Dr. Amal Alahmady

The process by which people learn a second

language in addition to their native language.

SLA vs. FLA (Ellis, 1994)

Second language: the target language plays an

institutional and social role in the community.

Foreign language learning takes place in settings

where the language plays no major role in the

community and it primarily learnt only in the

classroom.

Learner Variables (Yorio, 1976) Age: children, adolescents, or adult Cognition: general intelligence, language

aptitude, learning strategies, learning style Native language: transfer (positive vs. negative) Input: free learner vs. instructed learner Affective domain: socio-cultural, egocentric

factor, motivation (learning goals) Educational background

Forms the many different domains of inquiry that must be included in a theory of SLA

A theory of SLA includes an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is,and for classroom context, what teaching is.

Knowledge of children‟s learning of their firstlanguage provides essential insights to anunderstanding of SLA

A number of important differences betweenadult and child learning and between first andsecond language acquisition must be carefullyaccounted for.

Second language learning is a part and

adheres to general principles of human

learning and intelligence.

There is tremendous variation across learners

in cognitive style and within a learner in

strategy choice.

Personality, the way people view themselves

and reveal themselves in communication, will

affect both the quantity and quality of second

language learning.

Learning a second culture is often intricately intertwinedwith learning a second language. The linguistic contrasts between the native and targetlanguage form one source of difficulty in learning a secondlanguage. But the creative process of forming in interlanguage systeminvolves the learner in utilizing many facilitative sourcesand resources. Inevitable aspects of this process are errors, form whichlearners and teachers can gain further insight. Communicative competence, with all of its subcategories, isthe ultimate goal of learners as they deal with function,discourse, register, and nonverbal aspects of humaninteraction and linguistic negotiation.

A theory of SLA is really an interrelated

set of hypotheses and/or claims about

how people become proficient in a

second language

Lightbown (1985) made the following claims:

1. Adults and adolescents can “acquire” a second

language.

2. The learner creates a systematic interlanguage

that is often characterized by the same

systematic errors as those of the child learning

the same language as the first language, as

well as others that appear to be based on the

learner‟s own native language.

3. There are predictable sequences in

acquisition so that certain structures have

to be acquired before others can be

integrated.

4. Practice does not make perfect.

5. Knowing a language rule does not mean

one will be able to use it in

communicative interaction.

6. Isolated explicit error correction is usually

ineffective in changing language behavior.

7. For most adult learners, acquisition

stops –”fossilizes”– before the learner

has achieved native like mastery of the

target language.

8. One cannot achieve native like command of a second language in one hour a day.

9. The learner‟s task is enormous because language is enormously complex.

10. A learner‟s ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his or her ability to comprehend decontextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy.

An Innatist Model

Cognitive Models

A Social Constructivist Model

the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

the Monitor hypothesis

the Natural Order hypothesis

the Input hypothesis

the Affective Filter hypothesis

'adults have two distinctive ways of developing competences in second languages…acquisition, that is by using language for real communication ... Learning… "knowing about" language' (Krashen & Terrell 1983)

• The acquired system The product of a subconscious process verysimilar to the process children undergowhen they acquire their first language

It requires meaningful interaction in thetarget language - natural communication -in which speakers are concentrated not inthe form of their utterances, but in the

communicative act.

• The learned system

the product of formal instruction and it

comprises a conscious process which

results in conscious knowledge 'about' the

language

According to Krashen 'learning' is less

important than 'acquisition'.

How to apply this hypothesis in yourEnglish class?

'conscious learning ... can only be used as a Monitor or an editor' (Krashen & Terrell 1983)

The “monitor” is involved in learning, not inacquisition.

It is a „watchdogging” one‟s output, for editingand making alterations or corrections as theyare consciously perceived. Only once fluency is established should anoptimal amount of monitoring, or editing, beemployed by the learner (Krashen, 1981).

There is individual variation among languagelearners with regard to 'monitor' use.

Over-usersThose learners that use the 'monitor' all the timeIntroverts and perfectionists are over-usersLack of self-confidence is frequently related to the overuse

of the 'monitor' Under-usersThose learners who have not learned or who prefer not touse their conscious knowledge Optimal usersThose learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately

'we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order'

Some grammatical structures tend to be acquired

early while others late. This order seemed to beindependent of the learners' age, L1 background,

conditions of exposure, and although the agreement

between individual acquirers was not always 100% in

the studies, there were statistically significant

similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural

Order of language acquisition.

'humans acquire language in only one way -by understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensible input"

The Input hypothesis is only concerned

with 'acquisition', not 'learning'.

The learner improves and progresses

along the 'natural order' when he/she

receives second language 'input' that is

one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

If a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition

takes place when he/she is exposed to

'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level

i+1

Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time ,Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing

a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i +1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

How to diagnose learners‟ currentstage of linguistic competence?

A number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but noncausal,role in second language acquisition.

These variables include: motivation, self-confidence andanxiety.

Learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image , and a low level of anxiety are better equipped forsuccess in second language acquisition.

Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxietycan combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mentalblock' that prevents comprehensible input from being usedfor acquisition.

Positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on itsown, for acquisition to take place.

“consciousness” is a tricky term (McLaughlin, 1990;Schmidt, 1990)

Younger (child language acquisition) is not

necessarily better (Scovel, 1999)

If we rule out a consciousness continuum in

constructing a viable theory of SLA, and we do not hold child first language acquisition up as the ideal model of language acquisition, we must look elsewhere for the foundation stones of a theory.

Cognitive Models

Connects processing mechanisms with

categories of attention to formal properties of language.

Four cells:

Focal controlled processes (Cell A)

Focal automatic processes (Cell B)

Peripheral controlled processes (Cell C)

Peripheral automatic processes (Cell D)

Attention to

Formal

Properties

of Languages

AutomaticControlled

Performance in a test situation(Cell B)

Performance based on formal

rulelearning(Cell A)

Focal

Performance in

communication

situations(Cell D)

Performance based

on implicit learning

or analogiclearning(Cell C)

Peripheral

Emphasize the dynamic nature of the interplay between learners and their peers and their teachers and others with whom they interact.

The interpersonal context in which a learner

operates takes on great significance, and

therefore, the interaction between learners

and other is the focus of observation and

explanation.

Language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target

language in interaction (Long, 1990).

The generative use of words: the use of words in new contexts

which stimulate a deeper understanding of their meaning (Nation,

2000).

Interaction and input are two major players in the process of

acquisition.

The negotiation of meaning has been shown to contribute greatly

to the acquisition of vocabulary (Long, 1990).

The comprehensible input is the result of modified

interaction.

Learners construct the new language through socially

mediated interaction (van Lier, 1996)

It centers us on the language classroom not just as a place where learners of varying abilities and styles and backgrounds mingle , but as a place where the contexts for interaction are carefully designed.

It focuses materials and curriculum developers on creating the optimal environments and tasks for input and interaction such that the learner will be stimulated to create his or her own learner language in a socially constructed process.

Constructivism Cognitive Innatist

[Long]

Interaction hypothesis

Intake through social

interaction

AuthenticityTask-based

instruction

[McLauglin]Controlled/automatic

processing Focal/peripheral

attentionRestructuring

[Krashen]Subconsciousacquisition superior to“learning” and“monitoring”Comprehensible input(i+1)Low affective filterNatural order ofacquisition“zero option” forgrammar instruction

The systematic modeling of SLA is

concerned with the question: What are the most important overall factors in language acquisition?

Different models of SLA have focused on different aspects of SLA and general linguistic research.

No single model of SLA has gained wide acceptance.