSAI-2 appears to be a validinstrument with desirable psychometric properties (e.g. Alexander & Krane, 1996; Gould,Petlichkoff, & Weinberg, 1984; Martens, Burton, et al., 1990). The Cronbach’s alphas for theSwedish translations of the CSAI-2 subscales used in the present study were: a=0.88 (Self-Con-fidence), a=0.88 (Cognitive Anxiety), and a=0.85 (Somatic Anxiety). The CSAI-2 is a ques-tionnaire in which the respondents are asked to rate on a four-point scale, with one representing‘‘not at all’’ and four representing ‘‘very much so’’. The respondents were instructed to select themost important competition that they had participated in during the previous season, and then tocarefully recall their feelings as they appeared immediately before the chosen competition. Themajority of competitions selected were World and European Championships, together with a fewNordic Championships. Studies have shown that athletes are in retrospect able to reliably recalltheir anxiety level during a competition (e.g. Hanin, 1980, 1986; Imlay, Garda, Stanbrough, &O’Connor, 1995; Liukkonen, 1991; Raglin & Morris, 1994; Raglin & Turner, 1993; Turner &Raglin, 1996; Wilson, Raglin, & Harger, 2000).

1.3. Procedure

The questionnaires were administered to approximately 30 athletes at a time in a group setting.After the athletes were assembled and before they were allowed to commence, standardized ver-bal and written instructions were given. Ample time was allowed for completing the ques-tionnaires.

2. Results

All variables were tested for normality. When values of skewness and kurtosis were consideredsignificant (�=0.05), transformations were conducted in order to normalize the variables.A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with SE-category as the independent

variable and the three MPS-scales as the dependent variables, was performed, revealing a sig-nificant effect of SE-category (Pillai–Bartlett trace =0.36, F9,519=7.94, P<0.0001). One follow-up univariate one-way ANOVA was conducted for each MPS-scale in order to target differencesdetected by the MANOVA. To control for Type I errors, when performing multiple ANOVAs,the Bonferroni method was used to determine the significance level alpha: �/c=0.0167. Pairwisecomparisons (Tukey) were conducted following significant results (�=0.05).The ANOVA performed on the MPS subscale ‘‘Personal Standards’’ (PS) revealed a significant

effect of SE-category (F3,173=8.78, P<0.0001). Post hoc tests showed that HH- (high basic andhigh earning self-esteem) and LH- (low basic, high earning) individuals had significantly higherscores on the PS subscale than HL- and LL-individuals, as shown in Table 1.The ANOVA performed on the MPS subscale ‘‘Concern over Mistakes’’ (CM) disclosed a sig-

nificant effect of SE-category (F3, 173=8.95, P<0.0001). Both HH- and HL-individuals hadsignificantly lower scores on the CM subscale than LH-individuals (see Table 1).The one-way analysis of variance performed on the MPS subscale ‘‘Doubts about Actions’’

(DA) resulted in a significant effect of SE-category (F3,173=11.11, P<0.0001). HH- and


HL-individuals had significantly lower scores on the DA-subscale than LH- and LL-individuals(Table 1).A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with MPS-category as the indepen-

dent variable and the three CSAI-2 subscales as the dependent variables, was performed, reveal-ing a significant effect of MPS-category (Pillai–Bartlett trace =0.29, F21,510=2.55, P<0.0005).One-way analyses of variance, with MPS-categorization as the independent variable, were sub-sequently conducted for each CSAI-2 subscale in order to target differences detected by theMANOVA. Again, the Bonferroni method was used to determine the significance level alpha: �/c=0.0167. Pairwise comparisons (Tukey) were conducted following significant results (�=0.05).The ANOVA performed on the CSAI-2 Self-Confidence subscale was significant

(F7,170=3.73, P< .001). The LHH-group (low Personal Standards, high Concern over Mistakes,and high Doubts about Actions) had a significantly lower mean score than the LLL, HLL-, andHLH-groups.The one-way analysis of variance conducted on the CSAI-2 Cognitive Anxiety was also sig-

nificant (F7,170=7.01, P< .0001). The LHH-group (low Personal Standards, high Concern overMistakes, and high Doubts about Actions) had a significantly higher mean than all other groupsexcept for the HHH-group (high Personal Standards, high Concern over mistakes, and highDoubts about Actions). The HHH-group had a significantly higher mean compared to the HLL-and LLL-groups.However, the differences between the groups on the CSAI-2 Somatic Anxiety subscale were

small, as can be verified in Table 2. Consequently, a non-significant result of the one-wayANOVA (F7,170=1.59, P=0.09) was obtained.

Table 2

Means (standard deviations in parentheses) of CSAI-subscales for each MPS-category

MPS-category PS/CM/DA Self-confidence Cognitive Anxiety Somatic Anxiety

High/High/High (HHH; n =37) 27.5 (5.0) 16.0 (5.7) 16.4 (4.8)

High/High/Low (HHL; n=22) 29.3 (4.4) 13.0 (3.8) 14.4 (4.8)High/Low/High (HLH; n=15) 31.5 (4.3) 12.3 (2.7) 14.2 (2.7)High/Low/Low (HLL; n=24) 30.7 (5.2) 10.8 (2.0) 14.5 (4.5)

Low/High/High (LHH; n=14) 24.9 (5.1) 18.9 (7.4) 18.0 (4.9)Low/High/Low (LHL; n=16) 28.2 (3.8) 12.9 (3.9) 14.3 (2.5)Low/Low/High (LLH; n=22) 27.4 (5.0) 14.0 (3.6) 16.4 (5.0)

Low/Low/Low (LLL; n=28) 30.3 (5.3) 12.5 (4.0) 15.1 (5.8)

Table 1Means (standard deviations in parentheses) of MPS-subscales for each SE-category (Basic/Earning)

Basic/Earning SE PS CM DA

High/High (HH; n=55) 3.9 (.5) 1.9 (.4) 1.5 (.5)High/Low (HL; n=48) 3.4 (.6) 1.8 (.4) 1.5 (.4)

Low/High (LH; n=37) 3.8 (.5) 2.3 (.5) 1.9 (.5)Low/Low (LL; n=37) 3.4 (.7) 2.0 (.6) 1.9 (.5)


3. Discussion

The aim of the study was to inquire about the relation between various self-esteem strategiesand different dimensions of perfectionism. The purpose was also to study how these differentpatterns of perfectionistic dimensions are related to competitive anxiety and sport confidence.Individuals scoring high on earning self-esteem also seem to have high personal standards (PS)

(see Table 1). Further, high basic self-esteem seems to be associated with low degrees of concernover mistakes (CM) and doubts about actions (DA). Conversely, low basic self-esteem appears tobe related to high scores regarding CM and DA.A more detailed examination of the results reveals that athletes who were categorized as having

both a high basic and a high earning self-esteem (SE-HH), also displayed high scores on the PSscale, together with relatively low scores on the CM and DA scales. Looking at the results of theANOVAs on the three CSAI-2 subscales shows that the MPS category with high PS, low CM,and low DA (MPS-HLL), exhibited high self-confidence, low levels of cognitive anxiety, andrelatively low levels of somatic anxiety. This is well in line with findings showing that a high needfor achievement, and a low level of fear of failure and test anxiety characterize the SE-HH group.It has further been suggested that these individuals primarily engage in tasks in order to enhancean already high self-esteem. This group is then believed to enjoy challenge, to be inspired bysuccess, and are expected to employ a realistic and adequate coping strategy (Forsman & John-son, 1996; Johnson & Forsman, 1995).Athletes with high basic and low earning self-esteem (SE-HL) scored relatively low on all three

MPS-subscales. The ANOVAs on the three CSAI-2 subscales reveals that the MPS-LLL (a per-son setting low personal standards, and showing low concern over mistakes and doubts aboutactions) displayed high self-confidence, low levels of cognitive anxiety, and relatively low levels ofsomatic anxiety. Previous research has also shown that individuals with high basic self-esteemand low earning self-esteem, generally are characterized by a low need for achievement, a lowdegree of Type A behavior, and low levels of test anxiety. These individuals are believed to bebasically contented as they are, thereby giving little importance to showing competence as well asnot being much concerned with failure (Forsman & Johnson, 1996; Johnson & Forsman, 1995).In contrast, displaying a low basic self-esteem and a high earning self-esteem (SE-LH) seems,

among these athletes, to be related to a relatively high score on the PS subscale, as well as highscores on the CM and DA subscales of the MPS. And the analyses of the CSAI-2 scales indicatethat those who score high on the three MPS subscales, also display a relatively low sport-relatedself-confidence, and relatively high cognitive and somatic anxiety. These findings correspond wellto findings showing that individuals who are categorized as having a low basic and high earningself-esteem, display high degrees of Type A behavior, a high need for achievement and also fearof failure and test anxiety. It has been suggested that these individuals in particular constantlystrive to build their self-esteem by constant demands on their own performance and perfection,and a need for approval and admiration from others. Accordingly, their need to succeed is high.Being unsuccessful therefore becomes a severe threat to an already weak self-esteem, and theirinflated fear for failure results in increased anxiety (Forsman & Johnson, 1996; Johnson & Fors-man, 1995).The fourth group of athletes, with low basic self-esteem and low earning self-esteem (SE-LL),

scored relatively low on the PS (personal standards) scale, somewhat high on CM (concern over


mistakes), and high on DA (doubts about actions). Individuals both with low basic and earningself-esteem have earlier been shown to be characterized by a low need for achievement and a lowdegree of Type A behavior, but a high level of test anxiety; they are according to the literatureexpected to renounce challenge (Forsman & Johnson, 1996; Johnson & Forsman, 1995).The general patterns discussed herein are, however, accompanied by individual differences. This

indicates that the association between self-esteem and perfectionism is complex, and that otherpsychological factors, such as the athlete’s coping skills and strategies for stressful situations, mayact as mediators. Something that warrants further research along these lines.It has earlier been shown that, especially unhealthy, perfectionism is correlated with a lack of

self-esteem (e.g. Cheng et al., 1999; Stumpf & Parker, 2000), but it is still not readily evident inwhat way specific dimensions of perfectionism are related to self-esteem; different suggestionshave been made. Hollander (1965) claimed that an excessive striving for perfection was a com-mon response to a low self-worth. This is consistent with Adler (1956), who proposed the ideathat neurotic perfectionism is a self-focused tactic to protect a fragile self-esteem. Some haveinstead argued that a low general self-esteem is a more or less inevitable consequence for theperfectionist individual. Because the perfectionist’s self-worth- and -esteem is based on theattainment of perfectionistic and often unattainable goals, the slightest negative feedback willthereby be regarded as evidence for the discrepancy between current and ideal self and situation,resulting in a lower self-esteem (Horney, 1950; Sorotzkin, 1985), but the findings of studies usingthe mediational model, placing self-esteem as a mediator between perfectionism and mentalhealth, could indicate that perfectionism is not an antecedent or a consequence of self-esteem,since perfectionistic individuals can display both high or low self-esteem.However, the relation between perfectionism and self-esteem may be such that some aspects of

self-esteem can affect certain dimensions of perfectionism, but also the other way around. It is notimprobable that individuals with a low basic self-esteem and a high earning self-esteem strive forperfection as a tactic not only to protect but also to increase their weak self-esteem. The definitepossibility of being unsuccessful is nevertheless a threat to their fragile self-esteem, which resultsin fear of failure and thereby in doubts about their actions and concerns about mistakes, andhigher levels of anxiety. This self-esteem archetype (low basic/high earning; SE-LH) seems to berelated to a negative pattern of perfectionism. It is, however, also possible that acts evaluated assuccessful will, although temporarily, increase their self-esteem which in turn may temporarilybuffer the effects of their negative pattern of perfectionism on mental health. Further, individualswho instead have high basic and high earning self-esteem (SE-HH) seem to enjoy setting highpersonal standards, regarding them as challenges. If they succeed in attaining their goals, theiralready high self-esteem will be even further enhanced, but if they do not reach their goals, thiswill not pose a negative threat to their self-esteem. Since these issues were not explicitly investi-gated in the present research, these suggestions are only speculative, warranting further research.In conclusion, then, it seems likely that the relation between self-esteem and perfectionism dif-

fers depending on which dimensions of self-esteem and perfectionism that are being considered. Itseems that individuals with a high self-esteem based on a respect and love for themselves exhibitmore positive patterns of perfectionism. Whereas those who have a self-esteem that is dependenton competence aspects show a more negative perfectionism. Negative patterns of perfectionismwere in the present study related to higher levels of cognitive anxiety and lower levels of self-con-fidence. However, it is also possible that the effect of perfectionism on anxiety and self-confidence is


dependent on the individual’s self-esteem strategy, in that for example individuals with negativeperfectionistic patterns do not experience high levels of cognitive anxiety if they have a high basicself-esteem and little need to acquire self-esteem through achievements and others’ appreciation.This has not been analyzed in the present study, but is an intriguing aspect to study in futureresearch.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Swedish Olympic Committee and The Swedish Center forSport Research.

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self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence

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