science review for graduation exam - 2 justifying the grouping of viruses in a category separate...
TRANSCRIPT
Science Review for Graduation Exam - 2
bull Justifying the grouping of viruses in a category separate from living thingsmdash Viruses are not considered to be living so canrsquot use binomial nomenclature to name them
bull Viruses are not considered to be living so canrsquot use binomial nomenclature to name them
bull Viruses are not alive because they donrsquot grow develop or carry out respiration
bull Identifying ways in which organisms from the Monera (Archabacteria and Eubacteria) Protista and Fungi kingdoms are beneficial and harmful
Examples- beneficial-decomposers- harmful-diseases
Standard 10 Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plants Vascular tissues- specialized tubes for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant body
bullNon-vascular plants lack vascular tissue (tubes
bull to transport materials)1 this limits them in size
(smaller amp shorter than vascular
plants2 also limits them mostly to
moist areas or moist times of the year
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Justifying the grouping of viruses in a category separate from living thingsmdash Viruses are not considered to be living so canrsquot use binomial nomenclature to name them
bull Viruses are not considered to be living so canrsquot use binomial nomenclature to name them
bull Viruses are not alive because they donrsquot grow develop or carry out respiration
bull Identifying ways in which organisms from the Monera (Archabacteria and Eubacteria) Protista and Fungi kingdoms are beneficial and harmful
Examples- beneficial-decomposers- harmful-diseases
Standard 10 Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plants Vascular tissues- specialized tubes for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant body
bullNon-vascular plants lack vascular tissue (tubes
bull to transport materials)1 this limits them in size
(smaller amp shorter than vascular
plants2 also limits them mostly to
moist areas or moist times of the year
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Viruses are not considered to be living so canrsquot use binomial nomenclature to name them
bull Viruses are not alive because they donrsquot grow develop or carry out respiration
bull Identifying ways in which organisms from the Monera (Archabacteria and Eubacteria) Protista and Fungi kingdoms are beneficial and harmful
Examples- beneficial-decomposers- harmful-diseases
Standard 10 Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plants Vascular tissues- specialized tubes for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant body
bullNon-vascular plants lack vascular tissue (tubes
bull to transport materials)1 this limits them in size
(smaller amp shorter than vascular
plants2 also limits them mostly to
moist areas or moist times of the year
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Identifying ways in which organisms from the Monera (Archabacteria and Eubacteria) Protista and Fungi kingdoms are beneficial and harmful
Examples- beneficial-decomposers- harmful-diseases
Standard 10 Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plants Vascular tissues- specialized tubes for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant body
bullNon-vascular plants lack vascular tissue (tubes
bull to transport materials)1 this limits them in size
(smaller amp shorter than vascular
plants2 also limits them mostly to
moist areas or moist times of the year
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 10 Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plants Vascular tissues- specialized tubes for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant body
bullNon-vascular plants lack vascular tissue (tubes
bull to transport materials)1 this limits them in size
(smaller amp shorter than vascular
plants2 also limits them mostly to
moist areas or moist times of the year
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Distinguish between angiosperms and gymnosperms
Angiosperms(flowering plants)
Gymnosperms (conifers-naked seeds)
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Angiosperms
bull Insects are the main method of pollinationbull Seeds in fruit
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Distinguish between monocots and dicots
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its function is to produce seeds through reproduction
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Rootsprovides support and the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals
Leaves-site of photosynthesis
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Chemical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Foul odorbull 2 Bitter tastebull 3 Toxicity
(poisonous) (bitter tasting)
raquo raquo Mistletoe(toxic) (toxic)Jimson Weed (foul odor)
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Physical adaptations of Plants
bull 1 Spinesbull 2 Needlesbull 3 Broad leaves
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Oak treemdashdicotbull Cornmdashmonocotbull Dandelionmdashdicotbull Carrotmdashdicot
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Self-pollination is prevented from occurring when the stamens are removed from an angiosperm
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 11) Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure method of fertilization and reproduction body symmetry body coverings and locomotion
Examples- skeletal structure-vertebrates invertebrates
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
- fertilization-external internal
Method of Fertilization and reproduction
external or internal
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
bull External fertilizationndash Gametes are produced in large quantitiesndash Female frogs and fish lay their eggs in waterndashMales deposit their sperm onto the eggsbull Fertilization takes place in the water and depends on the chance meeting of the egg and spermbull Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Internal versus External FertilizationExternal Fertilization ndash
used by aquatic animals
1 Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization occurs
2 Requires lots of gametes to ensure ndash
a Fertilization occursb A few of the fertile eggs
survive and complete development
3 Embryological development occurs in water outside body
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Internal Fertilization -Used by some aquatic
animals and all terrestrial animals
1 Sperm are deposited directly into the femalersquos body to protect the gametes
2 Requires development of ndashndash a Male copulatory
organ (penis)ndash b Female organ to
receive penis (vagina)
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Internal Fertilizationndash Only a small number of gametes are produced at a timebull Gametes are eggs and sperm
ndash Zygotes (a fertilized egg) are usually carried internallybull Therefore space for growth is limited
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
reproduction-sexual
or
asexual
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
locomotion-cilia flagella pseudopodia
Pseudopodia
Cilia
Flagella
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
- body symmetry-bilateral radial asymmetrical
- body coverings-feathers scales fur
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Sea Starmdash echinodermndash Radial symmetryndash exoskeleton
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Mammalsmdashfur or hairbull Warm-bloodedbull Produce milk for their young
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Protists move using cilia and flagella
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
amphibians
bull Moist skinbull Ectothermic
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Shark skeleton is made of cartilage
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Clam
bull Molluskbull Bivalvebull Shellbull Gillsbull Aquatic habitat
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Reptiles
bull Cold-bloodedbull scales
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 12) Describe protective adaptations of animals including mimicry camouflage beak type migration and hibernation
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
mimicry
bull The resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators
bull Appearing to look like a different animal
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Mimicry
bull There are many impostors in the animal world that use mimicry to fool predators These animals take on the characteristics of or mimic their unappetizing cousins
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Mimicry
bull Similar coloration and physical characteristics ndash One organism can defend itselfndash One copies it
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Camouflage is the method or result of
concealing by disguise or protective coloration such that the organism appears to be part of
the natural surroundings
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Camouflage
bull Organism resembles its environment
bull Body color resembles the environment
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Migration
bull The process of changing location periodically especially by moving seasonally from one region to another
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Hibernationbull The process of passing winter in an
inactive or dormant state
bull Animals hibernate tondash Conserve energyndash Avoid harsh climate conditionsndash Survive when food is hard to find
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Animals adapt to environment seasons cause mammals to change fur coloration
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Behavioral adaptionndash Chameleon changing its body covering
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
How has predation influenced evolution
Adaptations to avoid being eaten
spines (cactii porcupines)hard shells (clams turtles)toxins (milkweeds some newts)bad taste (monarch butterflies)
camouflageaposematic colorsmimicry
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Physical Changendash Inflate bodies or throats
bull Chemical defensendash Secrete substances to mark territories
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Identifying ways in which the theory of evolution explains the nature and diversity of organisms
bull Describing natural selection survival of the fittest geographic isolation and fossil record
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Evolutionbull Change in the characteristics of a population of organisms
over time
bull When an organism has variations that allow it to produce more offspring than other members of the population evolution occurs
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Evolution
bull These adaptations are passed from generation to generation
bull This natural selection for beneficial traits eventually changes the whole population
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Natural Selection
bull Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms and unfavorable traits that are heritable become less common
bull Natural selection acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes
bull Also referred to as survival of the fittest
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Geographic Isolation
bull When part of a population of a species becomes geographically isolated from the remainder it may over time evolve characteristics different from the parent population (due to natural selection)
bull This is particularly likely to happen if the isolated population is small because of founder effects or if the population become isolated in an environment which makes new demands upon it
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull The fossil record is the ordered array in which fossils appear within sedimentary rocksndash These rocks record the passing of geological time
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Producers
bull Energy enters the ecosystem at the level of producer
bull Organisms that make their own food are producers
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Producers
bull Plants are the most familiar
bull Capture energy from the sun and use it to make food through photosynthesisndash Combines carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Producers
bull Plants are the most important producers in terrestrial ecosystem
bull In an aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton are the producers
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Autotrophs
bull Autotrophs make their own foodndash Producers are
autotrophsndash They are the sole point of entry for new energy into the ecosystem
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Consumersbull Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers
bull All animals are consumers
bull Fungi and many protists and bacteria are also consumers
bull Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Heterotrophs
bull Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must obtain nourishment by eating other organisms are heterotrophsndash Consumers are
heterotrophs
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Decomposersbull Bacteria and fungi that consume the bodies of dead organisms and other organic wastes are decomposers
bull May consume fallen leaves the bodies of an herbivore or carnivore
bull Bacteria break down organic matter in animal waste
bull Crucial to the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients from organisms back into the environment
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains food webs and energy pyramids
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Food Chainbull A series of different organisms that transfer food between the trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food chain
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Food Chain
bull All food chains begin producers withbull Usually begins with plants in land ecosystemsbull Herbivores at next trophic levelbull Followed by one or more levels of carnivoresbull All organisms are then consumed by decomposers
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Food Web
bull Most consumers eat more than one type of food
bull A food web includes all the food chains in an ecosystem
bull It represents the feeding relationships among the organisms in an ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Ecological Pyramids
bull Can show energy biomass or the number of organisms in a food web
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Using the ten percent law to explain the decreasing availability of energy through the trophic levels
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
10 Energy
Producer 1st trophic level
Primary Consumer (Herbivores) 2nd trophic level
Secondary Consumer 3rd trophic level
Tertiary Consumer 4th trophic level
Quaternary level5th trophic level
Energy-- least available
Energy-- most available
100 Energy
1 energy
01 energy
001 Energy
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Transfer of Energybull When a zebra eats the grass it does not obtain all of the energy the grass
has (much of it is not eaten)
bull When a lion eats a zebra it does not get all of the energy from the zebra (much of it is lost as heat and used up in the course of normal living)
bull Only about 10 of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Transfer of Energy
bull The two (2) previous examples of energy transfer show that no organism EVER receives all of the energy from the organism they just ate
bull Only 10 of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next ndash this is called the 10 law
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Trophic Levels
bull Energy moves from one organisms to another when it is eaten
bull Each step in this transfer of energy is know as a trophic levelndash The main trophic levels are producers consumers and decomposers
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Producersndash Release energy as heatndash Energy is used for metabolismndash Energy is used for active transport
bull Energy is highest at the level of producer
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Phytoplankton are the producers in an aquatic food chain
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Describing the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
Examples effects of humidity on stomata size effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
bull Humidity - This is how saturated the surrounding air is with water vapour It will determine the humidity difference between the inside and outside of the leaf (called the saturation deficit) Normally the humidity just inside the stomata is very high as it is full with water vapour It will move out fastest if there is a steep concentration gradient ie if the surrounding air has a low humidity High external humidity will cause a slow transpiration rate
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
bull What Is Dissolved Oxygen bull Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to
oxygen gas that is dissolved in water Fish breathe oxygen just as land animals do However fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
bull What is Oxygen Depletion bull Oxygen depletion refers to low levels
of DO and may result in fish mortality A concentration of 5 mgL DO is recommended for optimum fish health Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific however most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mgL Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mgL The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are
What Causes Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem turnover of a body of water increased organic waste entering the water (ie manure from feedlots septic tank waste water and excess fish feed) death and decay of organic matter (ie plant or algae die-offs) or by certain chemicals (ie formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 14) Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment including water carbon oxygen and nitrogen
bull
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Water Cycle
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Precipitation is dependent onndash Temperature reductionndash Small particlesndash gravity
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Oxygen released by green plants comes from the water
bull Oxygen is released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Water cycle
bull Water vapor movementndash Evaporationndash transpiration
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
condensation
precipitation
Surface runoff
ocean
evaporation
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
The Carbon Cycle
bull Living things are the most important part of the carbon cyclendash Photosynthesis and respiration could not occur without carbon
bull Plants use CO2 and sunlight to make sugars and starches during photosynthesis
bull When these nutrients (plants) are consumed by any other organism CO2 and energy are released
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull The ocean and rocks are important sources of carbonndash Coal oil and limestone are formed from the bodies of dead organisms
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Increased burning of fossil fuelsndash Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasesndash Carbon in fossil fuels decreases
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Carbon Cycle
bull Respirationphotosynthesisorganic decay coal formation
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Automobiles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through combustion
CO2 in atmosphere
car
animals
plants
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
The Nitrogen Cycle
bull Organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids
bull Legumes are plants that have colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lie on their rootsndash Peanuts beans cloverndash Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in the roots of legumes
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Nitrogen Cycle
bull Most ammonia is consumed by bacteriandash The bacteria produce nitrites and nitratesbull Nitrates and nitrites contain nitrogen and oxygen
bull Animals get nitrogen from proteins in the food they eat
bull Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in the form of ammonia
bull The cycle starts over
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Nitrogen oxide is a pollutant released in jet exhaust
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Nitrogen cycle includes animals plants fungi and bacteria
animalplants
fungi
bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Nitrogen Cycle
animal
Plantprotein
Decomposedmatter
ammonia
animalwaste
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
The Oxygen Cycle
bull Lighting matches uses O2bull Growing wheat releases O2
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Relating natural disasters climate changes nonnative species and human activity to the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystemsExamples- natural disasters-habitat destruction resulting from tornadoes
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
bull Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird Decreasebull ScienceDaily (Mar 26 2003) mdash Biologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide and the latest evidence suggests that warmer winters may mean fewer migratory birds New research shows that as winter temperatures have risen in central Europe the number of migratory birds has dropped Ultimately this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull -- nonnative species -exponential growth of kudzu and Zebra mussels due to absence of natural controls- bull Kudzu is a vine that when left uncontrolled will eventually grow over almost any fixed object in its proximity including other vegetation
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Zebra Musselsbull Every introduction of non-native species has influenced the changes of ecosystem as well as economy For example zebra mussel infestations cause pronounced ecological changes in the Great Lakes and major rivers of the central United States as well as economic impacts Hydroelectric power plants municipal drinking water facilities and other water-using industries are likely to be most heavily impacted by zebra mussel populations Mussels colonize the surfaces of pipes the interior parts of turbines and other equipment leading to costly repairs The zebra mussels rapid reproduction affects the aquatic food web and places valuable commercial and sport fisheries at risk
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of biodiversity
bull For most native species the destruction of their habitat is a worse threat than hunting by humans ndash hunting targets a few individual animals but losing their habitat affects all species in an area
bull conservation resulting in preservation of biodiversity
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Describing the process of ecological succession
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Primary successionIf the area has not been occupied previously the process of initial invasion
and then progression from one biotic community to the next
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Secondary successionWhen an area has been cleared by fire or by humans or by a storm and
then left alone
bull 4-20
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 15) Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms
tundra-permafrost low humidity lichens polar bears
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Lichens
bull A lichen is an algae and a fungi existing together in a symbiotic relationship ndash Grow on rocks and soil
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Tundra
bull Low precipitationbull Permafrostbull Greater species diversity
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Deserts all receive very little rain during the course of the year
bull Insects reptiles birds and mammals
bull Get water from their foods
bull Plants include succulents like cacti
bull Pavementmdashdesert floor
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Antarctic Desert Biomendash Low precipitationndash No permafrostndash Lower species diversity
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Semi-arid desertndash Sandy soilndash Precipitation between 2-4 annuallyndash Summer temperatures range from 21 - 27degCndash Animals includebull Kangaroo ratbull Rabbitsbull Skunksbull Burrowing owls
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Grasslandsbull In a grassland biome there is more water than in a desert but not enough water to support a forest
bull Begin at edges of desert biome and stretch across the land to the forest biome
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Grazing animals include the bison and antelope
bull Plants are predominantly grasses
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Grassland soils have a high level of nutrients and a dark thick layer of topsoilndash Temperature -1 thru 26deg Cndash Precipitation ndash 12 cm
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Savannas
bull Typical weather includes rainy seasons followed by long periods of drought
bull Grasses shrubs and trees are resistant to drought fire and grazing animals
bull Vertical feeding patterns minimize the competition for food among herbivores (giraffes rhinos elephants)
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Savanna Animalsbull Some migrate- herds of wildebeest zebras and antelope (gazelle)
bull Lions and cheetahs prey on these herds
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Prairiesbull Most of the grasslands in the US are prairiesbull Prairies are grasslands with rolling hills plains and sod-forming grasses
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Animalsbull Have adapted to the
conditions by ndash Migratingndash Hibernatingndash Burrowing underground
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Overgrazing
bull When farmers concentrate the feeding of sheep and cattle in small areas much of the grass is destroyedndash This is called overgrazing
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Taigabull Forest in Northern Asia and Europebull Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain in the summer
bull The main seasons in the taiga are winter and summer The spring and autumn are so short you hardly know they exist It is either hot and humid or very cold in the taiga
bull There are not a lot of species of plants in the taiga because of the harsh conditions Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter There are some lichens and mosses but most plants are coniferous trees like pine white spruce hemlock and douglas fir
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Coniferous Forest
bull Summers are warmndash Last 2-5 months (short growing season)
bull Winters are long cold and dryndash Very little sunlight
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Most conifers are evergreenDo not lose all leaves at a given time each yearLose and replace leaves slowly throughout the year
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Plants in Coniferous Forestsbull Species of pine hemlock fir spruce and cedar are common
bull Ferns lichens sphagnum mossbull Aspen and birch (broad-leaf trees)
Pine treehemlock
Sphagnummoss
aspen
fern
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Animals in a Coniferous Forest
bull Small herbivores are seed eatersndash Ex mice squirrels jays and other rodents and birds
bull Insects are common in summerndash Because soil is most and poorly drained
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Large herbivores feed on bark and plants and young tree branchesndash Examples moose elk beaver snowshoe hares
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Predators include grizzly bears wolves and lynxes
Wolf digging for mice in snow
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
bull Mosses and evergreen treesbull Birds and summer insectsbull Cold winters bull Located across Northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia
bull Patchy permafrostbull Drought resistant plantsbull Numerous lakes ponds rivers and bogs
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Section 92
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
A deciduous tree is a tree that sheds its leaves during a particular season of the year
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Temperature varies greatlyndash Hot summers and very cold winters
bull Precipitation can fall as rain or snowndash Receive from 50 to 300 cm per year
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Maple oak beech ash hickory and birch are examples of deciduous treesndashMore diversity than in coniferous forest
maple
Oak treeGreen ash
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Deciduous forest produces abundant food and has many different habitatsndash Therefore it supports a diverse community of animals and other organisms
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Rain Forests
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Located in the tropical zone at latitudes near the equatorndash Therefore it receives
direct rays from the sun for most of the year
bull Only cover 6 of Earthrsquos land surface
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Precipitation is rain except on high mountain topsndash Ranges form 200 to 450 cm (78 in to 177 in) a year
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Trees are the basis of the rain forestndash Cypress balsa teak mahogany and lots of other trees grow here
ndash Think ldquoverticalrdquo in the rain forest
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Decomposers quickly recycle dead organic matterndash Days or weeks instead of years
bull Examples Insects fungi and bacteria
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Most activity in the rain forest occurs in the treesndash Many arboreal (tree-
dwellers) organisms live their whole life without ever touching the ground
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Rainforest
bull The rainforest is the most productive and diverse biome on Earth
bull Trees can grow as tall as 60m (about 180 ft) in the rainforest
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Aquatic biomes ( marine and freshwater) have the MOST stable average daily temperature over a long period of time
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Estuarymdashcontains organisms that thrive in water with varying salt concentrations
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Standard 16) Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem
Examples- density-dependent-disease predator-prey relationships availability of food and water- density-independent-natural disasters climate
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Density-dependent Limiting Factors
bull Water space air foodbull Influenza outbreakbull Parasitismbull Food availabilitybull Supply of dissolved oxygenbull Diseasebull Populations of animals
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Density-independent Limiting Factors
bull Natural disastersbull Cones of the jack pine need heat from a fire to help release seeds
bull Size of streambull Human-caused disastersbull Climatebull Drought forest firestbull Clear-cutting forestbull Filling wetlands
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
bull Since disease is a density-dependent limiting factor a larger population makes it easier for the virus to spread from person to person
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Density-dependent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that are dependent on population sizendash Examples are food supply water supply predation and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Density-independent limiting factors
bull These are limiting factors that affects the same percentage of a population regardless of its sizendash Examples natural disasters human caused disasters climate
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Symbiosis
bull Discriminating among symbiotic relationships including
bull mutualism (both benefit) bull commensalism (one benefits and the
other is neither harmed or benefits) bull parasitism (one benefits at the expense
of the other)
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Symbiosis
bull When two species live closely together
bull ExamplesndashMutualismndash Parasitismndash Commensalism
Parasitism
bull A parasite is an organism that feeds on the tissues of another The organism being eaten is the host
bull Most parasites do not kill their hostsbull However they are harmful
bull Snail Fever pinworms
Parasitismbull A true parasite lives on or in the body of its host
bull Parasites thrive in crowded host populations because the parasite can be transferred to new hosts easilyndash Thus they are density-dependent limiting factor
Mutualism
bull Symbiotic relationshipbull Both species benefit from the relationship
Commensalism
bull Symbiotic relationshipbull One species benefits but doesnrsquot help nor harm the other species
Commensalism brushtailed possums use hollows in river red gums for nesting There is no harm to the tree but hollowsare necessary for the possum for shelter and breeding
- Slide 1
- Slide 2
- Slide 3
- Slide 4
- Slide 5
- Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
- Slide 7
- Angiosperms
- Slide 9
- Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its funct
- Slide 11
- Chemical adaptations of Plants
- Physical adaptations of Plants
- Slide 14
- Slide 15
- Slide 16
- Slide 17
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Internal versus External Fertilization
- Internal Fertilization -
- Slide 21
- Slide 22
- Slide 23
- Slide 24
- Slide 25
- Slide 26
- Slide 27
- amphibians
- Slide 29
- Clam
- Reptiles
- Slide 32
- mimicry
- Mimicry
- Mimicry (2)
- Camouflage is the method or result of concealing by disguise or
- Camouflage
- Migration
- Hibernation
- Slide 40
- Slide 41
- Slide 42
- Slide 43
- Slide 44
- Slide 45
- Evolution
- Evolution (2)
- Natural Selection
- Geographic Isolation
- Slide 50
- Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
- Producers
- Producers (2)
- Producers (3)
- Autotrophs
- Consumers
- Heterotrophs
- Decomposers
- Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through
- Food Chain
- Food Chain (2)
- Food Web
- Slide 63
- Ecological Pyramids
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
- Transfer of Energy
- Transfer of Energy (2)
- Trophic Levels
- Slide 70
- Slide 71
- Slide 72
- Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
- effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
- Slide 75
- Water Cycle
- Slide 77
- Slide 78
- Water cycle
- Slide 80
- The Carbon Cycle
- Slide 82
- Slide 83
- Carbon Cycle
- Slide 85
- The Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen Cycle
- Slide 88
- Slide 89
- Nitrogen Cycle (2)
- The Oxygen Cycle
- Slide 92
- climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
- Slide 94
- Zebra Mussels
- human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of b
- Slide 97
- Primary succession If the area has not been occupied previously
- Secondary succession When an area has been cleared by fire or b
- Slide 100
- Lichens
- Tundra
- Slide 103
- Slide 104
- Slide 105
- Grasslands
- Slide 107
- Slide 108
- Savannas
- Savanna Animals
- Prairies
- Animals
- Overgrazing
- Taiga
- Coniferous Forest
- Slide 116
- Plants in Coniferous Forests
- Animals in a Coniferous Forest
- Slide 119
- Slide 120
- Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
- Slide 122
- Slide 123
- Slide 124
- Slide 125
- Slide 126
- Slide 127
- Slide 128
- Slide 129
- Slide 130
- Slide 131
- Slide 132
- Rainforest
- Slide 134
- Slide 135
- Slide 136
- Density-dependent Limiting Factors
- Density-independent Limiting Factors
- Slide 139
- Density-dependent limiting factors
- Density-independent limiting factors
- Symbiosis
- Symbiosis (2)
- Parasitism
- Parasitism (2)
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
-
Commensalism
bull Symbiotic relationshipbull One species benefits but doesnrsquot help nor harm the other species
Commensalism brushtailed possums use hollows in river red gums for nesting There is no harm to the tree but hollowsare necessary for the possum for shelter and breeding
- Slide 1
- Slide 2
- Slide 3
- Slide 4
- Slide 5
- Stems are the main axis of a vascular plant
- Slide 7
- Angiosperms
- Slide 9
- Flowers-contains the plants reproductive organs and its funct
- Slide 11
- Chemical adaptations of Plants
- Physical adaptations of Plants
- Slide 14
- Slide 15
- Slide 16
- Slide 17
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Internal versus External Fertilization
- Internal Fertilization -
- Slide 21
- Slide 22
- Slide 23
- Slide 24
- Slide 25
- Slide 26
- Slide 27
- amphibians
- Slide 29
- Clam
- Reptiles
- Slide 32
- mimicry
- Mimicry
- Mimicry (2)
- Camouflage is the method or result of concealing by disguise or
- Camouflage
- Migration
- Hibernation
- Slide 40
- Slide 41
- Slide 42
- Slide 43
- Slide 44
- Slide 45
- Evolution
- Evolution (2)
- Natural Selection
- Geographic Isolation
- Slide 50
- Contrasting autotrophs and heterotrophs
- Producers
- Producers (2)
- Producers (3)
- Autotrophs
- Consumers
- Heterotrophs
- Decomposers
- Standard 13) Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through
- Food Chain
- Food Chain (2)
- Food Web
- Slide 63
- Ecological Pyramids
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
- Transfer of Energy
- Transfer of Energy (2)
- Trophic Levels
- Slide 70
- Slide 71
- Slide 72
- Effects of Humidity on Stomata Size
- effects of dissolved oxygen on fish respiration
- Slide 75
- Water Cycle
- Slide 77
- Slide 78
- Water cycle
- Slide 80
- The Carbon Cycle
- Slide 82
- Slide 83
- Carbon Cycle
- Slide 85
- The Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen Cycle
- Slide 88
- Slide 89
- Nitrogen Cycle (2)
- The Oxygen Cycle
- Slide 92
- climate changes-changes in migratory patterns of birds
- Slide 94
- Zebra Mussels
- human activity- habitat destruction resulting in reduction of b
- Slide 97
- Primary succession If the area has not been occupied previously
- Secondary succession When an area has been cleared by fire or b
- Slide 100
- Lichens
- Tundra
- Slide 103
- Slide 104
- Slide 105
- Grasslands
- Slide 107
- Slide 108
- Savannas
- Savanna Animals
- Prairies
- Animals
- Overgrazing
- Taiga
- Coniferous Forest
- Slide 116
- Plants in Coniferous Forests
- Animals in a Coniferous Forest
- Slide 119
- Slide 120
- Taiga (Coniferous Forest)
- Slide 122
- Slide 123
- Slide 124
- Slide 125
- Slide 126
- Slide 127
- Slide 128
- Slide 129
- Slide 130
- Slide 131
- Slide 132
- Rainforest
- Slide 134
- Slide 135
- Slide 136
- Density-dependent Limiting Factors
- Density-independent Limiting Factors
- Slide 139
- Density-dependent limiting factors
- Density-independent limiting factors
- Symbiosis
- Symbiosis (2)
- Parasitism
- Parasitism (2)
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
-