self control research
DESCRIPTION
Action research I conducted on the concept of self-control both for the teacher and students in a self-contained classroom.TRANSCRIPT
Running head: STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL
Modeling Explicit Strategies of Self-Control
for 5th Grade Students With Behavioral Problems
Mark R. Anderson
The City College of New York
Table of Contents
Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Review of Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Abstract
This study explores the concept of self-control in its relation to both teacher and student reactions to
stressors in the classroom. By examining what strategies of self-control were effective in coping with
emotional and aggressive outbursts from students, the teacher hoped to better model and explicitly
teach these strategies to students in need of effective methods for coping with the acute and chronic
stressors in their academic, social, and emotional lives. This study was conducted over a period of two
months in a high poverty 5th grade 12:1:1 classroom with students who demonstrated challenging
behaviors. Data was collected through teacher self-assessment, journaling, and observations of student
behavior in conjunction with student measures of self-assessment and self-monitoring. Results indicate
that even a tentative focus on self-control can have significant impact on a teacher's self-awareness and
work to prevent escalation of conflicts with students while building positive and therapeutic
relationships in the classroom. Further research will need to be conducted to better determine what
specific strategies are most effective and how those strategies can most effectively be taught.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 1
Rationale
Introduction
As a novitiate teacher of special education in a 5th grade self-contained classroom, I have found
that the challenges that face an educator can often lie beyond knowledge, management, and delivery of
strictly academic content. My students struggle primarily with the capability to effectively manage
their responses to stressors, whether academic or social or otherwise. They act out in ways that can
seem to go beyond the demands or challenge of the academic task before them. In this sense, my
students often require immediate, empathetic, and highly responsive forms of contextual therapy, and I
am not always able to provide it to them, both due to the fact that I am not a trained counselor and
because I have other students with sometimes just as urgent needs to attend to. In fact, in response to
student outbursts and acting out behavior, I have found myself engaging in conflicts with students and
yelling or otherwise acting aggressively, often out of frustration. Though such responses can in certain
circumstances be effective in regaining control of the classroom as a whole, they generally drain me of
energy and tend to typically result in greater instances of negative student behaviors.
The very fact that I am sometimes unable to control my own emotions in response to student
aggression, defiance, and other acting out behaviors parallels the inability of my own students to
control and regulate their emotions in response to stressors. In reflecting on this critical need for self-
control—both for myself and for my students—I began to consider what strategies and methods of self-
control could be considered effective in an active application in a classroom. If I could determine what
explicit measures were effective in my own personal use, I could then model and provide direct
instruction on their use to my students.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 2
Problem Statement
The issue of self-control in a classroom—especially in that of a classroom with students that
evidence frequent emotional and behavioral issues—could be considered of paramount importance to
both the student and the teacher. If a student cannot control their impulses or emotional responses to
stressors, then they are unlikely to perform well academically nor cultivate positive relationships with
adults and peers. If a teacher cannot control their emotional responses to student behaviors, then it is
unlikely that they will be able to have much academic impact on their students nor establish effective
working relationships with their students. It could also be argued that a lack of self-control could be
construed as one of the primary obstacles in the path of life-long learning and development in the lives
of students diagnosed with learning disabilities and raised in areas of high poverty. If they cannot learn
to control and regulate their responses to the stressors in their lives, then they unlikely to be sustainably
successful in many endeavors, whether academic or otherwise.
Gaining clarity and insight on effective strategies of self-control and regulation of emotions,
therefore, could potentially have both short- and long-term impact on teacher effectiveness and on
student academic gain, especially for students with frequent behavioral problems.
Problem Statement Question
What strategies of self-control can I apply in order to explicitly model and teach these methods
to 5th grade students with behavioral problems?
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 3
Review of Literature
The concept of self-control, or self-regulation, is researched and applied in a number of
different fields, such as criminology, political science, cognitive science, psychology, sports, education,
and management. The specific focus of this literature review will be to examine the research as it can
be utilized and conjoined in leadership, therapeutic, and educational applications. Surprisingly—given
the extent to which self-regulation has been studied in the last thirty years—successful strategies
building self-control capacity in an individual in order to model and teach them have not been well
fleshed out, nor have many studies attempted to unify findings across fields. The purpose of this
literature review will be to survey the research on self-control across different fields, attempt to find a
synthesis in suggested methods in utilizing self-control, and to elucidate what strategies can be used in
a classroom by a teacher and leader to most effectively teach and guide troubled adolescents towards
building self-regulatory capacity.
The Concept of Self-Control
Self-regulation has been said to be one of the most defining traits of human nature (Baumeister,
Gailliot, DeWall, & Oaten, 2006). It is a process, as explicated by Muraven and Baumeister (2000), by
which a human personality exerts control over its own impulses in order to attain long term interests (as
cited in Barkley, 1997; Kanfer & Karoly, 1972; Mischel, 1996). Another function of self-regulation, or
self-control (these terms will be used interchangeably in this review), is to suppress individual
differences in order to conform or adapt to social norms (Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009). This
function of self-control was also otherwise worded by Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone (2004) as the
“capacity to change and adapt the self so as to produce a better, more optimal fit between self and
world” (p. 275, as cited in Rothbaum et al., 1982).
Self-control is a broad, general regulatory concept which includes regulatory tasks such as
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 4
dieting, managing finances, doing homework, refraining from drug or alcohol use, fulfilling promises,
monitoring sexual behavior, and so on (Hofman et al., 2009; Tangney et al., 2004; Tice, & Bratslavsky,
2000). Self-control could thus be viewed as a means of resisting temptation or refraining from
indulgence in hedonistic impulses (Hofman et al., 2009). In fact, Hofman, Friese, and Strack, before
defining self-control, first found it fruitful to extensively define the word “impulse” (p. 2). Inherent in
self-control, therefore, is the concept of “delayed gratification.” As Mansfield, Pinto, Parente, and
Wortman (2009) explained, delayed gratification can lead to achievement of future goals and increased
rewards (p. 505). Boekaerts and Corno (2005) also pointed out that there really is no simple and
straightforward definition of the construct of self-regulation, for its system of functions are complex,
bridging across several different fields of psychological research, each domain with its own paradigms
and content (p. 200).
According to Muraven and Baumeister (2000), self-control can be delineated between
automatic and controlled processes of the personality (as cited in Bargh, 1994; Hasher & Zacks, 1979;
Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). As might be expected from this distinction, processes such as self-
regulation require a great more deal of effort (Baumeister, et al., 2006 ; Muraven et al., 2000). In fact,
research has demonstrated that self-control is a consumable resource, like a muscle, and when
overused, will lead to a state of depletion termed “ego depletion” (Baumeister et al., 2006; Hofman et
al., 2009). Significantly, just as a muscle can be built up through training, so too can the broad
resources utilized in self-control be built up through practice (Baumeister et al., 2006; Mansfield, Pinto,
Parente, and Wortman, 2009). This is encouraging most especially to educator and therapist attempts to
build and reinforce self-control capacity.
The benefits of self-control are extensive: a greater capacity for self-control leads to higher
grade point averages, fewer reports of psychopathology, higher self-esteem, less binge eating and
alcohol abuse, better relationships and interpersonal skills, and more optimal emotional responses (p.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 5
271, Tangney et al., 2004). In fact, possessing higher levels of self-control acts as a better predictor of
academic success than IQ tests (p. 111, Sodian & Frith, 2008). Furthermore, developing higher levels
of self-control have been demonstrated to consistently decrease aggressive and delinquent behavior in
early adolescent boys and girls (de Kemp et al., 2009). As presented by Graziano, Reavis, Keane, and
Calkins (2007), children with greater capacity for emotion regulation have been found to display higher
levels of social competence, better social skills, and greater popularity among their peers (p. 4, as cited
in Dunn & Brown, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 1993, 1996, 1997; Fabes et al., 1999; Graziano, Keane, &
Calkins, 2007). Similarly, Graziano et al. present the converse of that concept: students with poor
emotion regulation capabilities were more likely to have poor interpersonal skills and greater
behavioral problems such as defiance, hyperactivity, and fighting (p.4, as cited in Dunn & Brown,
1994; Rydell, Berlin, & Bohlin, 2003). It has been theorized that one could have too much self-control,
leading to obsession and compulsion; however, research has not found any negative correlation with
higher levels of self-control (Tangney et al., 2004).
Tice and Bratslavsky (2000) found it important to distinguish emotion regulation from other
regulatory tasks such as refraining from hedonistic impulses. According to their research, emotion
regulation can be differentiated as a special form of self-regulation in that failure to regulate emotions
will lead to failure in all other attempts at self-control (Tice, & Bratslavsky, 2000). Furthermore, Tice
and Bratlavsky found that spending energy to focus on the regulation of moods and feelings can lead to
a failure of self-control in other areas.
According to Graziano, Reavis, Keane, and Calkins (2007), emotion regulation is a facilitator of
adaptive functioning (as cited in Garber & Dodge, 1991; Keenan & Shaw, 2003). Adaptive functioning
in children includes academic functioning as a “significant component” (p. 2, Graziano et al., 2007);
however, a lack of capacity to regulate emotion can “physiologically inhibit a child's use of higher
order cognitive processes (e.g., working memory, attention, and planning) in the classroom” (p.3, as
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 6
cited in Blair, 2002). Emotion regulation has also been shown to aid performance on cognitive tasks in
adults (p. 2, Graziano et al.)
Self-control is therefore a regulatory capability wielded by an individual personality that allows
a person to gain significant long-term rewards while also adapting to larger society. This regulatory
capacity can be diminished through over-use, leading to ego depletion, but can also be strengthened
deliberately, like muscles. One of the core components of self-control lies in emotion regulation, as
failure in this area of self-control will lead to failure in all other areas. With this introduction to the
concepts of self-regulation, the next section of review will focus on self-control more specifically in the
context of education and self-regulated learning. Also, self-control and its relation to coping will be
examined.
Self-Regulated Learning
According to Montalvo and Torres (2004), one of the primary goals of education is for students
to learn to become their own teachers, which therefore includes the movement from teaching to self-
reflective practice (p. 2, as cited in Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998). This independent development in
learning is known as self-regulated learning. What characterizes self-regulating students is their active
participation in learning from a metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral point of view (as cited in
Zimmerman, 2001, 2002). Montalvo and Torres argue that the capability to develop self-regulated
learning requires both the motivation, or will, to achieve, and knowledge of the skills required (p. 2, as
cited in Blumenfeld & Marx, 1997; McCombs & Marzano, 1990).
According to Sodian and Frith (2008), cognitive control is based on self-knowledge (p. 111).
The emergence of this self-knowledge arises from the ability to recognize one's own and other's mental
states (as cited in Carlson, Moses, & Breton, 2002; Perner & Lang, 1999). This ability has also been
found to be a key to success in teaching and learning: mind reading is important in school for social
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 7
competence and for inferring the teachers' intentions in classroom discourse (as cited in Jenkins &
Astington, 2007; Davis-Unger & Carlson, 2008). Research in the area of cognitive development calls
the “development of the intuitive ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others” theory of mind
(p. 112, Sodian & Frith, 2008). Theory of mind has been furthermore correlated with metacognition,
which is a field that has been more heavily researched in its implications for school-based learning (p.
112, Sodian & Frith, 2008). For example, Butler (2003) stresses that task interpretation (a
metacognitive capability) is a critical aspect of student self-regulation, since all further learning
activities are based on a student's perception of what they are trying to achieve (p. 5, as cited in Butler
& Winne, 1995). Butler elaborates on this by stating that based on these perceptions, learners then can
select, adapt, or even invent strategies to achieve their objectives (p. 5).
According to Stoeger and Ziegler (2008), there is a great lack of evaluated classroom
implementations of self-regulatory learning (p. 207, as cited in Boekaerts et al., 2000; Schunk and
Zimmerman, 2003). However, Stoeger and Ziegler's research demonstrate that self-regulated learning
techniques can be implemented effectively in classroom instruction and will significantly increase self-
regulatory skills, self-efficacy, and motivation in students.
One criticism of self-regulated learning perspectives put forth by Boekaerts and Corno (2005) is
that the scope of self-regulated learning research is narrowed solely to learning and achievement goals,
while ignoring students who may not be mindfully engaged in learning and their divergent goals, such
as “belonging, social support, safety, entertainment, and self-determination goals” (p. 202). Boekaerts
and Corno state that these goals—which can be viewed as adaptive mechanisms of students in search
of well-being—can be employed by students as a coping strategy in response to home and school-
related stressors (p. 204). In comparison to other students, those who have exceptional learning needs
due to learning disabilities are faced with chronic internal and external stressors, and thus judge
classroom situations primarily through the lens of well-being; emotions tend to overwhelm learning
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 8
goals and activities as students weigh their coping potential against any potential threats to their well
being (p. 204-205, as cited in Frijda & Mesquita, 1995). Similar to students with learning disabilities,
students living in poverty are also subject to frequent acute and chronic stressors in their daily lives
(Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee, 2009).
The mechanisms involved in emotion regulation have been found to correlate extensively with
those used in coping (Martin & Dahlen, 2005). Perhaps this is because coping could be viewed as
adaptive behavior, much as one of the definitions reviewed earlier explicated self-control as the
adaptation of the individual to social norms or standards (Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009; Tangney,
Baumeister, and Boone, 2008). Furthermore, as quoted by Eisenberg, Valiente, & Sulik (2009), “coping
is a subset of broader self-regulatory processes (as cited in Compas, Conner, Saltzman, Thomsen, &
Wadsworth, 2001). As presented by Martin and Dahlen, there can be two forms of coping: problem-
focused coping and emotion-focused coping (p. 1250, as cited in Lazarus, 1993). Emotional responses
to stressful events can be regulated via the use of cognitive coping strategies (as cited in Folkman &
Moskowitz, 2004; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Ridder & Schreurs, 2001). In this sense, coping is most
strongly correlated with emotion-related self-regulation (p. 76, Eisenberg, Valiente, & Sulik, 2009).
In coping with stressors, Buckner et al. (2009) explain that self-regulation is the main
mechanism behind a proactive--or problem-focused—approach. Furthermore, self-regulation also lies
behind reactive—or emotion-focused—coping with stressors after they have occurred. Therefore,
reactive, emotion-focused coping refers to the management of negative emotions, while proactive,
problem-focused coping refers to goal-directed efforts to resolve stressful circumstances (p. 20, as cited
in Eisenberg, Fabes, & Guthrie, 1997).
Self-regulated learning, therefore, refers to the metacognitive capability of a student to manage
their own learning process. Fundamental to self-regulated learning is knowledge of self, which arises
from theory of mind. Also, self-regulated learning requires motivation on the part of the learner and
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 9
knowledge of metacognitive skills and strategies. Current self-regulated learning perspectives do not
fully account for divergent objectives in a classroom, which can be better understood as adaptive
coping mechanisms. Finally, coping mechanisms--which rely heavily on emotion regulation--can be
portrayed as either proactive (positive emotion prevalent and problem focused) or reactive (negative
emotion prevalent and emotion focused) depending on their relation to the event of stress. In the next
section of review, self-control will be reviewed from the perspective of therapy, followed by a review
of self-control from the perspective of leadership.
Self-Control in Therapy
Certain therapies seek to strengthen an individual's capacity for self-regulation. Specifically,
Life Space Crisis Intervention, Emotionally-Focused Therapy, and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy will
be examined in this context.
An extremely successful model of therapy used in educational environments and designed to
support and strengthen the self-regulatory capacity of children in stress is called Life Space Crisis
Intervention (LSCI). As demonstrated by Dawson (2003), LSCI has been demonstrated to be highly
effective in schools serving students with emotional disturbance. In another study by Forthun,
McCombie, and Payne (2009), LSCI was furthermore demonstrated to be effective not only with
special education students, but with all students in a particular school district. Significantly, LSCI, as
presented by Long, Wood, and Fescer (2001), defines successful self-regulatory capacities in children
as emerging from “understanding people and events in their environment, motivation to change
unpleasant conditions, and trust in adults” (p. 3, italics in original). LSCI focuses on the immediate
experience and context (termed “life space”) in which a crisis or conflict has occurred (p. 4).
Another model of therapy—this one in a clinical setting—termed Emotionally Focused Therapy
(EFT), as described by Efron and Bradley (2007), similarly focuses on the present in order to initiate
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 10
change in behavior (p. 4). Akin to LSCI's focus on understanding people and events in context and
building trust between adults and children, EFT focuses on the creation of safe and secure bonding in
relationships; this bond allows individuals to develop self-regulation of their emotions (p. 3). EFT's
success has been mainly noted in the areas of marital and family therapy (Johnson, Hunsley,
Greenberg, & Schindler. 2006); however, its successes have not yet been transferred into educational or
other non-clinical settings.
The relation between cognition and emotion regulation is explored in a therapeutic manner in a
clinical setting through cognitive-behavioral therapy (Butler, Chapman, Forman, & Beck, 2006).
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been demonstrated to be highly effective in treating adult and
adolescent depression, anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social phobia, and childhood depressive and
anxiety disorders (p. 28, Butler et al., 2006). According to Butler et al., the defining feature of CBT is
the idea that symptoms and dysfunctional behaviors are generally cognitively mediated; therefore,
improvement will be made by modifying dysfunctional thinking and beliefs (as cited in Dobson &
Dozois, 2001). In fact, the positivist notion that new ways of thinking, behaving, and feeling are even
possible is a break from many previous psychotherapy approaches (p. 243, Jackson, Nissenson, &
Cloitre, 2006). Some CBT interventions have been found to transfer effectively into non-clinical
settings and will be reviewed later in the section on strategies of teaching self-control.
In CBT, the modification and expansion of cognition in order to develop greater self-regulation
capacity also parallels the long-term outcomes achieved through the non-clinical verbal therapy of
LSCI (Long, et al., 2001). Through the process of LSCI, students gain insight and understanding into
their relationships with others and develop independent problem-solving skills (p. 11). Through
neuroimaging, research has demonstrated that the metacognition required in emotional self-regulation
selectively alters the way the brain processes and reacts to emotional stimuli (p. 231, Beauregard,
2007). This research demonstrating the plasticity of neural networks supports the positivist hypothesis
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 11
behind therapies (and instruction) that attempt to alter and transform ways of thinking and behaving.
Life Space Crisis Intervention also offers a key insight into the importance of self-awareness in
working with troubled students:
Understanding and self-control is required to disconnect from the struggle, putting aside
personal emotions that arise in reaction to a student's behavior. Again, the expression
“dispassionate compassion” is a useful way to think about emotional reactions during the
Conflict Cycle. Reject the natural instinct to win out over the student; it is not necessary.
Through careful self-monitoring, you can stop your own potentially destructive involvement in
the Conflict Cycle. By recognizing the existence of your own counteraggressive feelings, you
can exercise choice and control over your own behavior, and not allow yourself to be drawn
into the Conflict Cycle (p. 35)
Selected therapies, therefore, can seek to support and strengthen self-regulation in individuals
through the building of cognitive and emotional capacities. Cognitive and emotional capacities in
therapy are built both through the fostering of trust and understanding in relationships, as well as
through modification of dysfunctional thought patterns. The success of LSCI and EFT, in particular,
seem dependent on the use of therapy within the present context of stress or dysfunction. It is
surprising, given LSCI's effectiveness in particular, that strategies implemented in these therapies have
not been more explicitly tied in with self-regulation research in other contexts. The next section of
review will focus on self-control in the context of leadership.
Self-Control in Leadership
The role of self-control and self-awareness in management and leadership contexts is widely
researched. Given the extensiveness of this research, it is startling that not much of it has been
correlated with self-regulation studies in education, especially given the strong emphasis on motivation
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 12
in self-regulated learning. In public and private sector leadership research, a critical area of focus is on
understanding the mechanisms of motivation and increasing performance. This section of review will
begin with literature on transformational leadership, then correlate that with a review of emotional
intelligence.
One of the most extensively researched forms of leadership in the last twenty years is known as
transformational leadership (Barbuto, & Burbach, 2006). There are four dimensions to
transformational leadership: charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration (p. 755, Judge, & Piccolo, 2004; p. 52, Barbuto et al., 2006). As noted by
Barbuto et al., the first dimension, charisma, was later changed to idealized influence (as cited in
Antokani, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003). Leaders who exhibit these four positive dimensions of
leadership have been demonstrated to achieve greater employee performance, effort, satisfaction and
organizational effectiveness (as cited in Lowe, Kroek, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). According to
Ashkanasy and Tse (2000), one of the key components of transformational leadership is emotional
control: the control of self and influence over others' emotions (p. 223).
This correlation of transformational leadership with emotion regulation has led to the pairing of
transformational leadership with the concept of emotional intelligence (Barbuto et al., 2006; Ashkanasy
et al., 2000). Emotional intelligence, as explicated by Kark and van Dijik (2007), consists of five
qualities: empathetic response, mood regulation, interpersonal skill, internal motivation, and self
awareness (as cited in Carson, Carson, & Birkenmeirer (2000). Ashkanasy and Tse (2000) also
explained emotional intelligence as the ability to appraise and express emotions, the regulation of
emotion, and the ability to utilize emotion in the right manner (p. 232, as cited in Salovey and Mayer,
1990). As presented by Barbuto and Burbach (2006), emotional intelligence has been demonstrated to
be a strong component of effective leadership (as cited in Higgs & Aitken, 2003; Sosik & Megerian,
1999). And as summarized by Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, and Walumbwa (2005), emotional self-
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 13
awareness is a critical part of emotional intelligence (as cited in Avolio, 2003; Caruso, Mayer, &
Salovey, 2001; George, 2000).
Integral to both transformational leadership and emotional intelligence is the concept of self-
control and self-awareness (Barbuto et al., 2006; Ashkanasy et al., 2000). Another term for self-
awareness is “self-concept clarity”. Individuals with higher levels of self-concept clarity have been
demonstrated to have greater problem solving skills in the event of social conflicts (Bechtoldt, Dreu,
Nijstad, & Zapf, 2010). In leadership, this capability to regulate and control oneself is what gives a
leader the capability to effectively influence and regulate others (van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg,
de Cremerc, & Hogg, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005).
Gardner et al. view self-awareness as fundamentally linked to self-reflection (p. 347).
Furthermore, the researchers argue that self-regulation is identified by several distinguishing features:
internalized regulation, balanced processing of information, “authentic” behavior (actions guided by
the leader's “true self”), and transparency in relations with others (p. 347). As van Knippenberg et al.
(2005) propose, effective leadership can only be measured by the leader's effect on followers (p. 826).
Kark and van Dijik (2007) point out that leaders exert their effects by engaging different aspects of
their followers' self-concept (as cited in Kark & Shamir, 2002; Lord & Brown, 2004; van Knippenberg
& Hogg, 2003). Van Knippenberg et al. (2005) present self-concept as something that can be “highly
dynamic” and dependent on the specific context of a situation (p. 827). The self could therefore be
viewed as a “collection of modular processing structures elicited in different contexts or situations that
have specific cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences” (as cited in Lord et al., 1999).
Effective leaders, therefore, are capable of influencing selected aspects of self-concept in their
followers that can motivate them and increase their self-regulatory capacity.
In a paper produced on leadership development, OPP, ltd. (2009) presents two methods of
achieving insight into self-awareness: personality assessments and multisource feedback systems
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 14
(“360-degree feedback”) (p. 2). By taking a personality assessment, a leader can develop a better
understanding of their personality style as well as compare themselves with benchmarks in the form of
a score; by obtaining feedback from multiple perspectives, a leader can then compare this multisource
feedback with their personality assessment in order to gain credible insight into their strengths and
weaknesses (p. 2).
This section of review has focused on the presentation of self-regulation within the context of
leadership research. This research—which bridges across transformational leadership, emotional
intelligence, and authentic leadership theories—demonstrates that higher self-control within a leader
results not only in greater effectiveness as a leader, but in concurrent development of self-awareness
and self-control capacities in followers. The following section will focus on individual strategies of
strengthening and maintaining self-control.
Strategies of Self-Control
Teaching, as Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, and Sutton (2009) put it, is “an emotional endeavor” (p.
130). As such, teachers find that they must regulate their emotions in order to achieve their goals (as
cited in Sutton, 2004). Using a relational survey method, Polat and Ulusoy-Oztan (2009) correlated 4th
and 5th grade students' emotional intelligence levels with that of their teachers and discovered that a
teacher's level of emotional intelligence predicted that of their students. Therefore, development of a
teacher's emotional intelligence levels will directly affect the development of their students' emotional
intelligence (p. 8-9), a finding that correlates with research on emotional intelligence in leadership.
Sutton et al. (2009) also reported that elementary and secondary school student accounts of a teacher's
use of aggressive techniques, such as yelling, were related to higher levels of student disruption and
misbehavior (as cited in Lewis, 2001).
Some strategies of reactive—or response-driven—emotion regulation used by veteran teachers,
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 15
as presented by Sutton et al. (2009), can be modification of cognitive processes (such as stopping and
thinking), regulation of action tendencies (such as controlling facial expressions or resisting movement
towards the source of anger), and ”down-regulation” (suppressing or controlling) of negative emotions
(p. 131-132). Response strategies can be behavioral, such as moving away from students, deep
breathing, and controlling facial expressions; or cognitive strategy based, such as self-talk (p. 134).
Self-talk is also a cognitive strategy employed in sports psychology and used to alleviate stress and
suppress negative emotions. Wadey and Hanton (2008) define self-talk as positive statements about
personal accomplishments, positive verbalizations about training, and other positive verbal
affirmations, which can be either overt or covert (p. 369).
Another strategy used by athletes that is generally employed only in “potentially catastrophic
situations” is that of relaxation, such as listening to calm music, taking deep and long breaths,
stretching, or progressive muscle relaxation. (p. 370-371). These are strategies that could also be
effectively employed by a teacher or student under stress.
Van Eekelen, Boshuizen, and Vermunt (2005) present eight proactive skills important to self-
regulation processes: 1) setting specific proximal goals for oneself; 2) adopting powerful strategies for
attaining these goals; 3) monitoring one’s performance; 4) restructuring one’s learning environment to
make it compatible with one’s goals; 5) managing one’s time e ectively; 6) self-evaluating one’sff
methods; 7) attributing results to causation; and 8) adapting future methods (p. 451, as cited in
Zimmerman, 2002).
A social-cognitive approach to self-regulated learning is understood as an interaction among
personal (cognitive, motivational, and biological), behavioral, and environmental/contextual processes
(p. 208, Stoeger & Ziegler, 2008; p. 4, Montalvo & Torres, 2004). As presented by Montalvo and
Torres (2004) in addition to Stoeger and Ziegler (2008), these processes occur within a cycle of four
phases, which can be seen as a summation of the eight skills set out by van Eekelen et al.: 1) planning
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 16
and goal setting; 2) self-monitoring and self-evaluation; 3) control or strategy implementation; and 4)
outcome evaluation and reflection (as cited in Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman et al., 1996). The strategy
implementation phase of the self-regulated learning cycle is ensured by self-control processes and self-
observation processes. As explicated by Stoeger and Ziegler (2008), self-control processes include
self-instruction, imagery, and attention focusing; while self-observation processes consist in self-
recording and self-experimentation (p.209).
Goal-setting and imagery are also strategies used by athletes prior to competition. Performance
and process goals increase an athletes' perceived control of anxiety and helps them to develop focus on
processes, realistic goals, and key parts of skill execution (p. 367, Wade & Hanton). In their use of
mental imagery, athletes use images of previous successful performances, positive images of
forthcoming scenarios, images of correct technique, and images of previous perfect starts. (p. 368,
Wade & Hanton). A cognitive-behavioral technique called process simulation has also been
demonstrated to be effective in controlling focus in a study with college students. Using process
simulation, a student imagines a simulation of themselves accomplishing a task (p. 214, Boekarts &
Corno).
Gerhardt (2007) designed a set of four tutorials based on stages of self-management: 1) self-
assessment, 2) goal-setting based on the S.M.A.R.T. model; 3) self-monitoring, which includes
components of time-management tool use (such as calendars and planners), and environment change
based on student learning preference (noisy or quiet); and 4) self-regulation, in which step students
self-evaluated their progress towards their goals (p. 12-13). Gerhardt coupled these tutorials both with
on-line individualized components and in-class reinforcement.
Other preventive strategies used by teachers are the modification of situations and self-
reflection (Sutton et al.). Richardson and Schupe (2006), in a presentation on the importance of teacher
self-awareness in working with students with emotional and behavioral disorders, ask five key
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 17
questions that can help a teacher to cultivate self-awareness:
1) Am I taking proactive steps to defuse my own “emotional triggers”? 2) Am I paying attention
to what I need to pay attention to?; 3) Am I using effective strategies to reduce burnout and
nurture my own mental health?; 4) Am I using an appropriate sense of humor to build
relationships, diffuse conflict, engage learners, and manage my own stress?; and 5) Do I
regularly acknowledge significant ways I (and others) are making a difference in the lives of
students? (p. 9-12)
Though these questions do not specifically address the issue of self-control, Gardner et al. (p.
347, 2005) and Sodian and Frith (p. 112, as cited in Marcovitch, Jacques, Boseovski, & Zelazo) argued
that capacity for self-control can be built through self-reflection. Furthermore, as Richardson and
Schupe explain, “awareness of our primary emotional triggers improves our chances of making rational
decisions based on conscious choice, rather than unconscious emotional conditioning” (p. 9). Finally,
as Sodian and Frith explain, “self-reflection transforms the way in which learning occurs” (p. 112,
2008).
Though explicit skills and steps in self-regulation have been articulated, research has not yet
demonstrated what strategies are most effective in individual moderation of emotion and behavior, nor
created a solid model that these strategies could operate by. Research in this area in sports and
educational contexts are heavily qualitative and rely mostly on survey and interview use. Furthermore,
most research has not been explicit on the delineations between reactive and preventive strategies of
self-control. In the final section of review, strategies for teaching self-control will be reviewed.
Strategies for Teaching Self-Control
Schunk (2005), in comments on a study by Perels, Gurtler, and Schmitz, states that in order to
be effective, self-regulation strategies should be embedded in content instruction (p. 175). Also, Schunk
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 18
points out that the promising results of the study demonstrated that “benefits in problem-solving and
self-regulation can be derived and maintained from relatively short interventions” (p. 175).
In a review of self-regulation concepts that can be applied to offender groups, Ross (2008),
introduces five target areas where treatment programs can benefit from research on self-regulation: 1)
improving executive functions (such as attention focusing); 2) improving effortful control (such as
exercises that improve delay of gratification skills); 3) teaching behavior change skills (specifically,
teaching and enhancing implementation intentions); 4) building self-regulatory resources; and 5)
improving non-conscious self-regulation (p. 74-76). For improving effortful control, Ross suggests
some high interest exercises such as cognitive teasers and attention and memory focused tasks such as
used in cognitive psychology and commercial games, in addition to cooperation enhancing tasks used
in social psychology (p. 75, Ross, 2008).
As Mitchell, Woloshyn, and Elliott (2003) point out, one commonly used teaching strategy that
has been especially demonstrated as effective (especially in reading and writing instruction) is explicit
teaching (p. 24, as cited in Butyniec-Thomas & Woloshyn, 1997; Gallagher & Woloshyn, 1999; Harris
& Graham, 1992; Montalvo and Torres, 2004; Pressley et al., 1992; Woloshyn & Elliott, 1998).
Through their research, Mitchell et al. (2003) furthermore demonstrated that explicit teaching can be
coupled effectively with cooperative learning; a study with 4th and 5th grade students found that explicit
teaching promoted positive attitudes towards cooperative learning and enhanced academic performance
(p. 34). Surprisingly, however, few teachers utilize explicit teaching techniques across curriculum,
which Mitchell et al. suggested may be due to the difficulty in understanding explicit teaching, as well
as the time-consumption involved in implementation (p. 35, Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski &
Evans, 1989; Woloshyn, Elliott, & Riordon, 1998). Montalvo and Torres argue that in the 1970s,
explicit teaching was more heavily emphasized, whereas more current instructional models focus on
self-reflective practice and scaffolding. (p. 18, as cited in Paris & Paris, 2001).
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 19
Interestingly, research by Sun, Slusarz, and Terry (2005) suggests that there may be a
synergistic process between implicit and explicit learning, and that a bottom up approach in teaching
which introduces learning implicitly and then builds upon it explicitly may be more effective.
Modeling by the teacher as an introduction to a skill could be viewed as an implicit teaching strategy
until it is made explicit through instruction. This possible synergistic affect of modeling remains to be
explored by future research.
Montalvo and Torres state that modeling is one of the most recommended procedures for
teaching self-regulation (p. 17, as cited in Graham, Harris, & Troia, 1998; Schunk & Zimmerman,
1998, 2003). Also, one of the primary mechanisms in which a leader effectively influences the
development of followers is through positive modeling (p. 358, Gardner et al). More fundamentally,
Gardner et al. argue that positive modeling presents a key role in the formation of authentic
relationships between leaders and followers (as cited in Luthans & Avolio, 2003). By modeling self-
awareness and self-regulation, leaders encourage their followers to “likewise embark on a process of
self-discovery” (p. 359, Gardner et al.). This process of self-discovery has thus been transferred from
leader modeling of self-awareness and self-regulation capability, resulting in greater follower capability
in similar areas (Kark, & van Dijik, 2007). Tekleab, Sims, Yun, Teshuk, and Cox (2008) furthermore
discovered that the self-awareness of transformational leaders is not only related to leader effectiveness
and followers' satisfaction, but that the self-awareness of empowering leaders is related to followers'
self-leadership.
As Hattie and Timperly (2007) present in their review of meta-analyses, feedback can be a
powerful instructional tool (p. 82-83). However, not all feedback is demonstrated to be effective.
Hattie and Timperly therefore provide a model of effective feedback, which identifies three major
feedback questions: “Where am I going? How am I going? and Where to next?” Their feedback model
also presents four levels of feedback: the task, the processing, the regulatory, and the self. Feedback at
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 20
the level of the self, such as personal praise, has been demonstrated to be ineffective (p. 96-97).
Feedback that attends to self-regulation can be powerful “to the degree it leads to further
engagement. . . enhanced self-efficacy, and to attributions that the feedback is deserved and earned” (p.
102).
Nicoli and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) also present seven principles which should be considered in
feedback that aims to build self-regulatory capacity in students; such feedback should 1) clarify what
good performance is, 2) facilitate self-assessment, 3) deliver high quality feedback information, 4)
encourage teacher and peer dialogue, 5) encourage positive motivation and self-esteem, 6) provide
opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance, and 7) use feedback to
improve teaching.
According to Montalvo and Torres, practice using self-regulation strategies, first guided and
later independent, and gathering feedback from others regarding strategy effectiveness have been
demonstrated to improve student learning and motivation. These are essential components of many
instructional programs, such as scaffolding and reciprocal teaching (p. 17, as cited in Valle, Gonzalez,
Cabanach, Vieiro, & Suarez, 1998). Scaffolding operates by fading support for a student over time (p.
18, as cited in Graham et al., 1998). Reciprocal teaching is when a teacher models a strategy and then
students take over the process and critique each other (Boekaerts & Corno, as cited in Palincar and
Brown, 1984). Results from research show positive gains on skill learning from this strategy (p. 217,
Boekaerts & Corno).
According to Boekaerts and Corno, sociocultural theory encourages self-regulation in a subject-
specific context (p. 213). In other words, sociocultural programs recognize that every teaching act is
situated in a particular context, affecting to some extent what is taught. This awareness of environment
correlates with LSCI and EFT therapy in their focus on present and situational context of stress. As
noted by Montalvo and Torres, one effective strategy in teaching self-regulation can be to help students
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 21
create and structure favorable learning environments aimed at avoiding internal and environmental
distractions (p. 20, as cited in Ley & Young, 2001). According to Boekarts and Corno, modifying the
classroom environment has demonstrated potential in building self-control in students, if those
modifications attempt to increase student motivation to learn and decrease motivation to hide
weaknesses or outperform others (p. 216, based on Ames' 1990 TARGET program).
Research has demonstrated that collaborative learning in classrooms also can develop self-
regulated learning skills as a result of peer modeling and discussion (p. 220). This collaborative
learning does not have to be confined to a classroom, however. Based on the idea of “powerful learning
environments” developed by Design-Based Research Collective (2003), schools can develop self-
regulatory capacity at a school-wide level through fostering learning communities (p. 220).
According to Menzies, Lane, and Lee (2009), self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-instruction,
goal setting, and strategy instruction are metacognitive skills that have been demonstrated to minimize
maladaptive behaviors and increase desirable social and academic behaviors (p. 27, as cited in Mooney,
Ryan, Uhing, Reid, & Epstein, 2005). Focusing specifically on self-monitoring, Menzies et al. offer
the following guidelines in implementing applications: 1) identify and operationally define the
behavior of concern; 2) design the self-monitoring procedures, including a self-monitoring form; 3)
teach the student the self-monitoring procedures (through modeling, coaching, and role-play); 4)
monitor student progress; and 5) maintenance and follow-up (such as fading the procedures) (p. 29-32).
Montalvo and Torres (2004) claim that self-monitoring depends on two processes: the establishment of
goals, and feedback from others and oneself (via self-talk) (p. 19).
Teaching self-control to students therefore relies on research proven methodologies such as
explicit teaching of self-regulatory skills, modeling by the teacher, guided practice with feedback
(utilizing scaffolding and/or reciprocal teaching), and establishing collaborative learning environments.
Self-control is a concept that spans a dizzying array of research across divergent fields of study.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 22
Though there is a wealth of pointed and powerful findings, there is not yet a firm, convergent model of
self-control that can synthesize the research in a concrete manner to render it readily applicable in a
classroom. Further research can elucidate the linkages between therapeutic, educational, sports, and
leadership strategies and more clearly define strategies that are effective. Given the clear link in both
educational and leadership research between teacher/leader self-control capacity and development in
student/follower capacity, it remains to be seen what specific measures of self-control are most
effective on an individual level.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 23
Methods
Introduction
Teaching children diagnosed with learning disabilities in areas of high poverty can be an
emotionally draining endeavor, fraught with high levels of anxiety and stress. Students with chronic
and acute stressors in their daily lives tend to have low levels of tolerance for frustration and are prone
to frequent and intense emotional outbursts. As a teacher in a 5th grade 12:1:1 classroom in the Bronx,
I find that my students' behaviors often provide a minute-by-minute challenge to my capacity to
regulate my own emotions. In positions of authority in retail and hospitality industries in the past, I
have considered myself patient, calm, and slow to anger; in the classroom, however, I sometimes find
myself yelling and becoming aggressive in response to student outbursts. The ability to control oneself
in the midst of emotional upwelling is the very skill that my students' so need to have modeled and
taught to them. In order to understand how to best employ – and thus teach – methods of self-control, I
therefore chose to research and explore the literature pertinent to self-control, and discover what
strategies and techniques I could utilize in my classroom.
Research Site
The site where research was conducted was an elementary school located in District 9 in the
Bronx. This Title I school serves grades K – 5. At the time of research, the population of students was
65% Latino and 30% Black, with over 90% of the students eligible for a free lunch and 25% labeled as
English language learners. 30% of the students were classified with disabilities.
Participants
The classroom where the research data was collected was a 5th grade self-contained, 12:1:1
special education classroom of nine students, with eight boys and one girl. This group of students were
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 24
with the same teacher in the building for the last two grades. There were two paraprofessionals in the
classroom, one of them assigned as a one-to-one crisis paraprofessional. Three students were labeled as
English language learners, and six were labeled as over-age. Six of the students were furthermore
categorized as Latino and two were categorized as Black. The students remained with their assigned
classroom teacher for seven out of nine periods a day. Some students received additional support
services such as speech therapy, occupational therapy, and counseling.
Design of the Study
There were two foci of data collection in this research: the teacher and the students. Teacher
data collection based on self-observation and self-assessment was thus necessarily heavily reliant on
journal entries or logs. Student data utilized methods of self-assessment and self-evaluation, but was
supplemented with teacher observation.
Strategies selected for focus were delineated into reactive and preventive methods of self-
control. Reactive methods refer to strategies of emotion regulation within the moment, while faced
with the source of stress (negative emotion regulation). Preventive methods refer to strategies of self-
regulation used after the event has passed (up-regulation of positive emotion).
The focus for students was on reactive strategies. The teacher modeled and taught these
strategies explicitly. Preventive strategies were mostly utilized by the teacher in response to student
feedback and self-reflection. However, once self-regulatory capacity began to be built in students, the
logical next step would have been to explicitly teach the preventive strategy of modification of
environment, and to guide students in creating the proper kind of classroom learning environment they
require to learn best.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 25
Data Sources
An outline for the data collected for teacher and students is as follows:
Teacher:
• Self-assessment/survey: pre-assessment/mid-point assessment/post-assessment
• Goal-setting
• Strategies tied to goals
• Self-reflection/Journal
Student:
• Self-assessment/Survey
• Goal-setting
• Strategies
• Teacher Observation/Feedback
• Student Self-monitoring Daily Charts
Data Analysis
For the teacher, the self-reflection journals were utilized daily both prior to student data
collection and during. The teacher also took a self-assessment at the beginning, the middle, and the end
of the research process. The students were administered the self-assessment survey, followed by
conferencing with the teacher to create goals that utilized targeted strategies of self-control. The teacher
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 26
provided direct, explicit instruction on the use of these strategies with teacher modeling. The teacher
then recorded observations of the students' use of strategies and provided feedback for guidance. The
students were also provided with daily self-monitoring charts which were used in individual
conferencing with the teacher to provide further feedback.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 27
Teacher Self-Assessment
What are the behaviors that get you most upset in the classroom?
How do you typically react to these behaviors?
Does your reaction have a positive outcome?
Teacher Goal-setting
SMART Goal:
Teacher Strategies of Self-Control
Reactive Strategies:
• Stop and Think
• Self-talk
• Deep Breathing
• Controlling Facial Expressions and Body Posture
• Moving Away from Source of Conflict
Preventive Strategies:
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 28
Self-Reflection:
• Journaling/Log
• Coping:
◦ Talking with Colleagues/Friends
◦ Relaxation/self-talk/visualization
Self-Awareness (based on feedback):
• Goal-setting for instruction
• Visualization
• Self-talk
• Modification of Environment
Self-Monitoring
• Self-evaluation
• Student feedback
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 29
Student Self-Assessment
What is the behavior that gets you in the most trouble in school or that prevents you most from learning?
Use the examples below to guide your response.
• I get angry or upset easily• I have difficulty controlling my impulse to talk• I talk back to the teacher when I am asked to change my behavior• I am upset about something that happened at home or outside of class• I forget what I am supposed to be working on
Student Goal-setting
SMART Goal:
Student Strategies of Self-Control
• Stop and Think
• Self-talk
• Deep Breathing
• Controlling Facial Expressions and Body Posture
• Moving Away from Source of Conflict
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 30
Results
Table 1 delineates the different results between teacher and student development of self-control,
based on the measures of teacher observation, self-assessment, and daily journaling. Both teacher and
students incorporated the language of strategies of self-control into their classroom vocabulary and
discussions on an increased basis. The teacher spent less time engaged in conflict cycles with students
and more time engaged in therapeutic conferencing. Both students and teacher demonstrated an
increase in intentional strategy use. The teacher discovered that as a result of increased time spent in
therapeutic counseling with students, greater trust and stronger relationships were fostered. Students
demonstrated an increase in positive statements made about their teacher or the class as a whole, in
addition to a decrease in negative self-statements.
Table 2 summarizes the results of a summative student evaluation of the self-control strategies
instruction that they had received. 100% of students stated that they found the instruction to be useful
to them. However, most students demonstrated strong uncertainty about how to employ methods of
self-control or even about what self-control meant. Most students either stated that they believed their
teacher uses strategies of self-control or used them sometimes and is working on it. All students either
noted that they were making progress towards their goal for self-control or were working on it.
Daily journaling and reflection performed by the teacher revealed a growing self-awareness of
self-control and preventative measures to be taken to avoid engaging in conflicts with students, with
statements such “I must be careful not to fall into the conflict cycle of aggression with my students this
year”, or “I'm doing my best to see through the acting out, and right now I'm mainly focusing on
ignoring behavior.”
Based on measures of teacher observation, self-assessment, journaling, and student evaluation
responses, some strategies were demonstrated to be more effective then others. The strategies noted as
most easily understood were “stop and think” and “moving away from the source of conflict.” As a
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 31
reactive strategy in the midst of intense emotion (such as anger or frustration)—for both teachers and
students—the “move away” was the most effective. In addition, time for reflection and discussion
following an emotionally charged event proved therapeutic for both teacher and students.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 32
Table 1
Teacher Observation of Self-Control Strategy Instruction Results in Self and Student
Teacher Student
• Increased use of classroom
vocabulary/discussions and targeted
instruction involving self-control strategies
• Increased self-awareness of potential
triggers to loss of self-control
• Increased time engaged in therapeutic
conferencing with upset students
• Increased intentional use of self-control
• Increased trust and stronger relationships
with students built
• Decrease in time spent engaged in conflict
cycles with students or in yelling
• Increased use of classroom
vocabulary/discussions involving self-
control strategies
• Increased awareness of the actions taken
by other students to defuse potential
conflicts
• Increased time requested to conference
with the teacher after a crisis incident
• Increased positive statements about the
teacher and/or the class
• Decreased negative self-statements
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 33
Table 2
Results of Student Self-Control Strategies Evaluations
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 34
Discussion
The results suggest that even a relatively tentative focus on self-control can have impact in
building self-awareness in both the teacher and student, as well as in fostering more positive
relationships and attitudes between the teacher and students. However, the bulk of the problem
statement question was not fully addressed by the findings. Specific strategies of self-control were
found to be more effective than others, but the process of determining the best methods of explicitly
modeling and instructing these strategies has yet to be determined.
The process of goal-setting, self-reflection, and self-evaluation on the utilization of self-control
proved to be significant for the teacher, if not for the students. The teacher discovered that self-
awareness built through the process of targeted reflection served as a preventative measure against
engagement in conflicts with aggressive students. Also, reactive self-control measures were found to
be promoted in emotionally charged situations due to heightened teacher awareness of triggers and the
necessity for modeling of self-control.
Limitations
The sample size of students fell from 9 to 8, as one of the students presenting the most
challenging and aggressive behaviors transferred schools in the middle of the research. Therefore, the
opportunities for utilizing teacher strategies of self-control perhaps declined.
The students connected quite well to the concept of getting angry and the necessity for self-
control, and many shared stories of moments when their anger had resulted in unwanted and painful
consequences. However, students demonstrated difficulty connecting this understanding to the actual
implementation of most strategies of self-control. This limitation can be attributed to several factors:
• Short time frame for instruction in the strategies
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 35
• This was the first time the teacher had put together and implemented curriculum on self-
control
• Some strategies were found to be either too abstract or to contain too many steps for
actual use in emotionally charged situations without more intensive and extended role
modeling, training, and practice
As noted above, during the process of research the teacher discovered that a curriculum based
on self-control had to be created, with lesson plans devoted to targeted strategies. Because these were
the first time the lessons had been utilized, some strategies were not as well modeled and understood as
they could be. Furthermore, opportunity for further practice and role-play would need to be established
for effective implementation of the strategies.
Future Research
Future research can better address the development of effective curriculum for instruction in
strategies of self-control. Also, behavior modification programs that were not explored in this
literature review but that have already been developed to address these issues can be investigated.
During the course of this research, for example, other programs were discovered that are related in
focus, such as Aggression Replacement Training by Goldstein, Glick, and Gibbs (1998), Therapeutic
Crisis Intervention (a program developed by Cornell University, based on the Life Space Crisis
Intervention model discussed earlier), the Stop and Think Social Skills program by Knoff (2001), and
other programs that were unexplored in the literature review. Some of these programs demonstrate
well-developed frameworks for teaching strategies of self-control such as those outlined in this
research.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 36
Implications
Even this nominal exploration of self-control produced results that demonstrated a significant
change in teacher self-awareness. This suggests that the issue of self-control and the ability to
professionally cope with charged emotional situations should be an important part of teacher training
and induction programs, most especially for teachers who will be placed in classrooms with children
who present challenging behaviors.
This research also suggests that schools could benefit from having professional support
structures in place to address student deficits in self-control and teacher self-reflection and preventive
measures after crisis situations take place in the classroom. A Pupil Personnel Team can work to de-
escalate students in crisis and support teachers of challenging students. A school-wide framework such
as Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) and referral tracking systems such as the
School-Wide Information System (SWIS) or an Online Occurrence Reporting System (OORS) can
work to establish a school culture that promotes positive behavior and monitors behaviors for needed
intervention.
Professional development that addresses developing educator skills in handling challenging
student behaviors can also benefit teachers having difficulty coping. During the process of research,
the researcher was trained and certified in Therapeutic Crisis Intervention, and the skill-sets obtained
were subsequently used to in tandem with the self-control research.
The importance of self-control in educational contexts is currently being researched by Walter
Mischel and Angela Duckworth with schoolchildren in Philadelphia, Seattle, and New York City. In
conjunction with the KIPP program, Mischel and Duckworth are examining how to best develop
cognitive training for self-control skills in the classroom (Lehrer, 2009). This research can do much to
further elucidate not only the importance of self-control, but effective strategies in developing and
maintaining this necessary skill in children with self-control deficits.
STRATEGIES OF SELF-CONTROL 37
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