Science features – summary Science features – summary 11

ScienceScience is the organized, is the organized, systematicsystematic

enterprize that gathers enterprize that gathers knowledgeknowledge about the about the

worldworld and our theorizations and condenses it and our theorizations and condenses it

into into testabletestable lawslaws and and principlesprinciples..

The The featuresfeatures of science that distinguish it of science that distinguish it

from pseudoscience are: from pseudoscience are: repeatability, repeatability,

economy, mensuration, heuristics, economy, mensuration, heuristics,

consilienceconsilience..

Science features – summary Science features – summary 22

RepeatabilityRepeatability: The same phenomenon is : The same phenomenon is sought again, preferably by sought again, preferably by independentindependent investigation, and the interpretation given investigation, and the interpretation given to it is to it is confirmedconfirmed or or discardeddiscarded by means of by means of novel novel analysisanalysis and and experimentationexperimentation..

EconomyEconomy: Scientists attempt to : Scientists attempt to abstractabstract the information into the form that is both the information into the form that is both simplestsimplest and aesthetically most pleasing – and aesthetically most pleasing – the combination called the combination called eleganceelegance – while – while yielding the yielding the largestlargest amount of information amount of information with the with the leastleast amount of amount of efforteffort..

Science features – summary Science features – summary 33

MensurationMensuration: If something come be properly : If something come be properly

measured, using measured, using universallyuniversally acceptedaccepted scalesscales, ,

generalizations about it are rendered generalizations about it are rendered unambiguousunambiguous..

HeuristicsHeuristics: The best science : The best science stimulatesstimulates further further

discoverydiscovery, often in unpredictable , often in unpredictable new directionsnew directions; ;

and the new knowledge provides an and the new knowledge provides an additional testadditional test

of the original principles that led to its discovery.of the original principles that led to its discovery.

ConsilienceConsilience: The : The explanationsexplanations most likely to survive most likely to survive

of different phenomena are those that can be of different phenomena are those that can be

connectedconnected and proved and proved consistentconsistent with one another. with one another.

Epistemology - 1Epistemology - 1 EpistemologyEpistemology (or (or theory of knowledgetheory of knowledge) is a branch ) is a branch

of philosophy studying the nature and scope of of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge. From the Greek words knowledge. From the Greek words epistemeepisteme (knowledge) and (knowledge) and logoslogos (account). (account).

It focuses on analyzing the nature of knowledge It focuses on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to notions such as and how it relates to notions such as truthtruth, , beliefbelief, , and and justificationjustification..

It also deals with the means of It also deals with the means of productionproduction of of knowledgeknowledge, and , and skepticismskepticism about knowledge about knowledge claims.claims.

It addresses the questions: "It addresses the questions: "What is knowledgeWhat is knowledge?", ?", ""How is it acquiredHow is it acquired?", and "?", and "What do people knowWhat do people know?"?"

Epistemology - 2Epistemology - 2 In epistemology, the kind of knowledge usually In epistemology, the kind of knowledge usually

discussed is discussed is propositional knowledgepropositional knowledge, also , also known as "known as "knowledge-thatknowledge-that", as opposed to ", as opposed to ""know-howknow-how".".

To exemplify: in mathematics, there is To exemplify: in mathematics, there is knowingknowing thatthat 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowingknowing howhow to to count to 4. Or, one knows count to 4. Or, one knows howhow to ride a bicycle to ride a bicycle and one knows and one knows thatthat a bicycle has two wheels. a bicycle has two wheels.

The distinction is between The distinction is between theoretical reasontheoretical reason and and practical reasonpractical reason, with epistemology being , with epistemology being interested in knowledge of the theoretical kind, interested in knowledge of the theoretical kind, not the practical kind.not the practical kind.

Epistemology - 3Epistemology - 3

Sometimes, when people say that they Sometimes, when people say that they believebelieve in something, what they mean is in something, what they mean is that they that they predictpredict that it will prove to be that it will prove to be usefuluseful or or successfulsuccessful in some sense -- in some sense -- perhaps someone might "believe in" his perhaps someone might "believe in" his favorite football team.favorite football team.

This is not the kind of belief usually dealt This is not the kind of belief usually dealt with in with in epistemologyepistemology. The kind that . The kind that isis dealt dealt with is that where "with is that where "to believe somethingto believe something" " just means to think that just means to think that it is trueit is true -- e.g., to -- e.g., to believe that the sky is blue is to think that believe that the sky is blue is to think that the proposition "The sky is blue" is true.the proposition "The sky is blue" is true.

Epistemology - 4Epistemology - 4 Belief is a part of knowledgeBelief is a part of knowledge. Consider . Consider

someone saying, "I know that someone saying, "I know that PP is true, but I is true, but I don't believe that don't believe that PP is true." Persons making is true." Persons making this utterance, it seems, contradict this utterance, it seems, contradict themselves. If one knows themselves. If one knows PP, then, among , then, among other things, one thinks that other things, one thinks that PP is indeed true. is indeed true. If one thinks that If one thinks that PP is true, then one believes is true, then one believes PP. .

Knowledge is distinct from beliefKnowledge is distinct from belief. If someone . If someone claims to believe something, he is claiming claims to believe something, he is claiming that it is the truth. Of course, it might turn out that it is the truth. Of course, it might turn out that he or she was mistaken, and that what that he or she was mistaken, and that what was thought to be true was actually false. This was thought to be true was actually false. This is not the case with knowledge.is not the case with knowledge.

Epistemology - 5Epistemology - 5 Suppose Jeff thinks a particular bridge is Suppose Jeff thinks a particular bridge is

safe, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge safe, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge collapses under his weight. We might say Jeff collapses under his weight. We might say Jeff believedbelieved that the bridge was safe, but that that the bridge was safe, but that his belief was mistaken.his belief was mistaken.

We would We would notnot (accurately) say that he (accurately) say that he knewknew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not.was not.

For something to count as knowledge it must For something to count as knowledge it must be true.be true.

Epistemology - 6Epistemology - 6 According to the theory that According to the theory that knowledge is justified knowledge is justified

true belieftrue belief, in order to know that a given , in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reasongood reason for doing so. for doing so.

One implication of this would be that no one would One implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true.happened to be true.

An ill person with no medical training but an An ill person with no medical training but an optimistic attitude, might believe that she will optimistic attitude, might believe that she will recover from her illness quickly. However, even if recover from her illness quickly. However, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have not have knownknown that she would get well, since her that she would get well, since her belief lacked justificationbelief lacked justification. .

Philosophy of science - 1Philosophy of science - 1

Philosophy of sciencePhilosophy of science is a branch of philosophy is a branch of philosophy

studying the philosophical studying the philosophical assumptionsassumptions, ,

foundationsfoundations, and , and implicationsimplications of science, of science,

including the formal, natural, and social sciences.including the formal, natural, and social sciences.

It is closely related to It is closely related to epistemologyepistemology and the and the

philosophy of languagephilosophy of language..

Issues of scientific Issues of scientific ethicsethics are are notnot considered to considered to

be part of the philosophy of science; they are be part of the philosophy of science; they are

studied in such fields as bioethics and science studied in such fields as bioethics and science

studies.studies.

Philosophy of science - 2Philosophy of science - 2

The The philosophy of sciencephilosophy of science tackles the tackles the topicstopics::

– The character and the development of The character and the development of

concepts and terms, propositions and concepts and terms, propositions and

hypotheses, arguments and conclusions, as hypotheses, arguments and conclusions, as

they function in science. they function in science.

– The manner in which science explains The manner in which science explains

natural phenomena and predicts natural natural phenomena and predicts natural

occurrences. occurrences.

– The types of reasoning that are used to The types of reasoning that are used to

arrive at scientific conclusions. arrive at scientific conclusions.

Philosophy of science - 3Philosophy of science - 3

– The formulation, scope, and limits of The formulation, scope, and limits of

scientific method. scientific method.

– The means that should be used for The means that should be used for

determining the validity of scientific determining the validity of scientific

information, in other words, the question of information, in other words, the question of

objectivity. objectivity.

– The implications of scientific methods and The implications of scientific methods and

models, along with the technology that arises models, along with the technology that arises

from scientific knowledge, for the larger from scientific knowledge, for the larger

society. society.

Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology and the Unity of Sciencesand the Unity of Sciences

– towards an evolutionary – towards an evolutionary epistemologyepistemology

Luís Moniz PereiraLuís Moniz Pereira

Centro de Inteligência Artificial – CENTRIACentro de Inteligência Artificial – CENTRIAUniversidade Nova de Lisboa – UNLUniversidade Nova de Lisboa – UNL

Evolutionary Psychology and the Unity of Sciences Evolutionary Psychology and the Unity of Sciences – towards an evolutionary epistemology– towards an evolutionary epistemologyFirst Lisbon Colloquium for the Philosophy of Sciences - Unity of Sciences, Non-Traditional First Lisbon Colloquium for the Philosophy of Sciences - Unity of Sciences, Non-Traditional

ApproachesApproaches Lisbon, 25-28 October 2006Lisbon, 25-28 October 2006

Philosophy of science - Philosophy of science - exampleexample

AbstractAbstract This work concerns a non-traditional approach to the unity of sciences, This work concerns a non-traditional approach to the unity of sciences,

based on a challenging, albeit conjectural, articulation of views based on a challenging, albeit conjectural, articulation of views

proceeding from Evolutionary Psychology and Biology, non monotonic proceeding from Evolutionary Psychology and Biology, non monotonic

and decision Logics, and Artificial Intelligence.and decision Logics, and Artificial Intelligence.

The resulting amalgam sets forth a consilience stance, wherefore the The resulting amalgam sets forth a consilience stance, wherefore the

unity of science is heuristically presupposed by means of a set of unity of science is heuristically presupposed by means of a set of

pragmatic and productive default assumptions. It is by virtue of them pragmatic and productive default assumptions. It is by virtue of them

that we conduct scientific inquiry, the consilience arising from a that we conduct scientific inquiry, the consilience arising from a

presumed unity of objective reality, itself of a heuristic and pragmatic presumed unity of objective reality, itself of a heuristic and pragmatic

conception.conception.

The attending hinges to Artificial Intelligence inevitably suggest the The attending hinges to Artificial Intelligence inevitably suggest the

emergence of an innovative symbiotic form of evolutionary emergence of an innovative symbiotic form of evolutionary

epistemology.epistemology.

ConsilienceConsilience

Arguments in favour of the unity of knowledge have been Arguments in favour of the unity of knowledge have been

strongly put by Edward Wilson, a creator of sociobiology, strongly put by Edward Wilson, a creator of sociobiology,

and author of and author of Consilience – The Unity of KnowledgeConsilience – The Unity of Knowledge

(1998). He postulates there is a single physical nature, (1998). He postulates there is a single physical nature,

and one not persuadable through argumentation. Science and one not persuadable through argumentation. Science

is not mere convention.is not mere convention.

Consilience is the result of co-evolution involving Consilience is the result of co-evolution involving

(cultural) memes and genes (see below). Our cultural (cultural) memes and genes (see below). Our cultural

memes have a genetic basis and cannot, in the long run, memes have a genetic basis and cannot, in the long run,

stand against the genes who guarantee their survival, stand against the genes who guarantee their survival,

although such attempts may potentially exist – viz. although such attempts may potentially exist – viz.

through genetic manipulation.through genetic manipulation.

Evolution and the BrainEvolution and the Brain The first bipedal primates establish the separation between The first bipedal primates establish the separation between

the human species and the other simians. To fathom the the human species and the other simians. To fathom the

abilities of the human brain it is necessary to understand what abilities of the human brain it is necessary to understand what

exactly were the problems our ancestor primates were trying exactly were the problems our ancestor primates were trying

to solve that led them to develop such an extraordinarily to solve that led them to develop such an extraordinarily

intricate brain. intricate brain.

We cannot look at the modern human brain, and its ability to We cannot look at the modern human brain, and its ability to

create science, as if the millions of evolution-years which create science, as if the millions of evolution-years which

attuned it to its present configuration had never taken place. attuned it to its present configuration had never taken place.

Among the eventual problems we have those of status, Among the eventual problems we have those of status,

territorialism, mating, gregariousness, altruism vs. territorialism, mating, gregariousness, altruism vs.

opportunism, building of artefacts, and the mappings of the opportunism, building of artefacts, and the mappings of the

external world.external world.

Evolutionary PscychologyEvolutionary Pscychology Evolutionary Psychology is a consummate example of Evolutionary Psychology is a consummate example of

successful ongoing scientific unification, engendered by a successful ongoing scientific unification, engendered by a

deeply significant combination of Psychology, Anthropology, deeply significant combination of Psychology, Anthropology,

Archaeology, Evolutionary Biology, Linguistics, Neurosciences, Archaeology, Evolutionary Biology, Linguistics, Neurosciences,

and Artificial Intelligence (David M. Buss, 2005).and Artificial Intelligence (David M. Buss, 2005).

Evolutionary Psychology has been studying the brain from the Evolutionary Psychology has been studying the brain from the

evolutionary perspective, thereby originating some extremely evolutionary perspective, thereby originating some extremely

relevant contributions. In that perspective, it has been relevant contributions. In that perspective, it has been

strongly supported by Anthropological Archaeology in its strongly supported by Anthropological Archaeology in its

empirical study of the cultural evolution of mankind (Stephen empirical study of the cultural evolution of mankind (Stephen

Shennan, 2002).Shennan, 2002).

Genes and MemesGenes and Memes In human life, we have two reproductive mechanisms: one is In human life, we have two reproductive mechanisms: one is

sexual reproduction, in which the replication unit is the sexual reproduction, in which the replication unit is the

gene; the other is mental reproduction.gene; the other is mental reproduction.

Authors from Evolutionary Psychology have construed the Authors from Evolutionary Psychology have construed the

notion of “meme”, in complement and contrast to the gene. notion of “meme”, in complement and contrast to the gene.

A meme is that which substantiates a second reproductive A meme is that which substantiates a second reproductive

system executed in the brain; the mental unit corresponding system executed in the brain; the mental unit corresponding

to the gene.to the gene.

Memes gather in assemblies, in patterns, similar to the way Memes gather in assemblies, in patterns, similar to the way

genes gather in chromosomes. Memes are patterned by genes gather in chromosomes. Memes are patterned by

ideologies, religions, and common sense ideas. Certain ideologies, religions, and common sense ideas. Certain

memes work well together, mutually reinforcing each other, memes work well together, mutually reinforcing each other,

others not, so that correcting mechanisms may be triggered.others not, so that correcting mechanisms may be triggered.

Science MemesScience Memes In this view, scientific thought emerges from distributed In this view, scientific thought emerges from distributed

personal interaction, albeit it at a spacial and temporal personal interaction, albeit it at a spacial and temporal

distance, and never in an isolated way. It must be erected distance, and never in an isolated way. It must be erected

from several confluences, or in teams, as is the case in from several confluences, or in teams, as is the case in

science. In truth, knowledge is not constructed in an science. In truth, knowledge is not constructed in an

autonomous way; rather it is engendered by networks of autonomous way; rather it is engendered by networks of

people, and processed in appropriate environments, one people, and processed in appropriate environments, one

being education, in which we carry out being education, in which we carry out memeticmemetic

proliferation.proliferation.

Language is the instrument with which to fabricate Language is the instrument with which to fabricate

knowledge together. We go so far as to state that there is knowledge together. We go so far as to state that there is

no isolated consciousness, that all consciousness is no isolated consciousness, that all consciousness is

distributed. When we consider consciousness we should distributed. When we consider consciousness we should

take it out of the brain and spread it through culture; this take it out of the brain and spread it through culture; this

is the importance of language.is the importance of language.

ArchaeologyArchaeology Theoretical and field archaeologists, cf. Steven Mithen in Theoretical and field archaeologists, cf. Steven Mithen in

The Prehistory of Mind The Prehistory of Mind (1996), are bringing in historical and (1996), are bringing in historical and pre-historical evidence that our ancestors began with a pre-historical evidence that our ancestors began with a generic intelligence, such as we find in apes.generic intelligence, such as we find in apes.

There has been a broad discussion – reproduced within the There has been a broad discussion – reproduced within the Artificial Intelligence (AI) community – about whether Artificial Intelligence (AI) community – about whether intelligence is a general functionality or else best envisaged intelligence is a general functionality or else best envisaged as divided into specific ability modules or components. as divided into specific ability modules or components.

Archaeologists have come to demonstrate, through their Archaeologists have come to demonstrate, through their records, the human species went from a first phase of a records, the human species went from a first phase of a simple general intelligence to a second phase of three major simple general intelligence to a second phase of three major specialized modules: one for natural history and naive specialized modules: one for natural history and naive physics - physics - Knowledge of NatureKnowledge of Nature; one for ; one for Knowledge and Knowledge and Manufacture of InstrumentsManufacture of Instruments; and one for ; and one for Cultural ArtefactsCultural Artefacts, , i.e. the rules of living in society and the very politics of i.e. the rules of living in society and the very politics of coexistence.coexistence.

Specialized Modules and General Specialized Modules and General CupolaCupola

These three specialized intelligences were separately These three specialized intelligences were separately

developed and uncommunicating, and it is only at a newer developed and uncommunicating, and it is only at a newer

stage – corresponding to stage – corresponding to Homo SapiensHomo Sapiens, and the appearance , and the appearance

of spoken language – that it becomes necessary to have a of spoken language – that it becomes necessary to have a

cupola module, articulating the specific ones. How else do the cupola module, articulating the specific ones. How else do the

different specialized modules connect, and how can people - different specialized modules connect, and how can people -

as module envelopes - communicate among themselves?as module envelopes - communicate among themselves?

That need gave birth to the generic cupola module, a much That need gave birth to the generic cupola module, a much

more sophisticated form of general intelligence, the cognitive more sophisticated form of general intelligence, the cognitive

glue bringing the specialized modules to communicate and glue bringing the specialized modules to communicate and

cooperate.cooperate.

The Evolution of Reason: LogicThe Evolution of Reason: Logic The formal systems of logic have ordinarily been regarded The formal systems of logic have ordinarily been regarded

as independent of biology, but recent developments in as independent of biology, but recent developments in evolutionary theory suggest that biology and logic may be evolutionary theory suggest that biology and logic may be intimately interrelated. William S. Cooper (2001) outlines a intimately interrelated. William S. Cooper (2001) outlines a theory of rationality in which logical law emerges as an theory of rationality in which logical law emerges as an intrinsic aspect of evolutionary biology.intrinsic aspect of evolutionary biology.

This biological perspective on logic, though at present This biological perspective on logic, though at present unorthodox, could change traditional ideas about the unorthodox, could change traditional ideas about the reasoning process. Cooper examines the connections reasoning process. Cooper examines the connections between logic and evolutionary biology and illustrates how between logic and evolutionary biology and illustrates how logical rules are derived directly from evolutionary logical rules are derived directly from evolutionary principles, and therefore have no independent status of their principles, and therefore have no independent status of their own.own.

Laws of decision theory, utility theory, induction, and Laws of decision theory, utility theory, induction, and deduction are reinterpreted as natural consequences of deduction are reinterpreted as natural consequences of evolutionary processes. Cooper's connection of logical law to evolutionary processes. Cooper's connection of logical law to evolutionary theory ultimately results in a unified foundation evolutionary theory ultimately results in a unified foundation for an evolutionary science of reason.for an evolutionary science of reason.