seismic stratigraphy shallow waters 2013

New insights into seismic stratigraphy of shallow-waterprogradational sequences Subseismic clinoforms

Hongliu Zeng1 Xiaomin Zhu2 and Rukai Zhu3

Abstract

Seismic clinoforms are the key building blocks for constructing the seismic stratigraphy of progradationaldepositional sequences However not all progradational systems are necessarily represented by seismic clino-forms We evaluated the definition and interpretation of progradational systems that do not associate with seis-mic clinoforms Nonclinoform (or subseismic clinoforms) seismic facies are mainly related to shallow-waterdeltas where the thickness of a prograding clinoform complex is too thin to be imaged as an offlapping reflectionconfiguration The clinoform detection limit for clinoform imaging is defined as one wavelength (the thicknessof two seismic events) and is related to the predominant frequency of the seismic data and the velocity ofthe sediments Three examples from the Songliao Basin of China and Gulf of Mexico illustrated ancientshallow-water deltas with various morphologies in lacustrine and marine environments by integrating the analy-sis of the core wireline logs and amplitude stratal slices made from nonclinoform seismic events A seismicmodel of an outcrop carbonate clinoform complex in west Texas further demonstrated the seismic frequencycontrol on clinoform seismic stratigraphy including transitions between different types of clinoforms andbetween clinoforms and nonclinoform seismic facies Ambiguity in interpreting nonclinoform seismicfacies can be reduced by high-resolution acquisition high-frequency enhancement processing and seismicsedimentology

IntroductionThe term clinoform is proposed by Rich (1951) to

depict the shape of a depositional surface at the scaleof the entire continental margin (Figure 1) A clinoformresults from the varying rate of deposition and waterdepth its upper end connecting to a flat shallow-water undaform and its lower end graduating into ahorizontal deep-water fondoform Multiple clinoformaldepositional units compose a unique easy-to-recognizestratigraphic pattern in the continental margin

Mitchum et al (1977) adapt the term and use it tocharacterize a group of very special seismic reflectionsthat are typically composed of topset foreset and bot-tomset (roughly corresponding to undaform clinoformand fondoform of Rich [1951] respectively) A clino-form was interpreted as strata in which significant dep-osition is produced by lateral outbuilding or basinwardprograding forming the gently sloping depositional sur-faces (clinoforms) Although seismic clinoforms can re-sult from any prograding depositional process they aregenerally produced by deltas that prograded seaward

(Sangree and Widmier 1977) Berg (1982) further estab-lishes a relationship between some different deltaicfacies and distinctive clinoform seismic facies Seismicclinoform patterns are also common in ramp bankand platform carbonate depositional systems (egBelopolsky and Droxler 2004 Droste and Steenwinkel2004 Eberli et al 2004 Isern et al 2004)

Widely recognized as among the most commondepositional stratal patterns clinoforms are one of thefundamental building blocks of seismic- and sequence-stratigraphic models (eg Mitchum et al 1977Vail et al 1977 Van Wagoner et al 1988) Howevermost documented seismic clinoforms are related to largeshelf-edge deltas developed in margins of deep-water ba-sins where a clinoformmay have significant (high tens tohundreds of meters) accommodation and therefore bereadily apparent In other environments those havingshallow water depth and less accommodation the clino-forms are thinner and more difficult to identify usingseismic data Prograding deltaic systems developed inshallow-water environments such as along the coast

1The University of Texas at Austin Jackson School of Geosciences Bureau of Economic Geology Austin Texas USA E-mail hongliuzengbegutexasedu

2China University of Petroleum Beijing China E-mail xmzhucupeducn3Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development PetroChina Beijing China E-mail zrkpetrochinacomcnManuscript received by the Editor 25 February 2013 published online 6 August 2013 This paper appears in INTERPRETATION Vol 1 No 1

(August 2013) p SA35ndashSA51 18 FIGS 1 TABLEhttpdxdoiorg101190INT-2013-00171 copy 2013 Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists All rights reserved

t

Special section Interpreting stratigraphy from geophysical data

Interpretation August 2013 SA35

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in shallow-marine on-shelf intracratonic basins and inpostrift continental basins are especially hard to recog-nize using seismic data In these areas where sedimentsare only several meters to low tens of meters thick seis-mic clinoform patterns are commonly poorly imaged Asa result these clinoforms have received much less atten-tion from seismic interpreters In fact except for somemoderately thin sequences that can be recognized asldquoshingledrdquo clinoform complexes (Mitchum et al 1977)many thin deltaic sequences have probably been mistak-enly interpreted as other facies because they lack dis-tinctive seismic clinoforms In this study we defineseismic nonclinoforms (or subseismic clinoforms) asseismic events produced by prograding depositional se-quences that cannot be recognized visually as seismicclinoforms

The purpose of this study is to discuss and interpretthin deltas and prograding depositional systems belowseismic detection power Geologic and seismic indica-tions of deltaic systems are discussed The limits ofusing clinoform seismic facies to characterize deltaicsystems are pointed out Specific examples of subsur-face delta sequences without clinoform geometry onseismic sections are described and evaluated Seismicresolution control on imaging of clinoform seismic ar-chitecture is investigated Seismic techniques that canbe used to detect nonclinoform sequences are outlined

In this paper carbonate progradational systemsare discussed to a lesser degree Although lithologyand depositional processes in carbonate depositionalsequences are different from those in clastic systemslinks between clinoformal surfaces and depositionalratewater depth are similar which leads to similarimpedance architecture and comparable seismic faciesTherefore our observations in deltas could safely beapplied to carbonate systems and vice versa

Indication of deltaic systemsDeltaic systems show a wide complexity in the geo-

logic record Many of these systems can be interpretedin seismic data in certain situations An understandingof the geologic conditions of delta sequence develop-ment is essential to predict their seismic responsesFollowing is a brief description of various deltaic sys-tems and how they relate to seismic interpretability

Deltas in modern and geologic recordGalloway (1975) defines a delta as ldquoa contiguous

mass of sediment partly subaerial deposited aroundthe point where a stream enters a standing body ofwaterrdquo Galloway (1975) also classifies deltas into threebasic types or end members on the basis of the energysource that dominates the deltaic building processfluvial-dominated delta wave-dominated delta andtide-dominated delta These basic delta types are char-acterized by significantly different landform geometry(Figure 2) Fluvial-dominated deltas are elongate tolobate in shape whereas wave- and tide-dominated del-tas are arcuate and funnel shaped respectively Faciespatterns associated with each delta type are also differ-ent Adding to the complexity although a deltaic systemmay be controlled by one of the energy sources otherenergy sources are usually also active to some degreeleading to mixed geometry and facies patterns amongthe end members

Postma (1990) further classifies fluvial-dominateddeltaic systems on the basis of water depth in the re-ceiving basin Shallow-water deltas are developed inwater depths of low tens of meters which would in-clude on-shelf or ldquoshelf-typerdquo deltas (Ethridge andWescott 1984) in marine basins and lacustrine andother deltas related to other shelves Shallow-water del-tas are normally represented by three physiographiczones mdash delta plain delta front and prodelta mdash

similar to those in standard models of fluvial-dominateddeltas (eg Galloway and Hobday 1983) The slopenear the river mouth and the delta-front can be gentle(shoal-water type) or steep (Gilbert-type) dependingon the channel depth versus the basin depth The

QAe1675

UndathemClinothem

Basement

Undaform ClinoformLand

Fondothem

Fondoform

Depth ofwave base

Seasurface

Figure 1 Diagram showing the original concept of the clino-form defined by Rich (1951)

Fluvial dominated

Tide dominated

Wave dominated

Tidal

Lafourche(Mississippi)

Lobate

Elongate

Rhone River

ModernMississippi

Gulf of Papua

0 10 mi

QAe1676

Current

0 10 mi

0 10 mi

0 10 mi

Figure 2 Modern examples of three basic types of deltas(modified from Fisher et al 1969)

SA36 Interpretation August 2013

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general stratigraphic architecture of a fluvial-dominated shallow-water delta is summarized inFigure 3a In the dip (basinward) profile individualdelta lobes that formed in outbuilding deltaic episodescompose a clinoform complex with sandy sedimentsmostly accumulated in the upper portion of the com-plex (topsets and upper foresets) The combinationof the sandy sediments forms a lithostratigraphic unithaving a relatively smooth top and probably an unevenbase In the strike section multiple delta lobes formedat different times and accumulated as irregular-shapedmounds rarely showing parallel internal stratal beddingin seismic sections

According to Postma (1990) deep-water deltas occurin water depths deeper than tens of meters to hundredsof meters and include shelf-edge deltas ldquoslope-typerdquodeltas (Ethridge and Wescott 1984) and other systemsnot necessarily related to true shelf breaks (eg in afault-controlled deep lake) The biggest difference be-tween deep-water deltas and shallow-water deltas isthat in addition to the three physiographic zonesfound in shallow-water deltas deep-water deltas alsoextend to a suspension settling and gravity-driven masstransport zone and a deep-water turbidite zone beyondthe normal prodelta zone on the long inclined muddybasin floor (Figure 3b) Sands in this system wouldbe preferentially distributed at the top (delta-plainand delta-front sands) and base (turbidites) separatedby thick muddy sediments (prodelta and deep-water

mudstones) Internal stratal bedding is relativelysmooth and easy to correlate in dip and strike sections

Shallow-water deltaic sedimentation is a commonprocess in modern environments Examples includeLena and Volga deltas in marine basins (Olariu andBhattacharya 2006) and Wax Lake Atchafalaya (Olariuand Bhattacharya 2006) and Poyang Lake deltas

a) Sigmoid

b) Oblique

c) Complex sigmoid-oblique

d) Shingled

QAe1679

Figure 4 Reflection configurations of fluvial- and wave-dominated deltas (modified from Mitchum et al [1977]initially interpreted by Mitchum et al [1977] and Sangreeand Widmier [1977] and reinterpreted by Berg [1982])

25 Hz

100 Hz

50 Hz

60 Hz

30 Hz

40 Hz

Velocity (ms)

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(m

)

80 Hz

4000 000600050002 3000

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(T

wo-

way

tim

e m

s)

20 Hz

Clastics

Carbonates

200 Hz

QAe1680

Figure 5 Hmin in time and depth as a function of the pre-dominant frequency of the seismic data and the velocity ofprograding sediments

Shallow-water delta

Deep-water delta

Dip section

Strike section

Meters to low tens of meters

High tens to hundreds of meters

1

5

4

32

13

2

Sandstone Shale

QAe1678

a)

b)

Figure 3 Models of fluvial-dominated deltas illustratingtheir internal clinoform framework and gross sand distribu-tion patterns (a) Shallow-water delta (b) deep-waterdelta 1 frac14 delta plain 2 frac14 delta front 3 frac14 prodelta 4 frac14suspension settling and gravity-driven mass transport zoneand 5 = deep-water turbidite zone


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(Zou et al 2008) in lacustrine basins Several authorsinvestigate many ancient subsurface examples of shal-low-water deltas deposited in shallow intracratonic sea-ways (eg Busch 1959 1971 Cleaves and Broussard1980 Rasmussen et al 1985 Bhattacharya and Walker1991 Li et al 2011 Olariu et al 2012) and in lacustrinebasins (eg Cretaceous Songliao Basin Lou et al 1999Triassic Ordos Basin Zou et al 2008) However com-

pared with the large number of investigations of deep-water deltas or deltas at the shelf edge (eg Carvajaland Steel 2009 Covault et al 2009 Dixon et al 2012)the number of shallow-water deltas described in an-cient deposits is very limited

Deltas represented by clinoform seismic faciesMitchum et al (1977) promote the use of external

shape and internal configuration onseismic profiles to interpret stratalconfiguration facies patterns and depo-sitional environments of progradingstratigraphic sequences In particulartheir recognition of sigmoid obliquecomplex and shingled clinoform seismicfacies (Figure 4) and the general geologicinterpretation of these facies establishesa foundation for stratigraphic evaluationof seismic clinoforms A sigmoid clino-form pattern (Figure 4a) refers to a rela-tively low-energy sedimentary regimean oblique facies (Figure 4b) would oc-cur in a relatively high-energy sedimen-tary regime A complex sigmoid-obliquemodel (Figure 4c) results from alternat-ing high- and low-energy sedimentaryregimes Whereas these three types ofclinoforms are associated with deep-water basins a shingled clinoform

configuration (Figure 4d) represents depositional unitsprograding into shallow waters

Berg (1982) further links different clinoform con-figurations to some distinctive delta types The sig-moid oblique and complex sigmoid-oblique patterns(Figure 4andash4c) are representative seismic facies of adeep-water fluvial-dominated delta The sigmoid seismicpattern is composed of continuous and S-shapedclinoforms (Figure 4a) Without toplapping sigmoid pat-terns usually occur in low-energy delta interlobe areaslacking sandy deposits The oblique pattern (Figure 4b)is characterized by clinoforms that terminate updip bytoplap and downdip by downlap that bound the deltaicsequence This pattern represents a high-energy deltawhere the sand-rich delta plain is coincident with theupper horizontal events (undaform) The seismic clino-form is equivalent to shale-prone prodelta facies The ab-sence of stacking of horizontal events in the delta plainsuggests sediment bypassing on a stable shelf The com-plex sigmoid-oblique pattern (Figure 4c) is a result ofalternate high-energy sandy deposition (oblique) andlow-energy shaly deposition (sigmoid) that occurred indelta-lobe shifting during delta system outbuildingThe shingled pattern (Figure 4d) appears to indicate awave-dominated delta in shallow water Developmentof a wave-dominated delta seems to require a stable shal-low depositional shelf Less studied and documentedtide-dominated deltas are difficult to identify using sim-ple seismic clinoform patterns

Table 1 Hmin in meters as a function of the predominant frequency ofthe seismic data and the velocity of prograding sediments Typicalindustry data are characterized by a predominant frequency from 20 to50 Hz

f (Hz) V frac14 2000m∕s

V frac14 3000m∕s

V frac14 4000m∕s

V frac14 5000m∕s

V frac14 6000m∕s

20 500 750 1000 1250 1500

25 400 600 800 1000 1200

30 333 500 667 833 1000

40 250 375 500 625 750

50 200 300 400 500 600

60 167 250 333 417 500

80 125 187 250 312 375

100 100 150 200 250 300

200 50 75 100 125 150

0 1200 km

BEIJINGPeoplersquos Republic

of China

0 500 km

48deg

46deg

44deg

50deg126deg 128deg 130deg

124deg122deg

Qiqihar

Harbin

Changchun

DaqingOilfieldStudy

area

SongliaoBasin

QAe1681

N

Figure 6 Cretaceous Songliao Basin of China showing thestudy area in the Qijia Depression near the Daqing Oilfield


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Limits of clinoform seismic faciesBarring any data quality issues related to acquisition

and processing our ability to use clinoform seismicstratigraphy to recognize progradational depositionalsequences is largely limited by seismic resolution

To visually identify a clinoform pattern within a seis-mic stratigraphic mapping unit one has to recognize atleast two seismic events with one offlapping the otherIn other words the unit has to be at least as thick as thewidth of two seismic events (one wavelength or cycle)in two-way traveltime We call the thickness of such aseismic stratigraphic mapping unit clinoform detectionlimit

Hmin frac14 1000∕f (1)

where f denotes the predominant frequency of the seis-mic data in hertz (Hz) and Hmin is the clinoform detec-tion limit in milliseconds (ms) The clinoform detection

limit in depth is related to the predominant frequency ofthe seismic data and the velocity of the prograding sedi-ments (Figure 5 Table 1)

Hmin frac14 V∕2f (2)

where V denotes velocity of the sediments in meters persecond (m∕s) and Hmin is the clinoform detection limitin meters (m) Most modern seismic data sets are char-acterized by a predominant frequency ranging from20 to 100 Hz corresponding to Hmin (in time) from10 to 50 ms In a typical clastic basin the velocity ofsandstones and shales is usually between 2000 and4000 m∕s resulting in a Hmin (in depth) of 10 to100 m in a carbonate formation rock velocity is signifi-cantly higher (mostly 5000 minus 6000 m∕s) and Hmin (indepth) increases sizably (25ndash150 m)

These simple calculations reveal that seismic clino-form recognition is reserved to thicker prograding

rsquoAA

G21

G42G41G32G31

G22

G12

SQ1SS1SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

SQ2

SQ3

G11

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

T1

T2

a)Basinward

2 km2 km

b)

SQ1

SQ2

SQ3

T1

T2

Rel

ativ

e ge

olog

ic ti

me

a

b

c

SS1

SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

G21

G42G41G32G31G22

G12G11

Third-orderseq boundary

SP DT High-ordersequence

Fault

fifth fourth third

fifth fourth third

- +

Amplitude

A

Arsquo

BBrsquo

QAe1682

2 km

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

Figure 7 A dip well-seismic section illustrat-ing the high-frequency depositional sequenceframework and internal nonclinoform reflec-tion pattern in the Cretaceous Qijia Depres-sion (modified from Zeng et al 2012) SeeFigure 7a for position (a) Traveltime sectionshowing wireline logs sequence definitionand well-seismic correlation (b) Wheeler-transformed section flattened in relativegeologic time for easy viewing of internalreflection characteristics Positions of stratalslices in Figure 10 are labeled a b and c SP frac14spontaneous potential log DT = sonic log


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depositional sequences or the thicker part of a prograd-ing depositional sequence Sequences thinner thanHminnormally do not show as clinoforms on seismic profilesDepending on the current status of seismic data qualityin basins around the world a large number of shallow-water deltas would fall below Hmin because they devel-oped in water depths shallower than tens of meters

These shallow-water deltas are good candidates to bereflected as nonclinoform seismic patterns Accord-ingly the interpretation of deltas needs to go beyondthe recognition of seismic clinoforms Lacking visibleclinoforms shallow-water deltas would routinely gounrecognized by seismic interpreters Seismic faciesof those nonclinoform sequences are our major concernin following sections

Examples of seismic nonclinoform deltasIn this section three investigations are presented

as examples of seismic nonclinoform deltas Withoutvisible seismic clinoforms seismic geomorphologypatterns on amplitude stratal slices provide vital infor-mation for interpreting thin deltaic systems The pro-duction of stratal slices has followed the procedurediscussed in Zeng et al (1998a 1998b) Where availableconventional cores and wireline logs have been used tocalibrate the interpretations in these studies

Qijia depression Songliao Basin ChinaThe Songliao Basin of China is a large-scale

Mesozoic-Cenozoic lacustrine basin covering an areaof more than 250000 km2 (Figure 6) In lower throughupper Cretaceous strata postrift deposits as thick as3000 to 4000 m unconformably overlie synrift strataand extend beyond the fault blocks to cover the wholebasin (Feng et al 2010) Lacking true shelf breaks seis-mic clinoforms can be seen only along major delta axeswhere fluvial systems transported abundant sedimentto the deep part of the lake in the center of the basin

B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c

Figure 8 Strike seismic section showing the internal reflec-tion pattern in the Cretaceous Qijia Depression The expectedmounded seismic configuration for a ldquonormalrdquo deltaic system(Figure 3b) does not exist The regional structural trend is cor-rected for a better view of internal reflection characteristicsPositions of stratal slices in Figure 10 are labeled a b and cSee Figure 7a for position

QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone

sotohp eroCseicafbuSnoitces deroC

GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)

Figure 9 Description of a cored section in awell in the Qijia Depression showing Creta-ceous fluvial-dominated shallow-water deltadeposits Arrows denote upward-coarseninggrain-size trends (a) Shallow-lake Ostracodalimestone (b) trough-cross-stratified (arrow)fine-grained distributary-channel sandstone(c) medium-grained blocky sandstone withshale lag (arrow) on the scoured distributary-channel base Cores are oriented up (shal-lower) to the left


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(eg in the Daqing Oilfield area) Much of the deltaicsediment was deposited in very gentle slopes aroundthe basin margin in shallow waters lacking well-developed clinoforms

In the Qijia Depression (Figure 6) deltaic sedimentsconsist of gray and dark-gray mudstone interbeddedwith sandstone and siltstone A wireline-log-basedsequence-stratigraphic correlation (Figure 7a) revealedmultiple higher order sequences (G11 through SS1) inthree third-order sequences (SQ1 through SQ3) in theQingshankou Formation (Zeng et al 2012) In this22-km-long dip-oriented section thickness changesfrom updip to downdip are minor revealing a very gen-tle slope at the time of deposition Each of the higherorder sequences has an average thickness of approxi-mately 40 m which is composed of a relative lowstandsystems tract (LST) at the bottom and a relative high-stand systems tract (HST) at the top with roughly equalthickness (20 m)

A Wheeler-transformed equivalent of Figure 7a isrealized with stratal slicing processing (Figure 7b)which shows a good correlation between well-baseddepositional sequences and seismic events The 3Dseismic data have a frequency range of 10 to 80 Hzand a dominant frequency of 50 Hz In this formationaverage velocity is 4000 m∕s and the calculated Hminis 40 m (Table 1) This doubles the Hmin in this forma-tion for seismic imaging of clinoform complexes ineither LST or HST As a result seismic clinoformsare not imaged Instead these seismic events can beclassified as subparallel to discontinuous variable-amplitude seismic facies Each pair of seismic events(peak at bottom and trough at top) in each of thehigh-frequency sequences roughly represents a high-frequency sequence composed of a relative LST at thebottom and a relative HST at the top A strike seismicsection (Figure 8) shows a seismic facies distributionsimilar to that in the dip section (Figure 7) and fails

Fault- +

Amplitude

Shoreline Channellobe

Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake

Direction ofprogradation

2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)

Figure 10 Three amplitude stratal slices (ac and e) at three high-frequency sequences(G31 G41 and SS2 respectively in Figure 7band labeled as a b and c in Figures 7b and 8)These slices interpreted as shallow-water del-tas are shown in (b d and f) respectivelyShorelines interpreted in (d and f) refer toposition of the successive shorelines duringprogradation


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to reveal any seismic reflection configuration thatresembles the mound geometry associated with typicalprograding delta clinoforms (Figure 3b)

Lithology grain-size trend and sedimentary struc-ture were observed in conventional cores providingmore direct evidence for classifying depositional faciesBy describing more than 1300 m of core in 11 wells inthe area we recognized that most subfacies in the coreare related to fluvial-dominated deltaic deposition Forexample in a long cored section (Figure 9) a typicalfacies cycle (from bottom to top) includes gray shaleand thin limestone (Figure 9a) representing shallow-lake deposition trough-cross-stratified fine-grainedsandstone (Figure 9b) from the distributary channeland medium-grained blocky sandstone with shale-clastlag (Figure 9c) on the scoured distributary-channelbase in the delta front There are abundant ostracodfossils (eg Cypridea Candona Mongolocypris andZiziphocypris) identified in the limestones andshales all indicative of a shallow-water environmentRanging from 4- to 15-m thick the upward-coarseningsequences are a result of progradational processes ina shallow-water deltaic system (eg Olariu and Bhatta-charya 2006)

A set of stratal slices was constructed in the intervalbetween reference events T1 and T2 from stacked andmigrated data (Figure 7a) All the stratal slices roughlyfollow individual seismic events that are parallel toone another Selected slices (Figure 10a 10c and10e) represent three thin LST deltaic depositional sys-tems in high-order sequences The most striking seismicgeomorphologic features in these stratal slices are nu-merous channel patterns and associated amplitudeanomalies of different shapes representing variousdeltaic environments (Figure 10b 10d and 10f)Differences in the facies patterns reflect relative mar-gin-to-basin positions in the gentle slope of a postriftlacustrine basin During deposition of the high-frequency sequence SS2 (Figure 10a and 10b) the lakewas at its maximum depth and extent and the studyarea was a delta front Distributary channels extendedfar into the basin and were rarely exposed before burialA fringing sandy delta front was lacking Later duringdeposition of the high-frequency sequences G41(Figure 10c and 10d) and G31 (Figure 10e and 10f)the lake diminished in area after repeated deltaic-deposition episodes The study area is located in theshoreline area which has a narrower delta-front zoneThe deltaic system prograded on a smaller scale withdeltaic lobes forming one in front of another attachedto shorter distributary channels which terminated atthe shoreline at the time of deposition Multiple shore-line positions can be determined on the basis of channelterminations (Figure 10c and 10d) or amplitude zoning(Figure 10e and 10f) showing a general direction ofdeltaic progradation

Miocene deltas at the Gulf of MexicoLouisiana United States

Starfak and Tiger Shoal fields of offshore LouisianaUnited States (Figure 11) lie along the western periph-ery of the ancestral Mississippi River area Located inthe Oligocene-Miocene Detachment Province of thenorth Gulf Coast continental margin (Diegel et al1995) Miocene deposits are largely controlled bydown-to-the-basin listric growth faults that sole on aregional detachment zone above the Oligocene sectionSalt tectonics and growth faulting resulted in a greatthickness of deltaic and other on-shelf sediments duringa period of high sedimentation rates Interpreted depo-sitional environments include lowstand progradingwedge slope fan and basin-floor fan beyond the shelfedge incised valley highstand delta and transgressivefacies and coastal plain coastal delta and inner-shelfmarine deposits in the coastal area (Hentz and Zeng2003)

All these Miocene depositional systems are com-posed of interbedded sandstone and shale units withsandstones varying widely in thickness and rangingfrom 1 to 40 m Although the study area is situatedin a passive continental margin a representative dipseismic section across the area (Figure 12) demon-strates mostly parallel to divergent seismic facies

TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA

SOUTH MARSHISLAND AREA

North LightHouse Point

TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686

Figure 11 Location of Starfak and Tiger Shoal fields 3Dseismic surveys and wells in the Louisiana Gulf Coast


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lacking large-scale clinoform configurations Mostof the study interval was deposited on the on-shelfarea In particular most of the thin on-shelf deltaicsediments are interbedded with incised valley fills(IVFs) without displaying shingled clinoforms thatare representative of shallow-water deltas (Figure 4d)With a predominant frequency of around 35 Hz it isunderstandable that the seismic data are not able toimage clinoform complexes from deltas thinner thana calculated Hmin of 43 m (with 3000 m∕s velocity)A strike seismic profile (Figure 12b) demonstratessimilar parallel to subparallel reflection events withvariable amplitude and continuity without any indica-tion of mounded facies (Figure 3b)

An amplitude stratal slice (Figure 13a) that sam-ples one of the parallel and variable amplitude events(Figure 12) reveals multiple channel forms and asso-ciated amplitude anomalies of varying shapes whichcan be referred to as distributary channels and deltalobes Upward-coarsening wireline-log patterns in oneof the lobes indicate the sandy and progradingcharacter of the 30- to 35-m-thick delta system(Figure 13b) Because of the digitate shape of the an-

cient landform it is interpreted as a fluvial-dominateddelta having limited wave modification This delta sys-tem is so big that it obviously exceeds the 350-mi2

study area

Miocene Oakville deltas at the Gulf of MexicoTexas United States

In a 3D seismic survey in the Corpus Christi Bay areaof south Texas (Figure 14) the Miocene Oakville For-mation is bounded below by the upper OligoceneAnahuac Formation Sediments of the Oakville intervalform one of many thick offlapping wedges of terrig-enous sediment that were deposited in the deep Gulfof Mexico Basin during the late Tertiary (Brownand Loucks 2009) Oakville strata make up part of asecond-order regressive sequence of interbedded sand-stones and shales that followed a basinwide second-order transgression represented by the OligoceneAnahuac Formation (Brown and Loucks 2009)

Dip (Figure 15a) and strike (Figure 15b) seismic sec-tions across the study area demonstrate a mostlyparallel seismic configuration in the Oakville intervalwhich is the on-shelf portion of the thick Oakville off-

1600

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Basinwarda)

b) 2000

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Fault IVF at high-freq sequence

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Figure 12 Seismic sections in Starfak andTiger Shoal area showing the lack of clino-forms in Miocene on-shelf deltaic sedimentsDashed lines refer to position of the stratalslice in Figure 13 (a) Northndashsouth dip sectionA-Aprime (modified from Zeng and Hentz 2004)(b) Westndasheast strike section B-Bprime SeeFigure 11 for position


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lapping wedge The dominantly deltaic and shore-zonesediments exhibit a different depositional style fromthat in the offshore Louisiana study area (Figure 11)where a primary deltaic depocenter existed during theMiocene Instead multiple small streams transportedenormous volumes of locally derived sediments acrossthe coastal plain of Texas (Galloway 1986 Gallowayet al 2000) Galloway et al (2000) and Loucks et al(2011) find the older Oligocene shelf edge to be 20 to25 mi seaward (downdip) of the study area

An amplitude stratal slice made inside the OakvilleFormation (Figure 16) illustrates a unique channel-lobesystem that resembles some elongate branches of themodern Mississippi delta (eg Figure 2) in geometryand in size except for its inner-shelf location At leasteight mouth-bar lobes are seen attached to a sinuousdistributary-channel system Wireline log patterns inwells show that channel-filled sandstones do not ex-ceed 10 m at this interval falling below seismic resolu-tion Outside the channels and in between delta lobesshaly sediments dominate No seismic clinoforms areobserved along the depositional surface representedby the stratal slice (Figure 16) an indication of ashallow-water origin of the deltaic system The thick-ness of the delta complex should not exceed the calcu-

lated Hmin or 33 m based on a predominant frequencyof the seismic data of 35 Hz and a formation velocityof 2300 m∕s

Frequency control on clinoform seismicstratigraphy

A detailed outcrop-based acoustic impedance (AI)model (Figure 17a) of the Abo carbonate sequenceat Apache Canyon Sierra Diablo west Texas(Courme 1999) provides a realistic stratigraphic andfacies reference to study factors that control thetransition between seismic clinoforms and non-clinoforms of a prograding carbonate depositionalsystem The modeled high-frequency sequence is com-posed of multiple interbedded high-AI mudstonepackstone and low-AI grainstone clinoforms dippingat 10degndash20deg (average 15deg) Measured beds or bed setsrange in thickness from 3 to 10 m (landward) to 20to 60 m (basinward) The clinoforms can be character-ized as oblique (Figure 4b) because of the gradually re-duced slope downdip and a bypassed or slightly erodedtoplap surface beneath a thin irregular paleokarst sys-tem The whole Abo clinoform complex is encased inflat-lying host carbonate units (Wolfcamp and ClearFork) Judging from the geometry of component beds

SB 4

Third-order

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SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

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SouthW17 W9 W14 W8 W4

GR SP ILD GR SP SPILD GR ILD ILD

MFS 4

SPGR ILDSPGR ILDSPGR

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0 0

60ft m

DATUM

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Lowstand (incised valley) (LST)Transgressive (TST)

Maximum flooding surfaceSequence boundaryMaximum flooding surfaceTransgressive surfaceSequence boundary

MFS 4SB 4

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b)

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SB 4

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SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

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MFS 4


2002

0 0

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DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

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a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault

Figure 13 A nonclinoform highstand on-shelf delta in a high-frequency sequence inStarfak and Tiger Shoal seismic surveys(modified from Hentz and Zeng 2003) (a) Arepresentative amplitude stratal slice illustrat-ing multiple channel forms and associatedamplitude anomalies of varying shapes in anon-shelf shallow-water delta (b) Well sectionC-Cprime showing high-frequency sequence corre-lation and stratal position of the stratal slice(modified from Hentz and Zeng 2003) Referto Figure 11 for the positions of the stratalslice and the well section


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and the stacking pattern of the clinoforms the imped-ance layering of this system is comparable to that of adeltaic system at a similar scale

A set of synthetic seismic models (Figure 17bndash17f)constructed from the AI model (Figure 17a) illustratehow this clinoform complex responds to Ricker wave-lets of different predominant frequencies The 300-Hzmodel (Figure 17b) has more than enough resolutionto resolve all modeled clinoform beds or bed sets Asa result the seismic clinoform configuration is an accu-rate duplication of a geologic clinoform complex In the200-Hz model (Figure 17c) resolution is still goodenough to resolve most of the clinoforms but clinoformimages start to blur in the thinnest beds and the thinnestparts of the clinoform complex (eg box a in Figure 17c)A further reduction of the predominant frequency to100 Hz (Figure 17d) results in the disappearance of seis-mic clinoforms in some segments of the complex (egbox a part of box b) In the 75-Hz model (Figure 17e)the seismic clinoforms are gone except in the thickestpart of the clinoform complex (box c) Finally seismicclinoforms disappear altogether in the 50-Hz model(Figure 17f) instead we see a mostly flat event havingvariable amplitude and continuity

A more quantitative analysis suggests that the firstoccurrence of seismic clinoforms in this set of seismicmodels is closely related to Hmin (equations 1 and 2) Athinner clinoform complex needs data of higherpredominant frequency to image The clinoform com-plex shown in box a (Figure 17a) is about 15ndash20 m(5ndash7 ms) thick which requires seismic data of 150ndash200 Hz to image (box a in Figure 17c) For a clinoformcomplex of 30 m (10 ms) 100-Hz data are barelyadequate to show recognizable seismic clinoforms(box b in Figure 17d) If a clinoform complex is 45 m(15 ms) thick it will show up in a 75-Hz section (box cin Figure 17e)

It seems that the type of seismic clinoform configu-ration may also be related to data frequency An obliqueclinoform seismic configuration in higher frequencydata (eg 300-Hz section Figure 17b) tends to becomea shingled configuration in the lower frequency data(eg box b in Figure 17d box c in Figure 17e) As aresult shingled facies observed in seismic data arenot necessarily truly representative of geologic clino-form architecture The merging of seismic responsesof the thinner low-angle downdip portion of clinoformswith that from underlying flat host rocks in low-frequency data appears to distort the seismic faciesBiddle et al (1992) document in their outcrop modelingstudy that the seismic downlap surfaces do not corre-spond to discrete stratal surfaces but to the toe-of-slopeposition where major bedding units thin below seismicresolution Likewise seismic sigmoidal clinoforms maybe distorted by seismic toplaps corresponding to lithof-acies changes in sigmoidal geologic units Readers arereferred to Zeng and Kerans (2003 Figure 1) for a field-data example

Reducing ambiguity of seismic interpretationSeismic nonclinoforms of prograding depositional

systems pose a challenge to exploration and produc-tion geologists using seismic data The lack of arecognizable clinoform configuration may lead tomisinterpretation of a prograding system as a differentfacies For example without well data and stratal slicemapping the subparallel variable-amplitude reflectionsthat correlated with shallow-water deltas in Figures 712 and 15 could easily be misinterpreted as flood-plain shore-zone or shallow-water lakeshallow-watermarine facies the nonclinoform reflection in low-frequency seismic models of a shelf-edge carbonateclinoform complex (eg Figure 17f) could mistakenlybe interpreted as flat inner-shelf mudstones This ambi-guity in seismic interpretation may have significant con-sequences the most serious misinterpretation would beto drill a shallow-water delta play on the basis of a falseimpression about the continuity of shingled reservoirsthat actually pinch out at multiple toplap points A sim-ulation model based on flat and continuous reservoirbedding instead of clinoforms would further hinderdevelopment of remaining hydrocarbons in hetero-geneous reservoirs

B

BA

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Laguna Madre

Padre Island MustangIsland

PortlandCorpus Christi

NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas

G u l f o f M e x i c o

C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

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Figure 14 Corpus Christi Bay area in south Texas and loca-tion of 3D seismic survey used in the study


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The ultimate solution to these problems is to pro-mote acquisition of high-resolution seismic data Basedon equation 2 and Table 1 in a data set of 200-Hzpredominant frequency Hmin will reduce to 5 m (for2000 ms clastic rocks) to 15 m (for 6000 ms carbonaterocks) which would greatly enhance our ability tovisually interpret thin-bedded seismic clinoformsSome new technologies in high-resolution acquisitionhave been developed in recent years Among them Qtechnology (Goto et al 2004) and high-density 3Dtechnology (Ramsden et al 2005) have probably metwith the most success

Where the current high cost of acquisition of high-resolution seismic data may not be suitable a high-frequency enhancement processing of available seismicdata would help Spectral balancing (Tufekcic et al1981) spectral decomposition (Partyka et al 1999)inverse spectral decomposition (Portniaguine andCastagna 2004) and wavelet transform (eg Smithet al 2008 Devi and Schwab 2009) are some of the

most useful methods Figure 18 shows an example inthe Abo Kingdom carbonate field of west Texas of usingthe spectral balancing method to increase the pre-dominant frequency of data for better clinoform imag-ing The original stacked and migrated seismic data(Figure 18a) are characterized by a frequency rangeof 10 to 70 Hz and a predominant frequency of30 Hz Some toplaps are seen terminated against a non-clinoform flat reflection of strong amplitude Followinga spectral balancing process (Figure 18b) the predomi-nant frequency of the data increases to 45 Hz resultingin a breakup of the flat event in the original data (Fig-ure 18a) into several clinoforms It appears that thesenewly imaged clinoforms are part of a large sigmoidalclinoform complex that lacks an inside toplap surface

However the process of high-frequency enhance-ment inevitably lowers the signal-to-noise ratio of thedata and therefore has its limit Caution should betaken not to artificially push the predominant fre-quency beyond the bandwidth of the data For many

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FrioFrio

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FrioFrio

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(ms)

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(ms)

1000

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Figure 15 Seismic sections in the CorpusChristi area showing the lack of clinoformsin Miocene Oakville on-shelf deltaic sedi-ments Dashed lines refer to position of thestratal slice in Figure 16 (a) Dip sectionA-Aprime (b) Strike section B-Bprime Refer to Figure 14for position


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areas where only low-frequency data are available orthe clinoform complexes are too thin (eg theshallow-water deltas investigated in this paper)an integrated approach that combines the use ofcore wireline logs production data and seismicgeomorphology should be adapted Unique landformson seismic stratal slices that are representative of vari-ous deltaic systems can alert interpreters to the pos-sible existence of shingled reservoir architecture inthe form of nonclinoform reflections Multiple longterminal distributary-channel forms (Figure 10a)stepwise termination of distributary-channel forms(Figure 10b) amplitude zoning (Figure 10c) and dig-itate (Figure 13a) and elongate (Figure 16) areal geom-etries are good examples of indicators of the presenceof thin below-seismic-resolution deltas For detailedreservoir prediction and characterization seismic lith-ology should also be investigated so that a 3D seismicvolume can first be converted into a log lithology vol-ume In a lithology volume lithology logs (eg gamma-ray and spontaneous potential) at well locations aretied to nearby seismic traces within a small toleranceensuring the best possible well integration with seis-mic data at the reservoir level Using seismic geomor-phology researchers can convert seismic data further

into depositional facies images with lithologic identifi-cation Such an approach is called seismic sedimentol-ogy (Zeng and Hentz 2004)

QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +

Figure 16 A representative amplitude stratal slice revealinga nonclinoform on-shelf delta in the Miocene Oakville Forma-tion in the Corpus Christi seismic survey

QAe1698

bbaa cc

AboAboWWolfcampolfcamp

Clear ForkClear Fork

a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac

Figure 17 An AI model of the Abo carbonateclinoform complex at Apache Canyon SierraDiablo west Texas (Courme 1999) and itssynthetic seismic responses with Ricker wave-lets of various frequencies For better com-parison with field data the predominantfrequency is used in modeling which is equalto 13 times the peak frequency for Rickerwavelet Clinoform detection limits are calcu-lated from equation 1 Boxes a b and c denoterelatively thin moderate and thick clinoformcomplexes in the model respectively


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ConclusionsThe seismic configuration of a prograding depositio-

nal sequence is related to the water depth of the receiv-ing basin Although deep-water (shelf-edge) deltas thatwere deposited in water depths of high tens to hundredsof meters can easily be resolved by seismic data as seis-mic clinoforms the clinoforms in shallow-water deltasdeveloped in water depths of meters to low tens of me-ters tend to be unrecognized by their seismic responsesin the form of seismic nonclinoforms The clinoformdetection limit (Hmin) can be defined as one wavelength(width of two seismic events) and is related to the pre-dominant frequency of the seismic data and the velocityof the prograding sediments

Ancient nonclinoform shallow-water deltas devel-oped in lacustrine and marine environments have beeninterpreted from low-frequency stacked and migratedseismic data by integrated use of core wireline logsand amplitude stratal slices The diagnostic seismicgeomorphologic patterns include but are not limitedto multiple long terminal distributary-channel formsstepwise termination of distributary-channel forms am-plitude zoning and digitate and elongate areal landformgeometries

Our outcrop seismic modeling shows the seismicfrequency control on clinoform seismic stratigraphyWhen the predominant frequency of a seismic waveletdecreases an oblique clinoform pattern tends to be-come a shingled clinoform configuration and when thethickness of a clinoform complex reaches Hmin a tran-sition from seismic clinoforms to seismic nonclino-forms occurs

The interpretation of progradational depositional se-quences needs to go beyond the recognition of seismicclinoforms using traditional seismic facies analysis oflow-frequency seismic data Ambiguity in interpretingnonclinoform seismic facies can be effectively reducedby high-resolution acquisition high-frequency enhance-ment processing and seismic sedimentology

AcknowledgmentsWe thank Q Zhang Y Sun R Wang C Zhou and B

Bai for their contribution to the study The authors alsoextend gratitude to PetroChina and Chevron for provid-ing well and seismic data Landmark Graphics Corpora-tion provided software via the Landmark UniversityGrant Program for the interpretation and display of seis-mic data The authors thank INTERPRETATION reviewers COlariu and R Loucks for their constructive commentsand suggestions Figures were prepared by C Brownand J Lardon S Doenges edited the text Publicationwas authorized by the director Bureau of EconomicGeology Jackson School of Geosciences The Univer-sity of Texas at Austin

ReferencesBelopolsky A V and A W Droxler 2004 Seismic expres-

sions of prograding carbonate bank margins MiddleMiocene Maldives Indian Ocean in G P EberliJ L Masaferro and J F Sarg eds Seismic imagingof carbonate reservoirs and systems AAPG Memoir81 267ndash290

Berg O R 1982 Seismic detection and evaluation of deltaand turbidite sequences Their application to explora-tion for the subtle trap AAPG Bulletin 66 1271ndash1288

Bhattacharya J P and R G Walker 1991 River- andwave-dominated depositional systems of the UpperCretaceous Dunvegan Formation northwestern Al-berta Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 39165ndash191

Biddle K T W Schlager K W Rudolph and T L Bush1992 Seismic model of a progradational carbonate

25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699

Figure 18 Reducing ambiguity in interpreting nonclinoformprograding sequences by spectral balancing (a) Originalstacked andmigrated seismic section in Abo Kingdom carbon-ate field of west Texas with a flat (dashed line) event andsome toplapped events (arrows) underneath (b) The samesection after spectral balancing processing The flat eventin the original data has been broken up into clinoforms(dashed lines) having slopes similar to those of surroundingevents The toplaps disappear


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platform Picco di Vallandro the Dolomites NorthernItaly AAPG Bulletin 76 14ndash30

Brown L F Jr and R G Loucks 2009 Chronostratigra-phy of Cenozoic depositional sequences and systemstracts A Wheeler chart of the northwest margin ofthe Gulf of Mexico Basin The University of Texas atAustin Bureau of Economic Geology Report of Inves-tigations 273

Busch D A 1959 Prospecting for stratigraphic trapsAAPG Bulletin 43 2829ndash2843

Busch D A 1971 Genetic units in delta prospectingAAPG Bulletin 55 1137ndash1154

Carvajal C and R J Steel 2009 Shelf-edge architectureand bypass of sand to deep water influence of shelf-edge processes sea level and sediment supply Journalof Sedimentary Research 79 652ndash672 doi 102110jsr2009074

Cleaves A W and M C Broussard 1980 Chester andPottsville depositional systems outcrop and subsur-face in the Black Warrior Basin of Mississippi and Ala-bama Gulf Coast Association of Geological SocietiesTransactions 30 49ndash60

Courme B 1999 Forward seismic modeling of a shelf-to-slope carbonate depositional setting from outcrop datathe Abo Formation of Apache Canyon West Texas andcomparison to its subsurface equivalent Kingdom Abofield Midland Basin MS thesis The University ofTexas at Austin p 200

Covault J A B W Romans and S A Graham 2009 Out-crop expression of a continental-margin-scale shelf-edge delta from the Cretaceous Magallanes BasinChile Journal of Sedimentary Research 79 523ndash539doi 102110jsr2009053

Devi K R S and H Schwab 2009 High-resolution seis-mic signals from band-limited data using scaling laws ofwavelet transforms Geophysics 74 no 2 WA143ndashWA152 doi 10119013077622

Diegel F A J F Karlo D C Schuster R C Shoup andP R Tauvers 1995 Cenozoic structural evolution andtectonostratigraphic framework of the northern GulfCoast continental margin in M P A Jackson D GRoberts and S Snelson eds Salt tectonics A globalperspective AAPG Memoir 65 109ndash151

Dixon J F J F Dixon R J Steel and C Olariu 2012River-dominated shelf-edge deltas delivery of sandacross the shelf break in the absence of slope incisionSedimentology 59 1133ndash1157 doi 101111j1365-3091201101298x

Droste H and M V Steenwinkel 2004 Stratal geometriesand patterns of platform carbonates The Cretaceous ofOman in G P Eberli J L Masaferro and J F Sargeds Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirs and sys-tems AAPG Memoir 81 185ndash206

Eberli G P F S Anselmetti C Betzler and J VKonijnenburg 2004 Daniel Bernoulli carbonate plat-form to basin transitions on seismic data and in

outcrops Great Bahama Bank and the Maiella platformmargin Italy in G P Eberli J L Masaferro andJ F Sarg eds Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirsand systems AAPG Memoir 81 207ndash250

Ethridge F G and W A Wescott 1984 Tectonic settingrecognition and hydrocarbon reservoir potential of fan-delta deposits in E H Koster and R J Steel eds Sed-imentology of gravels and conglomerates CanadianSociety of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 10 217ndash235

Feng Z Q C Z Jia X N Xie S Zhang Z H Feng andT A Cross 2010 Tectonostratigraphic units and strati-graphic sequences of the nonmarine Songliao Basinnortheast China Basin Research 22 79ndash95 doi 101111j1365-2117200900445x

Fisher W L L F Brown Jr A J Scott and J HMcGowen 1969 Delta systems in the exploration foroil and gas mdash A research colloquium The Universityof Texas at Austin

Galloway W E 1975 Evolution of deltaic systems inDeltas models for exploration Houston GeologicalSociety 8 7ndash89

Galloway W E 1986 Reservoir facies architecture of mi-crotidal barrier systems AAPG Bulletin 70 787ndash808

Galloway W E P E Ganey-Curry X Li and R T Buffler2000 Cenozoic depositional history of the Gulf ofMexico Basin AAPG Bulletin 84 1743ndash1774 doi 1013068626C37F-173B-11D7-8645000102C1865D

Galloway W E and D K Hobday 1983 Terrigenous clas-tic depositional systems Springer-Verlag p 423

Goto R D Lowden P Smith and J O Paulsen 2004Steered-streamer 4D case study over the Norne field74th Annual International Meeting SEG ExpandedAbstracts 2227ndash2230

Hentz T F and H Zeng 2003 High-frequency Miocenesequence stratigraphy offshore Louisiana Cycle frame-work and influence on production distribution in a ma-ture shelf province AAPG Bulletin 87 197ndash230 doi 10130609240201054

Isern A R F S Anselmetti and P Blum 2004 A Neogenecarbonate platform slope and shelf edifice shaped bysea level and ocean currents Marion Plateau (NortheastAustralia) inG P Eberli J L Masaferro and J F Sargeds Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirs and sys-tems AAPG Memoir 81 291ndash308

Li W J P Bhattacharya Y Zhu D Garza andE L Blankenship 2011 Evaluating delta asymmetry us-ing three-dimensional facies architecture and ichnologi-cal analysis Ferron lsquoNotom Deltarsquo Capital Reef UtahUSA Sedimentology 58 478ndash507 doi 101111j1365-3091201001172x

Lou Z H X Lan Q M Lu and X Y Cai 1999 Controls ofthe topography climate and lake level fluctuation onthe depositional environment of a shallow-water delta(in Chinese) Acta Geologica Sinica 73 83ndash92

Loucks R G B T Moore and H Zeng 2011 On-shelflower Miocene Oakville sediment-dispersal patterns


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within a three-dimensional sequence-stratigraphic ar-chitectural framework and implications for deep-waterreservoirs in the central coastal area of Texas AAPGBulletin 95 1795ndash1817

Mitchum R M Jr P R Vail and B Sangree 1977 Seis-mic stratigraphy and global change of sea level Part 6Stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection pat-terns in depositional sequences in C E Payton edSeismic stratigraphy AAPG Memoir 26 117ndash134

Olariu C and J P Bhattacharya 2006 Terminal dis-tributary channels and delta front architecture ofriver-dominated delta systems Journal of SedimentaryResearch 76 212ndash233 doi 102110jsr2006026

Olariu M I C R Carvajal C Olariu and R J Steel 2012Deltaic process and architectural evolution duringcross-shelf transits Maastrichtian Fox Hills FormationWashakie Basin Wyoming AAPG Bulletin 96 1931ndash1956 doi 10130603261211119

Partyka G J Gridley and J Lopez 1999 Interpretationalapplication of spectral decomposition in reservoir char-acterization The Leading Edge 18 353ndash360 doi 10119011438295

Portniaguine O and J P Castagna 2004 Inverse spectraldecomposition 74th Annual International MeetingSEG Expanded Abstracts 1786ndash1789

Postma G 1990 An analysis of the variation in delta ar-chitecture Terra Nova 2 124ndash130 doi 101111j1365-31211990tb00052x

Ramsden C G Bennett and A Long 2005 High resolu-tion 3D seismic imaging in practice The Leading Edge24 423ndash428 doi 10119011901397

Rasmussen D L C J Jump and K A Wallace 1985 Del-taic systems in the Early Cretaceous Fall River Forma-tion southern Powder River Basin Wyoming WyomingGeological Association 36 91ndash111

Rich J L 1951 Three critical environments of depositionand criteria for recognition of rocks deposited ineach of them Geological Society of America Bulletin62 1ndash20 doi 1011300016-7606(1951)62[1TCEODA]20CO2

Sangree J B and J M Widmier 1977 Seismic stratigra-phy and global changes of sea level Part 9 Seismic inter-pretation of clastic depositional facies in C E Paytoned Seismic stratigraphy AAPG Memoir 26 165ndash184

Smith M G Perry A Bertrand J Stein and G Yu 2008Extending seismic bandwidth using the continuouswavelet transform First Break 26 97ndash102

Tufekcic D J F Claerbout and Z Rasperic 1981 Spec-tral balancing in the time domain Geophysics 461182ndash1188 doi 10119011441258

Vail P R R M Mitchum Jr and S Thompson III 1977Relative change of sea level from coastal onlap Part 3Stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection pat-terns in depositional sequences in C E Payton edSeismic stratigraphy AAPG Memoir 26 63ndash82

Van Wagoner J C H W Posamentier R M MitchumP R Vail J F Sarg T S Loutit and J Hardenbol

1988 An overview of the fundamentals of sequencestratigraphy and key definitions in C K Wilgus BS Hastings H Posamentier J V Wagoner C A Rossand C Kendall eds Sea-level changes An integratedapproach SEPM Special publication no 42 1271ndash1288

Zeng H M M Backus K T Barrow and N Tyler 1998aStratal slicing Part I Realistic 3-D seismic model Geo-physics 63 502ndash513 doi 10119011444351

Zeng H S C Henry and J P Riola 1998b Stratal slicingPart II Real seismic data Geophysics 63 514ndash522 doi10119011444352

Zeng H and T F Hentz 2004 High-frequency sequencestratigraphy from seismic sedimentology Applied toMiocene Vermilion Block 50 Tiger Shoal area offshoreLouisiana AAPG Bulletin 88 153ndash174 doi 10130610060303018

Zeng H and C Kerans 2003 Seismic frequency controlon carbonate seismic stratigraphy A case study ofthe Kingdom Abo sequence West Texas AAPG Bulle-tin 87 273ndash293 doi 10130608270201023

Zeng H X Zhu R Zhu and Q Zhang 2012 Guidelines forseismic sedimentologic study in non-marine postrift ba-sins (in Chinese) Petroleum Exploration and Develop-ment 39 275ndash284 doi 101016S1876-3804(12)60045-7

Zou C N W Z Zhao X Y Zhang P Luo L Wang L HLiu S H Xue X J Yuan R K Zhu and S H Tao 2008Formation and distribution of shallow-water deltas andcentral-basin sandbodies in large open depression lakebasins (in Chinese) Acta Geologica Sinica 82 813ndash825

Hongliu Zeng received a BS (1982)

and an MS (1985) in geology from

the Petroleum University of China and

a PhD (1994) in geophysics from the

University of Texas at Austin He is a

senior research scientist for the Bureau

of Economic Geology Jackson School

of Geosciences The University of Texas

at Austin His research interests include seismic sedimentol-

ogy seismic interpretation and attribute analysis He won the

Pratt Memorial Award from AAPG in 2005

Xiaomin Zhu received BS (1982) MS

(1985) and PhD (1990) degrees in

petroleum geology from the Petroleum

University of China He is a professor

in the College of Geosciences China

University of Petroleum at Beijing

China His research interests include

lacustrine sedimentology sequence

stratigraphy and seismic sedimentology He won the Li

Siguang Award from the foundation of Li Siguang geological

scientific award in 2009


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Rukai Zhu received a BS (1988) in

geology from Hunan University of Sci-

ence and Technology an MS (1991) in

geology from China University of Geo-

sciences and a PhD (1994) in geology

from Peking University He is a senior

geologist for the Research Institute of

Petroleum Exploration amp Development

PetroChina His research interests include sedimentology

reservoir characterization and unconventional petroleum

geology


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in shallow-marine on-shelf intracratonic basins and inpostrift continental basins are especially hard to recog-nize using seismic data In these areas where sedimentsare only several meters to low tens of meters thick seis-mic clinoform patterns are commonly poorly imaged Asa result these clinoforms have received much less atten-tion from seismic interpreters In fact except for somemoderately thin sequences that can be recognized asldquoshingledrdquo clinoform complexes (Mitchum et al 1977)many thin deltaic sequences have probably been mistak-enly interpreted as other facies because they lack dis-tinctive seismic clinoforms In this study we defineseismic nonclinoforms (or subseismic clinoforms) asseismic events produced by prograding depositional se-quences that cannot be recognized visually as seismicclinoforms

The purpose of this study is to discuss and interpretthin deltas and prograding depositional systems belowseismic detection power Geologic and seismic indica-tions of deltaic systems are discussed The limits ofusing clinoform seismic facies to characterize deltaicsystems are pointed out Specific examples of subsur-face delta sequences without clinoform geometry onseismic sections are described and evaluated Seismicresolution control on imaging of clinoform seismic ar-chitecture is investigated Seismic techniques that canbe used to detect nonclinoform sequences are outlined

In this paper carbonate progradational systemsare discussed to a lesser degree Although lithologyand depositional processes in carbonate depositionalsequences are different from those in clastic systemslinks between clinoformal surfaces and depositionalratewater depth are similar which leads to similarimpedance architecture and comparable seismic faciesTherefore our observations in deltas could safely beapplied to carbonate systems and vice versa

Indication of deltaic systemsDeltaic systems show a wide complexity in the geo-

logic record Many of these systems can be interpretedin seismic data in certain situations An understandingof the geologic conditions of delta sequence develop-ment is essential to predict their seismic responsesFollowing is a brief description of various deltaic sys-tems and how they relate to seismic interpretability

Deltas in modern and geologic recordGalloway (1975) defines a delta as ldquoa contiguous

mass of sediment partly subaerial deposited aroundthe point where a stream enters a standing body ofwaterrdquo Galloway (1975) also classifies deltas into threebasic types or end members on the basis of the energysource that dominates the deltaic building processfluvial-dominated delta wave-dominated delta andtide-dominated delta These basic delta types are char-acterized by significantly different landform geometry(Figure 2) Fluvial-dominated deltas are elongate tolobate in shape whereas wave- and tide-dominated del-tas are arcuate and funnel shaped respectively Faciespatterns associated with each delta type are also differ-ent Adding to the complexity although a deltaic systemmay be controlled by one of the energy sources otherenergy sources are usually also active to some degreeleading to mixed geometry and facies patterns amongthe end members

Postma (1990) further classifies fluvial-dominateddeltaic systems on the basis of water depth in the re-ceiving basin Shallow-water deltas are developed inwater depths of low tens of meters which would in-clude on-shelf or ldquoshelf-typerdquo deltas (Ethridge andWescott 1984) in marine basins and lacustrine andother deltas related to other shelves Shallow-water del-tas are normally represented by three physiographiczones mdash delta plain delta front and prodelta mdash

similar to those in standard models of fluvial-dominateddeltas (eg Galloway and Hobday 1983) The slopenear the river mouth and the delta-front can be gentle(shoal-water type) or steep (Gilbert-type) dependingon the channel depth versus the basin depth The

QAe1675

UndathemClinothem

Basement

Undaform ClinoformLand

Fondothem

Fondoform

Depth ofwave base

Seasurface

Figure 1 Diagram showing the original concept of the clino-form defined by Rich (1951)

Fluvial dominated

Tide dominated

Wave dominated

Tidal

Lafourche(Mississippi)

Lobate

Elongate

Rhone River

ModernMississippi

Gulf of Papua

0 10 mi

QAe1676

Current

0 10 mi

0 10 mi

0 10 mi

Figure 2 Modern examples of three basic types of deltas(modified from Fisher et al 1969)


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a) Sigmoid

b) Oblique


d) Shingled

QAe1679


25 Hz

100 Hz

50 Hz

60 Hz

30 Hz

40 Hz

Velocity (ms)

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(m

)

80 Hz

4000 000600050002 3000

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(T

wo-

way

tim

e m

s)

20 Hz

Clastics

Carbonates

200 Hz

QAe1680


Shallow-water delta

Deep-water delta

Dip section

Strike section



1

5

4

32

13

2

Sandstone Shale

QAe1678

a)

b)



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V frac14 3000m∕s

V frac14 4000m∕s

V frac14 5000m∕s

V frac14 6000m∕s

20 500 750 1000 1250 1500

25 400 600 800 1000 1200

30 333 500 667 833 1000

40 250 375 500 625 750

50 200 300 400 500 600

60 167 250 333 417 500

80 125 187 250 312 375

100 100 150 200 250 300

200 50 75 100 125 150

0 1200 km


of China

0 500 km

48deg

46deg

44deg


124deg122deg

Qiqihar

Harbin

Changchun

DaqingOilfieldStudy

area

SongliaoBasin

QAe1681

N



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rsquoAA

G21

G42G41G32G31

G22

G12

SQ1SS1SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

SQ2

SQ3

G11

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

T1

T2

a)Basinward

2 km2 km

b)

SQ1

SQ2

SQ3

T1

T2

Rel

ativ

e ge

olog

ic ti

me

a

b

c

SS1

SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

G21

G42G41G32G31G22

G12G11



Fault

fifth fourth third

fifth fourth third

- +

Amplitude

A

Arsquo

BBrsquo

QAe1682

2 km

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700



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B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c


QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone


GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)



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Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



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TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



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study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



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SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



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B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



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- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



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QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



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25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



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geology


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a) Sigmoid

b) Oblique


d) Shingled

QAe1679


25 Hz

100 Hz

50 Hz

60 Hz

30 Hz

40 Hz

Velocity (ms)

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(m

)

80 Hz

4000 000600050002 3000

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

20

0

40

60

80

100

120

140

Rec

ogni

zabl

e pr

ogra

ding

seq

(T

wo-

way

tim

e m

s)

20 Hz

Clastics

Carbonates

200 Hz

QAe1680


Shallow-water delta

Deep-water delta

Dip section

Strike section



1

5

4

32

13

2

Sandstone Shale

QAe1678

a)

b)



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V frac14 3000m∕s

V frac14 4000m∕s

V frac14 5000m∕s

V frac14 6000m∕s

20 500 750 1000 1250 1500

25 400 600 800 1000 1200

30 333 500 667 833 1000

40 250 375 500 625 750

50 200 300 400 500 600

60 167 250 333 417 500

80 125 187 250 312 375

100 100 150 200 250 300

200 50 75 100 125 150

0 1200 km


of China

0 500 km

48deg

46deg

44deg


124deg122deg

Qiqihar

Harbin

Changchun

DaqingOilfieldStudy

area

SongliaoBasin

QAe1681

N



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rsquoAA

G21

G42G41G32G31

G22

G12

SQ1SS1SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

SQ2

SQ3

G11

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

T1

T2

a)Basinward

2 km2 km

b)

SQ1

SQ2

SQ3

T1

T2

Rel

ativ

e ge

olog

ic ti

me

a

b

c

SS1

SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

G21

G42G41G32G31G22

G12G11



Fault

fifth fourth third

fifth fourth third

- +

Amplitude

A

Arsquo

BBrsquo

QAe1682

2 km

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700



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ded

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org







B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c


QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone


GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)



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org




Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



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TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



Dow

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ded

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to 1

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org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



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ded

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to 1

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SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



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B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



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Ter

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- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



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org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



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org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



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geology


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org









V frac14 3000m∕s

V frac14 4000m∕s

V frac14 5000m∕s

V frac14 6000m∕s

20 500 750 1000 1250 1500

25 400 600 800 1000 1200

30 333 500 667 833 1000

40 250 375 500 625 750

50 200 300 400 500 600

60 167 250 333 417 500

80 125 187 250 312 375

100 100 150 200 250 300

200 50 75 100 125 150

0 1200 km


of China

0 500 km

48deg

46deg

44deg


124deg122deg

Qiqihar

Harbin

Changchun

DaqingOilfieldStudy

area

SongliaoBasin

QAe1681

N



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org










rsquoAA

G21

G42G41G32G31

G22

G12

SQ1SS1SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

SQ2

SQ3

G11

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

T1

T2

a)Basinward

2 km2 km

b)

SQ1

SQ2

SQ3

T1

T2

Rel

ativ

e ge

olog

ic ti

me

a

b

c

SS1

SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

G21

G42G41G32G31G22

G12G11



Fault

fifth fourth third

fifth fourth third

- +

Amplitude

A

Arsquo

BBrsquo

QAe1682

2 km

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700



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org







B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c


QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone


GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)



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Ter

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seg

org




Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



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seg

org







TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



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432

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ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

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lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



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of U

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seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



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122

432

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of U

se a

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rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



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ded

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to 1

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122

432

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Ter

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of U

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rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

n su

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or c

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ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

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ded

101

413

to 1

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122

432

38 R

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Ter

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of U

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rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



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122

432

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org





























Dow

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122

432

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org














































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122

432

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ight

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Ter

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of U

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org











geology


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122

432

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of U

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org










rsquoAA

G21

G42G41G32G31

G22

G12

SQ1SS1SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

SQ2

SQ3

G11

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

T1

T2

a)Basinward

2 km2 km

b)

SQ1

SQ2

SQ3

T1

T2

Rel

ativ

e ge

olog

ic ti

me

a

b

c

SS1

SS2

SS3

SS4

SS5

SS6

G21

G42G41G32G31G22

G12G11



Fault

fifth fourth third

fifth fourth third

- +

Amplitude

A

Arsquo

BBrsquo

QAe1682

2 km

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700



Dow

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ded

101

413

to 1

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122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

n su

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t to

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or c

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ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c


QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone


GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)



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432

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



Dow

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122

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Ter

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of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

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t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



Dow

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ded

101

413

to 1

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122

432

38 R

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utio

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

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ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

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t to

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or c

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

n su

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

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lice

nse

or c

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ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

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ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

n su

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t to

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ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

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122

432

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org





























Dow

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101

413

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122

432

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ight

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ms

of U

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t http

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rary

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org














































Dow

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ded

101

413

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861

122

432

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ight

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ms

of U

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t http

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org











geology


Dow

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ded

101

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122

432

38 R

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Ter

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of U

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seg

org







B B

+-

Amplitude2 km

50 m

s50

ms

QAe1683

50 m

s

a

b

c


QAe1684

10 m

Del

ta fr

ont

Sha

llow

lake

Depth(m)

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone


GR DT

a)

b)

c)

2121

2122

2123

2124

2125

2126

2127

2128

2129

2130

2131

2132

2120

2133

a)

b)

c)



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ded

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122

432

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



Dow

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ded

101

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to 1

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122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

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lice

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

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utio

n su

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t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

nloa

ded

101

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to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




Fault- +

Amplitude


Deltaplain

Deltafront

Prodeltalake


2 km2 km2 km

QAe1685

a)

c)

e)

b)

d)

f)



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







TEXAS

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

3D surveysField

N

VERMILIONAREA



TigerShoal

Starfak C

LOUISIANA

MARSH ISLAND

C

A

A

0

0

5 mi

8 km

B

B

LightHousePoint

Trinity Shoal

Amber Complex

Mound Point

Fig 13

QAe1686



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org




study area




1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Basinwarda)

b) 2000

2200

2400

2600

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

B B

ndash

Amplitude

+2 km0

0 2 mi 14


A A

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

QAe1695



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org






SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


200

0 0

60ft m

DATUM

Highland (HST)



MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


SB 4

Third-order

Fourth-order

Fourth-order

SYSTEMS TRACT

Upp

er M

ioce

ne SB 3

W2NorthC Cacute



MFS 4


2002

0 0

60ft m

DDAATUMTUMAAA

Highland (HST)



g

MFS 4SB 4

QAe1701

a)

b)

2 km


Channellobe

- +

Amplitude

Fault



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org







B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

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t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



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of U

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of U

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geology


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B

BA

A

Laguna Madre



NuecesBay

N

TEXAS

Port Aransas


C o r p u s

C h r i s t i B a y

Redfish Bay

Aransas Pass

10 km0

QAe1700



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ms

of U

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t http

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rary

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org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



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n su

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t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



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101

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to 1

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122

432

38 R

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utio

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t to

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or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

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to 1

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122

432

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trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

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122

432

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trib

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t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

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to 1

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122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

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t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





- +

Amplitude

a)

b)

Basinward

1 km

Fault

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

A

B B

B

QAe1696

AnahuacAnahuac

FrioFrio

OakvilleOakville

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

Tra

velti

me

(ms)

1000

1500

2000

1000



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

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edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

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101

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to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

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to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org



QAe1697

SPReslogs

Channellobe


WellFault

N

Amplitude500 m

- +


QAe1698

bbaa cc



a)AI

b) 300 Hz

f ) 50 Hze)

75 Hz

d) 100 Hz

c) 200 Hz

Hmin

Hmin Hmin

Hmin Hmin

bbaa cc



bbaaccbacbac

bbaaccbacbac bbaa

ccbacbac



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

nloa

ded

101

413

to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

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to 1

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122

432

38 R

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trib

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n su

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t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

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122

432

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n su

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

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101

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to 1

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122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

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t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org













25 m

s

500 m

a)

b)

- +

Amplitude QAe1699



Dow

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101

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to 1

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or c

opyr

ight

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ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

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or c

opyr

ight

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ms

of U

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t http

lib

rary

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org














































Dow

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432

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n su

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t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

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to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

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t http

lib

rary

seg

org





























Dow

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to 1

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122

432

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edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org














































Dow

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432

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


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to 1

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122

432

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edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

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lice

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or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

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t http

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rary

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org














































Dow

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n su

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lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

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861

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edis

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n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

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Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org











geology


Dow

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to 1

861

122

432

38 R

edis

trib

utio

n su

bjec

t to

SEG

lice

nse

or c

opyr

ight

see

Ter

ms

of U

se a

t http

lib

rary

seg

org