SecundumArtem

VOLUME 7 NUMBER 3

Current & Practical CompoundingInformation for the Pharmacist.

COMPOUNDING, STABILITY AND BEYOND-USE DATES

INTRODUCTIONConsiderations in the extemporaneous compound-ing of prescriptions include stability andbeyond-use dating. It should be noted that"Expiration Dates" are placed on commerciallymanufactured products and "Beyond-Use Dates"are used for compounded preparations. Prescrip-tions requiring extemporaneous compounding bythe pharmacist generally do not require the extend-ed shelf-life that commercially manufactured anddistributed products do because they are intendedto be utilized soon after receipt by the patient andare used only during the immediate course of theprescribed treatment. However, these compound-ed prescriptions must remain stable and efficaciousduring the course of their use and the compound-ing pharmacist must employ formulativecomponents and techniques which will result in astable product.

In years past, pharmacists were presented primari-ly with innocuous, topical prescriptions thatrequired extemporaneous formulation. However,in recent years there has been a need to compounda wide variety of other drug delivery systems aswell, including capsules, solutions, suspensions,emulsions, troches, injections, ophthalmics, nasals,otics, powders, ointments, creams, gels, etc. Whenpresented with a prescription that requires extem-poraneous compounding, the pharmacist is facedwith a difficult situation because the potency andthe stability of these prescriptions is a serious mat-ter. Occasionally, the results of compatibility andstability studies on such prescriptions are pub-lished in scientific and professional journals. Theseare very useful; however, there are also prescrip-tions for which stability and compatibilityinformation is not readily obtainable. In theseinstances it behooves the pharmacist to obtainwhatever stability information might be available.There are numerous sources of information thatcan be utilized for determining an appropriate"beyond-use" date. This might include contacting aLoyd V. Allen, Jr., Ph.D., R.Ph. Professor Emeritus,University of Oklahoma, HSC College of Pharmacy,Oklahoma City, OK 73190

manufacturer of a commercial product if one isused as a source of drug or referring to the litera-ture for published stability studies, or a compiledsource of stability data. When evaluating stabilitystudies in the literature, it is important that theproducts studied and reported be similar to what isto be prepared in drug concentration range, pH,excipients, vehicle, water content, etc., for theresults to be applicable. Sources of such studiesinclude manufacturers literature, Trissel's Stabilityof Compounded Formulations, the monographs inAHFS-Drug Information, the International Journalof Pharmaceutical Compounding, American Jour-nal of Health-System Pharmacy, Lippincott'sHospital Pharmacy, other journals as well as pub-lished books on the subject. Generally, mostpharmacists prepare/dispense small quantities ofcompounded products, recommend storage at coolor cold temperatures, and use a conservative"beyond-use" date.

USP GUIDELINES: BEYOND-USE DATINGFOR EXTEMPORANEOUS COMPOUNDEDPRESCRIPTIONSThe USP provides guidelines on stability and theassignment of a "beyond-use" date for extempora-neous compounded formulations that, in theabsence of other available stability information, areapplicable to a specific drug and preparation.Unless published data is available to the contrary,the following are the maximum recommendedbeyond-use dates for nonsterile compounded drugpreparations that are packaged in tight, light-resis-tant containers when stored at controlled roomtemperature or as otherwise indicated.Nonaqueous Liquids and Solid Formulations: If thesource of the ingredient(s) is a manufactured drugproduct, the beyond-use date should be not laterthan 25% of the time remaining until the originalproducts expiration date, or 6 months, whicheveris earlier. If the source of the ingredient(s) is a USPor NF substance, the beyond-use date is not laterthan 6 months.Water-Containing Formulations: When preparedfrom ingredients in solid form, the beyond-use dateshould be not later than 14 days when stored at

Formulation and

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The Q10 method of

shelf-life

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calculate a

beyond-use date

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valence of an element--for example, ferrous (+2) oxidizing to ferric(+3). In organic chemistry, oxidation is frequently considered syn-onymous with the loss of hydrogen (dehydrogenation) from amolecule. The oxidative process frequently involves free chemicalradicals, which are molecules or atoms containing one or moreunpaired electrons, as molecular (atmospheric) oxygen and freehydroxyl. These radicals tend to take electrons from other chemi-cals, thereby oxidizing the donor.

Many of the oxidative changes in pharmaceutical preparations are"autoxidations" which occur spontaneously under the initial influ-ence of atmospheric oxygen and proceed slowly at first and thenmore rapidly as the process continues. It is a type of chain reactionbeginning with the union of oxygen with a drug molecule and con-tinuing with a free radical of this oxidized molecule participating inthe destruction of other drug molecules.

In pharmaceutical compounding, steps should be taken to reduceor prevent the occurrence of drug substance deterioration due tohydrolysis, oxidation, and other processes. These techniques ofdoing this will be discussed later.

FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITYFormulation and stability difficulties arise less frequently withsolid dosage forms than with liquid pharmaceutical preparations;this is one reason many new drugs first reach the market as tabletsor dry-filled capsules. The stability of a drug and its dosage form isaffected by a number of various factors, including pH, temperature,solvent, light, air (oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture), humidity,particle size and others.

pH is one of the most important factors in the stability of a product.Many pH:stability profiles are published or can be obtained andcan be used to determine the pH of maximum stability of a drug.After the pH range is determined, buffers can be prepared to main-tain the pH for the expected shelf-life or duration of therapy of theproduct.

Temperature affects the stability of a drug by increasing the rate ofreaction speed about two to three times with each 10C rise in tem-perature. This effect on temperature was first suggested byArrhenius as:where k is the specific reaction rate, A is the frequency factor, Ea is

the energy of activation, R is the gas constant (1.987 calories/degmole), and T is the absolute temperature. As is evident from theserelationships, an increase in temperature will result in an increasein the specific reaction rate, or the degradation rate of the drug.Temperature effects can be minimized by selecting the proper stor-age temperature, whether this is room, refrigerated or freezing.

Solvent: In a liquid preparation, the effect of the solvent is impor-tant. The solvent affects the solubility, pH and the solubilityparameter of the active ingredient; solvents should not be indis-criminately changed in products if stability may be compromised.

Light may provide the activation energy required for a degradationreaction to occur. Many light-activated reactions are zero order, orconstant reactions. Light effects can be minimized by packaging inlight resistant containers and covering the products that are light-sensitive during administration with aluminum foil or an amberplastic overwrap.

cold temperatures.All-Other Formulations: The earlier of 30 days or the intendedduration of therapy. If there is supporting valid scientific stabilityinformation appropriate to the specific preparation, the beyond-usedate limits may be exceeded. The reader is referred to Phar-macy Compounding Practices in the USP/NF.

Also, when compounding on the basis of extrapolated information,it is best for the pharmacist to keep the formulation simple but usethe necessary pharmaceutical adjuvants to prepare the prescriptionproperly. In order to select the proper adjuvants for a preparation,it is important to consider the various types of stability and the gen-eral factors affecting stability.

TYPES OF STABILITYStability is the extent to which a product retains, within specifiedlimits, and throughout its period of storage and use, the same prop-erties and characteristics that it possessed at the time of itsmanufacture. There are five general types of stability defined bythe USP.Chemical: Each active ingredient retains its chemical integrity andlabeled potency, within the specified limits.Physical: The original physical properties, including appearance,palatability, uniformity, dissolution, and suspendability areretained.Microbiological Sterility or resistance to microbial growth isretained according to the specified requirements. Antimicrobialagents that are present retain effectiveness within the specifiedlimits.Therapeutic: The therapeutic effect remains unchanged.Toxicological: No significant increase in toxicity occurs.

Compounding pharmacists are interested in all five types of stabil-ity but the compounding process emphasizes observations that canbe done related to the chemical, physical and microbiological.

Chemical stability is important for selecting storage conditions(temperature, light, humidity), selecting the proper container fordispensing (glass vs. plastic, clear vs. amber or opaque, cap liners)and for anticipating interactions when mixing drugs and dosageforms. Stability and expiration dating/beyond-use dating arebased on reaction kinetics, i.e., the study of the rate of chemicalchange and the way this rate is influenced by conditions of concen-tration of reactants, products, and other chemical species that maybe present, and by factors such as solvent, pressure, andtemperature

MECHANISMS OF DEGRADATIONChemically, the most frequently encountered destructive processesinclude hydrolysis and oxidation. Hydrolysis is a solvolytic processin which drugs react with water to yield breakdown products ofdifferent chemical composition. For example, a molecule of aspirincombines with a water molecule and hydrolyzes into one moleculeof salicylic acid and one molecule of acetic acid.

The process of hydrolysis is probably the most important singlecause of drug decomposition because many drugs are esters or con-tain such other groupings as substituted amides, lactones, andlactams, which are susceptible to the hydrolytic process.

Another destructive process is oxidation. The oxidative process isdestructive to many drug types, including aldehydes, alcohols,phenols, sugars, alkaloids, and unsaturated fats and oils. Chemi-cally, oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an atom or amolecule. Each electron lost is accepted by some other atom or mol-ecule, causing the reduction of the recipient molecule. In inorganicchemistry, oxidation is accompanied by an increase in the positive

k = Ae-Ea/RTor Ealog k = log A -

2..303 RT

Air (oxygen) can induce degradation by oxidation. This can beminimized by decreasing the headspace in a container by fillingas full as practical, or by replacing the headspace with nitrogen.

Carbon dioxide can result in insoluble carbonates forming in thesolid dosage form which results in a decrease in the disintegrationand dissolution of the product. It can be minimized by packagingin tight containers and filling them as full as reasonable. Humid-ity, or moisture, can result in hydrolysis reactions anddegradation of the drug product. This can be minimized by work-ing in a dry environment and by packaging the product with adesiccant packet added.

Humidity, or moisture, can result in hydrolysis reactions anddegradation of the drug product. This can be minimized by work-ing in a dry environment and by packaging the product with adesiccant packet added.

Particle size can have an important effect on the stability of aproduct. The smaller the particle size, the greater the reactivity ofthe product. When working with poorly stable drugs in soliddosage forms such as powders and capsules, it may be advisableto use a larger particle size as appropriate.

Other factors affecting drug stability include ionic strength anddielectric constant. Some paths of physical instability include theformation of polymorphs, crystallization, vaporization andadsorption.

Polymorphs are different crystal forms of the same chemical com-pound and differ in their crystal energies. They may exhibitdifferences in such properties as solubility, compressibility andmelting point. The occurrence of polymorphs can be minimizedby being aware of the causative factors and preventing them. Forexample, heating and shock-cooling can cause the formation ofpolymorphs.

Crystallization of particles in suspension can result in a differentparticle size distribution of the particles. This occurs often by tem-perature fluctuations; increasing temperatures result in greatersolubility (often with the smaller particles dissolving faster) anddecreasing temperatures result in some drug in solution crystal-lizing out on particles that are already present. This cycling willdecrease the proportion of smaller particles and increase theproportion of larger crystals present.

Vaporization is loss of solvent which is increased at higher tem-peratures. With a loss of solvent, or liquid, the resultingconcentration of the product will increase. This may lead to over-dosage when administered. Also, with a loss of solvent,precipitation of the drug may occur if the solubility of the drug inthe remaining vehicle is exceeded.

Adsorption of the drug or excipients is rather common and maylead to a loss of the drug available for exerting its effect. Drugsmay adsorb to filters, the container, tubing, syringes, or othermaterials which it contacts. This may be of special importance tolow dose drugs. Sorption can often be minimized by pre-treatingequipment/containers with silicone and the sorption of somematerials can be minimized by the addition of albumen or similarmaterial to the vehicle prior to adding the drug.

OBSERVATION OF INSTABILITYDrug instability in pharmaceutical formulations may be detectedin some instances by a change in the physical appearance, color,odor, taste or texture of the formulation whereas in otherinstances chemical changes may occur which are not self-evident

and may only be ascertained through chemical analysis. Evidence ofinstability in dosage forms in many cases can be observed by the phar-macist. For example, the following physical observations of differentdosage forms can be made.

Capsules: A change in the physical appearance or consistency of thecapsule or its contents, including hardening, brittleness or softening ofthe shell. Also, any discoloration or expansion/distortion of thegelatin capsule.

Powders: Dry powders and granules should remain free flowing.Physical instability may be indicated by caking or discoloration. Uponopening the container, if there is a release of pressure, this may beindicative of bacterial or other degradation resulting in a release of car-bon dioxide. Powders should have a uniform color and, if appropriate,a characteristic odor.

Solutions/Elixirs, Syrups, etc.: Solutions should be free of precipitates,discoloration, haziness, gas formation and microbial growth. Theyshould be clear and of the appropriate color and odor.

Emulsions: Emulsions should have a reasonably uniform globule sizedistribution and viscosity. They should not exhibit breaking, cream-ing, gas formation, discoloration or microbial growth.

Suspensions: Suspensions should not exhibit caking, difficulty inresuspending, crystal growth, discoloration or microbial growth. Theyshould have reasonably uniform particle size distribution andviscosity.

Ointments: Ointments should have a uniform appearance and, asappropriate, a characteristic odor. They should not change in consis-tency or demonstrate a separation of liquid, if contained, or theformation of granules or grittiness, or dryness.

Creams: Creams should have a uniform appearance and, as appropri-ate, a characteristic odor. They should not exhibit emulsion breakage,crystal growth, shrinking due to evaporation or water, gross microbialcontamination, discoloration or inappropriate odor.

Suppositories: Suppositories should remain uniform in appearance.They should not exhibit excessive softening, drying, hardening, shriv-eling. There should be no evidence of oil stains on the packaging.

Gels: Gels should have a uniform appearance and, as appropriate, acharacteristic odor. They should not exhibit any shrinkage, separationof liquid from the gel, discoloration or microbial contamination.

Troches: Troches should exhibit a uniform appearance and, as appro-priate, a characteristic odor. They should not exhibit any softening orhardening, crystallization, microbial contamination or discoloration.

Sterile productsAll sterile products must maintain sterility and, as appropriate, theirnonpyrogenicity.

Ophthalmic preparations: Ophthalmic preparations should exhibit auniform appearance, color, consistency, clarity (solutions), particle sizeand resuspendibility (suspensions, creams, ointments), strength, andsterility.

Small-volume parenterals: Small-volume parenterals should exhibit auniform appearance, color, be free from particulate matter, be easilydispersed (suspensions), and show no signs of change of closureintegrity.

Large-volume parenterals: Large-volume parenterals should exhibit a

binding the metal through the use of specialized agents thatmake it chemically unavailable for participation in the oxida-tive process. These agents are referred to as chelating agentsand are exemplified by calcium disodium edetate and ethyl-enediamine tetra-acetic acid.

Light can also act as a catalyst to oxidation reactions. As a pre-caution against the acceleration of the oxidative process,sensitive preparations are packaged in light-resistant oropaque containers. Also, since most drug degradations pro-ceed more rapidly with an advanced temperature, it is alsoadvisable to maintain oxidizable drugs in a cool place.

Q10METHODOF PREDICTINGSHELF-LIFE STABILITYThe Q10 method of shelf-life estimation can provide the com-pounding pharmacist a tool to quickly calculate a beyond-usedate for a drug product that is going to be stored or usedunder a different set of conditions than what might be cus-tomary. The Q10 approach, based on Ea, is independent ofreaction order and is described as:

Q10 = e{(Ea/R)[(1/T + 10) - (1/T)]}

where Ea is the energy of activation, R is the gas constant, andT is the absolute temperature.Actually the expression Q10 is simply a ratio of two differentreaction rate constants defined as follows:

where KT is the reaction rate constant at a specific temperature,T, and K(T+10) is the reaction rate constant at a temperature 10higher. Values of Q that are commonly used are 2, 3 and 4and are related to different energies of activation, 12.2, 19.4and 24.5 kcal/mol, respectively. For practical purposes, if theEa is not known a median value of 3" has been used as a rea-sonable estimate since the energy of activation of many drugsis in the range of 18-20 kcal/mol.The actual equation that is used for estimating shelf-life is:

t90(T1)t90(T2) =

Q10 (T/10)

where t90(T2) is the estimated shelf-life, t90(T1) is the givenshelf-life at a given temperature T1, and T is the temperaturedifference between T1 and T2.

Looking at this relationship, it is apparent that increasing theexpression (T/10) positively will decrease the shelf-life anddecreasing the expression will increase the shelf-life of thedrug.

Example 1As an example, if a preparation that is normally stored at roomtemperature (25C) with an expiration date of 1 week is storedin the refrigerator (5C), what will be the approximate newshelf-life of the product?

t90(T1) 1t90(T2) = = = 9 weeks

Q10 (T/10) 3 (-20/10)

because 25 down to 5 is 20 in the negative direction, -20.The increase in shelf-life will be about 9 times for a decrease inthe storage temperature of -20. This is assuming an energy ofactivation of about 19.4 kcal/mol.

uniform appearance, color, clarity, be free from particulatematter, and show no signs of change of closure integrity.

ENHANCING STABILITY OF DRUG PRODUCTSMany pharmaceutic ingredients may be utilized in com-pounding a dosage form. Some of these may be used toachieve the desired physical and chemical characteristics or toenhance its appearance, odor, and taste. Others may be usedto increase stability, particularly against hydrolytic and oxida-tive processes. In each instance, the added pharmaceuticingredient must be compatible with and not detract from thestability of the drug substance in the particular dosage formprepared.

There are several approaches to stabilizing pharmaceuticalpreparations containing drugs subject to deterioration byhydrolysis, including the elimination of water from the phar-maceutical system. Even solid dosage forms containingwater-labile drugs must be protected from the humidity of theatmosphere by applying a waterproof protective coating overtablets or by enclosing and maintaining the drug in tightlyclosed containers. In liquid preparations, water can frequent-ly be replaced or reduced in the formulation through the useof substitute liquids such as glycerin, propylene glycol, andalcohol. In certain injectable products, anhydrous vegetableoils may be used as the drug's solvent to reduce the chance ofhydrolytic decomposition.

Storage under refrigeration is advisable for most preparationsconsidered unstable due to hydrolytic causes. Together withtemperature, pH is a major determinant in the stability of adrug prone to hydrolytic decomposition. The hydrolysis ofmost drugs is dependent upon the relative concentrations ofthe hydroxyl and hydronium ions, and a pH at which eachdrug is optimally stable can be easily determined. For mosthydrolyzable drugs the pH of optimum stability is on the acidside, somewhere between pH 5 and 6. Therefore, throughjudicious use of buffering agents, the stability of otherwiseunstable compounds can be increased.

Pharmaceutically, the oxidation of a susceptible drug sub-stance is most likely to occur in the presence of oxygen,exposure to light, or combined in a formulation with otherchemical agents without proper regard to their influence onthe oxidation process. Oxidation of a chemical in a prepara-tion is usually accompanied by an alteration in color. It mayalso result in precipitation or a change in the odor.

The oxidative process is minimized in the presence of antiox-idants, which react with one or more compounds in the drugto prevent continuation of the chain reaction. In general,antioxidants act by providing electrons and easily availablehydrogen atoms that are accepted more readily by the freeradicals than are those of the drug being protected. Amongthose more frequently used in aqueous preparations are sodi-um sulfite, sodium bisulfite, hypophosphorous acid, andascorbic acid. In oleaginous preparations, alpha-tocopherol,butylhydroxytoluene, butylhydroxyanisole, and ascorbylpalmitate are used.

Trace metals originating in the drug, solvent, container, orstopper can be a constant source of difficulty in preparing sta-ble solutions of oxidizable drugs. The rate of formation ofcolor in epinephrine solutions, for instance, is greatlyincreased by the presence of ferric, ferrous, cupric, andchromic ions. Great care must be taken to eliminate these tracemetals from labile preparations by thorough purification ofthe source of the contaminant or by chemically complexing or

K(T+10)Q10 =

KT

Example 2Considering the opposite situation, if a preparation that is nor-mally stored at refrigeration temperature (5) with a shelf-life of9 weeks is stored at room temperature (25), what will be theapproximate decrease in the shelf-life of the product?

t90(T1) 9t90(T2) = = = 1 week

Q10 (T/10) 3 (20/10)

because 5 up to 25 is in the positive direction +20. This is alsoassuming an energy of activation of about 19.4 kcal/mol.

It should be noted that this method works for products for whicha specific shelf-life has been determined and the only variation isin the storage temperature, not in altering any of the formula-tion.

Example 3An antibiotic solution has a shelf-life of 48 hours in the refriger-ator (5C). What is its estimated shelf-life at room temperature(25C)?Using a Q value of 3, we set up the relationship as follows.

t90(T1) 48t90(T2) = = = 5.33 hours

Q10 (T/10) 3 {(25-5)/10}

Example 4An ophthalmic solution has a shelf-life of 6 hours at room tem-perature (25C). What would be the estimated shelf-life if storedin a refrigerator (5C)?

t90(T1) 6t90(T2) = = = 54 hours

Q10 (T/10) 3 {(5-25)/10}

In summary, the Q10 method of shelf life estimation is basedupon the number 3 raised to a certain power, either positive ornegative. The power is simply the difference in storage temper-atures divided by 10. Generally, one is using "3" raised to thefirst, second or third power, either positive or negative; mean-ing the numbers 3, 9 and 27 are commonly used. If thetemperature increases, the shelf life is divided by 3, 9 or 27 andif the temperature decreases, the shelf life is multiplied by 3, 9or 27. Pharmacists should keep in mind that these are estimates,and actual energies of activation can be often be obtained fromthe literature for more exact calculations.

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