schopenhauer the art of literature

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Title:TheArtofLiterature

Author:ArthurSchopenhauer

ReleaseDate:January14,2004[EBook#10714]

Language:English

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THEESSAYS

OF

ARTHURSCHOPENHAUER

TRANSLATEDBY

T.BAILEYSAUNDERS,M.A.

THEARTOFLITERATURE.

CONTENTS.

PREFACEONAUTHORSHIPONSTYLEONTHESTUDYOFLATINONMENOFLEARNINGONTHINKINGFORONESELFONSOMEFORMSOFLITERATUREONCRITICISMONREPUTATIONONGENIUS



TRANSLATOR'SPREFACE.

Thecontentsofthis,asoftheothervolumesintheseries,havebeendrawnfromSchopenhauer's_Parerga_,andamongstthevarioussubjectsdealtwithinthatfamouscollectionofessays,Literatureholdsanimportantplace.NorcanSchopenhauer'sopinionsfailtobeofspecialvaluewhenhetreatsofliteraryformandmethod.For,quiteapartfromhisphilosophicalpretensions,heclaimsrecognitionasagreatwriter;heis,indeed,oneofthebestofthefewreallyexcellentprose-writersofwhomGermanycanboast.WhileheisthusparticularlyqualifiedtospeakofLiteratureasanArt,hehasalsosomethingtosayuponthoseinfluenceswhich,outsideofhisownmerits,contributesomuchtoanauthor'ssuccess,andaresooftenundervaluedwhenheobtainsimmediatepopularity.Schopenhauer'sownsoreexperiencesinthematterofreputationlendaninteresttohisremarksuponthatsubject,althoughitistoomuchtoaskofhumannaturethatheshouldapproachitinanydispassionatespirit.

Inthefollowingpageswehaveobservationsuponstylebyonewho

wasastylistinthebestsenseoftheword,notaffected,noryetaphrasemonger;onthinkingforoneselfbyaphilosopherwhoneverdidanythingelse;oncriticismbyawriterwhosufferedmuchfromtheinabilityofotherstounderstandhim;onreputationbyacandidatewho,duringthegreaterpartofhislife,deservedwithoutobtainingit;andongeniusbyonewhowasincontestablyoftheprivilegedorderhimself.Andwhatevermaybethoughtofsomeofhisopinionsonmattersofdetail--onanonymity,forinstance,oronthequestionwhethergoodworkisneverdoneformoney--therecanbenodoubtthathisgeneralviewofliterature,andtheconditionsunderwhichitflourishes,isperfectlysound.

Itmightbethought,perhaps,thatremarkswhichweremeanttoapply

totheGermanlanguagewouldhavebutlittlebearingupononesodifferentfromitasEnglish.ThiswouldbeajustobjectionifSchopenhauertreatedliteratureinapettyspirit,andconfinedhimselftopedanticinquiriesintomattersofgrammarandetymology,ormerenicetiesofphrase.Butthisisnotso.Hedealswithhissubjectbroadly,andtakeslargeandgeneralviews;norcananyonewhoknowsanythingofthephilosophersupposethistomeanthatheisvagueandfeeble.Itistruethatnowandagaininthecourseoftheseessayshemakesremarkswhichareobviouslymeanttoapplytothefailingsofcertainwritersofhisownageandcountry;butinsuchacaseIhavegenerallygivenhissentencesaturn,which,whilekeepingthemfaithfultothespiritoftheoriginal,securesforthemalessrestrictedrange,andmakesSchopenhaueracriticofsimilarfaultsin

whateverageorcountrytheymayappear.Thishasbeendoneinspiteofasharpwordonpageseventeenofthisvolume,addressedtotranslatorswhodaretorevisetheirauthor;butthechangeisonewithwhichnotevenSchopenhauercouldquarrel.

Itisthusasignificantfact--atestimonytothedepthofhisinsightand,inthemain,thejusticeofhisopinions--thatviewsofliteraturewhichappealedtohisownimmediatecontemporaries,shouldbefoundtoholdgoodelsewhereandatadistanceoffiftyyears.Itmeansthatwhathehadtosaywasworthsaying;andsinceitis



adaptedthusequallytodiversetimesandaudiences,itisprobablyofpermanentinterest.

TheintelligentreaderwillobservethatmuchofthecharmofSchopenhauer'swritingcomesfromitsstronglypersonalcharacter,andthatherehehastodo,notwithameremakerofbooks,butwithamanwhothinksforhimselfandhasnofalsescruplesinputtinghismeaningplainlyuponthepage,orinunmaskingshamwhereverhefindsit.Thisisnowheresotrueaswhenhedealswithliterature;andjustasinhistreatmentoflife,heisnoflatterertomeningeneral,sohereheisfreeandoutspokenonthepeculiarfailingsofauthors.Atthesametimehegivesthemgoodadvice.Heisparticularlyhappyinrecommendingrestraintinregardtoreadingtheworksofothers,andthecultivationofindependentthought;andhereinherecallsasayingattributedtoHobbes,whowasnotlessdistinguishedasawriterthanasaphilosopher,totheeffectthat"_ifhehadreadasmuchasothermen,heshouldhavebeenasignorantasthey_."

Schopenhaueralsouttersawarning,whichweshalldowelltotaketoheartinthesedays,againstminglingthepursuitofliteraturewithvulgaraims.Ifwefollowhimhere,weshallcarefullydistinguishbetweenliteratureasanobjectoflifeandliteratureasameansofliving,betweentherealloveoftruthandbeauty,andthatdetestablefalselovewhichlookstothepriceitwillfetchinthemarket.Iam

notreferringtothosewho,whiletheyfollowausefulandhonorablecallinginbringingliteraturebeforethepublic,arecontenttobeknownasmenofbusiness.If,bythehelpofsomesecondwitchofEndor,wecouldraisetheghostofSchopenhauer,itwouldbeinterestingtohearhisopinionofacertainkindofliteraryenterprisewhichhascomeintovoguesincehisday,andnowreceivesanamountofattentionverymuchbeyonditsdue.Wemayhazardaguessatthedirectionhisopinionwouldtake.Hewoulddoubtlessshowushowthisenterprise,whichiscarriedonbyself-styled_literarymen_,endsbymakingliteratureintoaformofmerchandise,andtreatingitasthoughitweresomuchgoodstobeboughtandsoldataprofit,andmostlikelytoproducequickreturnsifthemaker'snameiswellknown.NorwoulditbetheghostoftherealSchopenhauer

unlessweheardavigorousdenunciationofmenwhoclaimaconnectionwithliteraturebyaservileflatteryofsuccessfullivingauthors--thedeadcannotbemadetopay--inthehopeofappearingtoadvantageintheirreflectedlightandturningthatadvantageintomoney.

Inordertopresentthecontentsofthisbookinaconvenientform,Ihavenotscrupledtomakeanarrangementwiththechapterssomewhatdifferentfromthatwhichexistsintheoriginal;sothattwoormoresubjectswhicharetheredealtwithsuccessivelyinoneandthesamechapter,herestandbythemselves.Inconsequenceofthis,someofthetitlesofthesectionsarenottobefoundintheoriginal.Imaystate,however,thattheessayson_Authorship_and_Style_andthe

latterpartofthaton_Criticism_aretakendirectfromthechapterheaded_UeberSchriftstellereiundStil_;andthattheremainderoftheessayon_Criticism_,withthatof_Reputation_,issuppliedbytheremarks_UeberUrtheil,Kritik,BeifallundRuhm_.Theessayson _TheStudyofLatin_,on_MenofLearning_,andon_SomeFormsofLiterature_,aretakenchieflyfromthefoursections_UeberGelehrsamkeitundGelehrte,UeberSpracheundWorte,UeberLesenundBücher:Anhang_,and_ZurMetaphysikdesSchönen_.Theessayon _ThinkingforOneself_isarenderingofcertainremarksundertheheading_Selbstdenken.Genius_wasafavoritesubjectofspeculation



withSchopenhauer,andheoftentouchesuponitinthecourseofhisworks;always,however,toputforththesametheoryinregardtoitasmaybefoundintheconcludingsectionofthisvolume.Thoughtheessayhaslittleornothingtodowithliterarymethod,thesubjectofwhichittreatsisthemostneedfulelementofsuccessinliterature;andIhaveintroduceditonthatground.Itformspartofachapterinthe_Parerga_entitled_DenIntellektüberhauptundinjederBeziehungbetreffendeGedanken:AnhangverwandterStellen._

Ithasalsobeenpartofmydutytoinventatitleforthisvolume;andIamwellawarethatobjectionmaybemadetotheoneIhavechosen,onthegroundthatincommonlanguageitisunusualtospeakofliteratureasanart,andthattodosoisundulytonarrowitsmeaningandtoleaveoutofsightitsmainfunctionastherecordofthought.Butthereisnoreasonwhytheword_Literature_shouldnotbeemployedinthatdoublesensewhichisallowedtoattachto _Painting,Music,Sculpture_,assignifyingeithertheobjectiveoutcomeofacertainmentalactivity,seekingtoexpressitselfinoutwardform;orelsetheparticularkindofmentalactivityinquestion,andthemethodsitfollows.Andwedo,infact,useitinthislattersense,whenwesayofawriterthathepursuesliteratureasacalling.If,then,literaturecanbetakentomeanaprocessaswellasaresultofmentalactivity,therecanbenoerrorinspeakingofitasArt.Iusethatterminitsbroadsense,asmeaningskillin

thedisplayofthought;or,morefully,arightuseoftherulesofapplyingtothepracticalexhibitionofthought,withwhatevermaterialitmaydeal.Inconnectionwithliterature,thisisasenseandanapplicationofthetermwhichhavebeensufficientlyestablishedbytheexampleofthegreatwritersofantiquity.

Itmaybeasked,ofcourse,whetherthetruethinker,whowillalwaysformthesoulofthetrueauthor,willnotbesomuchoccupiedwithwhathehastosay,thatitwillappeartohimatrivialthingtospendgreateffortonembellishingtheforminwhichhedeliversit.Literature,tobeworthyofthename,must,itistrue,dealwithnoblematter--theriddleofourexistence,thegreatfactsoflife,thechangingpassionsofthehumanheart,thediscernmentofsomedeep

moraltruth.Itiseasytolaytoomuchstressuponthemeregarmentofthought;tobetooprecise;togivetothearrangementofwordsanattentionthatshouldratherbepaidtothepromotionoffreshideas.Awriterwhomakesthismistakeislikeafopwhospendshislittlemindinadorninghisperson.Inshort,itmaybechargedagainsttheviewofliteraturewhichistakenincallingitanArt,that,insteadofmakingtruthandinsighttheauthor'saim,itfavorssciolismandafantasticandaffectedstyle.Thereis,nodoubt,somejusticeintheobjection;norhaveweinourownday,andespeciallyamongstyoungermen,anylackofwriterswhoendeavortowinconfidence,notbyaddingtothestockofideasintheworld,butbydespisingtheuseofplainlanguage.Theirfaultsarenotnewinthehistoryofliterature;anditisapleasingsignofSchopenhauer'sinsightthatamerciless

exposureofthem,astheyexistedhalfacenturyago,isstillquiteapplicabletotheirmodernform.

Andsincethesewriters,whomay,intheslangofthehour,becalled"impressionists"inliterature,followtheirownbadtasteinthemanufactureofdaintyphrases,devoidofallnerve,andgenerallywithsomequitecommonplacemeaning,itisallthemorenecessarytodiscriminatecarefullybetweenartificeandart.

ButalthoughtheymaylearnsomethingfromSchopenhauer'sadvice,it



isnotchieflytothemthatitisoffered.Itistothatgreatmassofwriters,whosebusinessistofillthecolumnsofthenewspapersandthepagesofthereview,andtoproducethetonofnovelsthatappeareveryyear.Nowthatalmosteveryonewhocanholdapenaspirestobecalledanauthor,itiswelltoemphasizethefactthatliteratureisanartinsomerespectsmoreimportantthananyother.Theproblemofthisartisthediscoveryofthosequalitiesofstyleandtreatmentwhichentitledanyworktobecalledgoodliterature.

Itwillbesafetowarnthereaderattheveryoutsetthat,ifhewishestoavoidbeingledastray,heshouldinhissearchforthesequalitiesturntobooksthathavestoodthetestoftime.

Forsuchanamountofhastywritingisdoneinthesedaysthatitisreallydifficultforanyonewhoreadsmuchofittoavoidcontractingitsfaults,andthusgraduallycomingtotermsofdangerousfamiliaritywithbadmethods.Thisadvicewillbeespeciallyneedfulifthingsthathavelittleornoclaimtobecalledliteratureatall--thenewspapers,themonthlymagazine,andthelastnewtaleofintrigueoradventure--fillalargemeasure,ifnotthewhole,ofthetimegiventoreading.Norarethosewhoaresincerelyanxioustohavethebestthoughtinthebestlanguagequitefreefromdangeriftheygivetoomuchattentiontothecontemporaryauthors,eventhoughtheseseemtothinkandwriteexcellently.Foronegenerationaloneis

incompetenttodecideuponthemeritsofanyauthorwhatever;andasliterature,likeallart,isathingofhumaninvention,soitcanbepronouncedgoodonlyifitobtainslastingadmiration,byestablishingapermanentappealtomankind'sdeepestfeelingfortruthandbeauty.

ItisinthissensethatSchopenhauerisperfectlyrightinholdingthatneglectoftheancientclassics,whicharethebestofallmodelsintheartofwriting,willinfalliblyleadtoadegenerationofliterature.

Andthemethodofdiscoveringthebestqualitiesofstyle,andofformingatheoryofwriting,isnottofollowsometrickormannerismthathappenstopleaseforthemoment,buttostudythewayinwhich

greatauthorshavedonetheirbestwork.

ItwillbesaidthatSchopenhauertellsusnothingwedidnotknowbefore.Perhapsso;ashehimselfsays,thebestthingsareseldomnew.Butheputstheoldtruthsinafreshandforcibleway;andnoonewhoknowsanythingofgoodliteraturewilldenythatthesetruthsarejustnowofveryfitapplication.

Itwasprobablytomeetarealwantthat,ayearortwoago,aningeniouspersonsucceededindrawingagreatnumberofEnglishandAmericanwritersintoaconfessionoftheirliterarycreedandthearttheyadoptedinauthorship;andtheinterestingvolumeinwhichhegavetheseconfessionstotheworldcontainedsomeverygoodadvice,

althoughmostofithadbeensaidbeforeindifferentforms.Morerecentlyanewdeparture,ofverydoubtfuluse,hastakenplace;andtwobookshavebeenissued,whichaim,theoneatbeinganauthor'smanual,theotheratgivinghintsonessaysandhowtowritethem.

Aglanceatthesebookswillprobablyshowthattheirauthorshavestillsomethingtolearn.

Bothoftheseventuresseem,unhappily,tobepopular;and,althoughtheymayclaimapositionnext-doortothatofthepresentvolumeI



begtosaythatithasnoconnectionwiththemwhatever.Schopenhauerdoesnotattempttoteachtheartofmakingbrickswithoutstraw.

Iwishtotakethisopportunityoftenderingmythankstoalargenumberofreviewersfortheverygratifyingreceptiongiventotheearliervolumesofthisseries.AndIhavegreatpleasureinexpressingmyobligationstomyfriendMr.W.G.Collingwood,whohaslookedovermostofmyproofsandoftengivenmeexcellentadviceinmyefforttoturnSchopenhauerintoreadableEnglish.

T.B.S.

ONAUTHORSHIP.

Thereare,firstofall,twokindsofauthors:thosewhowriteforthesubject'ssake,andthosewhowriteforwriting'ssake.Whiletheonehavehadthoughtsorexperienceswhichseemtothemworthcommunicating,theotherswantmoney;andsotheywrite,formoney.Theirthinkingispartofthebusinessofwriting.Theymayberecognizedbythewayinwhichtheyspinouttheirthoughtstothe

greatestpossiblelength;then,too,bytheverynatureoftheirthoughts,whichareonlyhalf-true,perverse,forced,vacillating;again,bytheaversiontheygenerallyshowtosayinganythingstraightout,sothattheymayseemotherthantheyare.Hencetheirwritingisdeficientinclearnessanddefiniteness,anditisnotlongbeforetheybetraythattheironlyobjectinwritingatallistocoverpaper.Thissometimeshappenswiththebestauthors;nowandthen,forexample,withLessinginhis_Dramaturgie_,andeveninmanyofJeanPaul'sromances.Assoonasthereaderperceivesthis,lethimthrowthebookaway;fortimeisprecious.Thetruthisthatwhenanauthorbeginstowriteforthesakeofcoveringpaper,heischeatingthereader;becausehewritesunderthepretextthathehassomethingtosay.

Writingformoneyandreservationofcopyrightare,atbottom,theruinofliterature.Noonewritesanythingthatisworthwriting,unlesshewritesentirelyforthesakeofhissubject.Whataninestimableboonitwouldbe,ifineverybranchofliteraturetherewereonlyafewbooks,butthoseexcellent!Thiscanneverhappen,aslongasmoneyistobemadebywriting.Itseemsasthoughthemoneylayunderacurse;foreveryauthordegeneratesassoonashebeginstoputpentopaperinanywayforthesakeofgain.Thebestworksofthegreatestmenallcomefromthetimewhentheyhadtowritefornothingorforverylittle.Andhere,too,thatSpanishproverbholdsgood,whichdeclaresthathonorandmoneyarenottobefoundinthesamepurse--_honorayprovechonocabenenunsaco_.Thereasonwhy

Literatureisinsuchabadplightnowadaysissimplyandsolelythatpeoplewritebookstomakemoney.Amanwhoisinwantsitsdownandwritesabook,andthepublicisstupidenoughtobuyit.Thesecondaryeffectofthisistheruinoflanguage.

Agreatmanybadwritersmaketheirwholelivingbythatfoolishmaniaofthepublicforreadingnothingbutwhathasjustbeenprinted,--journalists,Imean.Truly,amostappropriatename.Inplainlanguageitis_journeymen,day-laborers_!



Again,itmaybesaidthattherearethreekindsofauthors.Firstcomethosewhowritewithoutthinking.Theywritefromafullmemory,fromreminiscences;itmaybe,evenstraightoutofotherpeople'sbooks.Thisclassisthemostnumerous.Thencomethosewhodotheirthinkingwhilsttheyarewriting.Theythinkinordertowrite;andthereisnolackofthem.Lastofallcomethoseauthorswhothinkbeforetheybegintowrite.Theyarerare.

Authorsofthesecondclass,whoputofftheirthinkinguntiltheycometowrite,arelikeasportsmanwhogoesforthatrandomandisnotlikelytobringverymuchhome.Ontheotherhand,whenanauthorofthethirdorrareclasswrites,itislikea_battue_.Herethegamehasbeenpreviouslycapturedandshutupwithinaverysmallspace;fromwhichitisafterwardsletout,somanyatatime,intoanotherspace,alsoconfined.Thegamecannotpossiblyescapethesportsman;hehasnothingtodobutaimandfire--inotherwords,writedownhisthoughts.Thisisakindofsportfromwhichamanhassomethingtoshow.

Buteventhoughthenumberofthosewhoreallythinkseriouslybeforetheybegintowriteissmall,extremelyfewofthemthinkabout_thesubjectitself_:theremainderthinkonlyaboutthebooksthathavebeenwrittenonthesubject,andwhathasbeensaidbyothers.Inordertothinkatall,suchwritersneedthemoredirectandpowerful

stimulusofhavingotherpeople'sthoughtsbeforethem.Thesebecometheirimmediatetheme;andtheresultisthattheyarealwaysundertheirinfluence,andsonever,inanyrealsenseoftheword,areoriginal.Buttheformerarerousedtothoughtbythesubjectitself,towhichtheirthinkingisthusimmediatelydirected.Thisistheonlyclassthatproduceswritersofabidingfame.

Itmust,ofcourse,beunderstoodthatIamspeakinghereofwriterswhotreatofgreatsubjects;notofwritersontheartofmakingbrandy.

Unlessanauthortakesthematerialonwhichhewritesoutofhisownhead,thatistosay,fromhisownobservation,heisnot

worthreading.Book-manufacturers,compilers,thecommonrunofhistory-writers,andmanyothersofthesameclass,taketheirmaterialimmediatelyoutofbooks;andthematerialgoesstraighttotheirfinger-tipswithoutevenpayingfreightorundergoingexaminationasitpassesthroughtheirheads,tosaynothingofelaborationorrevision.Howverylearnedmanyamanwouldbeifhekneweverythingthatwasinhisownbooks!Theconsequenceofthisisthatthesewriterstalkinsuchalooseandvaguemanner,thatthereaderpuzzleshisbraininvaintounderstandwhatitisofwhichtheyarereallythinking.Theyarethinkingofnothing.Itmaynowandthenbethecasethatthebookfromwhichtheycopyhasbeencomposedexactlyinthesameway:sothatwritingofthissortislikeaplastercastofacast;andintheend,thebareoutlineoftheface,

andthat,too,hardlyrecognizable,isallthatislefttoyourAntinous.Letcompilationsbereadasseldomaspossible.Itisdifficulttoavoidthemaltogether;sincecompilationsalsoincludethosetext-bookswhichcontaininasmallspacetheaccumulatedknowledgeofcenturies.

Thereisnogreatermistakethantosupposethatthelastworkisalwaysthemorecorrect;thatwhatiswrittenlateronisineverycaseanimprovementonwhatwaswrittenbefore;andthatchangealwaysmeansprogress.Realthinkers,menofrightjudgment,peoplewhoare



inearnestwiththeirsubject,--theseareallexceptionsonly.Verministheruleeverywhereintheworld:itisalwaysonthealert,takingthematureopinionsofthethinkers,andindustriouslyseekingtoimproveuponthem(savethemark!)initsownpeculiarway.

Ifthereaderwishestostudyanysubject,lethimbewareofrushingtothenewestbooksuponit,andconfininghisattentiontothemalone,underthenotionthatscienceisalwaysadvancing,andthattheoldbookshavebeendrawnuponinthewritingofthenew.Theyhavebeendrawnupon,itistrue;buthow?Thewriterofthenewbookoftendoesnotunderstandtheoldbooksthoroughly,andyetheisunwillingtotaketheirexactwords;sohebunglesthem,andsaysinhisownbadwaythatwhichhasbeensaidverymuchbetterandmoreclearlybytheoldwriters,whowrotefromtheirownlivelyknowledgeofthesubject.Thenewwriterfrequentlyomitsthebestthingstheysay,theirmoststrikingillustrations,theirhappiestremarks;becausehedoesnotseetheirvalueorfeelhowpregnanttheyare.Theonlythingthatappealstohimiswhatisshallowandinsipid.

Itoftenhappensthatanoldandexcellentbookisoustedbynewandbadones,which,writtenformoney,appearwithanairofgreatpretensionandmuchpuffingonthepartoffriends.Inscienceamantriestomakehismarkbybringingoutsomethingfresh.Thisoftenmeansnothingmorethanthatheattackssomereceivedtheorywhich

isquitecorrect,inordertomakeroomforhisownfalsenotions.Sometimestheeffortissuccessfulforatime;andthenareturnismadetotheoldandtruetheory.Theseinnovatorsareseriousaboutnothingbuttheirownpreciousself:itisthisthattheywanttoputforward,andthequickwayofdoingso,astheythink,istostartaparadox.Theirsterileheadstakenaturallytothepathofnegation;sotheybegintodenytruthsthathavelongbeenadmitted--thevitalpower,forexample,thesympatheticnervoussystem,_generatioequivoca_,Bichat'sdistinctionbetweentheworkingofthepassionsandtheworkingofintelligence;orelsetheywantustoreturntocrassatomism,andthelike.Henceitfrequentlyhappensthat_thecourseofscienceisretrogressive._

Tothisclassofwritersbelongthosetranslatorswhonotonlytranslatetheirauthorbutalsocorrectandrevisehim;aproceedingwhichalwaysseemstomeimpertinent.TosuchwritersIsay:Writebooksyourselfwhichareworthtranslating,andleaveotherpeople'sworksastheyare!

Thereadershouldstudy,ifhecan,therealauthors,themenwhohavefoundedanddiscoveredthings;or,atanyrate,thosewhoarerecognizedasthegreatmastersineverybranchofknowledge.Lethimbuysecond-handbooksratherthanreadtheircontentsinnewones.Tobesure,itiseasytoaddtoanynewdiscovery--_inventisaliquidadderefacileest_;and,therefore,thestudent,afterwellmasteringtherudimentsofhissubject,willhavetomakehimselfacquainted

withthemorerecentadditionstotheknowledgeofit.And,ingeneral,thefollowingrulemaybelaiddownhereaselsewhere:ifathingisnew,itisseldomgood;becauseifitisgood,itisonlyforashorttimenew.

Whattheaddressistoaletter,thetitleshouldbetoabook;inotherwords,itsmainobjectshouldbetobringthebooktothoseamongstthepublicwhowilltakeaninterestinitscontents.Itshould,therefore,beexpressive;andsincebyitsverynatureitmustbeshort,itshouldbeconcise,laconic,pregnant,andifpossible



givethecontentsinoneword.Aprolixtitleisbad;andsoisonethatsaysnothing,orisobscureandambiguous,oreven,itmaybe,falseandmisleading;thislastmaypossiblyinvolvethebookinthesamefateasovertakesawronglyaddressedletter.Theworsttitlesofallarethosewhichhavebeenstolen,those,Imean,whichhavealreadybeenbornebyotherbooks;fortheyareinthefirstplaceaplagiarism,andsecondlythemostconvincingproofofatotallackoforiginalityintheauthor.Amanwhohasnotenoughoriginalitytoinventanewtitleforhisbook,willbestilllessabletogiveitnewcontents.Akintothesestolentitlesarethosewhichhavebeenimitated,thatistosay,stolentotheextentofonehalf;forinstance,longafterIhadproducedmytreatise_OnWillinNature_,Oerstedwroteabookentitled_OnMindinNature_.

Abookcanneverbeanythingmorethantheimpressofitsauthor'sthoughts;andthevalueofthesewilllieeitherin_thematteraboutwhichhehasthought_,orinthe_form_whichhisthoughtstake,inotherwords,_whatitisthathehasthoughtaboutit._

Thematterofbooksismostvarious;andvariousalsoaretheseveralexcellencesattachingtobooksonthescoreoftheirmatter.BymatterImeaneverythingthatcomeswithinthedomainofactualexperience;thatistosay,thefactsofhistoryandthefactsofnature,takeninandbythemselvesandintheirwidestsense.Hereitisthe_thing_

treatedof,whichgivesitspeculiarcharactertothebook;sothatabookcanbeimportant,whoeveritwasthatwroteit.

Butinregardtotheform,thepeculiarcharacterofabookdependsuponthe_person_whowroteit.Itmaytreatofmatterswhichareaccessibletoeveryoneandwellknown;butitisthewayinwhichtheyaretreated,whatitisthatisthoughtaboutthem,thatgivesthebookitsvalue;andthiscomesfromitsauthor.If,then,fromthispointofviewabookisexcellentandbeyondcomparison,soisitsauthor.Itfollowsthatifawriterisworthreading,hismeritrisesjustinproportionasheoweslittletohismatter;therefore,thebetterknownandthemorehackneyedthisis,thegreaterhewillbe.ThethreegreattragediansofGreece,forexample,allworkedatthe

samesubject-matter.

Sowhenabookiscelebrated,careshouldbetakentonotewhetheritissoonaccountofitsmatteroritsform;andadistinctionshouldbemadeaccordingly.

Booksofgreatimportanceonaccountoftheirmattermayproceedfromveryordinaryandshallowpeople,bythefactthattheyalonehavehadaccesstothismatter;books,forinstance,whichdescribejourneysindistantlands,rarenaturalphenomena,orexperiments;orhistoricaloccurrencesofwhichthewriterswerewitnesses,orinconnectionwithwhichtheyhavespentmuchtimeandtroubleintheresearchandspecialstudyoforiginaldocuments.

Ontheotherhand,wherethematterisaccessibletoeveryoneorverywellknown,everythingwilldependupontheform;andwhatitisthatisthoughtaboutthematterwillgivethebookallthevalueitpossesses.Hereonlyareallydistinguishedmanwillbeabletoproduceanythingworthreading;fortheotherswillthinknothingbutwhatanyoneelsecanthink.Theywilljustproduceanimpressoftheirownminds;butthisisaprintofwhicheveryonepossessestheoriginal.



However,thepublicisverymuchmoreconcernedtohavematterthanform;andforthisveryreasonitisdeficientinanyhighdegreeofculture.Thepublicshowsitspreferenceinthisrespectinthemostlaughablewaywhenitcomestodealwithpoetry;forthereitdevotesmuchtroubletothetaskoftrackingouttheactualeventsorpersonalcircumstancesinthelifeofthepoetwhichservedastheoccasionofhisvariousworks;nay,theseeventsandcircumstancescomeintheendtobeofgreaterimportancethantheworksthemselves;andratherthanreadGoethehimself,peopleprefertoreadwhathasbeenwrittenabouthim,andtostudythelegendofFaustmoreindustriouslythanthedramaofthatname.AndwhenBürgerdeclaredthat"peoplewouldwritelearneddisquisitionsonthequestion,WhoLeonorareallywas,"wefindthisliterallyfulfilledinGoethe'scase;forwenowpossessagreatmanylearneddisquisitionsonFaustandthelegendattachingtohim.Studyofthiskindis,andremains,devotedtothematerialofthedramaalone.Togivesuchpreferencetothematterovertheform,isasthoughamanweretotakeafineEtruscanvase,nottoadmireitsshapeorcoloring,buttomakeachemicalanalysisoftheclayandpaintofwhichitiscomposed.

Theattempttoproduceaneffectbymeansofthematerialemployed--anattemptwhichpanderstothiseviltendencyofthepublic--ismosttobecondemnedinbranchesofliteraturewhereanymerittheremaybeliesexpresslyintheform;Imean,inpoeticalwork.Forallthat,it

isnotraretofindbaddramatiststryingtofillthehousebymeansofthematteraboutwhichtheywrite.Forexample,authorsofthiskinddonotshrinkfromputtingonthestageanymanwhoisinanywaycelebrated,nomatterwhetherhislifemayhavebeenentirelydevoidofdramaticincident;andsometimes,even,theydonotwaituntilthepersonsimmediatelyconnectedwithhimaredead.

ThedistinctionbetweenmatterandformtowhichIamherealludingalsoholdsgoodofconversation.Thechiefqualitieswhichenableamantoconversewellareintelligence,discernment,witandvivacity:thesesupplytheformofconversation.Butitisnotlongbeforeattentionhastobepaidtothematterofwhichhespeaks;inotherwords,thesubjectsaboutwhichitispossibletoconversewith

him--hisknowledge.Ifthisisverysmall,hisconversationwillnotbeworthanything,unlesshepossessestheabove-namedformalqualitiesinaveryexceptionaldegree;forhewillhavenothingtotalkaboutbutthosefactsoflifeandnaturewhicheverybodyknows.Itwillbejusttheopposite,however,ifamanisdeficientintheseformalqualities,buthasanamountofknowledgewhichlendsvaluetowhathesays.Thisvaluewillthendependentirelyuponthematterofhisconversation;for,astheSpanishproverbhasit,_massabeelnecioensucasa,queelsabioenlaagena_--afoolknowsmoreofhisownbusinessthanawisemandoesofothers.

ONSTYLE.

Styleisthephysiognomyofthemind,andasaferindextocharacterthantheface.Toimitateanotherman'sstyleislikewearingamask,which,beitneversofine,isnotlonginarousingdisgustandabhorrence,becauseitislifeless;sothateventheugliestlivingfaceisbetter.HencethosewhowriteinLatinandcopythemannerofancientauthors,maybesaidtospeakthroughamask;thereader,it



istrue,hearswhattheysay,buthecannotobservetheirphysiognomytoo;hecannotseetheir_style_.WiththeLatinworksofwriterswhothinkforthemselves,thecaseisdifferent,andtheirstyleisvisible;writers,Imean,whohavenotcondescendedtoanysortofimitation,suchasScotusErigena,Petrarch,Bacon,Descartes,Spinoza,andmanyothers.Anaffectationinstyleislikemakinggrimaces.Further,thelanguageinwhichamanwritesisthephysiognomyofthenationtowhichhebelongs;andheretherearemanyhardandfastdifferences,beginningfromthelanguageoftheGreeks,downtothatoftheCaribbeanislanders.

Toformaprovincialestimateofthevalueofawriter'sproductions,itisnotdirectlynecessarytoknowthesubjectonwhichhehasthought,orwhatitisthathehassaidaboutit;thatwouldimplyaperusalofallhisworks.Itwillbeenough,inthemain,toknow _how_hehasthought.This,whichmeanstheessentialtemperorgeneralqualityofhismind,maybepreciselydeterminedbyhisstyle.Aman'sstyleshowsthe_formal_natureofallhisthoughts--theformalnaturewhichcanneverchange,bethesubjectorthecharacterofhisthoughtswhatitmay:itis,asitwere,thedoughoutofwhichallthecontentsofhismindarekneaded.WhenEulenspiegelwasaskedhowlongitwouldtaketowalktothenextvillage,hegavetheseeminglyincongruousanswer:_Walk_.Hewantedtofindoutbytheman'spacethedistancehewouldcoverinagiventime.Inthesame

way,whenIhavereadafewpagesofanauthor,Iknowfairlywellhowfarhecanbringme.

Everymediocrewritertriestomaskhisownnaturalstyle,becauseinhisheartheknowsthetruthofwhatIamsaying.Heisthusforced,attheoutset,togiveupanyattemptatbeingfrankornaïve--aprivilegewhichistherebyreservedforsuperiorminds,consciousoftheirownworth,andthereforesureofthemselves.WhatImeanisthattheseeverydaywritersareabsolutelyunabletoresolveuponwritingjustastheythink;becausetheyhaveanotionthat,weretheytodoso,theirworkmightpossiblylookverychildishandsimple.Forallthat,itwouldnotbewithoutitsvalue.Iftheywouldonlygohonestlytowork,andsay,quitesimply,thethingstheyhavereally

thought,andjustastheyhavethoughtthem,thesewriterswouldbereadableand,withintheirownpropersphere,eveninstructive.

Butinsteadofthat,theytrytomakethereaderbelievethattheirthoughtshavegonemuchfurtheranddeeperthanisreallythecase.Theysaywhattheyhavetosayinlongsentencesthatwindaboutinaforcedandunnaturalway;theycoinnewwordsandwriteprolixperiodswhichgoroundandroundthethoughtandwrapitupinasortofdisguise.Theytremblebetweenthetwoseparateaimsofcommunicatingwhattheywanttosayandofconcealingit.Theirobjectistodressitupsothatitmaylooklearnedordeep,inordertogivepeopletheimpressionthatthereisverymuchmoreinitthanforthemomentmeetstheeye.Theyeitherjotdowntheirthoughtsbitbybit,in

short,ambiguous,andparadoxicalsentences,whichapparentlymeanmuchmorethantheysay,--ofthiskindofwritingSchelling'streatisesonnaturalphilosophyareasplendidinstance;orelsetheyholdforthwithadelugeofwordsandthemostintolerablediffusiveness,asthoughnoendoffusswerenecessarytomakethereaderunderstandthedeepmeaningoftheirsentences,whereasitissomequitesimpleifnotactuallytrivialidea,--examplesofwhichmaybefoundinplentyinthepopularworksofFichte,andthephilosophicalmanualsofahundredothermiserableduncesnotworthmentioning;or,again,theytrytowriteinsomeparticularstyle



whichtheyhavebeenpleasedtotakeupandthinkverygrand,astyle,forexample,_parexcellence_profoundandscientific,wherethereaderistormentedtodeathbythenarcoticeffectoflongspunperiodswithoutasingleideainthem,--suchasarefurnishedinaspecialmeasurebythosemostimpudentofallmortals,theHegelians[1];oritmaybethatitisanintellectualstyletheyhavestrivenafter,whereitseemsasthoughtheirobjectweretogocrazyaltogether;andsooninmanyothercases.Alltheseendeavorstoputoffthe_nasceturridiculusmus_--toavoidshowingthefunnylittlecreaturethatisbornaftersuchmightythroes--oftenmakeitdifficulttoknowwhatitisthattheyreallymean.Andthen,too,theywritedownwords,nay,evenwholesentences,withoutattachinganymeaningtothemthemselves,butinthehopethatsomeoneelsewillgetsenseoutofthem.

[Footnote1:IntheirHegel-gazette,commonlyknownas_JahrbücherderwissenschaftlichenLiteratur_.]

Andwhatisatthebottomofallthis?Nothingbuttheuntiringefforttosellwordsforthoughts;amodeofmerchandisethatisalwaystryingtomakefreshopeningsforitself,andbymeansofoddexpressions,turnsofphrase,andcombinationsofeverysort,whetherneworusedinanewsense,toproducetheappearenceofintellectinordertomakeupfortheverypainfullyfeltlackofit.

Itisamusingtoseehowwriterswiththisobjectinviewwillattemptfirstonemannerismandthenanother,asthoughtheywereputtingonthemaskofintellect!Thismaskmaypossiblydeceivetheinexperiencedforawhile,untilitisseentobeadeadthing,withnolifeinitatall;itisthenlaughedatandexchangedforanother.Suchanauthorwillatonemomentwriteinadithyrambicvein,asthoughheweretipsy;atanother,nay,ontheverynextpage,hewillbepompous,severe,profoundlylearnedandprolix,stumblingoninthemostcumbrouswayandchoppingupeverythingverysmall;likethelateChristianWolf,onlyinamoderndress.Longestofalllaststhemaskofunintelligibility;butthisisonlyinGermany,whitheritwasintroducedbyFichte,perfectedbySchelling,andcarriedtoits

highestpitchinHegel--alwayswiththebestresults.

Andyetnothingiseasierthantowritesothatnoonecanunderstand;justascontrarily,nothingismoredifficultthantoexpressdeepthingsinsuchawaythateveryonemustnecessarilygraspthem.AlltheartsandtricksIhavebeenmentioningarerenderedsuperfluousiftheauthorreallyhasanybrains;forthatallowshimtoshowhimselfasheis,andconfirmstoalltimeHorace'smaximthatgoodsenseisthesourceandoriginofgoodstyle:

_Scribendirectesapereestetprincipiumetfons_.

ButthoseauthorsIhavenamedarelikecertainworkersinmetal,who

tryahundreddifferentcompoundstotaketheplaceofgold--theonlymetalwhichcanneverhaveanysubstitute.Ratherthandothat,thereisnothingagainstwhichawritershouldbemoreuponhisguardthanthemanifestendeavortoexhibitmoreintellectthanhereallyhas;becausethismakesthereadersuspectthathepossessesverylittle;sinceitisalwaysthecasethatifamanaffectsanything,whateveritmaybe,itisjusttherethatheisdeficient.

Thatiswhyitispraisetoanauthortosaythatheis_naïve_;itmeansthatheneednotshrinkfromshowinghimselfasheis.Generally



speaking,tobe_naïve_istobeattractive;whilelackofnaturalnessiseverywhererepulsive.Asamatteroffactwefindthateveryreallygreatwritertriestoexpresshisthoughtsaspurely,clearly,definitelyandshortlyaspossible.Simplicityhasalwaysbeenheldtobeamarkoftruth;itisalsoamarkofgenius.Stylereceivesitsbeautyfromthethoughtitexpresses;butwithsham-thinkersthethoughtsaresupposedtobefinebecauseofthestyle.Styleisnothingbutthemeresilhouetteofthought;andanobscureorbadstylemeansadullorconfusedbrain.

Thefirstrule,then,foragoodstyleisthat_theauthorshouldhavesomethingtosay_;nay,thisisinitselfalmostallthatisnecessary.Ah,howmuchitmeans!Theneglectofthisruleisafundamentaltraitinthephilosophicalwriting,and,infact,inallthereflectiveliterature,ofmycountry,moreespeciallysinceFichte.Thesewritersallletitbeseenthattheywanttoappearasthoughtheyhadsomethingtosay;whereastheyhavenothingtosay.Writingofthiskindwasbroughtinbythepseudo-philosophersattheUniversities,andnowitiscurrenteverywhere,evenamongthefirstliterarynotabilitiesoftheage.Itisthemotherofthatstrainedandvaguestyle,wherethereseemtobetwoorevenmoremeaningsinthesentence;alsoofthatprolixandcumbrousmannerofexpression,called_lestileempesé_;again,ofthatmerewasteofwordswhichconsistsinpouringthemoutlikeaflood;finally,ofthattrick

ofconcealingthedirestpovertyofthoughtunderafarragoofnever-endingchatter,whichclacksawaylikeawindmillandquitestupefiesone--stuffwhichamanmayreadforhourstogetherwithoutgettingholdofasingleclearlyexpressedanddefiniteidea.[1]However,peopleareeasy-going,andtheyhaveformedthehabitofreadingpageuponpageofallsortsofsuchverbiage,withouthavinganyparticularideaofwhattheauthorreallymeans.Theyfancyitisallasitshouldbe,andfailtodiscoverthatheiswritingsimplyforwriting'ssake.

[Footnote1:Selectexamplesoftheartofwritinginthisstylearetobefoundalmost_passim_inthe_Jahrbücher_publishedatHalle,afterwardscalledthe_DeutschenJahrbücher_.]

Ontheotherhand,agoodauthor,fertileinideas,soonwinshisreader'sconfidencethat,whenhewrites,hehasreallyandtruly _somethingtosay_;andthisgivestheintelligentreaderpatiencetofollowhimwithattention.Suchanauthor,justbecausehereallyhassomethingtosay,willneverfailtoexpresshimselfinthesimplestandmoststraightforwardmanner;becausehisobjectistoawaketheverysamethoughtinthereaderthathehasinhimself,andnoother.SohewillbeabletoaffirmwithBoileauthathisthoughtsareeverywhereopentothelightoftheday,andthathisversealwayssayssomething,whetheritsaysitwellorill:

_Mapenséeaugrandjourpartouts'offreets'expose,

Etmonvers,bienoumal,dittoujoursquelquechose_:

whileofthewriterspreviouslydescribeditmaybeasserted,inthewordsofthesamepoet,thattheytalkmuchandneversayanythingatall--_quiparlantbeaucoupnedisentjamaisrien_.

Anothercharacteristicofsuchwritersisthattheyalwaysavoidapositiveassertionwherevertheycanpossiblydoso,inordertoleavealoopholeforescapeincaseofneed.Hencetheyneverfailtochoosethemore_abstract_wayofexpressingthemselves;whereasintelligent



peopleusethemore_concrete_;becausethelatterbringsthingsmorewithintherangeofactualdemonstration,whichisthesourceofallevidence.

Therearemanyexamplesprovingthispreferenceforabstractexpression;andaparticularlyridiculousoneisaffordedbytheuseoftheverb_tocondition_inthesenseof_tocause_or_toproduce_.Peoplesay_toconditionsomething_insteadof_tocauseit_,becausebeingabstractandindefiniteitsaysless;itaffirmsthat_A_cannothappenwithout_B_,insteadofthat_A_iscausedby_B_.Abackdoorisalwaysleftopen;andthissuitspeoplewhosesecretknowledgeoftheirownincapacityinspiresthemwithaperpetualterrorofallpositiveassertion;whilewithotherpeopleitismerelytheeffectofthattendencybywhicheverythingthatisstupidinliteratureorbadinlifeisimmediatelyimitated--afactprovedineithercasebytherapidwayinwhichitspreads.TheEnglishmanuseshisownjudgmentinwhathewritesaswellasinwhathedoes;butthereisnonationofwhichthiseulogyislesstruethanoftheGermans.Theconsequenceofthisstateofthingsisthattheword_cause_hasoflatealmostdisappearedfromthelanguageofliterature,andpeopletalkonlyof_condition_.Thefactisworthmentioningbecauseitissocharacteristicallyridiculous.

Theveryfactthatthesecommonplaceauthorsarenevermorethan

half-consciouswhentheywrite,wouldbeenoughtoaccountfortheirdullnessofmindandthetediousthingstheyproduce.Isaytheyareonlyhalf-conscious,becausetheyreallydonotthemselvesunderstandthemeaningofthewordstheyuse:theytakewordsready-madeandcommitthemtomemory.Hencewhentheywrite,itisnotsomuchwordsaswholephrasesthattheyputtogether--_phrasesbanales_.Thisistheexplanationofthatpalpablelackofclearly-expressedthoughtinwhattheysay.Thefactisthattheydonotpossessthedietogivethisstamptotheirwriting;clearthoughtoftheirownisjustwhattheyhavenotgot.Andwhatdowefindinitsplace?--avague,enigmaticalintermixtureofwords,currentphrases,hackneyedterms,andfashionableexpressions.Theresultisthatthefoggystufftheywriteislikeapageprintedwithveryoldtype.

Ontheotherhand,anintelligentauthorreallyspeakstouswhenhewrites,andthatiswhyheisabletorouseourinterestandcommunewithus.Itistheintelligentauthoralonewhoputsindividualwordstogetherwithafullconsciousnessoftheirmeaning,andchoosesthemwithdeliberatedesign.Consequently,hisdiscoursestandstothatofthewriterdescribedabove,muchasapicturethathasbeenreallypainted,toonethathasbeenproducedbytheuseofastencil.Intheonecase,everyword,everytouchofthebrush,hasaspecialpurpose;intheother,allisdonemechanically.Thesamedistinctionmaybeobservedinmusic.ForjustasLichtenbergsaysthatGarrick'ssoulseemedtobeineverymuscleinhisbody,soitistheomnipresenceofintellectthatalwaysandeverywherecharacterizestheworkofgenius.

Ihavealludedtothetediousnesswhichmarkstheworksofthesewriters;andinthisconnectionitistobeobserved,generally,thattediousnessisoftwokinds;objectiveandsubjective.Aworkisobjectivelytediouswhenitcontainsthedefectinquestion;thatistosay,whenitsauthorhasnoperfectlyclearthoughtorknowledgetocommunicate.Forifamanhasanyclearthoughtorknowledgeinhim,hisaimwillbetocommunicateit,andhewilldirecthisenergiestothisend;sothattheideashefurnishesareeverywhereclearlyexpressed.Theresultisthatheisneitherdiffuse,norunmeaning,



norconfused,andconsequentlynottedious.Insuchacase,eventhoughtheauthorisatbottominerror,theerrorisatanyrateclearlyworkedoutandwellthoughtover,sothatitisatleastformallycorrect;andthussomevaluealwaysattachestothework.Butforthesamereasonaworkthatisobjectivelytediousisatalltimesdevoidofanyvaluewhatever.

Theotherkindoftediousnessisonlyrelative:areadermayfindaworkdullbecausehehasnointerestinthequestiontreatedofinit,andthismeansthathisintellectisrestricted.Thebestworkmay,therefore,betedioussubjectively,tedious,Imean,tothisorthatparticularperson;justas,contrarity,theworstworkmaybesubjectivelyengrossingtothisorthatparticularpersonwhohasaninterestinthequestiontreatedof,orinthewriterofthebook.

Itwouldgenerallyservewritersingoodsteadiftheywouldseethat,whilstamanshould,ifpossible,thinklikeagreatgenius,heshouldtalkthesamelanguageaseveryoneelse.Authorsshouldusecommonwordstosayuncommonthings.Buttheydojusttheopposite.Wefindthemtryingtowrapuptrivialideasingrandwords,andtoclothetheirveryordinarythoughtsinthemostextraordinaryphrases,themostfar-fetched,unnatural,andout-of-the-wayexpressions.Theirsentencesperpetuallystalkaboutonstilts.Theytakesomuchpleasureinbombast,andwriteinsuchahigh-flown,bloated,

affected,hyperbolicalandacrobaticstylethattheirprototypeisAncientPistol,whomhisfriendFalstaffonceimpatientlytoldtosaywhathehadtosay_likeamanofthisworld._[1]

[Footnote1:_KingHenryIV_.,PartII.Actv.Sc.3.]

ThereisnoexpressioninanyotherlanguageexactlyansweringtotheFrench_stileempesé_;butthethingitselfexistsallthemoreoften.Whenassociatedwithaffectation,itisinliteraturewhatassumptionofdignity,grandairsandprimenessareinsociety;andequallyintolerable.Dullnessofmindisfondofdonningthisdress;justasanordinarylifeitisstupidpeoplewholikebeingdemureandformal.

Anauthorwhowritesintheprimstyleresemblesamanwhodresseshimselfupinordertoavoidbeingconfoundedorputonthesamelevelwithamob--ariskneverrunbythe_gentleman_,eveninhisworstclothes.Theplebeianmaybeknownbyacertainshowinessofattireandawishtohaveeverythingspickandspan;andinthesameway,thecommonplacepersonisbetrayedbyhisstyle.

Nevertheless,anauthorfollowsafalseaimifhetriestowriteexactlyashespeaks.Thereisnostyleofwritingbutshouldhaveacertaintraceofkinshipwiththe_epigraphic_or_monumental_style,whichis,indeed,theancestorofallstyles.Foranauthortowriteashespeaksisjustasreprehensibleastheoppositefault,tospeakashewrites;forthisgivesapedanticeffecttowhathesays,andat

thesametimemakeshimhardlyintelligible.

Anobscureandvaguemannerofexpressionisalwaysandeverywhereaverybadsign.Inninety-ninecasesoutofahundreditcomesfromvaguenessofthought;andthisagainalmostalwaysmeansthatthereissomethingradicallywrongandincongruousaboutthethoughtitself--inaword,thatitisincorrect.Whenarightthoughtspringsupinthemind,itstrivesafterexpressionandisnotlonginreachingit;forclearthoughteasilyfindswordstofitit.Ifamaniscapableofthinkinganythingatall,heisalsoalwaysabletoexpressit



inclear,intelligible,andunambiguousterms.Thosewriterswhoconstructdifficult,obscure,involved,andequivocalsentences,mostcertainlydonotknowarightwhatitisthattheywanttosay:theyhaveonlyadullconsciousnessofit,whichisstillinthestageofstruggletoshapeitselfasthought.Often,indeed,theirdesireistoconcealfromthemselvesandothersthattheyreallyhavenothingatalltosay.Theywishtoappeartoknowwhattheydonotknow,tothinkwhattheydonotthink,tosaywhattheydonotsay.Ifamanhassomerealcommunicationtomake,whichwillhechoose--anindistinctoraclearwayofexpressinghimself?EvenQuintilianremarksthatthingswhicharesaidbyahighlyeducatedmanareofteneasiertounderstandandmuchclearer;andthatthelesseducatedamanis,themoreobscurelyhewillwrite--_plerumqueacciditutfaciliorasintadintelligendumetlucidioramultoqueadoctissimoquoquedicuntur_...._Eritergoetiamobscuriorquoquisquedeterior_.

Anauthorshouldavoidenigmaticalphrases;heshouldknowwhetherhewantstosayathingordoesnotwanttosayit.Itisthisindecisionofstylethatmakessomanywritersinsipid.Theonlycasethatoffersanexceptiontothisruleariseswhenitisnecessarytomakearemarkthatisinsomewayimproper.

Asexaggerationgenerallyproducesaneffecttheoppositeofthataimedat;sowords,itistrue,servetomakethought

intelligible--butonlyuptoacertainpoint.Ifwordsareheapedupbeyondit,thethoughtbecomesmoreandmoreobscureagain.Tofindwherethepointliesistheproblemofstyle,andthebusinessofthecriticalfaculty;forawordtoomuchalwaysdefeatsitspurpose.ThisiswhatVoltairemeanswhenhesaysthat_theadjectiveistheenemyofthesubstantive_.But,aswehaveseen,manypeopletrytoconcealtheirpovertyofthoughtunderafloodofverbiage.

Accordinglyletallredundancybeavoided,allstringingtogetherofremarkswhichhavenomeaningandarenotworthperusal.Awritermustmakeasparinguseofthereader'stime,patienceandattention;soastoleadhimtobelievethathisauthorwriteswhatisworthcarefulstudy,andwillrewardthetimespentuponit.Itisalwaysbetterto

omitsomethinggoodthantoaddthatwhichisnotworthsayingatall.ThisistherightapplicationofHesiod'smaxim,[Greek:pleonaemisupantos][1]--thehalfismorethanthewhole._Lesecretpourêtreennuyeux,c'estdetoutdire_.Therefore,ifpossible,thequintessenceonly!mereleadingthoughts!nothingthatthereaderwouldthinkforhimself.Tousemanywordstocommunicatefewthoughtsiseverywheretheunmistakablesignofmediocrity.Togathermuchthoughtintofewwordsstampsthemanofgenius.

[Footnote1:_WorksandDays_,40.]

Truthismostbeautifulundraped;andtheimpressionitmakesisdeepinproportionasitsexpressionhasbeensimple.Thisisso,partly

becauseitthentakesunobstructedpossessionofthehearer'swholesoul,andleaveshimnoby-thoughttodistracthim;partly,also,becausehefeelsthathereheisnotbeingcorruptedorcheatedbytheartsofrhetoric,butthatalltheeffectofwhatissaidcomesfromthethingitself.Forinstance,whatdeclamationonthevanityofhumanexistencecouldeverbemoretellingthanthewordsofJob?_Manthatisbornofawomanhathbutashorttimetoliveandisfullofmisery.Hecomethup,andiscutdown,likeaflower;hefleethasitwereashadow,andnevercontinuethinonestay_.



ForthesamereasonGoethe'snaïvepoetryisincomparablygreaterthanSchiller'srhetoric.Itisthis,again,thatmakesmanypopularsongssoaffecting.Asinarchitectureanexcessofdecorationistobeavoided,sointheartofliteratureawritermustguardagainstallrhetoricalfinery,alluselessamplification,andallsuperfluityofexpressioningeneral;inaword,hemuststriveafter_chastity_ofstyle.Everywordthatcanbesparedishurtfulifitremains.Thelawofsimplicityandnaïvetéholdsgoodofallfineart;foritisquitepossibletobeatoncesimpleandsublime.

Truebrevityofexpressionconsistsineverywheresayingonlywhatisworthsaying,andinavoidingtediousdetailaboutthingswhicheveryonecansupplyforhimself.Thisinvolvescorrectdiscriminationbetweenwhatitnecessaryandwhatissuperfluous.Awritershouldneverbebriefattheexpenseofbeingclear,tosaynothingofbeinggrammatical.Itshowslamentablewantofjudgmenttoweakentheexpressionofathought,ortostuntthemeaningofaperiodforthesakeofusingafewwordsless.Butthisisthepreciseendeavorofthatfalsebrevitynowadayssomuchinvogue,whichproceedsbyleavingoutusefulwordsandevenbysacrificinggrammarandlogic.Itisnotonlythatsuchwritersspareawordbymakingasingleverboradjectivedodutyforseveraldifferentperiods,sothatthereader,asitwere,hastogropehiswaythroughtheminthedark;theyalsopractice,inmanyotherrespects,anunseeminglyeconomyofspeech,

intheefforttoeffectwhattheyfoolishlytaketobebrevityofexpressionandconcisenessofstyle.Byomittingsomethingthatmighthavethrownalightoverthewholesentence,theyturnitintoaconundrum,whichthereadertriestosolvebygoingoveritagainandagain.[1]

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote._--Intheoriginal,SchopenhauerhereentersuponalengthyexaminationofcertaincommonerrorsinthewritingandspeakingofGerman.Hisremarksareaddressedtohisowncountrymen,andwouldloseallpoint,eveniftheywereintelligible,inanEnglishtranslation.ButforthosewhopracticetheirGermanbyconversingorcorrespondingwithGermans,letmerecommendwhathetheresaysasausefulcorrectivetoaslipshodstyle,suchascan

easilybecontractedifitisassumedthatthenativesofacountryalwaysknowtheirownlanguageperfectly.]

Itiswealthandweightofthought,andnothingelse,thatgivesbrevitytostyle,andmakesitconciseandpregnant.Ifawriter'sideasareimportant,luminous,andgenerallyworthcommunicating,theywillnecessarilyfurnishmatterandsubstanceenoughtofillouttheperiodswhichgivethemexpression,andmaketheseinalltheirpartsbothgrammaticallyandverballycomplete;andsomuchwillthisbethecasethatnoonewilleverfindthemhollow,emptyorfeeble.Thedictionwilleverywherebebriefandpregnant,andallowthethoughttofindintelligibleandeasyexpression,andevenunfoldandmoveaboutwithgrace.

Thereforeinsteadofcontractinghiswordsandformsofspeech,letawriterenlargehisthoughts.Ifamanhasbeenthinnedbyillnessandfindshisclothestoobig,itisnotbycuttingthemdown,butbyrecoveringhisusualbodilycondition,thatheoughttomakethemfithimagain.

Letmeherementionanerrorofstyle,veryprevalentnowadays,and,inthedegradedstateofliteratureandtheneglectofancientlanguages,alwaysontheincrease;Imean_subjectivity_.Awriter



commitsthiserrorwhenhethinksitenoughifhehimselfknowswhathemeansandwantstosay,andtakesnothoughtforthereader,whoislefttogetatthebottomofitasbesthecan.Thisisasthoughtheauthorwereholdingamonologue;whereas,itoughttobeadialogue;andadialogue,too,inwhichhemustexpresshimselfallthemoreclearlyinasmuchashecannothearthequestionsofhisinterlocutor.

Styleshouldforthisveryreasonneverbesubjective,but _objective_;anditwillnotbeobjectiveunlessthewordsaresosetdownthattheydirectlyforcethereadertothinkpreciselythesamethingastheauthorthoughtwhenhewrotethem.Norwillthisresultbeobtainedunlesstheauthorhasalwaysbeencarefultorememberthatthoughtsofarfollowsthelawofgravitythatittravelsfromheadtopapermuchmoreeasilythanfrompapertohead;sothathemustassistthelatterpassagebyeverymeansinhispower.Ifhedoesthis,awriter'swordswillhaveapurelyobjectiveeffect,likethatofafinishedpictureinoils;whilstthesubjectivestyleisnotmuchmorecertaininitsworkingthanspotsonthewall,whichlooklikefiguresonlytoonewhosephantasyhasbeenaccidentallyarousedbythem;otherpeopleseenothingbutspotsandblurs.Thedifferenceinquestionappliestoliterarymethodasawhole;butitisoftenestablishedalsoinparticularinstances.Forexample,inarecentlypublishedworkIfoundthefollowingsentence:_Ihavenotwritteninordertoincreasethenumberofexistingbooks._Thismeansjustthe

oppositeofwhatthewriterwantedtosay,andisnonsenseaswell.

Hewhowritescarelesslyconfessestherebyattheveryoutsetthathedoesnotattachmuchimportancetohisownthoughts.Foritisonlywhereamanisconvincedofthetruthandimportanceofhisthoughts,thathefeelstheenthusiasmnecessaryforanuntiringandassiduousefforttofindtheclearest,finest,andstrongestexpressionforthem,--justasforsacredrelicsorpricelessworksofartthereareprovidedsilvernorgoldenreceptacles.Itwasthisfeelingthatledancientauthors,whosethoughts,expressedintheirownwords,havelivedthousandsofyears,andthereforebearthehonoredtitleof _classics_,alwaystowritewithcare.Plato,indeed,issaidtohavewrittentheintroductiontohis_Republic_seventimesoverin

differentways.[1]

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote._--Itisafactworthmentioningthatthefirsttwelvewordsofthe_Republic_areplacedintheexactorderwhichwouldbenaturalinEnglish.]

Asneglectofdressbetrayswantofrespectforthecompanyamanmeets,soahasty,careless,badstyleshowsanoutrageouslackofregardforthereader,whothenrightlypunishesitbyrefusingtoreadthebook.Itisespeciallyamusingtoseereviewerscriticisingtheworksofothersintheirownmostcarelessstyle--thestyleofahireling.Itisasthoughajudgeweretocomeintocourtindressing-gownandslippers!IfIseeamanbadlyanddirtilydressed,

Ifeelsomehesitation,atfirst,inenteringintoconversationwithhim:andwhen,ontakingupabook,Iamstruckatoncebythenegligenceofitsstyle,Iputitaway.

Goodwritingshouldbegovernedbytherulethatamancanthinkonlyonethingclearlyatatime;and,therefore,thatheshouldnotbeexpectedtothinktwoorevenmorethingsinoneandthesamemoment.Butthisiswhatisdonewhenawriterbreaksuphisprincipalsentenceintolittlepieces,forthepurposeofpushingintothegapsthusmadetwoorthreeotherthoughtsbywayofparenthesis;thereby



unnecessarilyandwantonlyconfusingthereader.Andhereitisagainmyowncountrymenwhoarechieflyinfault.ThatGermanlendsitselftothiswayofwriting,makesthethingpossible,butdoesnotjustifyit.NoprosereadsmoreeasilyorpleasantlythanFrench,because,asarule,itisfreefromtheerrorinquestion.TheFrenchmanstringshisthoughtstogether,asfarashecan,inthemostlogicalandnaturalorder,andsolaysthembeforehisreaderoneaftertheotherforconvenientdeliberation,sothateveryoneofthemmayreceiveundividedattention.TheGerman,ontheotherhand,weavesthemtogetherintoasentencewhichhetwistsandcrosses,andcrossesandtwistsagain;becausehewantstosaysixthingsallatonce,insteadofadvancingthemonebyone.Hisaimshouldbetoattractandholdthereader'sattention;but,aboveandbeyondneglectofthisaim,hedemandsfromthereaderthatheshallsettheabovementionedruleatdefiance,andthinkthreeorfourdifferentthoughtsatoneandthesametime;orsincethatisimpossible,thathisthoughtsshallsucceedeachotherasquicklyasthevibrationsofacord.Inthiswayanauthorlaysthefoundationofhis_stileempesé_,whichisthencarriedtoperfectionbytheuseofhigh-flown,pompousexpressionstocommunicatethesimplestthings,andotherartificesofthesamekind.

Inthoselongsentencesrichininvolvedparenthesis,likeaboxofboxesonewithinanother,andpaddedoutlikeroastgeesestuffedwithapples,itisreallythe_memory_thatischieflytaxed;whileitis

theunderstandingandthejudgmentwhichshouldbecalledintoplay,insteadofhavingtheiractivitytherebyactuallyhinderedandweakened.[1]Thiskindofsentencefurnishesthereaderwithmerehalf-phrases,whichheisthencalledupontocollectcarefullyandstoreupinhismemory,asthoughtheywerethepiecesofatornletter,afterwardstobecompletedandmadesenseofbytheotherhalvestowhichtheyrespectivelybelong.Heisexpectedtogoonreadingforalittlewithoutexercisinganythought,nay,exertingonlyhismemory,inthehopethat,whenhecomestotheendofthesentence,hemayseeitsmeaningandsoreceivesomethingtothinkabout;andheisthusgivenagreatdealtolearnbyheartbeforeobtaininganythingtounderstand.Thisismanifestlywrongandanabuseofthereader'spatience.

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote._--Thissentenceintheoriginalisobviouslymeanttoillustratethefaultofwhichitspeaks.ItdoessobytheuseofaconstructionverycommoninGerman,buthappilyunknowninEnglish;where,however,thefaultitselfexistsnonetheless,thoughindifferentform.]

Theordinarywriterhasanunmistakablepreferenceforthisstyle,becauseitcausesthereadertospendtimeandtroubleinunderstandingthatwhichhewouldhaveunderstoodinamomentwithoutit;andthismakesitlookasthoughthewriterhadmoredepthandintelligencethanthereader.Thisis,indeed,oneofthoseartificesreferredtoabove,bymeansofwhichmediocreauthorsunconsciously,

andasitwerebyinstinct,strivetoconcealtheirpovertyofthoughtandgiveanappearanceoftheopposite.Theiringenuityinthisrespectisreallyastounding.

Itismanifestlyagainstallsoundreasontoputonethoughtobliquelyontopofanother,asthoughbothtogetherformedawoodencross.Butthisiswhatisdonewhereawriterinterruptswhathehasbeguntosay,forthepurposeofinsertingsomequitealienmatter;thusdepositingwiththereaderameaninglesshalf-sentence,andbiddinghimkeepituntilthecompletioncomes.Itismuchasthoughaman



weretotreathisguestsbyhandingthemanemptyplate,inthehopeofsomethingappearinguponit.Andcommasusedforasimilarpurposebelongtothesamefamilyasnotesatthefootofthepageandparenthesisinthemiddleofthetext;nay,allthreedifferonlyindegree.IfDemosthenesandCicerooccasionallyinsertedwordsbywaysofparenthesis,theywouldhavedonebettertohaverefrained.

Butthisstyleofwritingbecomestheheightofabsurditywhentheparenthesisarenotevenfittedintotheframeofthesentence,butwedgedinsoasdirectlytoshatterit.If,forinstance,itisanimpertinentthingtointerruptanotherpersonwhenheisspeaking,itisnolessimpertinenttointerruptoneself.Butallbad,careless,andhastyauthors,whoscribblewiththebreadactuallybeforetheireyes,usethisstyleofwritingsixtimesonapage,andrejoiceinit.Itconsistsin--itisadvisabletogiveruleandexampletogether,whereveritispossible--breakinguponephraseinordertoglueinanother.Norisitmerelyoutoflazinessthattheywritethus.Theydoitoutofstupidity;theythinkthereisacharming_légèreté_ aboutit;thatitgiveslifetowhattheysay.Nodoubtthereareafewrarecaseswheresuchaformofsentencemaybepardonable.

Fewwriteinthewayinwhichanarchitectbuilds;who,beforehesetstowork,sketchesouthisplan,andthinksitoverdowntoitssmallestdetails.Nay,mostpeoplewriteonlyasthoughtheywere

playingdominoes;and,asinthisgame,thepiecesarearrangedhalfbydesign,halfbychance,soitiswiththesequenceandconnectionoftheirsentences.Theyonlyhaveanideaofwhatthegeneralshapeoftheirworkwillbe,andoftheaimtheysetbeforethemselves.Manyareignorantevenofthis,andwriteasthecoral-insectsbuild;periodjoinstoperiod,andtheLordonlyknowswhattheauthormeans.

Lifenow-a-daysgoesatagallop;andthewayinwhichthisaffectsliteratureistomakeitextremelysuperficialandslovenly.

ONTHESTUDYOFLATIN.

TheabolitionofLatinastheuniversallanguageoflearnedmen,togetherwiththeriseofthatprovincialismwhichattachestonationalliteratures,hasbeenarealmisfortuneforthecauseofknowledgeinEurope.ForitwaschieflythroughthemediumoftheLatinlanguagethatalearnedpublicexistedinEuropeatall--apublictowhicheverybookasitcameoutdirectlyappealed.ThenumberofmindsinthewholeofEuropethatarecapableofthinkingandjudgingissmall,asitis;butwhentheaudienceisbrokenupandseveredbydifferencesoflanguage,thegoodthesemindscandoisverymuchweakened.Thisisagreatdisadvantage;butasecondand

worseonewillfollow,namely,thattheancientlanguageswillceasetobetaughtatall.TheneglectofthemisrapidlygaininggroundbothinFranceandGermany.

Ifitshouldreallycometothis,thenfarewell,humanity!farewell,nobletasteandhighthinking!Theageofbarbarismwillreturn,inspiteofrailways,telegraphsandballoons.Weshallthusintheendloseonemoreadvantagepossessedbyallourancestors.ForLatinisnotonlyakeytotheknowledgeofRomanantiquity;itsalsodirectlyopensuptoustheMiddleAgeineverycountryinEurope,andmodern



timesaswell,downtoabouttheyear1750.Erigena,forexample,intheninthcentury,JohnofSalisburyinthetwelfth,RaimondLullyinthethirteenth,withahundredothers,speakstraighttousintheverylanguagethattheynaturallyadoptedinthinkingoflearnedmatters.

Theythuscomequiteclosetousevenatthisdistanceoftime:weareindirectcontactwiththem,andreallycometoknowthem.Howwouldithavebeenifeveryoneofthemspokeinthelanguagethatwaspeculiartohistimeandcountry?Weshouldnotunderstandeventhehalfofwhattheysaid.Arealintellectualcontactwiththemwouldbeimpossible.Weshouldseethemlikeshadowsonthefarthesthorizon,or,maybe,throughthetranslator'stelescope.

ItwaswithaneyetotheadvantageofwritinginLatinthatBacon,ashehimselfexpresslystates,proceededtotranslatehis_Essays_intothatlanguage,underthetitle_Sermonesfideles_;atwhichworkHobbesassistedhim.[1]

[Footnote1:Cf.ThomaeHobbesvita:_CarolopoliapudEleutheriumAnglicum_,1681,p.22.]

Hereletmeobserve,bywayofparenthesis,thatwhenpatriotismtriestourgeitsclaimsinthedomainofknowledge,itcommitsanoffence

whichshouldnotbetolerated.Forinthosepurelyhumanquestionswhichinterestallmenalike,wheretruth,insight,beauty,shouldbeofsoleaccount,whatcanbemoreimpertinentthantoletpreferenceforthenationtowhichaman'spreciousselfhappenstobelong,affectthebalanceofjudgment,andthussupplyareasonfordoingviolencetotruthandbeingunjusttothegreatmindsofaforeigncountryinordertomakemuchofthesmallermindsofone'sown!Still,therearewritersineverynationinEurope,whoaffordexamplesofthisvulgarfeeling.ItisthiswhichledYriartetocaricaturetheminthethirty-thirdofhischarming_LiteraryFables_.[1]

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote._--TomasdeYriarte(1750-91),a

Spanishpoet,andkeeperofarchivesintheWarOfficeatMadrid.Histwobestknownworksareadidacticpoem,entitled_LaMusica_,andthe_Fables_herequoted,whichsatirizethepeculiarfoiblesofliterarymen.Theyhavebeentranslatedintomanylanguages;intoEnglishbyRockliffe(3rdedition,1866).Thefableinquestiondescribeshow,atapicnicoftheanimals,adiscussionaroseastowhichofthemcarriedoffthepalmforsuperiorityoftalent.Thepraisesoftheant,thedog,thebee,andtheparrotweresunginturn;butatlasttheostrichstoodupanddeclaredforthedromedary.Whereuponthedromedarystoodupanddeclaredfortheostrich.Noonecoulddiscoverthereasonforthismutualcompliment.Wasitbecausebothweresuchuncouthbeasts,orhadsuchlongnecks,orwereneitherofthemparticularlycleverorbeautiful?orwasitbecauseeachhada

hump?_No_!saidthefox,_youareallwrong.Don'tyouseetheyarebothforeigners_?Cannotthesamebesaidofmanymenoflearning?]

Inlearningalanguage,thechiefdifficultyconsistsinmakingacquaintancewitheveryideawhichitexpresses,eventhoughitshouldusewordsforwhichthereisnoexactequivalentinthemothertongue;andthisoftenhappens.Inlearninganewlanguageamanhas,asitwere,tomarkoutinhismindtheboundariesofquitenewspheresofideas,withtheresultthatspheresofideasarisewherenonewerebefore.Thushenotonlylearnswords,hegainsideastoo.



Thisisnowheresomuchthecaseasinlearningancientlanguages,forthedifferencestheypresentintheirmodeofexpressionascomparedwithmodernlanguagesisgreaterthancanbefoundamongstmodernlanguagesascomparedwithoneanother.ThisisshownbythefactthatintranslatingintoLatin,recoursemustbehadtoquiteotherturnsofphrasethanareusedintheoriginal.Thethoughtthatistobetranslatedhastobemelteddownandrecast;inotherwords,itmustbeanalyzedandthenrecomposed.Itisjustthisprocesswhichmakesthestudyoftheancientlanguagescontributesomuchtotheeducationofthemind.

Itfollowsfromthisthataman'sthoughtvariesaccordingtothelanguageinwhichhespeaks.Hisideasundergoafreshmodification,adifferentshading,asitwere,inthestudyofeverynewlanguage.Henceanacquaintancewithmanylanguagesisnotonlyofmuchindirectadvantage,butitisalsoadirectmeansofmentalculture,inthatitcorrectsandmaturesideasbygivingprominencetotheirmany-sidednatureandtheirdifferentvarietiesofmeaning,asalsothatitincreasesdexterityofthought;forintheprocessoflearningmanylanguages,ideasbecomemoreandmoreindependentofwords.Theancientlanguageseffectthistoagreaterdegreethanthemodern,invirtueofthedifferencetowhichIhavealluded.

FromwhatIhavesaid,itisobviousthattoimitatethestyleoftheancientsintheirownlanguage,whichissoverymuchsuperiortooursinpointofgrammaticalperfection,isthebestwayofpreparingforaskillfulandfinishedexpressionofthoughtinthemother-tongue.Nay,ifamanwantstobeagreatwriter,hemustnotomittodothis:justas,inthecaseofsculptureorpainting,thestudentmusteducatehimselfbycopyingthegreatmasterpiecesofthepast,beforeproceedingtooriginalwork.ItisonlybylearningtowriteLatinthatamancomestotreatdictionasanart.Thematerialinthisartislanguage,whichmustthereforebehandledwiththegreatestcareanddelicacy.

Theresultofsuchstudyisthatawriterwillpaykeenattentionto

themeaningandvalueofwords,theirorderandconnection,theirgrammaticalforms.Hewilllearnhowtoweighthemwithprecision,andsobecomeanexpertintheuseofthatpreciousinstrumentwhichismeantnotonlytoexpressvaluablethought,buttopreserveitaswell.Further,hewilllearntofeelrespectforthelanguageinwhichhewritesandthusbesavedfromanyattempttoremodelitbyarbitraryandcapricioustreatment.Withoutthisschooling,aman'swritingmayeasilydegenerateintomerechatter.

TobeentirelyignorantoftheLatinlanguageislikebeinginafinecountryonamistyday.Thehorizonisextremelylimited.Nothingcanbeseenclearlyexceptthatwhichisquiteclose;afewstepsbeyond,everythingisburiedinobscurity.ButtheLatinisthasawideview,

embracingmoderntimes,theMiddleAgeandAntiquity;andhismentalhorizonisstillfurtherenlargedifhestudiesGreekorevenSanscrit.

IfamanknowsnoLatin,hebelongstothevulgar,eventhoughhebeagreatvirtuosoontheelectricalmachineandhavethebaseofhydrofluoricacidinhiscrucible.

Thereisnobetterrecreationforthemindthanthestudyoftheancientclassics.Takeanyoneofthemintoyourhand,beitonly



forhalfanhour,andyouwillfeelyourselfrefreshed,relieved,purified,ennobled,strengthened;justasthoughyouhadquenchedyourthirstatsomepurespring.Isthistheeffectoftheoldlanguageanditsperfectexpression,orisitthegreatnessofthemindswhoseworksremainunharmedandunweakenedbythelapseofathousandyears?Perhapsbothtogether.ButthisIknow.Ifthethreatenedcalamityshouldevercome,andtheancientlanguagesceasetobetaught,anewliteraturewillarise,ofsuchbarbarous,shallowandworthlessstuffasneverwasseenbefore.

ONMENOFLEARNING.

Whenoneseesthenumberandvarietyofinstitutionswhichexistforthepurposesofeducation,andthevastthrongofscholarsandmasters,onemightfancythehumanracetobeverymuchconcernedabouttruthandwisdom.Buthere,too,appearancesaredeceptive.Themastersteachinordertogainmoney,andstrive,notafterwisdom,buttheoutwardshowandreputationofit;andthescholarslearn,notforthesakeofknowledgeandinsight,buttobeabletochatterandgivethemselvesairs.Everythirtyyearsanewracecomesintothe

world--ayoungsterthatknowsnothingaboutanything,andaftersummarilydevouringinallhastetheresultsofhumanknowledgeastheyhavebeenaccumulatedforthousandsofyears,aspirestobethoughtclevererthanthewholeofthepast.ForthispurposehegoestotheUniversity,andtakestoreadingbooks--newbooks,asbeingofhisownageandstanding.Everythinghereadsmustbebrieflyput,mustbenew!heisnewhimself.Thenhefallstoandcriticises.AndhereIamnottakingtheslightestaccountofstudiespursuedforthesoleobjectofmakingaliving.

Students,andlearnedpersonsofallsortsandeveryage,aimasaruleatacquiring_information_ratherthaninsight.Theypiquethemselvesuponknowingabouteverything--stones,plants,battles,

experiments,andallthebooksinexistence.Itneveroccurstothemthatinformationisonlyameansofinsight,andinitselfoflittleornovalue;thatitishiswayof_thinking_thatmakesamanaphilosopher.WhenIhearoftheseportentsoflearningandtheirimposingerudition,Isometimessaytomyself:Ah,howlittletheymusthavehadtothinkabout,tohavebeenabletoreadsomuch!AndwhenIactuallyfinditreportedoftheelderPlinythathewascontinuallyreadingorbeingreadto,attable,onajourney,orinhisbath,thequestionforcesitselfuponmymind,whetherthemanwassoverylackinginthoughtofhisownthathehadtohavealienthoughtincessantlyinstilledintohim;asthoughhewereaconsumptivepatienttakingjelliestokeephimselfalive.Andneitherhisundiscerningcredulitynorhisinexpressiblyrepulsiveandbarely

intelligiblestyle--whichseemslikeofamantakingnotes,andveryeconomicalofpaper--isofakindtogivemeahighopinionofhispowerofindependentthought.

Wehaveseenthatmuchreadingandlearningisprejudicialtothinkingforoneself;and,inthesameway,throughmuchwritingandteaching,amanlosesthehabitofbeingquiteclear,andthereforethorough,inregardtothethingsheknowsandunderstands;simplybecausehehaslefthimselfnotimetoacquireclearnessorthoroughness.Andso,whenclearknowledgefailshiminhisutterances,heisforcedtofill



outthegapswithwordsandphrases.Itisthis,andnotthedrynessofthesubject-matter,thatmakesmostbookssuchtediousreading.Thereisasayingthatagoodcookcanmakeapalatabledishevenoutofanoldshoe;andagoodwritercanmakethedryestthingsinteresting.

Withbyfarthelargestnumberoflearnedmen,knowledgeisameans,notanend.Thatiswhytheywillneverachieveanygreatwork;because,todothat,hewhopursuesknowledgemustpursueitasanend,andtreateverythingelse,evenexistenceitself,asonlyameans.Foreverythingwhichamanfailstopursueforitsownsakeisbuthalf-pursued;andtrueexcellence,nomatterinwhatsphere,canbeattainedonlywheretheworkhasbeenproducedforitsownsakealone,andnotasameanstofurtherends.

Andso,too,noonewilleversucceedindoinganythingreallygreatandoriginalinthewayofthought,whodoesnotseektoacquireknowledgeforhimself,and,makingthistheimmediateobjectofhisstudies,declinetotroublehimselfabouttheknowledgeofothers.Buttheaveragemanoflearningstudiesforthepurposeofbeingabletoteachandwrite.Hisheadislikeastomachandintestineswhichletthefoodpassthroughthemundigested.Thatisjustwhyhisteachingandwritingisofsolittleuse.Foritisnotuponundigestedrefusethatpeoplecanbenourished,butsolelyuponthemilkwhichsecretes

fromtheveryblooditself.

Thewigistheappropriatesymbolofthemanoflearning,pureandsimple.Itadornstheheadwithacopiousquantityoffalsehair,inlackofone'sown:justaseruditionmeansendowingitwithagreatmassofalienthought.This,tobesure,doesnotclothetheheadsowellandnaturally,norisitsogenerallyuseful,norsosuitedforallpurposes,norsofirmlyrooted;norwhenalienthoughtisusedup,canitbeimmediatelyreplacedbymorefromthesamesource,asisthecasewiththatwhichspringsfromsoilofone'sown.SowefindSterne,inhis_TristramShandy_,boldlyassertingthat_anounceofaman'sownwitisworthatonofotherpeople's_.

AndinfactthemostprofounderuditionisnomoreakintogeniusthanacollectionofdriedplantsinlikeNature,withitsconstantflowofnewlife,everfresh,everyoung,everchanging.Therearenotwothingsmoreopposedthanthechildishnaïvetéofanancientauthorandthelearningofhiscommentator.

_Dilettanti,dilettanti!_Thisistheslightingwayinwhichthosewhopursueanybranchofartorlearningfortheloveandenjoymentofthething,--_perillorodiletto_,arespokenofbythosewhohavetakenitupforthesakeofgain,attractedsolelybytheprospectofmoney.Thiscontemptoftheirscomesfromthebasebeliefthatnomanwillseriouslydevotehimselftoasubject,unlessheisspurredontoitbywant,hunger,orelsesomeformofgreed.Thepublicisofthesame

wayofthinking;andhenceitsgeneralrespectforprofessionalsanditsdistrustof_dilettanti_.Butthetruthisthatthe_dilettante_ treatshissubjectasanend,whereastheprofessional,pureandsimple,treatsitmerelyasameans.Healonewillbereallyinearnestaboutamatter,whohasadirectinteresttherein,takestoitbecausehelikesit,andpursuesit_conamore_.Itisthese,andnothirelings,thathavealwaysdonethegreatestwork.

Intherepublicoflettersitisasinotherrepublics;favorisshowntotheplainman--hewhogoeshiswayinsilenceanddoesnotsetup



tobeclevererthanothers.Buttheabnormalmanislookeduponasthreateningdanger;peoplebandtogetheragainsthim,andhave,oh!suchamajorityontheirside.

TheconditionofthisrepublicismuchlikethatofasmallStateinAmerica,whereeverymanisintentonlyuponhisownadvantage,andseeksreputationandpowerforhimself,quiteheedlessofthegeneralweal,whichthengoestoruin.Soitisintherepublicofletters;itishimself,andhimselfalone,thatamanputsforward,becausehewantstogainfame.Theonlythinginwhichallagreeisintryingtokeepdownareallyeminentman,ifheshouldchancetoshowhimself,asonewhowouldbeacommonperil.Fromthisitiseasytoseehowitfareswithknowledgeasawhole.

Betweenprofessorsandindependentmenoflearningtherehasalwaysbeenfromofoldacertainantagonism,whichmayperhapsbelikenedtothatexistingbeendogsandwolves.Invirtueoftheirposition,professorsenjoygreatfacilitiesforbecomingknowntotheircontemporaries.Contrarily,independentmenoflearningenjoy,bytheirposition,greatfacilitiesforbecomingknowntoposterity;towhichitisnecessarythat,amongstotherandmuchrarergifts,amanshouldhaveacertainleisureandfreedom.Asmankindtakesalongtimeinfindingoutonwhomtobestowitsattention,theymaybothworktogethersidebyside.

Hewhoholdsaprofessorshipmaybesaidtoreceivehisfoodinthestall;andthisisthebestwaywithruminantanimals.ButhewhofindshisfoodforhimselfatthehandsofNatureisbetteroffintheopenfield.

Ofhumanknowledgeasawholeandineverybranchofit,byfarthelargestpartexistsnowherebutonpaper,--Imean,inbooks,thatpapermemoryofmankind.Onlyasmallpartofitisatanygivenperiodreallyactiveinthemindsofparticularpersons.Thisisdue,inthemain,tothebrevityanduncertaintyoflife;butitalsocomesfromthefactthatmenarelazyandbentonpleasure.Everygenerationattains,onitshastypassagethroughexistence,justsomuchofhuman

knowledgeasitneeds,andthensoondisappears.Mostmenoflearningareverysuperficial.Thenfollowsanewgeneration,fullofhope,butignorant,andwitheverythingtolearnfromthebeginning.Itseizes,initsturn,justsomuchasitcangrasporfindusefulonitsbriefjourneyandthentoogoesitsway.Howbadlyitwouldfarewithhumanknowledgeifitwerenotfortheartofwritingandprinting!Thisitisthatmakeslibrariestheonlysureandlastingmemoryofthehumanrace,foritsindividualmembershaveallofthembutaverylimitedandimperfectone.Hencemostmenoflearningasarelothtohavetheirknowledgeexaminedasmerchantstolaybaretheirbooks.

Humanknowledgeextendsonallsidesfartherthantheeyecanreach;andofthatwhichwouldbegenerallyworthknowing,noonemancan

possesseventhethousandthpart.

Allbranchesoflearninghavethusbeensomuchenlargedthathewhowould"dosomething"hastopursuenomorethanonesubjectanddisregardallothers.Inhisownsubjecthewillthen,itistrue,besuperiortothevulgar;butinallelsehewillbelongtoit.Ifweaddtothisthatneglectoftheancientlanguages,whichisnow-a-daysontheincreaseandisdoingawaywithallgeneraleducationinthehumanities--forameresmatteringofLatinandGreekisofnouse--weshallcometohavemenoflearningwhooutsidetheirownsubject



displayanignorancetrulybovine.

Anexclusivespecialistofthiskindstandsonaparwithaworkmaninafactory,whosewholelifeisspentinmakingoneparticularkindofscrew,orcatch,orhandle,forsomeparticularinstrumentormachine,inwhich,indeed,heattainsincredibledexterity.Thespecialistmayalsobelikenedtoamanwholivesinhisownhouseandneverleavesit.Thereheisperfectlyfamiliarwitheverything,everylittlestep,corner,orboard;muchasQuasimodoinVictorHugo's_NôtreDame_ knowsthecathedral;butoutsideit,allisstrangeandunknown.

Fortruecultureinthehumanitiesitisabsolutelynecessarythatamanshouldbemany-sidedandtakelargeviews;andforamanoflearninginthehighersenseoftheword,anextensiveacquaintancewithhistoryisneedful.He,however,whowishestobeacompletephilosopher,mustgatherintohisheadtheremotestendsofhumanknowledge:forwhereelsecouldtheyevercometogether?

Itispreciselymindsofthefirstorderthatwillneverbespecialists.Fortheirverynatureistomakethewholeofexistencetheirproblem;andthisisasubjectuponwhichtheywilleveryoneoftheminsomeformprovidemankindwithanewrevelation.ForhealonecandeservethenameofgeniuswhotakestheAll,theEssential,theUniversal,forthethemeofhisachievements;nothewhospendshis

lifeinexplainingsomespecialrelationofthingsonetoanother.

ONTHINKINGFORONESELF.

Alibrarymaybeverylarge;butifitisindisorder,itisnotsousefulasonethatissmallbutwellarranged.Inthesameway,amanmayhaveagreatmassofknowledge,butifhehasnotworkeditupbythinkingitoverforhimself,ithasmuchlessvaluethanafarsmalleramountwhichhehasthoroughlypondered.Foritisonlywhena

manlooksathisknowledgefromallsides,andcombinesthethingsheknowsbycomparingtruthwithtruth,thatheobtainsacompleteholdoveritandgetsitintohispower.Amancannotturnoveranythinginhismindunlessheknowsit;heshould,therefore,learnsomething;butitisonlywhenhehasturneditoverthathecanbesaidtoknowit.

Readingandlearningarethingsthatanyonecandoofhisownfreewill;butnotso_thinking_.Thinkingmustbekindled,likeafirebyadraught;itmustbesustainedbysomeinterestinthematterinhand.Thisinterestmaybeofpurelyobjectivekind,ormerelysubjective.Thelattercomesintoplayonlyinthingsthatconcernuspersonally.Objectiveinterestisconfinedtoheadsthatthinkby

nature;towhomthinkingisasnaturalasbreathing;andtheyareveryrare.Thisiswhymostmenoflearningshowsolittleofit.

Itisincrediblewhatadifferenteffectisproduceduponthemindbythinkingforoneself,ascomparedwithreading.Itcarriesonandintensifiesthatoriginaldifferenceinthenatureoftwomindswhichleadstheonetothinkandtheothertoread.WhatImeanisthatreadingforcesalienthoughtsuponthemind--thoughtswhichareasforeigntothedriftandtemperinwhichitmaybeforthemoment,asthesealistothewaxonwhichitstampsitsimprint.Themindis



thusentirelyundercompulsionfromwithout;itisdriventothinkthisorthat,thoughforthemomentitmaynothavetheslightestimpulseorinclinationtodoso.

Butwhenamanthinksforhimself,hefollowstheimpulseofhisownmind,whichisdeterminedforhimatthetime,eitherbyhisenvironmentorsomeparticularrecollection.Thevisibleworldofaman'ssurroundingsdoesnot,asreadingdoes,impressa_single_ definitethoughtuponhismind,butmerelygivesthematterandoccasionwhichleadhimtothinkwhatisappropriatetohisnatureandpresenttemper.Soitis,thatmuchreadingdeprivesthemindofallelasticity;itislikekeepingaspringcontinuallyunderpressure.Thesafestwayofhavingnothoughtsofone'sownistotakeupabookeverymomentonehasnothingelsetodo.Itisthispracticewhichexplainswhyeruditionmakesmostmenmorestupidandsillythantheyarebynature,andpreventstheirwritingsobtaininganymeasureofsuccess.Theyremain,inPope'swords:

_Foreverreading,nevertoberead!_[1]

[Footnote1:_Dunciad_,iii,194.]

Menoflearningarethosewhohavedonetheirreadinginthepagesofabook.Thinkersandmenofgeniusarethosewhohavegonestraight

tothebookofNature;itistheywhohaveenlightenedtheworldandcarriedhumanityfurtheronitsway.Ifaman'sthoughtsaretohavetruthandlifeinthem,theymust,afterall,behisownfundamentalthoughts;forthesearetheonlyonesthathecanfullyandwhollyunderstand.Toreadanother'sthoughtsisliketakingtheleavingsofamealtowhichwehavenotbeeninvited,orputtingontheclotheswhichsomeunknownvisitorhaslaidaside.Thethoughtwereadisrelatedtothethoughtwhichspringsupinourselves,asthefossil-impressofsomeprehistoricplanttoaplantasitbudsforthinspring-time.

Readingisnothingmorethanasubstituteforthoughtofone'sown.Itmeansputtingthemindintoleading-strings.Themultitudeofbooks

servesonlytoshowhowmanyfalsepathsthereare,andhowwidelyastrayamanmaywanderifhefollowsanyofthem.Buthewhoisguidedbyhisgenius,hewhothinksforhimself,whothinksspontaneouslyandexactly,possessestheonlycompassbywhichhecansteeraright.Amanshouldreadonlywhenhisownthoughtsstagnateattheirsource,whichwillhappenoftenenoughevenwiththebestofminds.Ontheotherhand,totakeupabookforthepurposeofscaringawayone'sownoriginalthoughtsissinagainsttheHolySpirit.ItislikerunningawayfromNaturetolookatamuseumofdriedplantsorgazeatalandscapeincopperplate.

Amanmayhavediscoveredsomeportionoftruthorwisdom,afterspendingagreatdealoftimeandtroubleinthinkingitoverfor

himselfandaddingthoughttothought;anditmaysometimeshappenthathecouldhavefounditallreadytohandinabookandsparedhimselfthetrouble.Butevenso,itisahundredtimesmorevaluableifhehasacquireditbythinkingitoutforhimself.Foritisonlywhenwegainourknowledgeinthiswaythatitentersasanintegralpart,alivingmember,intothewholesystemofourthought;thatitstandsincompleteandfirmrelationwithwhatweknow;thatitisunderstoodwithallthatunderliesitandfollowsfromit;thatitwearsthecolor,thepreciseshade,thedistinguishingmark,ofourownwayofthinking;thatitcomesexactlyattherighttime,just



aswefeltthenecessityforit;thatitstandsfastandcannotbeforgotten.Thisistheperfectapplication,nay,theinterpretation,ofGoethe'sadvicetoearnourinheritanceforourselvessothatwemayreallypossessit:

_WasdueererbtvondeinenVälernhast,Erwirbes,umeszubesitzen._[1]

[Footnote1:_Faust_,I.329.]

Themanwhothinksforhimself,formshisownopinionsandlearnstheauthoritiesforthemonlylateron,whentheyservebuttostrengthenhisbeliefinthemandinhimself.Butthebook-philosopherstartsfromtheauthorities.Hereadsotherpeople'sbooks,collectstheiropinions,andsoformsawholeforhimself,whichresemblesanautomatonmadeupofanythingbutfleshandblood.Contrarily,hewhothinksforhimselfcreatesaworklikealivingmanasmadebyNature.Fortheworkcomesintobeingasamandoes;thethinkingmindisimpregnatedfromwithout,anditthenformsandbearsitschild.

Truththathasbeenmerelylearnedislikeanartificiallimb,afalsetooth,awaxennose;atbest,likeanosemadeoutofanother'sflesh;itadherestousonlybecauseitisputon.Buttruthacquiredbythinkingofourownislikeanaturallimb;italonereallybelongs

tous.Thisisthefundamentaldifferencebetweenthethinkerandthemeremanoflearning.Theintellectualattainmentsofamanwhothinksforhimselfresembleafinepainting,wherethelightandshadearecorrect,thetonesustained,thecolorperfectlyharmonized;itistruetolife.Ontheotherhand,theintellectualattainmentsofthemeremanoflearningarelikealargepalette,fullofallsortsofcolors,whichatmostaresystematicallyarranged,butdevoidofharmony,connectionandmeaning.

Readingisthinkingwithsomeoneelse'sheadinsteadofone'sown.Tothinkwithone'sownheadisalwaystoaimatdevelopingacoherentwhole--asystem,eventhoughitbenotastrictlycompleteone;andnothinghindersthissomuchastoostrongacurrentofothers'

thoughts,suchascomesofcontinualreading.Thesethoughts,springingeveryoneofthemfromdifferentminds,belongingtodifferentsystems,andtingedwithdifferentcolors,neverofthemselvesflowtogetherintoanintellectualwhole;theyneverformaunityofknowledge,orinsight,orconviction;but,rather,filltheheadwithaBabylonianconfusionoftongues.Themindthatisover-loadedwithalienthoughtisthusdeprivedofallclearinsight,andiswell-nighdisorganized.Thisisastateofthingsobservableinmanymenoflearning;anditmakestheminferiorinsoundsense,correctjudgmentandpracticaltact,tomanyilliteratepersons,who,afterobtainingalittleknowledgefromwithout,bymeansofexperience,intercoursewithothers,andasmallamountofreading,havealwayssubordinateditto,andembodieditwith,theirown

thought.

Thereallyscientific_thinker_doesthesamethingastheseilliteratepersons,butonalargerscale.Althoughhehasneedofmuchknowledge,andsomustreadagreatdeal,hismindisneverthelessstrongenoughtomasteritall,toassimilateandincorporateitwiththesystemofhisthoughts,andsotomakeitfitinwiththeorganicunityofhisinsight,which,thoughvast,isalwaysgrowing.Andintheprocess,hisownthought,likethebassinanorgan,alwaysdominateseverythingandisneverdrownedbyother



tones,ashappenswithmindswhicharefullofmereantiquarianlore;whereshredsofmusic,asitwere,ineverykey,mingleconfusedly,andnofundamentalnoteisheardatall.

Thosewhohavespenttheirlivesinreading,andtakentheirwisdomfrombooks,arelikepeoplewhohaveobtainedpreciseinformationaboutacountryfromthedescriptionsofmanytravellers.Suchpeoplecantellagreatdealaboutit;but,afterall,theyhavenoconnected,clear,andprofoundknowledgeofitsrealcondition.Butthosewhohavespenttheirlivesinthinking,resemblethetravellersthemselves;theyalonereallyknowwhattheyaretalkingabout;theyareacquaintedwiththeactualstateofaffairs,andarequiteathomeinthesubject.

Thethinkerstandsinthesamerelationtotheordinarybook-philosopherasaneye-witnessdoestothehistorian;hespeaksfromdirectknowledgeofhisown.Thatiswhyallthosewhothinkforthemselvescome,atbottom,tomuchthesameconclusion.Thedifferencestheypresentareduetotheirdifferentpointsofview;andwhenthesedonotaffectthematter,theyallspeakalike.Theymerelyexpresstheresultoftheirownobjectiveperceptionofthings.TherearemanypassagesinmyworkswhichIhavegiventothepubliconlyaftersomehesitation,becauseoftheirparadoxicalnature;andafterwardsIhaveexperiencedapleasantsurpriseinfindingthesame

opinionrecordedintheworksofgreatmenwholivedlongago.

Thebook-philosophermerelyreportswhatonepersonhassaidandanothermeant,ortheobjectionsraisedbyathird,andsoon.Hecomparesdifferentopinions,ponders,criticises,andtriestogetatthetruthofthematter;hereinonaparwiththecriticalhistorian.Forinstance,hewillsetouttoinquirewhetherLeibnitzwasnotforsometimeafollowerofSpinoza,andquestionsofalikenature.ThecuriousstudentofsuchmattersmayfindconspicuousexamplesofwhatImeaninHerbart's_AnalyticalElucidationofMoralityandNaturalRight_,andinthesameauthor's_LettersonFreedom_.Surprisemaybefeltthatamanofthekindshouldputhimselftosomuchtrouble;for,onthefaceofit,ifhewouldonlyexaminethematterfor

himself,hewouldspeedilyattainhisobjectbytheexerciseofalittlethought.Butthereisasmalldifficultyintheway.Itdoesnotdependuponhisownwill.Amancanalwayssitdownandread,butnot--think.Itiswiththoughtsaswithmen;theycannotalwaysbesummonedatpleasure;wemustwaitforthemtocome.Thoughtaboutasubjectmustappearofitself,byahappyandharmoniouscombinationofexternalstimuluswithmentaltemperandattention;anditisjustthatwhichneverseemstocometothesepeople.

Thistruthmaybeillustratedbywhathappensinthecaseofmattersaffectingourownpersonalinterest.Whenitisnecessarytocometosomeresolutioninamatterofthatkind,wecannotwellsitdownatanygivenmomentandthinkoverthemeritsofthecaseandmakeupour

mind;for,ifwetrytodoso,weoftenfindourselvesunable,atthatparticularmoment,tokeepourmindfixeduponthesubject;itwandersofftootherthings.Aversiontothematterinquestionissometimestoblameforthis.Insuchacaseweshouldnotuseforce,butwaitfortheproperframeofmindtocomeofitself.Itoftencomesunexpectedlyandreturnsagainandagain;andthevarietyoftemperinwhichweapproachitatdifferentmomentsputsthematteralwaysinafreshlight.Itisthislongprocesswhichisunderstoodbytheterm _ariperesolution._Fortheworkofcomingtoaresolutionmustbedistributed;andintheprocessmuchthatisoverlookedatonemoment



occurstousatanother;andtherepugnancevanisheswhenwefind,asweusuallydo,onacloserinspection,thatthingsarenotsobadastheyseemed.

Thisruleappliestothelifeoftheintellectaswellastomattersofpractice.Amanmustwaitfortherightmoment.Noteventhegreatestmindiscapableofthinkingforitselfatalltimes.Henceagreatminddoeswelltospenditsleisureinreading,which,asIhavesaid,isasubstituteforthought;itbringsstufftothemindbylettinganotherpersondothethinking;althoughthatisalwaysdoneinamannernotourown.Therefore,amanshouldnotreadtoomuch,inorderthathismindmaynotbecomeaccustomedtothesubstituteandtherebyforgetthereality;thatitmaynotformthehabitofwalkinginwell-wornpaths;norbyfollowinganaliencourseofthoughtgrowastrangertoitsown.Leastofallshouldamanquitewithdrawhisgazefromtherealworldforthemeresakeofreading;astheimpulseandthetemperwhichprompttothoughtofone'sowncomefaroftenerfromtheworldofrealitythanfromtheworldofbooks.Thereallifethatamanseesbeforehimisthenaturalsubjectofthought;andinitsstrengthastheprimaryelementofexistence,itcanmoreeasilythananythingelserouseandinfluencethethinkingmind.

Aftertheseconsiderations,itwillnotbematterforsurprisethatamanwhothinksforhimselfcaneasilybedistinguishedfromthe

book-philosopherbytheverywayinwhichhetalks,byhismarkedearnestness,andtheoriginality,directness,andpersonalconvictionthatstampallhisthoughtsandexpressions.Thebook-philosopher,ontheotherhand,letsitbeseenthateverythinghehasissecond-hand;thathisideasarelikethenumberandtrashofanoldfurniture-shop,collectedtogetherfromallquarters.Mentally,heisdullandpointless--acopyofacopy.Hisliterarystyleismadeupofconventional,nay,vulgarphrases,andtermsthathappentobecurrent;inthisrespectmuchlikeasmallStatewhereallthemoneythatcirculatesisforeign,becauseithasnocoinageofitsown.

Mereexperiencecanaslittleasreadingsupplytheplaceofthought.Itstandstothinkinginthesamerelationinwhicheatingstands

todigestionandassimilation.Whenexperienceboaststhattoitsdiscoveriesaloneisduetheadvancementofthehumanrace,itisasthoughthemouthweretoclaimthewholecreditofmaintainingthebodyinhealth.

Theworksofalltrulycapablemindsaredistinguishedbyacharacterof_decision_and_definiteness_,whichmeanstheyareclearandfreefromobscurity.Atrulycapablemindalwaysknowsdefinitelyandclearlywhatitisthatitwantstoexpress,whetheritsmediumisprose,verse,ormusic.Othermindsarenotdecisiveandnotdefinite;andbythistheymaybeknownforwhattheyare.

Thecharacteristicsignofamindofthehighestorderisthatit

alwaysjudgesatfirsthand.Everythingitadvancesistheresultofthinkingforitself;andthisiseverywhereevidentbythewayinwhichitgivesitsthoughtsutterance.SuchamindislikeaPrince.Intherealmofintellectitsauthorityisimperial,whereastheauthorityofmindsofalowerorderisdelegatedonly;asmaybeseenintheirstyle,whichhasnoindependentstampofitsown.

Everyonewhoreallythinksforhimselfissofarlikeamonarch.Hispositionisundelegatedandsupreme.Hisjudgments,likeroyaldecrees,springfromhisownsovereignpowerandproceeddirectlyfrom



himself.Heacknowledgesauthorityaslittleasamonarchadmitsacommand;hesubscribestonothingbutwhathehashimselfauthorized.Themultitudeofcommonminds,laboringunderallsortsofcurrentopinions,authorities,prejudices,islikethepeople,whichsilentlyobeysthelawandacceptsordersfromabove.

Thosewhoaresozealousandeagertosettledebatedquestionsbycitingauthorities,arereallygladwhentheyareabletoputtheunderstandingandtheinsightofothersintothefieldinplaceoftheirown,whicharewanting.Theirnumberislegion.For,asSenecasays,thereisnomanbutprefersbelieftotheexerciseofjudgment--_unusquisquemavultcrederequamjudicare_.Intheircontroversiessuchpeoplemakeapromiscuoususeoftheweaponofauthority,andstrikeoutatoneanotherwithit.Ifanyonechancestobecomeinvolvedinsuchacontest,hewilldowellnottotryreasonandargumentasamodeofdefence;foragainstaweaponofthatkindthesepeoplearelikeSiegfrieds,withaskinofhorn,anddippedinthefloodofincapacityforthinkingandjudging.Theywillmeethisattackbybringinguptheirauthoritiesasawayofabashinghim--_argumentumadverecundiam_,andthencryoutthattheyhavewonthebattle.

Intherealworld,beitneversofair,favorableandpleasant,wealwayslivesubjecttothelawofgravitywhichwehaveto

beconstantlyovercoming.Butintheworldofintellectwearedisembodiedspirits,heldinbondagetonosuchlaw,andfreefrompenuryanddistress.Thusitisthatthereexistsnohappinessonearthlikethatwhich,attheauspiciousmoment,afineandfruitfulmindfindsinitself.

Thepresenceofathoughtislikethepresenceofawomanwelove.Wefancyweshallneverforgetthethoughtnorbecomeindifferenttothedearone.Butoutofsight,outofmind!Thefinestthoughtrunstheriskofbeingirrevocablyforgottenifwedonotwriteitdown,andthedarlingofbeingdesertedifwedonotmarryher.

Thereareplentyofthoughtswhicharevaluabletothemanwhothinks

them;butonlyfewofthemwhichhaveenoughstrengthtoproducerepercussiveorreflectaction--Imean,towinthereader'ssympathyaftertheyhavebeenputonpaper.

Butstillitmustnotbeforgottenthatatruevalueattachesonlytowhatamanhasthoughtinthefirstinstance_forhisowncase_.Thinkersmaybeclassedaccordingastheythinkchieflyfortheirowncaseorforthatofothers.Theformerarethegenuineindependentthinkers;theyreallythinkandarereallyindependent;theyarethetrue_philosophers_;theyaloneareinearnest.Thepleasureandthehappinessoftheirexistenceconsistsinthinking.Theothersarethe _sophists_;theywanttoseemthatwhichtheyarenot,andseektheirhappinessinwhattheyhopetogetfromtheworld.Theyareinearnest

aboutnothingelse.Towhichofthesetwoclassesamanbelongsmaybeseenbyhiswholestyleandmanner.Lichtenbergisanexamplefortheformerclass;Herder,therecanbenodoubt,belongstothesecond.

Whenoneconsidershowvastandhowclosetousis_theproblemofexistence_--thisequivocal,tortured,fleeting,dream-likeexistenceofours--sovastandsoclosethatamannosoonerdiscoversitthanitovershadowsandobscuresallotherproblemsandaims;andwhenoneseeshowallmen,withfewandrareexceptions,havenoclearconsciousnessoftheproblem,nay,seemtobequiteunawareofits



presence,butbusythemselveswitheverythingratherthanwiththis,andliveon,takingnothoughtbutforthepassingdayandthehardlylongerspanoftheirownpersonalfuture,eitherexpresslydiscardingtheproblemorelseover-readytocometotermswithitbyadoptingsomesystemofpopularmetaphysicsandlettingitsatisfythem;when,Isay,onetakesallthistoheart,onemaycometotheopinionthatmanmaybesaidtobe_athinkingbeing_onlyinaveryremotesense,andhenceforthfeelnospecialsurpriseatanytraitofhumanthoughtlessnessorfolly;butknow,rather,thatthenormalman'sintellectualrangeofvisiondoesindeedextendbeyondthatofthebrute,whosewholeexistenceis,asitwere,acontinualpresent,withnoconsciousnessofthepastorthefuture,butnotsuchanimmeasurabledistanceasisgenerallysupposed.

Thisis,infact,corroboratedbythewayinwhichmostmenconverse;wheretheirthoughtsarefoundtobechoppedupfine,likechaff,sothatforthemtospinoutadiscourseofanylengthisimpossible.

Ifthisworldwerepeopledbyreallythinkingbeings,itcouldnotbethatnoiseofeverykindwouldbeallowedsuchgenerouslimits,asisthecasewiththemosthorribleandatthesametimeaimlessformofit.[1]IfNaturehadmeantmantothink,shewouldnothavegivenhimears;or,atanyrate,shewouldhavefurnishedthemwithairtightflaps,suchasaretheenviablepossessionofthebat.But,intruth,

manisapooranimalliketherest,andhispowersaremeantonlytomaintainhiminthestruggleforexistence;sohemustneedkeephisearsalwaysopen,toannounceofthemselves,bynightasbyday,theapproachofthepursuer.

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--Schopenhauerreferstothecrackingofwhips.SeetheEssay_OnNoise_in_StudiesinPessimism_.]

Inthedrama,whichisthemostperfectreflectionofhumanexistence,therearethreestagesinthepresentationofthesubject,withacorrespondingvarietyinthedesignandscopeofthepiece.

Atthefirst,whichisalsothemostcommon,stage,thedramais

neveranythingmorethanmerely_interesting_.Thepersonsgainourattentionbyfollowingtheirownaims,whichresembleours;theactionadvancesbymeansofintrigueandtheplayofcharacterandincident;whilewitandrailleryseasonthewhole.

Atthesecondstage,thedramabecomes_sentimental_.Sympathyisrousedwiththeheroand,indirectly,withourselves.Theactiontakesapatheticturn;buttheendispeacefulandsatisfactory.

Theclimaxisreachedwiththethirdstage,whichisthemostdifficult.Therethedramaaimsatbeing_tragic_.Wearebroughtfacetofacewithgreatsufferingandthestormandstressofexistence;andtheoutcomeofitistoshowthevanityofallhumaneffort.

Deeplymoved,weareeitherdirectlypromptedtodisengageourwillfromthestruggleoflife,orelseachordisstruckinuswhichechoesasimilarfeeling.

Thebeginning,itissaid,isalwaysdifficult.Inthedramaitisjustthecontrary;forthesethedifficultyalwaysliesintheend.Thisisprovedbycountlessplayswhichpromiseverywellforthefirstactortwo,andthenbecomemuddled,stickorfalter--notoriouslysointhefourthact--andfinallyconcludeinawaythatiseitherforcedorunsatisfactoryorelselongforeseenby



everyone.Sometimes,too,theendispositivelyrevolting,asinLessing's_EmiliaGalotti_,whichsendsthespectatorshomeinatemper.

Thisdifficultyinregardtotheendofaplayarisespartlybecauseitiseverywhereeasiertogetthingsintoatanglethantogetthemoutagain;partlyalsobecauseatthebeginningwegivetheauthor _carteblanche_todoashelikes,but,attheend,makecertaindefinitedemandsuponhim.Thusweaskforaconclusionthatshallbeeitherquitehappyorelsequitetragic;whereashumanaffairsdonoteasilytakesodecidedaturn;andthenweexpectthatitshallbenatural,fitandproper,unlabored,andatthesametimeforeseenbynoone.

Theseremarksarealsoapplicabletoanepicandtoanovel;butthemorecompactnatureofthedramamakesthedifficultyplainerbyincreasingit.

_Enihilonihilfit_.Thatnothingcancomefromnothingisamaximtrueinfineartaselsewhere.Incomposinganhistoricalpicture,agoodartistwilluselivingmenasamodel,andtakethegroundworkofthefacesfromlife;andthenproceedtoidealizetheminpointofbeautyorexpression.Asimilarmethod,Ifancy,isadoptedbygoodnovelists.Indrawingacharactertheytakeageneraloutlineofit

fromsomerealpersonoftheiracquaintance,andthenidealizeandcompleteittosuittheirpurpose.

Anovelwillbeofahighandnobleorder,themoreitrepresentsofinner,andthelessitrepresentsofouter,life;andtheratiobetweenthetwowillsupplyameansofjudginganynovel,ofwhateverkind,from_TristramShandy_downtothecrudestandmostsensationaltaleofknightorrobber._TristramShandy_has,indeed,asgoodasnoactionatall;andthereisnotmuchin_LaNouvelleHeloïse_and _WilhelmMeister_.Even_DonQuixote_hasrelativelylittle;andwhatthereis,veryunimportant,andintroducedmerelyforthesakeoffun.Andthesefourarethebestofallexistingnovels.

Consider,further,thewonderfulromancesofJeanPaul,andhowmuchinnerlifeisshownonthenarrowestbasisofactualevent.EveninWalterScott'snovelsthereisagreatpreponderanceofinneroverouterlife,andincidentisneverbroughtinexceptforthepurposeofgivingplaytothoughtandemotion;whereas,inbadnovels,incidentisthereonitsownaccount.Skillconsistsinsettingtheinnerlifeinmotionwiththesmallestpossiblearrayofcircumstance;foritisthisinnerlifethatreallyexcitesourinterest.

Thebusinessofthenovelistisnottorelategreatevents,buttomakesmallonesinteresting.

History,whichIliketothinkofasthecontraryofpoetry[Greek:

istoroumenon--pepoiaemenon],isfortimewhatgeographyisforspace;anditisnomoretobecalledascience,inanystrictsenseoftheword,thanisgeography,becauseitdoesnotdealwithuniversaltruths,butonlywithparticulardetails.Historyhasalwaysbeenthefavoritestudyofthosewhowishtolearnsomething,withouthavingtofacetheeffortdemandedbyanybranchofrealknowledge,whichtaxestheintelligence.Inourtimehistoryisafavoritepursuit;aswitnessthenumerousbooksuponthesubjectwhichappeareveryyear.

Ifthereadercannothelpthinking,withme,thathistoryismerely



theconstantrecurrenceofsimilarthings,justasinakaleidoscopethesamebitsofglassarerepresented,butindifferentcombinations,hewillnotbeabletoshareallthislivelyinterest;nor,however,willhecensureit.Butthereisaridiculousandabsurdclaim,madebymanypeople,toregardhistoryasapartofphilosophy,nay,asphilosophyitself;theyimaginethathistorycantakeitsplace.

Thepreferenceshownforhistorybythegreaterpublicinallagesmaybeillustratedbythekindofconversationwhichissomuchinvogueeverywhereinsociety.Itgenerallyconsistsinonepersonrelatingsomethingandthenanotherpersonrelatingsomethingelse;sothatinthiswayeveryoneissureofreceivingattention.Bothhereandinthecaseofhistoryitisplainthatthemindisoccupiedwithparticulardetails.Butasinscience,soalsoineveryworthyconversation,themindrisestotheconsiderationofsomegeneraltruth.

Thisobjectiondoesnot,however,deprivehistoryofitsvalue.Humanlifeisshortandfleeting,andmanymillionsofindividualsshareinit,whoareswallowedbythatmonsterofoblivionwhichiswaitingforthemwithever-openjaws.Itisthusaverythankworthytasktotrytorescuesomething--thememoryofinterestingandimportantevents,ortheleadingfeaturesandpersonagesofsomeepoch--fromthegeneralshipwreckoftheworld.

Fromanotherpointofview,wemightlookuponhistoryasthesequeltozoology;forwhilewithallotheranimalsitisenoughtoobservethespecies,withmanindividuals,andthereforeindividualeventshavetobestudied;becauseeverymanpossessesacharacterasanindividual.Andsinceindividualsandeventsarewithoutnumberorend,anessentialimperfectionattachestohistory.Inthestudyofit,allthatamanlearnsnevercontributestolessenthatwhichhehasstilltolearn.Withanyrealscience,aperfectionofknowledgeis,atanyrate,conceivable.

WhenwegainaccesstothehistoriesofChinaandofIndia,theendlessnessofthesubject-matterwillrevealtousthedefectsinthestudy,andforceourhistorianstoseethattheobjectofscienceis

torecognizethemanyintheone,toperceivetherulesinanygivenexample,andtoapplytothelifeofnationsaknowledgeofmankind;nottogooncountingupfacts_adinfinitum_.

Therearetwokindsofhistory;thehistoryofpoliticsandthehistoryofliteratureandart.Theoneisthehistoryofthewill;theother,thatoftheintellect.Thefirstisataleofwoe,evenofterror:itisarecordofagony,struggle,fraud,andhorriblemurder _enmasse_.Thesecondiseverywherepleasingandserene,liketheintellectwhenlefttoitself,eventhoughitspathbeoneoferror.Itschiefbranchisthehistoryofphilosophy.Thisis,infact,itsfundamentalbass,andthenotesofitareheardevenintheotherkindofhistory.Thesedeeptonesguidetheformationofopinion,and

opinionrulestheworld.Hencephilosophy,rightlyunderstood,isamaterialforceofthemostpowerfulkind,thoughveryslowinitsworking.Thephilosophyofaperiodisthusthefundamentalbassofitshistory.

TheNEWSPAPER,isthesecond-handintheclockofhistory;anditisnotonlymadeofbasermetalthanthosewhichpointtotheminuteandthehour,butitseldomgoesright.

Theso-calledleadingarticleisthechorustothedramaofpassing



events.

Exaggerationofeverykindisasessentialtojournalismasitistothedramaticart;fortheobjectofjournalismistomakeeventsgoasfaraspossible.Thusitisthatalljournalistsare,intheverynatureoftheircalling,alarmists;andthisistheirwayofgivinginteresttowhattheywrite.Hereintheyarelikelittledogs;ifanythingstirs,theyimmediatelysetupashrillbark.

Therefore,letuscarefullyregulatetheattentiontobepaidtothistrumpetofdanger,sothatitmaynotdisturbourdigestion.Letusrecognizethatanewspaperisatbestbutamagnifying-glass,andveryoftenmerelyashadowonthewall.

The_pen_istothoughtwhatthestickistowalking;butyouwalkmosteasilywhenyouhavenostick,andyouthinkwiththegreatestperfectionwhenyouhavenopeninyourhand.Itisonlywhenamanbeginstobeoldthathelikestouseastickandisgladtotakeuphispen.

Whenan_hypothesis_hasoncecometobirthinthemind,orgainedafootingthere,itleadsalifesofarcomparablewiththelifeofanorganism,asthatitassimilatesmatterfromtheouterworldonlywhenitislikeinkindwithitandbeneficial;andwhen,contrarily,such

matterisnotlikeinkindbuthurtful,thehypothesis,equallywiththeorganism,throwsitoff,or,ifforcedtotakeit,getsridofitagainentire.

Togain_immortality_anauthormustpossesssomanyexcellencesthatwhileitwillnotbeeasytofindanyonetounderstandandappreciatethemall,therewillbemenineveryagewhoareabletorecognizeandvaluesomeofthem.Inthiswaythecreditofhisbookwillbemaintainedthroughoutthelongcourseofcenturies,inspiteofthefactthathumaninterestsarealwayschanging.

Anauthorlikethis,whohasaclaimtothecontinuanceofhislifeevenwithposterity,canonlybeamanwho,overthewideearth,will

seekhislikeinvain,andofferapalpablecontrastwitheveryoneelseinvirtueofhisunmistakabledistinction.Nay,more:werehe,likethewanderingJew,tolivethroughseveralgenerations,hewouldstillremaininthesamesuperiorposition.Ifthiswerenotso,itwouldbedifficulttoseewhyhisthoughtsshouldnotperishlikethoseofothermen.

_Metaphors_and_similes_areofgreatvalue,insofarastheyexplainanunknownrelationbyaknownone.Eventhemoredetailedsimilewhichgrowsintoaparableoranallegory,isnothingmorethantheexhibitionofsomerelationinitssimplest,mostvisibleandpalpableform.Thegrowthofideasrests,atbottom,uponsimiles;becauseideasarisebyaprocessofcombiningthesimilaritiesand

neglectingthedifferencesbetweenthings.Further,intelligence,inthestrictsenseoftheword,ultimatelyconsistsinaseizingofrelations;andaclearandpuregraspofrelationsisallthemoreoftenattainedwhenthecomparisonismadebetweencasesthatliewideapartfromoneanother,andbetweenthingsofquitedifferentnature.Aslongasarelationisknowntomeasexistingonlyinasinglecase,Ihavebutan_individual_ideaofit--inotherwords,onlyanintuitiveknowledgeofit;butassoonasIseethesamerelationintwodifferentcases,Ihavea_general_ideaofitswholenature,andthisisadeeperandmoreperfectknowledge.



Since,then,similesandmetaphorsaresuchapowerfulengineofknowledge,itisasignofgreatintelligenceinawriterifhissimilesareunusualand,atthesametime,tothepoint.Aristotlealsoobservesthatbyfarthemostimportantthingtoawriteristohavethispowerofmetaphor;foritisagiftwhichcannotbeacquired,anditisamarkofgenius.

Asregards_reading_,torequirethatamanshallretaineverythinghehaseverread,islikeaskinghimtocarryaboutwithhimallhehasevereaten.Theonekindoffoodhasgivenhimbodily,andtheothermental,nourishment;anditisthroughthesetwomeansthathehasgrowntobewhatheis.Thebodyassimilatesonlythatwhichislikeit;andsoamanretainsinhismindonlythatwhichinterestshim,inotherwords,thatwhichsuitshissystemofthoughtorhispurposesinlife.

Ifamanwantstoreadgoodbooks,hemustmakeapointofavoidingbadones;forlifeisshort,andtimeandenergylimited.

_Repetitioestmaterstudiorum_.Anybookthatisatallimportantoughttobeatoncereadthroughtwice;partlybecause,onasecondreading,theconnectionofthedifferentportionsofthebookwillbebetterunderstood,andthebeginningcomprehendedonlywhentheend

isknown;andpartlybecausewearenotinthesametemperanddispositiononbothreadings.Onthesecondperusalwegetanewviewofeverypassageandadifferentimpressionofthewholebook,whichthenappearsinanotherlight.

Aman'sworksarethequintessenceofhismind,andeventhoughhemaypossessverygreatcapacity,theywillalwaysbeincomparablymorevaluablethanhisconversation.Nay,inallessentialmattershisworkswillnotonlymakeupforthelackofpersonalintercoursewithhim,buttheywillfarsurpassitinsolidadvantages.Thewritingsevenofamanofmoderategeniusmaybeedifying,worthreadingandinstructive,becausetheyarehisquintessence--theresultandfruitofallhisthoughtandstudy;whilstconversationwithhimmaybe

unsatisfactory.

Soitisthatwecanreadbooksbymeninwhosecompanywefindnothingtoplease,andthatahighdegreeofcultureleadsustoseekentertainmentalmostwhollyfrombooksandnotfrommen.

ONCRITICISM.

Thefollowingbriefremarksonthecriticalfacultyarechiefly

intendedtoshowthat,forthemostpart,thereisnosuchthing.Itisa_raraavis_;almostasrare,indeed,asthephoenix,whichappearsonlyonceinfivehundredyears.

Whenwespeakof_taste_--anexpressionnotchosenwithanyregardforit--wemeanthediscovery,or,itmaybeonlytherecognition,ofwhatis_rightaesthetically_,apartfromtheguidanceofanyrule;andthis,eitherbecausenorulehasasyetbeenextendedtothematterinquestion,orelsebecause,ifexisting,itisunknowntotheartist,orthecritic,asthecasemaybe.Insteadof_taste_,wemightuse



theexpression_aestheticsense_,ifthiswerenottautological.

Theperceptivecriticaltasteis,sotospeak,thefemaleanaloguetothemalequalityofproductivetalentorgenius.Notcapableof_begetting_greatworkitself,itconsistsinacapacityof _reception_,thatistosay,ofrecognizingassuchwhatisright,fit,beautiful,orthereverse;inotherwords,ofdiscriminatingthegoodfromthebad,ofdiscoveringandappreciatingtheoneandcondemningtheother.

Inappreciatingagenius,criticismshouldnotdealwiththeerrorsinhisproductionsorwiththepoorerofhisworks,andthenproceedtoratehimlow;itshouldattendonlytothequalitiesinwhichhemostexcels.Forinthesphereofintellect,asinotherspheres,weaknessandperversitycleavesofirmlytohumannaturethateventhemostbrilliantmindisnotwhollyandatalltimesfreefromthem.Hencethegreaterrorstobefoundevenintheworksofthegreatestmen;orasHoraceputsit,_quandoquebonusdormitatHomerus_.

Thatwhichdistinguishesgenius,andshouldbethestandardforjudgingit,istheheighttowhichitisabletosoarwhenitisinthepropermoodandfindsafittingoccasion--aheightalwaysoutofthereachofordinarytalent.And,inlikemanner,itisaverydangerousthingtocomparetwogreatmenofthesameclass;for

instance,twogreatpoets,ormusicians,orphilosophers,orartists;becauseinjusticetotheoneortheother,atleastforthemoment,canhardlybeavoided.Forinmakingacomparisonofthekindthecriticlookstosomeparticularmeritoftheoneandatoncediscoversthatitisabsentintheother,whoistherebydisparaged.Andtheniftheprocessisreversed,andthecriticbeginswiththelatteranddiscovershispeculiarmerit,whichisquiteofadifferentorderfromthatpresentedbytheformer,withwhomitmaybelookedforinvain,theresultisthatbothofthemsufferunduedepreciation.

Therearecriticswhoseverallythinkthatitrestswitheachoneofthemwhatshallbeaccountedgood,andwhatbad.Theyallmistaketheirowntoy-trumpetsforthetrombonesoffame.

Adrugdoesnoteffectitspurposeifthedoseistoolarge;anditisthesamewithcensureandadversecriticismwhenitexceedsthemeasureofjustice.

Thedisastrousthingforintellectualmeritisthatitmustwaitforthosetopraisethegoodwhohavethemselvesproducednothingbutwhatisbad;nay,itisaprimarymisfortunethatithastoreceiveitscrownatthehandsofthecriticalpowerofmankind--aqualityofwhichmostmenpossessonlytheweakandimpotentsemblance,sothattherealitymaybenumberedamongsttherarestgiftsofnature.HenceLaBruyère'sremarkis,unhappily,astrueasitisneat._Aprèsl'espritdediscernement_,hesays,_cequ'ilyaaumondedeplus

rare,cesontlesdiamansetlesperles_.Thespiritofdiscernment!thecriticalfaculty!itisthesethatarelacking.Mendonotknowhowtodistinguishthegenuinefromthefalse,thecornfromthechaff,goldfromcopper;ortoperceivethewidegulfthatseparatesageniusfromanordinaryman.Thuswehavethatbadstateofthingsdescribedinanold-fashionedverse,whichgivesitasthelotofthegreatoneshereonearthtoberecognizedonlywhentheyaregone:

_EsistnundasGeschickderGrossenfiieraufErden,Erstwannsienichtmehrsind;vonunserkanntzuwerden._



Whenanygenuineandexcellentworkmakesitsappearance,thechiefdifficultyinitswayistheamountofbadworkitfindsalreadyinpossessionofthefield,andacceptedasthoughitweregood.Andthenif,afteralongtime,thenewcomerreallysucceeds,byahardstruggle,invindicatinghisplaceforhimselfandwinningreputation,hewillsoonencounterfreshdifficultyfromsomeaffected,dull,awkwardimitator,whompeopledragin,withtheobjectofcalmlysettinghimuponthealtarbesidethegenius;notseeingthedifferenceandreallythinkingthatheretheyhavetodowithanothergreatman.ThisiswhatYriartemeansbythefirstlinesofhistwenty-eighthFable,wherehedeclaresthattheignorantrabblealwayssetsequalvalueonthegoodandthebad:

_SiempreacostumbrahacerelvulgonecioDelobuenoylomaloigualaprecio_.

SoevenShakespeare'sdramashad,immediatelyafterhisdeath,togiveplacetothoseofBenJonson,Massinger,BeaumontandFletcher,andtoyieldthesupremacyforahundredyears.SoKant'sseriousphilosophywascrowdedoutbythenonsenseofFichte,Schelling,Jacobi,Hegel.Andeveninasphereaccessibletoall,wehaveseenunworthyimitatorsquicklydivertingpublicattentionfromtheincomparableWalterScott.For,saywhatyouwill,thepublichasnosensefor

excellence,andthereforenonotionhowveryrareitistofindmenreallycapableofdoinganythinggreatinpoetry,philosophy,orart,orthattheirworksarealoneworthyofexclusiveattention.Thedabblers,whetherinverseorinanyotherhighsphere,shouldbeeverydayunsparinglyremindedthatneithergods,normen,norbooksellershavepardonedtheirmediocrity:

_mediocribusessepoetisNonhomines,nonDî,nonconcesserecolumnae_.[1]

[Footnote1:Horace,_ArsPoetica_,372.]

Aretheynottheweedsthatpreventthecorncomingup,sothatthey

maycoverallthegroundthemselves?AndthentherehappensthatwhichhasbeenwellandfreshlydescribedbythelamentedFeuchtersleben,[1]whodiedsoyoung:howpeoplecryoutintheirhastethatnothingisbeingdone,whileallthewhilegreatworkisquietlygrowingtomaturity;andthen,whenitappears,itisnotseenorheardintheclamor,butgoesitswaysilently,inmodestgrief:

"_Istdoch"--rufensievermessen--NichtsimWerke,nichtsgethan!"UnddasGrosse,reiftindessenStillheran_.

_Esersheintnun:niemandsiehtes,

NiemandhörtesimGeschreiMitbescheid'nerTrauerziehtesStillvorbei_.

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--ErnstFreiherrvonFeuchtersleben(1806-49),anAustrianphysician,philosopher,andpoet,andaspecialistinmedicalpsychology.Thebestknownofhissongsisthatbeginning"_EsistbestimmtinGottesRath_"towhichMendelssohncomposedoneofhisfinestmelodies.]



Thislamentabledeathofthecriticalfacultyisnotlessobviousinthecaseofscience,asisshownbythetenaciouslifeoffalseanddisprovedtheories.Iftheyareonceaccepted,theymaygoonbiddingdefiancetotruthforfiftyorevenahundredyearsandmore,asstableasanironpierinthemidstofthewaves.ThePtolemaicsystemwasstillheldacenturyafterCopernicushadpromulgatedhistheory.Bacon,DescartesandLockemadetheirwayextremelyslowlyandonlyafteralongtime;asthereadermayseebyd'Alembert'scelebratedPrefacetothe_Encyclopedia_.Newtonwasnotmoresuccessful;andthisissufficientlyprovedbythebitternessandcontemptwithwhichLeibnitzattackedhistheoryofgravitationinthecontroversywithClarke.[1]AlthoughNewtonlivedforalmostfortyyearsaftertheappearanceofthe_Principia_,histeachingwas,whenhedied,onlytosomeextentacceptedinhisowncountry,whilstoutsideEnglandhecountedscarcelytwentyadherents;ifwemaybelievetheintroductorynotetoVoltaire'sexpositionofhistheory.Itwas,indeed,chieflyowingtothistreatiseofVoltaire'sthatthesystembecameknowninFrancenearlytwentyyearsafterNewton'sdeath.Untilthenafirm,resolute,andpatrioticstandwasmadebytheCartesian_Vortices_;whilstonlyfortyyearspreviously,thissameCartesianphilosophyhadbeenforbiddenintheFrenchschools;andnowinturnd'Agnesseau,theChancellor,refusedVoltairethe_Imprimatur_forhistreatiseontheNewtoniandoctrine.Ontheotherhand,inourdayNewton'sabsurdtheoryofcolorstillcompletelyholdsthefield,fortyyearsafter

thepublicationofGoethe's.Hume,too,wasdisregardeduptohisfiftiethyear,thoughhebeganveryearlyandwroteinathoroughlypopularstyle.AndKant,inspiteofhavingwrittenandtalkedallhislifelong,didnotbecomeafamousmanuntilhewassixty.

[Footnote1:Seeespecially§§35,113,118,120,122,128.]

Artistsandpoetshave,tobesure,morechancethanthinkers,becausetheirpublicisatleastahundredtimesaslarge.Still,whatwasthoughtofBeethovenandMozartduringtheirlives?whatofDante?whatevenofShakespeare?Ifthelatter'scontemporarieshadinanywayrecognizedhisworth,atleastonegoodandaccreditedportraitofhimwouldhavecomedowntousfromanagewhentheartofpainting

flourished;whereaswepossessonlysomeverydoubtfulpictures,abadcopperplate,andastillworsebustonhistomb.[1]Andinlikemanner,ifhehadbeendulyhonored,specimensofhishandwritingwouldhavebeenpreservedtousbythehundred,insteadofbeingconfined,asisthecase,tothesignaturestoafewlegaldocuments.ThePortuguesearestillproudoftheironlypoetCamoëns.Helived,however,onalmscollectedeveryeveninginthestreetbyablackslavewhomhehadbroughtwithhimfromtheIndies.Intime,nodoubt,justicewillbedoneeveryone;_tempoègalantuomo_;butitisaslateandslowinarrivingasinacourtoflaw,andthesecretconditionofitisthattherecipientshallbenolongeralive.ThepreceptofJesusthesonofSirachisfaithfullyfollowed:_Judgenoneblessedbeforehisdeath._[2]He,then,whohasproducedimmortal

works,mustfindcomfortbyapplyingtothemthewordsoftheIndianmyth,thattheminutesoflifeamongsttheimmortalsseemlikeyearsofearthlyexistence;andso,too,thatyearsuponearthareonlyastheminutesoftheimmortals.

[Footnote1:A.Wivell:_AnInquiryintotheHistory,Authenticity,andCharacteristicsofShakespeare'sPortraits_;with21engravings.London,1836.]

[Footnote2:_Ecclesiasticus_,xi.28.]



Thislackofcriticalinsightisalsoshownbythefactthat,whileineverycenturytheexcellentworkofearliertimeisheldinhonor,thatofitsownismisunderstood,andtheattentionwhichisitsdueisgiventobadwork,suchaseverydecadecarrieswithitonlytobethesportofthenext.Thatmenareslowtorecognizegenuinemeritwhenitappearsintheirownage,alsoprovesthattheydonotunderstandorenjoyorreallyvaluethelong-acknowledgedworksofgenius,whichtheyhonoronlyonthescoreofauthority.Thecrucialtestisthefactthatbadwork--Fichte'sphilosophy,forexample--ifitwinsanyreputation,alsomaintainsitforoneortwogenerations;andonlywhenitspublicisverylargedoesitsfallfollowsooner.

Now,justasthesuncannotsheditslightbuttotheeyethatseesit,normusicsoundbuttothehearingear,sothevalueofallmasterlyworkinartandscienceisconditionedbythekinshipandcapacityofthemindtowhichitspeaks.Itisonlysuchamindasthisthatpossessesthemagicwordtostirandcallforththespiritsthatliehiddeningreatwork.Totheordinarymindamasterpieceisasealedcabinetofmystery,--anunfamiliarmusicalinstrumentfromwhichtheplayer,howevermuchhemayflatterhimself,candrawnonebutconfusedtones.Howdifferentapaintinglookswhenseeninagoodlight,ascomparedwithsomedarkcorner!Justinthesameway,theimpressionmadebyamasterpiecevarieswiththecapacityofthemind

tounderstandit.

Afinework,then,requiresamindsensitivetoitsbeauty;athoughtfulwork,amindthatcanreallythink,ifitistoexistandliveatall.Butalas!itmayhappenonlytoooftenthathewhogivesafineworktotheworldafterwardsfeelslikeamakeroffireworks,whodisplayswithenthusiasmthewondersthathavetakenhimsomuchtimeandtroubletoprepare,andthenlearnsthathehascometothewrongplace,andthatthefanciedspectatorswereoneandallinmatesofanasylumfortheblind.Stilleventhatisbetterthanifhispublichadconsistedentirelyofmenwhomadefireworksthemselves;asinthiscase,ifhisdisplayhadbeenextraordinarilygood,itmightpossiblyhavecosthimhishead.

Thesourceofallpleasureanddelightisthefeelingofkinship.Evenwiththesenseofbeautyitisunquestionablyourownspeciesintheanimalworld,andthenagainourownrace,thatappearstousthefairest.So,too,inintercoursewithothers,everymanshowsadecidedpreferenceforthosewhoresemblehim;andablockheadwillfindthesocietyofanotherblockheadincomparablymorepleasantthanthatofanynumberofgreatmindsputtogether.Everymanmustnecessarilytakehischiefpleasureinhisownwork,becauseitisthemirrorofhisownmind,theechoofhisownthought;andnextinorderwillcometheworkofpeoplelikehim;thatistosay,adull,shallowandperverseman,adealerinmerewords,willgivehissincereandheartyapplauseonlytothatwhichisdull,shallow,perverseor

merelyverbose.Ontheotherhand,hewillallowmerittotheworkofgreatmindsonlyonthescoreofauthority,inotherwords,becauseheisashamedtospeakhisopinion;forinrealitytheygivehimnopleasureatall.Theydonotappealtohim;nay,theyrepelhim;andhewillnotconfessthiseventohimself.Theworksofgeniuscannotbefullyenjoyedexceptbythosewhoarethemselvesoftheprivilegedorder.Thefirstrecognitionofthem,however,whentheyexistwithoutauthoritytosupportthem,demandsconsiderablesuperiorityofmind.

Whenthereadertakesallthisintoconsideration,heshouldbe



surprised,notthatgreatworkissolateinwinningreputation,butthatitwinsitatall.Andasamatteroffact,famecomesonlybyaslowandcomplexprocess.Thestupidpersonisbydegreesforced,andasitwere,tamed,intorecognizingthesuperiorityofonewhostandsimmediatelyabovehim;thisoneinhisturnbowsbeforesomeoneelse;andsoitgoesonuntiltheweightofthevotesgraduallyprevailovertheirnumber;andthisisjusttheconditionofallgenuine,inotherwords,deservedfame.Butuntilthen,thegreatestgenius,evenafterhehaspassedhistimeoftrial,standslikeakingamidstacrowdofhisownsubjects,whodonotknowhimbysightandthereforewillnotdohisbehests;unless,indeed,hischiefministersofstateareinhistrain.Fornosubordinateofficialcanbethedirectrecipientoftheroyalcommands,asheknowsonlythesignatureofhisimmediatesuperior;andthisisrepeatedallthewayupintothehighestranks,wheretheunder-secretaryatteststheminister'ssignature,andtheministerthatoftheking.Thereareanalogousstagestobepassedbeforeageniuscanattainwidespreadfame.Thisiswhyhisreputationmosteasilycomestoastandstillattheveryoutset;becausethehighestauthorities,ofwhomtherecanbebutfew,aremostfrequentlynottobefound;butthefurtherdownhegoesinthescalethemorenumerousarethosewhotakethewordfromabove,sothathisfameisnomorearrested.

Wemustconsoleourselvesforthisstateofthingsbyreflectingthat

itisreallyfortunatethatthegreaternumberofmendonotformajudgmentontheirownresponsibility,butmerelytakeitonauthority.ForwhatsortofcriticismshouldwehaveonPlatoandKant,Homer,ShakespeareandGoethe,ifeverymanweretoformhisopinionbywhathereallyhasandenjoysofthesewriters,insteadofbeingforcedbyauthoritytospeakoftheminafitandproperway,howeverlittlehemayreallyfeelwhathesays.Unlesssomethingofthiskindtookplace,itwouldbeimpossiblefortruemerit,inanyhighsphere,toattainfameatall.Atthesametimeitisalsofortunatethateverymanhasjustsomuchcriticalpowerofhisownasisnecessaryforrecognizingthesuperiorityofthosewhoareplacedimmediatelyoverhim,andforfollowingtheirlead.Thismeansthatthemanycomeintheendtosubmittotheauthorityofthefew;andthereresultsthat

hierarchyofcriticaljudgmentsonwhichisbasedthepossibilityofasteady,andeventuallywide-reaching,fame.

Thelowestclassinthecommunityisquiteimpervioustothemeritsofagreatgenius;andforthesepeoplethereisnothingleftbutthemonumentraisedtohim,which,bytheimpressionitproducesontheirsenses,awakesinthemadimideaoftheman'sgreatness.

Literaryjournalsshouldbeadamagainsttheunconscionablescribblingoftheage,andtheever-increasingdelugeofbadanduselessbooks.Theirjudgmentsshouldbeuncorrupted,justandrigorous;andeverypieceofbadworkdonebyanincapableperson;everydevicebywhichtheemptyheadtriestocometotheassistance

oftheemptypurse,thatistosay,aboutnine-tenthsofallexistingbooks,shouldbemercilesslyscourged.Literaryjournalswouldthenperformtheirduty,whichistokeepdownthecravingforwritingandputacheckuponthedeceptionofthepublic,insteadoffurtheringtheseevilsbyamiserabletoleration,whichplaysintothehandsofauthorandpublisher,androbsthereaderofhistimeandhismoney.

IfthereweresuchapaperasImean,everybadwriter,everybrainlesscompiler,everyplagiaristfromother'sbooks,everyhollowandincapableplace-hunter,everysham-philosopher,everyvainand



languishingpoetaster,wouldshudderattheprospectofthepilloryinwhichhisbadworkwouldinevitablyhavetostandsoonafterpublication.Thiswouldparalyzehistwitchingfingers,tothetruewelfareofliterature,inwhichwhatisbadisnotonlyuselessbutpositivelypernicious.Now,mostbooksarebadandoughttohaveremainedunwritten.Consequentlypraiseshouldbeasrareasisnowthecasewithblame,whichiswithheldundertheinfluenceofpersonalconsiderations,coupledwiththemaxim_accedassocius,laudeslauderisutabsens_.

Itisquitewrongtotrytointroduceintoliteraturethesametolerationasmustnecessarilyprevailinsocietytowardsthosestupid,brainlesspeoplewhoeverywhereswarminit.Inliteraturesuchpeopleareimpudentintruders;andtodisparagethebadisheredutytowardsthegood;forhewhothinksnothingbadwillthinknothinggoodeither.Politeness,whichhasitssourceinsocialrelations,isinliteratureanalien,andofteninjurious,element;becauseitexactsthatbadworkshallbecalledgood.Inthiswaytheveryaimofscienceandartisdirectlyfrustrated.

Theidealjournalcould,tobesure,bewrittenonlybypeoplewhojoinedincorruptiblehonestywithrareknowledgeandstillrarerpowerofjudgment;sothatperhapstherecould,attheverymost,beone,andevenhardlyone,inthewholecountry;butthereitwouldstand,

likeajustAeropagus,everymemberofwhichwouldhavetobeelectedbyalltheothers.Underthesystemthatprevailsatpresent,literaryjournalsarecarriedonbyaclique,andsecretlyperhapsalsobybooksellersforthegoodofthetrade;andtheyareoftennothingbutcoalitionsofbadheadstopreventthegoodonessucceeding.AsGoetheonceremarkedtome,nowhereistheresomuchdishonestyasinliterature.

But,aboveall,anonymity,thatshieldofallliteraryrascality,wouldhavetodisappear.Itwasintroducedunderthepretextofprotectingthehonestcritic,whowarnedthepublic,againsttheresentmentoftheauthorandhisfriends.Butwherethereisonecaseofthissort,therewillbeahundredwhereitmerelyservestotake

allresponsibilityfromthemanwhocannotstandbywhathehassaid,orpossiblytoconcealtheshameofonewhohasbeencowardlyandbaseenoughtorecommendabooktothepublicforthepurposeofputtingmoneyintohisownpocket.Oftenenoughitisonlyacloakforcoveringtheobscurity,incompetenceandinsignificanceofthecritic.Itisincrediblewhatimpudencethesefellowswillshow,andwhatliterarytrickerytheywillventuretocommit,assoonastheyknowtheyaresafeundertheshadowofanonymity.Letmerecommendageneral_Anti-criticism_,auniversalmedicineorpanacea,toputastoptoallanonymousreviewing,whetheritpraisesthebadorblamesthegood:_Rascal!yourname_!Foramantowraphimselfupanddrawhishatoverhisface,andthenfalluponpeoplewhoarewalkingaboutwithoutanydisguise--thisisnotthepartofagentleman,itisthe

partofascoundrelandaknave.

Ananonymousreviewhasnomoreauthoritythanananonymousletter;andoneshouldbereceivedwiththesamemistrustastheother.Orshallwetakethenameofthemanwhoconsentstopresideoverwhatis,inthestrictsenseoftheword,_unesociétéanonyme_asaguaranteefortheveracityofhiscolleagues?

EvenRousseau,intheprefacetothe_NouvelleHeloïse_,declares _touthonnêtehommedoitavouerleslivresqu'ilpublic_;whichin



plainlanguagemeansthateveryhonorablemanoughttosignhisarticles,andthatnooneishonorablewhodoesnotdoso.Howmuchtruerthisisofpolemicalwriting,whichisthegeneralcharacterofreviews!Riemerwasquiterightintheopinionhegivesinhis _ReminiscencesofGoethe:[1]Anovertenemy_,hesays,_anenemywhomeetsyoufacetoface,isanhonorableman,whowilltreatyoufairly,andwithwhomyoucancometotermsandbereconciled:butanenemywhoconcealshimself_isabase,cowardlyscoundrel,_whohasnotcourageenoughtoavowhisownjudgment;itisnothisopinionthathecaresabout,butonlythesecretpleasuresofwreakinghisangerwithoutbeingfoundoutorpunished._ThiswillalsohavebeenGoethe'sopinion,ashewasgenerallythesourcefromwhichRiemerdrewhisobservations.And,indeed,Rousseau'smaximappliestoeverylinethatisprinted.Wouldamaninamaskeverbeallowedtoharangueamob,orspeakinanyassembly;andthat,too,whenhewasgoingtoattackothersandoverwhelmthemwithabuse?

[Footnote1:Preface,p.xxix.]

Anonymityistherefugeforallliteraryandjournalisticrascality.Itisapracticewhichmustbecompletelystopped.Everyarticle,eveninanewspaper,shouldbeaccompaniedbythenameofitsauthor;andtheeditorshouldbemadestrictlyresponsiblefortheaccuracyofthesignature.Thefreedomofthepressshouldbethusfarrestricted;so

thatwhenamanpubliclyproclaimsthroughthefar-soundingtrumpetofthenewspaper,heshouldbeanswerableforit,atanyratewithhishonor,ifhehasany;andifhehasnone,lethisnameneutralizetheeffectofhiswords.Andsinceeventhemostinsignificantpersonisknowninhisowncircle,theresultofsuchameasurewouldbetoputanendtotwo-thirdsofthenewspaperlies,andtorestraintheaudacityofmanyapoisonoustongue.

ONREPUTATION.

Writersmaybeclassifiedasmeteors,planetsandfixedstars.Ameteormakesastrikingeffectforamoment.Youlookupandcry _There!_anditisgoneforever.Planetsandwanderingstarslastamuchlongertime.Theyoftenoutshinethefixedstarsandareconfoundedwiththembytheinexperienced;butthisonlybecausetheyarenear.Itisnotlongbeforetheymustyieldtheirplace;nay,thelighttheygiveisreflectedonly,andthesphereoftheirinfluenceisconfinedtotheirownorbit--theircontemporaries.Theirpathisoneofchangeandmovement,andwiththecircuitofafewyearstheirtaleistold.Fixedstarsaretheonlyonesthatareconstant;theirpositioninthefirmamentissecure;theyshinewithalightoftheirown;theireffectto-dayisthesameasitwasyesterday,because,

havingnoparallax,theirappearancedoesnotalterwithadifferenceinourstandpoint.Theybelongnotto_one_system,_one_nationonly,buttotheuniverse.Andjustbecausetheyaresoveryfaraway,itisusuallymanyyearsbeforetheirlightisvisibletotheinhabitantsofthisearth.

Wehaveseeninthepreviouschapterthatwhereaman'smeritsareofahighorder,itisdifficultforhimtowinreputation,becausethepublicisuncriticalandlacksdiscernment.Butanotherandnolessserioushindrancetofamecomesfromtheenvyithastoencounter.For



eveninthelowestkindsofwork,envybalkseventhebeginningsofareputation,andneverceasestocleavetoituptothelast.Howgreatapartisplayedbyenvyinthewickedwaysoftheworld!Ariostoisrightinsayingthatthedarksideofourmortallifepredominates,sofullitisofthisevil:

_questaassaipiùoscuracheserenaVitamortal,tuttad'invidiapiena_.

Forenvyisthemovingspiritofthatsecretandinformal,thoughflourishing,allianceeverywheremadebymediocrityagainstindividualeminence,nomatterofwhatkind.Inhisownsphereofworknoonewillallowanothertobedistinguished:heisanintruderwhocannotbetolerated._Siquelq'unexcelleparminous,qu'ilailleexcellerailleurs_!thisistheuniversalpasswordofthesecond-rate.Inaddition,then,totherarityoftruemeritandthedifficultyithasinbeingunderstoodandrecognized,thereistheenvyofthousandstobereckonedwith,allofthembentonsuppressing,nay,onsmotheringitaltogether.Nooneistakenforwhatheis,butforwhatothersmakeofhim;andthisisthehandleusedbymediocritytokeepdowndistinction,bynotlettingitcomeupaslongasthatcanpossiblybeprevented.

Therearetwowaysofbehavinginregardtomerit:eithertohavesome

ofone'sown,ortorefuseanytoothers.Thelattermethodismoreconvenient,andsoitisgenerallyadopted.Asenvyisameresignofdeficiency,sotoenvymeritarguesthelackofit.MyexcellentBalthazarGracianhasgivenaveryfineaccountofthisrelationbetweenenvyandmeritinalengthyfable,whichmaybefoundinhis _Discreto_undertheheading_Hombredeostentacion_.Hedescribesallthebirdsasmeetingtogetherandconspiringagainstthepeacock,becauseofhismagnificentfeathers._If_,saidthemagpie,_wecouldonlymanagetoputastoptothecursedparadingofhistail,therewouldsoonbeanendofhisbeauty;forwhatisnotseenisasgoodaswhatdoesnotexist_.

Thisexplainshowmodestycametobeavirtue.Itwasinventedonlyas

aprotectionagainstenvy.Thattherehavealwaysbeenrascalstourgethisvirtue,andtorejoiceheartilyoverthebashfulnessofamanofmerit,hasbeenshownatlengthinmychiefwork.[1]InLichtenberg's _MiscellaneousWritings_Ifindthissentencequoted:_Modestyshouldbethevirtueofthosewhopossessnoother_.Goethehasawell-knownsaying,whichoffendsmanypeople:_Itisonlyknaveswhoaremodest_!--_NurdieLumpensindbescheiden_!butithasitsprototypeinCervantes,whoincludesinhis_JourneyupParnassus_certainrulesofconductforpoets,andamongstthemthefollowing:_Everyonewhoseverseshowshimtobeapoetshouldhaveahighopinionofhimself,relyingontheproverbthatheisaknavewhothinkshimselfone_.AndShakespeare,inmanyofhisSonnets,whichgavehimtheonlyopportunityhehadofspeakingofhimself,declares,withaconfidence

equaltohisingenuousness,thatwhathewritesisimmortal.[2]

[Footnote1:_WeltalsWille_,Vol.II.c.37.]

[Footnote2:Collier,oneofhiscriticaleditors,inhisIntroductiontotheSonettes,remarksuponthispoint:"Inmanyofthemaretobefoundmostremarkableindicationsofself-confidenceandofassuranceintheimmortalityofhisverses,andinthisrespecttheauthor'sopinionwasconstantanduniform.Heneverscruplestoexpressit,...andperhapsthereisnowriterofancientormoderntimeswho,forthe



quantityofsuchwritingsleftbehindhim,hassofrequentlyorsostronglydeclaredthatwhathehadproducedinthisdepartmentofpoetry'theworldwouldnotwillinglyletdie.'"]

Amethodofunderratinggoodworkoftenusedbyenvy--inreality,however,onlytheobversesideofit--consistsinthedishonorableandunscrupulouslaudationofthebad;fornosoonerdoesbadworkgaincurrencythanitdrawsattentionfromthegood.Buthowevereffectivethismethodmaybeforawhile,especiallyifitisappliedonalargescale,thedayofreckoningcomesatlast,andthefleetingcreditgiventobadworkispaidoffbythelastingdiscreditwhichovertakesthosewhoabjectlypraisedit.Hencethesecriticsprefertoremainanonymous.

Alikefatethreatens,thoughmoreremotely,thosewhodepreciateandcensuregoodwork;andconsequentlymanyaretooprudenttoattemptit.Butthereisanotherway;andwhenamanofeminentmeritappears,thefirsteffectheproducesisoftenonlytopiqueallhisrivals,justasthepeacock'stailoffendedthebirds.Thisreducesthemtoadeepsilence;andtheirsilenceissounanimousthatitsavorsofpreconcertion.Theirtonguesareallparalyzed.Itisthe_silentiumlivoris_describedbySeneca.Thismalicioussilence,whichistechnicallyknownas_ignoring_,mayforalongtimeinterferewiththegrowthofreputation;if,ashappensinthehigherwalksof

learning,whereaman'simmediateaudienceiswhollycomposedofrivalworkersandprofessedstudents,whothenformthechannelofhisfame,thegreaterpublicisobligedtouseitssuffragewithoutbeingabletoexaminethematterforitself.Andif,intheend,thatmalicioussilenceisbrokeninuponbythevoiceofpraise,itwillbebutseldomthatthishappensentirelyapartfromsomeulterioraim,pursuedbythosewhothusmanipulatejustice.For,asGoethesaysinthe_West-östlicherDivan_,amancangetnorecognition,eitherfrommanypersonsorfromonlyone,unlessitistopublishabroadthecritic'sowndiscernment:

_DennesistkeinAnerkenen,WederVieler,nochdesEinen,

WennesnichtamTagefördert,Womanselbstwasmöchtescheinen_.

Thecredityouallowtoanothermanengagedinworksimilartoyourownorakintoit,mustatbottombewithdrawnfromyourself;andyoucanpraisehimonlyattheexpenseofyourownclaims.

Accordingly,mankindisinitselfnotatallinclinedtoawardpraiseandreputation;itismoredisposedtoblameandfindfault,wherebyitindirectlypraisesitself.If,notwithstandingthis,praiseiswonfrommankind,someextraneousmotivemustprevail.Iamnotherereferringtothedisgracefulwayinwhichmutualfriendswillpuffoneanotherintoareputation;outsideofthat,aneffectualmotiveis

suppliedbythefeelingthatnexttothemeritofdoingsomethingoneself,comesthatofcorrectlyappreciatingandrecognizingwhatothershavedone.ThisaccordswiththethreefolddivisionofheadsdrawnupbyHesiod[1]andafterwardsbyMachiavelli[2]_Thereare_,saysthelatter,_inthecapacitiesofmankind,threevarieties:onemanwillunderstandathingbyhimself;anothersofarasitisexplainedtohim;athird,neitherofhimselfnorwhenitisputclearlybeforehim_.He,then,whoabandonshopeofmakinggoodhisclaimstothefirstclass,willbegladtoseizetheopportunityoftakingaplaceinthesecond.Itisalmostwhollyowingtothisstate



ofthingsthatmeritmayalwaysrestassuredofultimatelymeetingwithrecognition.

[Footnote1:_WorksandDays_,293.]

[Footnote2:_ThePrince_,ch.22.]

Tothisalsoisduethefactthatwhenthevalueofaworkhasoncebeenrecognizedandmaynolongerbeconcealedordenied,allmenvieinpraisingandhonoringit;simplybecausetheyareconsciousoftherebydoingthemselvesanhonor.TheyactinthespiritofXenophon'sremark:_hemustbeawisemanwhoknowswhatiswise_.Sowhentheyseethattheprizeoforiginalmeritisforeveroutoftheirreach,theyhastentopossessthemselvesofthatwhichcomessecondbest--thecorrectappreciationofit.Hereithappensaswithanarmywhichhasbeenforcedtoyield;when,justaspreviouslyeverymanwantedtobeforemostinthefight,sonoweverymantriestobeforemostinrunningaway.Theyallhurryforwardtooffertheirapplausetoonewhoisnowrecognizedtobeworthyofpraise,invirtueofarecognition,asaruleunconscious,ofthatlawofhomogeneitywhichImentionedinthelastchapter;sothatitmayseemasthoughtheirwayofthinkingandlookingatthingswerehomogeneouswiththatofthecelebratedman,andthattheymayatleastsavethehonoroftheirliterarytaste,sincenothingelseisleftthem.

Fromthisitisplainthat,whereasitisverydifficulttowinfame,itisnothardtokeepitwhenonceattained;andalsothatareputationwhichcomesquicklydoesnotlastverylong;forheretoo,_quodcitofit,citoperit_.Itisobviousthatiftheordinaryaveragemancaneasilyrecognize,andtherivalworkerswillinglyacknowledge,thevalueofanyperformance,itwillnotstandverymuchabovethecapacityofeitherofthemtoachieveitforthemselves. _Tantumquisquelaudat,quantumsepossesperatimitari_--amanwillpraiseathingonlysofarashehopestobeabletoimitateithimself.Further,itisasuspicioussignifareputationcomesquickly;foranapplicationofthelawsofhomogeneitywillshowthatsuchareputationisnothingbutthedirectapplauseofthemultitude.

WhatthismeansmaybeseenbyaremarkoncemadebyPhocion,whenhewasinterruptedinaspeechbytheloudcheersofthemob.Turningtohisfriendswhowerestandingcloseby,heasked:_HaveImadeamistakeandsaidsomethingstupid?_[1]

[Footnote1:Plutarch,_Apophthegms_.]

Contrarily,areputationthatistolastalongtimemustbeslowinmaturing,andthecenturiesofitsdurationhavegenerallytobeboughtatthecostofcontemporarypraise.Forthatwhichistokeepitspositionsolong,mustbeofaperfectiondifficulttoattain;andeventorecognizethisperfectionrequiresmenwhoarenotalwaystobefound,andneverinnumberssufficientlygreattomakethemselves

heard;whereasenvyisalwaysonthewatchanddoingitsbesttosmothertheirvoice.Butwithmoderatetalent,whichsoonmeetswithrecognition,thereisthedangerthatthosewhopossessitwilloutlivebothitandthemselves;sothatayouthoffamemaybefollowedbyanoldageofobscurity.Inthecaseofgreatmerit,ontheotherhand,amanmayremainunknownformanyyears,butmakeupforitlateronbyattainingabrilliantreputation.Andifitshouldbethatthiscomesonlyafterheisnomore,well!heistobereckonedamongstthoseofwhomJeanPaulsaysthatextremeunctionistheirbaptism.HemayconsolehimselfbythinkingoftheSaints,who



alsoarecanonizedonlyaftertheyaredead.

ThuswhatMahlmann[1]hassaidsowellin_Herodes_holdsgood;inthisworldtrulygreatworkneverpleasesatonce,andthegodsetupbythemultitudekeepshisplaceonthealtarbutashorttime:

_Ichdenke,daswahreGrosseinderWeltIstimmernurDaswasnichtgleichgefälltUndwenderPöbelzumGotteweiht,DerstehtaufdemAltarnurkurzeZeit_.

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--AugustMahlmann(1771-1826),journalist,poetandstory-writer.His_HerodesvorBethlehem_isaparodyofKotzebue's_HussitenvorNaumburg_.]

Itisworthmentionthatthisruleismostdirectlyconfirmedinthecaseofpictures,where,asconnoisseurswellknow,thegreatestmasterpiecesarenotthefirsttoattractattention.Iftheymakeadeepimpression,itisnotafterone,butonlyafterrepeated,inspection;butthentheyexcitemoreandmoreadmirationeverytimetheyareseen.

Moreover,thechancesthatanygivenworkwillbequicklyandrightlyappreciated,dependupontwoconditions:firstly,thecharacterof

thework,whetherhighorlow,inotherwords,easyordifficulttounderstand;and,secondly,thekindofpublicitattracts,whetherlargeorsmall.Thislatterconditionis,nodoubt,inmostinstancesa,corollaryoftheformer;butitalsopartlydependsuponwhethertheworkinquestionadmits,likebooksandmusicalcompositions,ofbeingproducedingreatnumbers.Bythecompoundactionofthesetwoconditions,achievementswhichservenomateriallyusefulend--andthesealoneareunderconsiderationhere--willvaryinregardtothechancestheyhaveofmeetingwithtimelyrecognitionanddueappreciation;andtheorderofprecedence,beginningwiththosewhohavethegreatestchance,willbesomewhatasfollows:acrobats,circusriders,ballet-dancers,jugglers,actors,singers,musicians,composers,poets(boththelastonaccountofthemultiplicationof

theirworks),architects,painters,sculptors,philosophers.

Thelastplaceofallisunquestionablytakenbyphilosophersbecausetheirworksaremeantnotforentertainment,butforinstruction,andbecausetheypresumesomeknowledgeonthepartofthereader,andrequirehimtomakeaneffortofhisowntounderstandthem.Thismakestheirpublicextremelysmall,andcausestheirfametobemoreremarkableforitslengththanforitsbreadth.And,ingeneral,itmaybesaidthatthepossibilityofaman'sfamelastingalongtime,standsinalmostinverseratiowiththechancethatitwillbeearlyinmakingitsappearance;sothat,asregardslengthoffame,theaboveorderofprecedencemaybereversed.But,then,thepoetandthecomposerwillcomeintheendtostandonthesamelevelasthe

philosopher;since,whenonceaworkiscommittedtowriting,itispossibletopreserveittoalltime.However,thefirstplacestillbelongsbyrighttothephilosopher,becauseofthemuchgreaterscarcityofgoodworkinthissphere,andthehighimportanceofit;andalsobecauseofthepossibilityitoffersofanalmostperfecttranslationintoanylanguage.Sometimes,indeed,ithappensthataphilosopher'sfameoutlivesevenhisworksthemselves;ashashappenedwithThales,Empedocles,Heraclitus,Democritus,Parmenides,Epicurusandmanyothers.



Myremarksare,asIhavesaid,confinedtoachievementsthatarenotofanymaterialuse.Workthatservessomepracticalend,orministersdirectlytosomepleasureofthesenses,willneverhaveanydifficultyinbeingdulyappreciated.Nofirst-ratepastry-cookcouldlongremainobscureinanytown,tosaynothingofhavingtoappealtoposterity.

Underfameofrapidgrowthisalsotobereckonedfameofafalseandartificialkind;where,forinstance,abookisworkedintoareputationbymeansofunjustpraise,thehelpoffriends,corruptcriticism,promptingfromaboveandcollusionfrombelow.Allthistellsuponthemultitude,whichisrightlypresumedtohavenopowerofjudgingforitself.Thissortoffameislikeaswimmingbladder,byitsaidaheavybodymaykeepafloat.Itbearsupforacertaintime,longorshortaccordingasthebladderiswellsewedupandblown;butstilltheaircomesoutgradually,andthebodysinks.Thisistheinevitablefateofallworkswhicharefamousbyreasonofsomethingoutsideofthemselves.Falsepraisediesaway;collusioncomestoanend;criticsdeclarethereputationungrounded;itvanishes,andisreplacedbysomuchthegreatercontempt.Contrarily,agenuinework,which,havingthesourceofitsfameinitself,cankindleadmirationafreshineveryage,resemblesabodyoflowspecificgravity,whichalwayskeepsupofitsownaccord,andsogoesfloatingdownthestreamoftime.

Menofgreatgenius,whethertheirworkbeinpoetry,philosophyorart,standinallageslikeisolatedheroes,keepingupsingle-handedadesperatestrugglingagainsttheonslaughtofanarmyofopponents.[1]Isnotthischaracteristicofthemiserablenatureofmankind?Thedullness,grossness,perversity,sillinessandbrutalityofbyfarthegreaterpartoftherace,arealwaysanobstacletotheeffortsofthegenius,whateverbethemethodofhisart;theysoformthathostilearmytowhichatlasthehastosuccumb.Lettheisolatedchampionachievewhathemay:itisslowtobeacknowledged;itislateinbeingappreciated,andthenonlyonthescoreofauthority;itmayeasilyfallintoneglectagain,atanyrateforawhile.Everafreshitfindsitselfopposedbyfalse,shallow,andinsipidideas,

whicharebettersuitedtothatlargemajority,thatsogenerallyholdthefield.Thoughthecriticmaystepforthandsay,likeHamletwhenheheldupthetwoportraitstohiswretchedmother,_Haveyoueyes?Haveyoueyes_?alas!theyhavenone.WhenIwatchthebehaviorofacrowdofpeopleinthepresenceofsomegreatmaster'swork,andmarkthemanneroftheirapplause,theyoftenremindmeoftrainedmonkeysinashow.Themonkey'sgesturesare,nodoubt,muchlikethoseofmen;butnowandagaintheybetraythattherealinwardspiritofthesegesturesisnotinthem.Theirirrationalnaturepeepsout.

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--AtthispointSchopenhauerinterruptsthethreadofhisdiscoursetospeakatlengthuponanexampleoffalsefame.Thosewhoareatallacquaintedwiththe

philosopher'sviewswillnotbesurprisedtofindthatthewriterthushelduptoscornisHegel;andreadersoftheothervolumesinthisserieswill,withthetranslator,havehadbynowquiteenoughofthesubject.Thepassageisthereforeomitted.]

Itisoftensaidofamanthat_heisinadvanceofhisage_;anditfollowsfromtheaboveremarksthatthismustbetakentomeanthatheisinadvanceofhumanityingeneral.Justbecauseofthisfact,ageniusmakesnodirectappealexcepttothosewhoaretooraretoallowoftheireverforminganumerousbodyatanyoneperiod.Ifhe



isinthisrespectnotparticularlyfavoredbyfortune,hewillbe_misunderstoodbyhisownage_;inotherwords,hewillremainunaccepteduntiltimegraduallybringstogetherthevoicesofthosefewpersonswhoarecapableofjudgingaworkofsuchhighcharacter.Thenposteritywillsay:_Thismanwasinadvanceofhisage_,insteadof_inadvanceofhumanity_;becausehumanitywillbegladtolaytheburdenofitsownfaultsuponasingleepoch.

Hence,ifamanhasbeensuperiortohisownage,hewouldalsohavebeensuperiortoanyother;providedthat,inthatage,bysomerareandhappychance,afewjustmen,capableofjudginginthesphereofhisachievements,hadbeenbornatthesametimewithhim;justaswhen,accordingtoabeautifulIndianmyth,Vischnubecomesincarnateasahero,so,too,Brahmaatthesametimeappearsasthesingerofhisdeeds;andhenceValmiki,VyasaandKalidasaareincarnationsofBrahma.

Inthissense,then,itmaybesaidthateveryimmortalworkputsitsagetotheproof,whetherornoitwillbeabletorecognizethemeritofit.Asarule,themenofanyagestandsuchatestnobetterthantheneighborsofPhilemonandBaucis,whoexpelledthedeitiestheyfailedtorecognize.Accordingly,therightstandardforjudgingtheintellectualworthofanygenerationissupplied,notbythegreatmindsthatmaketheirappearanceinit--fortheircapacitiesarethe

workofNature,andthepossibilityofcultivatingthemamatterofchancecircumstance--butbythewayinwhichcontemporariesreceivetheirworks;whether,Imean,theygivetheirapplausesoonandwithawill,orlateandinniggardlyfashion,orleaveittobebestowedaltogetherbyposterity.

Thislastfatewillbeespeciallyreservedforworksofahighcharacter.Forthehappychancementionedabovewillbeallthemorecertainnottocome,inproportionastherearefewtoappreciatethekindofworkdonebygreatminds.Hereinliestheimmeasurableadvantagepossessedbypoetsinrespectofreputation;becausetheirworkisaccessibletoalmosteveryone.IfithadbeenpossibleforSirWalterScotttobereadandcriticisedbyonlysomehundredpersons,

perhapsinhislife-timeanycommonscribblerwouldhavebeenpreferredtohim;andafterwards,whenhehadtakenhisproperplace,itwouldalsohavebeensaidinhishonorthathewas_inadvanceofhisage_.Butifenvy,dishonestyandthepursuitofpersonalaimsareaddedtotheincapacityofthosehundredpersonswho,inthenameoftheirgeneration,arecalledupontopassjudgmentonawork,thenindeeditmeetswiththesamesadfateasattendsasuitorwhopleadsbeforeatribunalofjudgesoneandallcorrupt.

Incorroborationofthis,wefindthatthehistoryofliteraturegenerallyshowsallthosewhomadeknowledgeandinsighttheirgoaltohaveremainedunrecognizedandneglected,whilstthosewhoparadedwiththevainshowofitreceivedtheadmirationoftheir

contemporaries,togetherwiththeemoluments.

Theeffectivenessofanauthorturnschieflyuponhisgettingthereputationthatheshouldberead.Butbypracticingvariousarts,bytheoperationofchance,andbycertainnaturalaffinities,thisreputationisquicklywonbyahundredworthlesspeople:whileaworthywritermaycomebyitveryslowlyandtardily.Theformerpossessfriendstohelpthem;fortherabbleisalwaysanumerousbodywhichholdswelltogether.Thelatterhasnothingbutenemies;becauseintellectualsuperiorityiseverywhereandunderallcircumstancesthe



mosthatefulthingintheworld,andespeciallytobunglersinthesamelineofwork,whowanttopassforsomethingthemselves.[1]

[Footnote1:IftheprofessorsofphilosophyshouldchancetothinkthatIamherehintingatthemandthetacticstheyhaveformorethanthirtyyearspursuedtowardmyworks,theyhavehitthenailuponthehead.]

Thisbeingso,itisaprimeconditionfordoinganygreatwork--anyworkwhichistooutliveitsownage,thatamanpaynoheedtohiscontemporaries,theirviewsandopinions,andthepraiseorblamewhichtheybestow.Thisconditionis,however,fulfilledofitselfwhenamanreallydoesanythinggreat,anditisfortunatethatitisso.Forif,inproducingsuchawork,heweretolooktothegeneralopinionorthejudgmentofhiscolleagues,theywouldleadhimastrayateverystep.Hence,ifamanwantstogodowntoposterity,hemustwithdrawfromtheinfluenceofhisownage.Thiswill,ofcourse,generallymeanthathemustalsorenounceanyinfluenceuponit,andbereadytobuycenturiesoffamebyforegoingtheapplauseofhiscontemporaries.

Forwhenanynewandwide-reachingtruthcomesintotheworld--andifitisnew,itmustbeparadoxical--anobstinatestandwillbemadeagainstitaslongaspossible;nay,peoplewillcontinuetodenyit

evenaftertheyslackentheiroppositionandarealmostconvincedofitstruth.Meanwhileitgoesonquietlyworkingitsway,and,likeanacid,underminingeverythingaroundit.Fromtimetotimeacrashisheard;theolderrorcomestotteringtotheground,andsuddenlythenewfabricofthoughtstandsrevealed,asthoughitwereamonumentjustuncovered.Everyonerecognizesandadmiresit.Tobesure,thisallcomestopassforthemostpartveryslowly.Asarule,peoplediscoveramantobeworthlisteningtoonlyafterheisgone;their _hear,hear_,resoundswhentheoratorhaslefttheplatform.

Worksoftheordinarytypemeetwithabetterfate.Arisingastheydointhecourseof,andinconnectionwith,thegeneraladvanceincontemporaryculture,theyareinclosealliancewiththespiritof

theirage--inotherwords,justthoseopinionswhichhappentobeprevalentatthetime.Theyaimatsuitingtheneedsofthemoment.Iftheyhaveanymerit,itissoonrecognized;andtheygaincurrencyasbookswhichreflectthelatestideas.Justice,nay,morethanjustice,isdonetothem.Theyaffordlittlescopeforenvy;since,aswassaidabove,amanwillpraiseathingonlysofarashehopestobeabletoimitateithimself.

Butthoserareworkswhicharedestinedtobecomethepropertyofallmankindandtoliveforcenturies,are,attheirorigin,toofarinadvanceofthepointatwhichculturehappenstostand,andonthatveryaccountforeigntoitandthespiritoftheirowntime.Theyneitherbelongtoitnoraretheyinanyconnectionwithit,andhence

theyexcitenointerestinthosewhoaredominatedbyit.Theybelongtoanother,ahigherstageofculture,andatimethatisstillfaroff.TheircourseisrelatedtothatofordinaryworksastheorbitofUranustotheorbitofMercury.Forthemomenttheygetnojusticedonetothem.Peopleareatalosshowtotreatthem;sotheyleavethemalone,andgotheirownsnail'spaceforthemselves.Doesthewormseetheeagleasitsoarsaloft?

Ofthenumberofbookswritteninanylanguageaboutonein100,000formsapartofitsrealandpermanentliterature.Whatafatethis



onebookhastoendurebeforeitoutstripsthose100,000andgainsitsdueplaceofhonor!Suchabookistheworkofanextraordinaryandeminentmind,andthereforeitisspecificallydifferentfromtheothers;afactwhichsoonerorlaterbecomesmanifest.

Letnoonefancythatthingswilleverimproveinthisrespect.No!themiserableconstitutionofhumanityneverchanges,thoughitmay,tobesure,takesomewhatvaryingformswitheverygeneration.Adistinguishedmindseldomhasitsfulleffectinthelife-timeofitspossessor;because,atbottom,itiscompletelyandproperlyunderstoodonlybymindsalreadyakintoit.

Asitisararethingforevenonemanoutofmanymillionstotreadthepaththatleadstoimmortality,hemustofnecessitybeverylonely.Thejourneytoposterityliesthroughahorriblydrearyregion,liketheLybiandesert,ofwhich,asiswellknown,noonehasanyideawhohasnotseenitforhimself.Meanwhileletmebeforeallthingsrecommendthetravelertotakelightbaggagewithhim;otherwisehewillhavetothrowawaytoomuchontheroad.LethimneverforgetthewordsofBalthazarGracian:_lobuenosibreve,dosvezesbueno_--goodworkisdoublygoodifitisshort.Thisadviceisspeciallyapplicabletomyowncountrymen.

Comparedwiththeshortspanoftimetheylive,menofgreatintellect

arelikehugebuildings,standingonasmallplotofground.Thesizeofthebuildingcannotbeseenbyanyone,justinfrontofit;nor,forananalogousreason,canthegreatnessofageniusbeestimatedwhilehelives.Butwhenacenturyhaspassed,theworldrecognizesitandwisheshimbackagain.

Iftheperishablesonoftimehasproducedanimperishablework,howshorthisownlifeseemscomparedwiththatofhischild!HeislikeSemelaorMaia--amortalmotherwhogavebirthtoanimmortalson;or,contrarily,heislikeAchillesinregardtoThetis.Whatacontrastthereisbetweenwhatisfleetingandwhatispermanent!Theshortspanofaman'slife,hisnecessitous,afflicted,unstableexistence,willseldomallowofhisseeingeventhebeginningofhisimmortal

child'sbrilliantcareer;norwillthefatherhimselfbetakenforthatwhichhereallyis.Itmaybesaid,indeed,thatamanwhosefamecomesafterhimisthereverseofanobleman,whoisprecededbyit.

However,theonlydifferencethatitultimatelymakestoamantoreceivehisfameatthehandsofcontemporariesratherthanfromposterityisthat,intheformercase,hisadmirersareseparatedfromhimbyspace,andinthelatterbytime.Foreveninthecaseofcontemporaryfame,amandoesnot,asarule,seehisadmirersactuallybeforehim.Reverencecannotendurecloseproximity;italmostalwaysdwellsatsomedistancefromitsobject;andinthepresenceofthepersonrevereditmeltslikebutterinthesun.Accordingly,ifamaniscelebratedwithhiscontemporaries,

nine-tenthsofthoseamongstwhomheliveswilllettheiresteembeguidedbyhisrankandfortune;andtheremainingtenthmayperhapshaveadullconsciousnessofhishighqualities,becausetheyhaveheardabouthimfromremotequarters.ThereisafineLatinletterofPetrarch'sonthisincompatibilitybetweenreverenceandthepresenceoftheperson,andbetweenfameandlife.Itcomessecondinhis _Epistolaefamiliares?_[1]anditisaddressedtoThomasMessanensis.Hethereobserves,amongstotherthings,thatthelearnedmenofhisageallmadeitaruletothinklittleofaman'swritingsiftheyhadevenonceseenhim.



[Footnote1:IntheVenetianeditionof1492.]

Sincedistance,then,isessentialifafamousmanistoberecognizedandrevered,itdoesnotmatterwhetheritisdistanceofspaceoroftime.Itistruethathemaysometimeshearofhisfameintheonecase,butneverintheother;butstill,genuineandgreatmeritmaymakeupforthisbyconfidentlyanticipatingitsposthumousfame.Nay,hewhoproducessomereallygreatthoughtisconsciousofhisconnectionwithcominggenerationsattheverymomentheconceivesit;sothathefeelstheextensionofhisexistencethroughcenturiesandthuslives_with_posterityaswellas_for_it.Andwhen,afterenjoyingagreatman'swork,weareseizedwithadmirationforhim,andwishhimback,sothatwemightseeandspeakwithhim,andhavehiminourpossession,thisdesireofoursisnotunrequited;forhe,too,hashadhislongingforthatposteritywhichwillgranttherecognition,honor,gratitudeandlovedeniedbyenviouscontemporaries.

Ifintellectualworksofthehighestorderarenotallowedtheirdueuntiltheycomebeforethetribunalofposterity,acontraryfateispreparedforcertainbrillianterrorswhichproceedfrommenoftalent,andappearwithanairofbeingwellgrounded.Theseerrorsaredefendedwithsomuchacumenandlearningthattheyactually

becomefamouswiththeirownage,andmaintaintheirpositionatleastduringtheirauthor'slifetime.Ofthissortaremanyfalsetheoriesandwrongcriticisms;alsopoemsandworksofart,whichexhibitsomefalsetasteormannerismfavoredbycontemporaryprejudice.Theygainreputationandcurrencysimplybecausenooneisyetforthcomingwhoknowshowtorefutethemorotherwiseprovetheirfalsity;andwhenheappears,asheusuallydoes,inthenextgeneration,thegloryoftheseworksisbroughttoanend.Posthumousjudges,betheirdecisionfavorabletotheappellantornot,formthepropercourtforquashingtheverdictofcontemporaries.Thatiswhyitissodifficultandsoraretobevictoriousalikeinbothtribunals.

Theunfailingtendencyoftimetocorrectknowledgeandjudgment

shouldalwaysbekeptinviewasameansofallayinganxiety,wheneveranygrievouserrorappears,whetherinart,orscience,orpracticallife,andgainsground;orwhensomefalseandthoroughlyperversepolicyofmovementisundertakenandreceivesapplauseatthehandsofmen.Nooneshouldbeangry,or,stillless,despondent;butsimplyimaginethattheworldhasalreadyabandonedtheerrorinquestion,andnowonlyrequirestimeandexperiencetorecognizeofitsownaccordthatwhichaclearvisiondetectedatthefirstglance.

Whenthefactsthemselvesareeloquentofatruth,thereisnoneedtorushtoitsaidwithwords:fortimewillgiveitathousandtongues.Howlongitmaybebeforetheyspeak,willofcoursedependuponthedifficultyofthesubjectandtheplausibilityoftheerror;butcome

theywill,andoftenitwouldbeofnoavailtotrytoanticipatethem.Intheworstcasesitwillhappenwiththeoriesasithappenswithaffairsinpracticallife;whereshamanddeception,emboldenedbysuccess,advancetogreaterandgreaterlengths,untildiscoveryismadealmostinevitable.Itisjustsowiththeories;throughtheblindconfidenceoftheblockheadswhobroachthem,theirabsurdityreachessuchapitchthatatlastitisobviouseventothedullesteye.Wemaythussaytosuchpeople:_thewilderyourstatements,thebetter_.

Thereisalsosomecomforttobefoundinreflectinguponallthe



whimsandcrotchetswhichhadtheirdayandhavenowutterlyvanished.Instyle,ingrammar,inspelling,therearefalsenotionsofthissortwhichlastonlythreeorfouryears.Butwhentheerrorsareonalargescale,whilewelamentthebrevityofhumanlife,weshallinanycase,dowelltolagbehindourownagewhenweseeitonadownwardpath.Fortherearetwowaysofnotkeepingonalevelwiththetimes.Amanmaybebelowit;orhemaybeaboveit.

ONGENIUS.

Nodifferenceofrank,position,orbirth,issogreatasthegulfthatseparatesthecountlessmillionswhousetheirheadonlyintheserviceoftheirbelly,inotherwords,lookuponitasaninstrumentofthewill,andthoseveryfewandrarepersonswhohavethecouragetosay:No!itistoogoodforthat;myheadshallbeactiveonlyinitsownservice;itshalltrytocomprehendthewondrousandvariedspectacleofthisworld,andthenreproduceitinsomeform,whetherasartorasliterature,thatmayanswertomycharacterasanindividual.Thesearethetrulynoble,thereal_noblesse_oftheworld.Theothersareserfsandgowiththesoil--_glebaeadscripti_.

Ofcourse,Iamherereferringtothosewhohavenotonlythecourage,butalsothecall,andthereforetheright,toordertheheadtoquittheserviceofthewill;witharesultthatprovesthesacrificetohavebeenworththemaking.Inthecaseofthosetowhomallthiscanonlypartiallyapply,thegulfisnotsowide;buteventhoughtheirtalentbesmall,solongasitisreal,therewillalwaysbeasharplineofdemarcationbetweenthemandthemillions.[1]

[Footnote1:Thecorrectscaleforadjustingthehierarchyofintelligencesisfurnishedbythedegreeinwhichthemindtakesmerelyindividualorapproachesuniversalviewsofthings.Thebruterecognizesonlytheindividualassuch:itscomprehensiondoesnotextendbeyondthelimitsoftheindividual.Butmanreducesthe

individualtothegeneral;hereinliestheexerciseofhisreason;andthehigherhisintelligencereaches,thenearerdohisgeneralideasapproachthepointatwhichtheybecomeuniversal.]

Theworksoffineart,poetryandphilosophyproducedbyanationaretheoutcomeofthesuperfluousintellectexistinginit.

Forhimwhocanunderstandaright--_cumgranosalis_--therelationbetweenthegeniusandthenormalmanmay,perhaps,bebestexpressedasfollows:Ageniushasadoubleintellect,oneforhimselfandtheserviceofhiswill;theotherfortheworld,ofwhichhebecomesthemirror,invirtueofhispurelyobjectiveattitudetowardsit.Theworkofartorpoetryorphilosophyproducedbythegeniusis

simplytheresult,orquintessence,ofthiscontemplativeattitude,elaboratedaccordingtocertaintechnicalrules.

Thenormalman,ontheotherhand,hasonlyasingleintellect,whichmaybecalled_subjective_bycontrastwiththe_objective_intellectofgenius.Howeveracutethissubjectiveintellectmaybe--anditexistsinveryvariousdegreesofperfection--itisneveronthesamelevelwiththedoubleintellectofgenius;justastheopenchestnotesofthehumanvoice,howeverhigh,areessentiallydifferentfromthefalsettonotes.These,likethetwoupperoctavesoftheflute



andtheharmonicsoftheviolin,areproducedbythecolumnofairdividingitselfintotwovibratinghalves,withanodebetweenthem;whiletheopenchestnotesofthehumanvoiceandtheloweroctaveofthefluteareproducedbytheundividedcolumnofairvibratingasawhole.Thisillustrationmayhelpthereadertounderstandthatspecificpeculiarityofgeniuswhichisunmistakablystampedontheworks,andevenonthephysiognomy,ofhimwhoisgiftedwithit.Atthesametimeitisobviousthatadoubleintellectlikethismust,asarule,obstructtheserviceofthewill;andthisexplainsthepoorcapacityoftenshownbygeniusintheconductoflife.Andwhatspeciallycharacterizesgeniusisthatithasnoneofthatsobrietyoftemperwhichisalwaystobefoundintheordinarysimpleintellect,beitacuteordull.

Thebrainmaybelikenedtoaparasitewhichisnourishedasapartofthehumanframewithoutcontributingdirectlytoitsinnereconomy;itissecurelyhousedinthetopmoststory,andthereleadsaself-sufficientandindependentlife.Inthesamewayitmaybesaidthatamanendowedwithgreatmentalgiftsleads,apartfromtheindividuallifecommontoall,asecondlife,purelyoftheintellect.Hedevoteshimselftotheconstantincrease,rectificationandextension,notofmerelearning,butofrealsystematicknowledgeandinsight;andremainsuntouchedbythefatethatovertakeshimpersonally,solongasitdoesnotdisturbhiminhiswork.Itisthus

alifewhichraisesamanandsetshimabovefateanditschanges.Alwaysthinking,learning,experimenting,practicinghisknowledge,themansooncomestolookuponthissecondlifeasthechiefmodeofexistence,andhismerelypersonallifeassomethingsubordinate,servingonlytoadvanceendshigherthanitself.

Anexampleofthisindependent,separateexistenceisfurnishedbyGoethe.DuringthewarintheChampagne,andamidallthebustleofthecamp,hemadeobservationsforhistheoryofcolor;andassoonasthenumberlesscalamitiesofthatwarallowedofhisretiringforashorttimetothefortressofLuxembourg,hetookupthemanuscriptofhis_Farbenlehre_.Thisisanexamplewhichwe,thesaltoftheearth,shouldendeavortofollow,byneverlettinganythingdisturbusinthe

pursuitofourintellectuallife,howevermuchthestormoftheworldmayinvadeandagitateourpersonalenvironment;alwaysrememberingthatwearethesons,notofthebondwoman,butofthefree.Asouremblemandcoatofarms,Iproposeatreemightilyshakenbythewind,butstillbearingitsruddyfruitoneverybranch;withthemotto_Dumconvellormitescunt_,or_Conquassatasedferax._

Thatpurelyintellectuallifeoftheindividualhasitscounterpartinhumanityasawhole.Forthere,too,thereallifeisthelifeofthe _will_,bothintheempiricalandinthetranscendentalmeaningoftheword.Thepurelyintellectuallifeofhumanityliesinitsefforttoincreaseknowledgebymeansofthesciences,anditsdesiretoperfectthearts.Bothscienceandartthusadvanceslowlyfromonegeneration

toanother,andgrowwiththecenturies,everyraceasithurriesbyfurnishingitscontribution.Thisintellectuallife,likesomegiftfromheaven,hoversoverthestirandmovementoftheworld;oritis,asitwere,asweet-scentedairdevelopedoutofthefermentitself--thereallifeofmankind,dominatedbywill;andsidebysidewiththehistoryofnations,thehistoryofphilosophy,scienceandarttakesitsinnocentandbloodlessway.

Thedifferencebetweenthegeniusandtheordinarymanis,nodoubt,a _quantitative_one,insofarasitisadifferenceofdegree;butI



amtemptedtoregarditalsoas_qualitative_,inviewofthefactthatordinaryminds,notwithstandingindividualvariation,haveacertaintendencytothinkalike.Thusonsimilaroccasionstheirthoughtsatoncealltakeasimilardirection,andrunonthesamelines;andthisexplainswhytheirjudgmentsconstantlyagree--not,however,becausetheyarebasedontruth.Tosuchlengthsdoesthisgothatcertainfundamentalviewsobtainamongstmankindatalltimes,andarealwaysbeingrepeatedandbroughtforwardanew,whilstthegreatmindsofallagesareinopenorsecretoppositiontothem.

Ageniusisamaninwhosemindtheworldispresentedasanobjectispresentedinamirror,butwithadegreemoreofclearnessandagreaterdistinctionofoutlinethanisattainedbyordinarypeople.Itisfromhimthathumanitymaylookformostinstruction;forthedeepestinsightintothemostimportantmattersistobeacquired,notbyanobservantattentiontodetail,butbyaclosestudyofthingsasawhole.Andifhismindreachesmaturity,theinstructionhegiveswillbeconveyednowinoneform,nowinanother.Thusgeniusmaybedefinedasaneminentlyclearconsciousnessofthingsingeneral,andtherefore,alsoofthatwhichisopposedtothem,namely,one'sownself.

Theworldlooksuptoamanthusendowed,andexpectstolearnsomethingaboutlifeanditsrealnature.Butseveralhighlyfavorable

circumstancesmustcombinetoproducegenius,andthisisaveryrareevent.Ithappensonlynowandthen,letussayonceinacentury,thatamanisbornwhoseintellectsoperceptiblysurpassesthenormalmeasureastoamounttothatsecondfacultywhichseemstobeaccidental,asitisoutofallrelationtothewill.Hemayremainalongtimewithoutbeingrecognizedorappreciated,stupiditypreventingtheoneandenvytheother.Butshouldthisoncecometopass,mankindwillcrowdroundhimandhisworks,inthehopethathemaybeabletoenlightensomeofthedarknessoftheirexistenceorinformthemaboutit.Hismessageis,tosomeextent,arevelation,andhehimselfahigherbeing,eventhoughhemaybebutlittleabovetheordinarystandard.

Liketheordinaryman,thegeniusiswhatheischieflyforhimself.Thisisessentialtohisnature:afactwhichcanneitherbeavoidednoraltered,hemaybeforothersremainsamatterofchanceandofsecondaryimportance.Innocasecanpeoplereceivefromhismindmorethanareflection,andthenonlywhenhejoinswiththemintheattempttogethisthoughtintotheirheads;where,however,itisneveranythingbutanexoticplant,stuntedandfrail.

Inordertohaveoriginal,uncommon,andperhapsevenimmortalthoughts,itisenoughtoestrangeoneselfsofullyfromtheworldofthingsforafewmoments,thatthemostordinaryobjectsandeventsappearquitenewandunfamiliar.Inthiswaytheirtruenatureisdisclosed.Whatisheredemandedcannot,perhaps,besaidtobe

difficult;itisnotinourpoweratall,butisjusttheprovinceofgenius.

Byitself,geniuscanproduceoriginalthoughtsjustaslittleasawomanbyherselfcanbearchildren.Outwardcircumstancesmustcometofructifygenius,andbe,asitwere,afathertoitsprogeny.

Themindofgeniusisamongothermindswhatthecarbuncleisamongpreciousstones:itsendsforthlightofitsown,whiletheothersreflectonlythatwhichtheyhavereceived.Therelationofthe



geniustotheordinarymindmayalsobedescribedasthatofanidio-electricalbodytoonewhichmerelyisaconductorofelectricity.

Themeremanoflearning,whospendshislifeinteachingwhathehaslearned,isnotstrictlytobecalledamanofgenius;justasidio-electricalbodiesarenotconductors.Nay,geniusstandstomerelearningasthewordstothemusicinasong.Amanoflearningisamanwhohaslearnedagreatdeal;amanofgenius,onefromwhomwelearnsomethingwhichthegeniushaslearnedfromnobody.Greatminds,ofwhichthereisscarcelyoneinahundredmillions,arethusthelighthousesofhumanity;andwithoutthemmankindwouldloseitselfintheboundlessseaofmonstrouserrorandbewilderment.

Andsothesimplemanoflearning,inthestrictsenseoftheword--theordinaryprofessor,forinstance--looksuponthegeniusmuchaswelookuponahare,whichisgoodtoeatafterithasbeenkilledanddressedup.Solongasitisalive,itisonlygoodtoshootat.

Hewhowishestoexperiencegratitudefromhiscontemporaries,mustadjusthispacetotheirs.Butgreatthingsareneverproducedinthisway.Andhewhowantstodogreatthingsmustdirecthisgazetoposterity,andinfirmconfidenceelaboratehisworkforcominggenerations.Nodoubt,theresultmaybethathewillremainquite

unknowntohiscontemporaries,andcomparabletoamanwho,compelledtospendhislifeuponalonelyisland,withgreateffortsetsupamonumentthere,totransmittofuturesea-farerstheknowledgeofhisexistence.Ifhethinksitahardfate,lethimconsolehimselfwiththereflectionthattheordinarymanwholivesforpracticalaimsonly,oftensuffersalikefate,withouthavinganycompensationtohopefor;inasmuchashemay,underfavorableconditions,spendalifeofmaterialproduction,earning,buying,building,fertilizing,layingout,founding,establishing,beautifyingwithdailyeffortandunflaggingzeal,andallthetimethinkthatheisworkingforhimself;andyetintheenditishisdescendantswhoreapthebenefitofitall,andsometimesnotevenhisdescendants.Itisthesamewiththemanofgenius;he,too,hopesforhisrewardandforhonorat

least;andatlastfindsthathehasworkedforposterityalone.Both,tobesure,haveinheritedagreatdealfromtheirancestors.

ThecompensationIhavementionedastheprivilegeofgeniuslies,notinwhatitistoothers,butinwhatitistoitself.Whatmanhasinanyrealsenselivedmorethanhewhosemomentsofthoughtmaketheirechoesheardthroughthetumultofcenturies?Perhaps,afterall,itwouldbethebestthingforageniustoattainundisturbedpossessionofhimself,byspendinghislifeinenjoyingthepleasureofhisownthoughts,hisownworks,andbyadmittingtheworldonlyastheheirofhisampleexistence.Thentheworldwouldfindthemarkofhisexistenceonlyafterhisdeath,asitfindsthatoftheIchnolith.[1]

[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote._--Foranillustrationofthisfeelinginpoetry,SchopenhauerrefersthereadertoByron's_ProphecyofDante_:introd.toC.4.]

Itisnotonlyintheactivityofhishighestpowersthatthegeniussurpassesordinarypeople.Amanwhoisunusuallywell-knit,suppleandagile,willperformallhismovementswithexceptionalease,evenwithcomfort,becausehetakesadirectpleasureinanactivityforwhichheisparticularlywell-equipped,andthereforeoftenexercisesitwithoutanyobject.Further,ifheisanacrobatoradancer,not



onlydoeshetakeleapswhichotherpeoplecannotexecute,buthealsobetraysrareelasticityandagilityinthoseeasierstepswhichotherscanalsoperform,andeveninordinarywalking.Inthesamewayamanofsuperiormindwillnotonlyproducethoughtsandworkswhichcouldneverhavecomefromanother;itwillnotbeherealonethathewillshowhisgreatness;butasknowledgeandthoughtformamodeofactivitynaturalandeasytohim,hewillalsodelighthimselfinthematalltimes,andsoapprehendsmallmatterswhicharewithintherangeofotherminds,moreeasily,quicklyandcorrectlythanthey.ThushewilltakeadirectandlivelypleasureineveryincreaseofKnowledge,everyproblemsolved,everywittythought,whetherofhisownoranother's;andsohismindwillhavenofurtheraimthantobeconstantlyactive.Thiswillbeaninexhaustiblespringofdelight;andboredom,thatspectrewhichhauntstheordinaryman,cannevercomenearhim.

Then,too,themasterpiecesofpastandcontemporarymenofgeniusexistintheirfullnessforhimalone.Ifagreatproductofgeniusisrecommendedtotheordinary,simplemind,itwilltakeasmuchpleasureinitasthevictimofgoutreceivesinbeinginvitedtoaball.Theonegoesforthesakeofformality,andtheotherreadsthebooksoasnottobeinarrear.ForLaBruyèrewasquiterightwhenhesaid:_Allthewitintheworldislostuponhimwhohasnone_.Thewholerangeofthoughtofamanoftalent,orofagenius,compared

withthethoughtsofthecommonman,is,evenwhendirectedtoobjectsessentiallythesame,likeabrilliantoil-painting,fulloflife,comparedwithamereoutlineoraweaksketchinwater-color.

Allthisispartoftherewardofgenius,andcompensateshimforalonelyexistenceinaworldwithwhichhehasnothingincommonandnosympathies.Butsincesizeisrelative,itcomestothesamethingwhetherIsay,Caiuswasagreatman,orCaiushastoliveamongstwretchedlysmallpeople:forBrobdingnackandLilliputvaryonlyinthepointfromwhichtheystart.Howevergreat,then,howeveradmirableorinstructive,alongposteritymaythinktheauthorofimmortalworks,duringhislifetimehewillappeartohiscontemporariessmall,wretched,andinsipidinproportion.Thisis

whatImeanbysayingthatastherearethreehundreddegreesfromthebaseofatowertothesummit,sothereareexactlythreehundredfromthesummittothebase.Greatmindsthusowelittleonessomeindulgence;foritisonlyinvirtueoftheselittlemindsthattheythemselvesaregreat.

Letus,then,notbesurprisedifwefindmenofgeniusgenerallyunsociableandrepellent.Itisnottheirwantofsociabilitythatistoblame.Theirpaththroughtheworldislikethatofamanwhogoesforawalkonabrightsummermorning.Hegazeswithdelightonthebeautyandfreshnessofnature,buthehastorelywhollyonthatforentertainment;forhecanfindnosocietybutthepeasantsastheybendovertheearthandcultivatethesoil.Itisoftenthecasethat

agreatmindpreferssoliloquytothedialoguehemayhaveinthisworld.Ifhecondescendstoitnowandthen,thehollownessofitmaypossiblydrivehimbacktohissoliloquy;forinforgetfulnessofhisinterlocutor,orcaringlittlewhetherheunderstandsornot,hetalkstohimasachildtalkstoadoll.

Modestyinagreatmindwould,nodoubt,bepleasingtotheworld;but,unluckily,itisa_contradictioinadjecto_.Itwouldcompelageniustogivethethoughtsandopinions,nay,eventhemethodandstyle,ofthemillionpreferenceoverhisown;tosetahighervalue



specialvocation,oratanyrateimpartwhattheyhavelearnedfromsomeoneelse,theirconversationwillnotbeworthlisteningto;andifanythingissaidtothem,theywillrarelygrasporunderstanditaright,anditwillinmostcasesbeopposedtotheirownopinions.BalthazarGraciandescribesthemverystrikinglyasmenwhoarenotmen--_hombreschenonloson_.AndGiordanoBruno_says_thesamething:_Whatadifferencethereisinhavingtodowithmencomparedwiththosewhoareonlymadeintheirimageandlikeness_![1]AndhowwonderfullythispassageagreeswiththatremarkintheKurral:_ThecommonpeoplelooklikemenbutIhaveneverseenanythingquitelikethem_.Ifthereaderwillconsidertheextenttowhichtheseideasagreeinthoughtandeveninexpression,andinthewidedifferencebetweentheminpointofdateandnationality,hecannotdoubtbutthattheyareatonewiththefactsoflife.Itwascertainlynotundertheinfluenceofthosepassagesthat,abouttwentyyearsago,Itriedtogetasnuff-boxmade,thelidofwhichshouldhavetwofinechestnutsrepresenteduponit,ifpossibleinmosaic;togetherwithaleafwhichwastoshowthattheywerehorse-chestnuts.Thissymbolwasmeanttokeepthethoughtconstantlybeforemymind.Ifanyonewishesforentertainment,suchaswillpreventhimfeelingsolitaryevenwhenheisalone,letmerecommendthecompanyofdogs,whosemoralandintellectualqualitiesmayalmostafforddelightandgratification.

[Footnote1:Opera:ed.Wagner,1.224.]

Still,weshouldalwaysbecarefultoavoidbeingunjust.Iamoftensurprisedbythecleverness,andnowandagainbythestupidityofmydog;andIhavesimilarexperienceswithmankind.Countlesstimes,inindignationattheirincapacity,theirtotallackofdiscernment,theirbestiality,Ihavebeenforcedtoechotheoldcomplaintthatfollyisthemotherandthenurseofthehumanrace:

_HumanigenerismaternutrixqueprofectoStultitiaest_.

ButatothertimesIhavebeenastoundedthatfromsucharacetherecouldhavegoneforthsomanyartsandsciences,aboundinginsomuch

useandbeauty,eventhoughithasalwaysbeenthefewthatproducethem.Yettheseartsandscienceshavestruckroot,establishedandperfectedthemselves:andtheracehaswithpersistentfidelitypreservedHomer,Plato,Horaceandothersforthousandsofyears,bycopyingandtreasuringtheirwritings,thussavingthemfromoblivion,inspiteofalltheevilsandatrocitiesthathavehappenedintheworld.Thustheracehasprovedthatitappreciatesthevalueofthesethings,andatthesametimeitcanformacorrectviewofspecialachievementsorestimatesignsofjudgmentandintelligence.Whenthistakesplaceamongstthosewhobelongtothegreatmultitude,itisbyakindofinspiration.Sometimesacorrectopinionwillbeformedbythemultitudeitself;butthisisonlywhenthechorusofpraisehasgrownfullandcomplete.Itisthenlikethesoundofuntrained

voices;wherethereareenoughofthem,itisalwaysharmonious.

Thosewhoemergefromthemultitude,thosewhoarecalledmenofgenius,aremerelythe_lucidaintervalla_ofthewholehumanrace.Theyachievethatwhichotherscouldnotpossiblyachieve.Theiroriginalityissogreatthatnotonlyistheirdivergencefromothersobvious,buttheirindividualityisexpressedwithsuchforce,thatallthemenofgeniuswhohaveeverexistedshow,everyoneofthem,peculiaritiesofcharacterandmind;sothatthegiftofhisworksisonewhichhealoneofallmencouldeverhavepresentedtotheworld.



ThisiswhatmakesthatsimileofAriosto'ssotrueandsojustlycelebrated:_Naturalofeceepoiruppelostampo._AfterNaturestampsamanofgenius,shebreaksthedie.

Butthereisalwaysalimittohumancapacity;andnoonecanbeagreatgeniuswithouthavingsomedecidedlyweakside,itmayevenbe,someintellectualnarrowness.Inotherwords,therewillfoesomefacultyinwhichheisnowandtheninferiortomenofmoderateendowments.Itwillbeafacultywhich,ifstrong,mighthavebeenanobstacletotheexerciseofthequalitiesinwhichheexcels.Whatthisweakpointis,itwillalwaysbehardtodefinewithanyaccuracyeveninagivencase.Itmaybebetterexpressedindirectly;thusPlato'sweakpointisexactlythatinwhichAristotleisstrong,and _viceversa_;andso,too,KantisdeficientjustwhereGoetheisgreat.

Now,mankindisfondofveneratingsomething;butitsvenerationisgenerallydirectedtothewrongobject,anditremainssodirecteduntilposteritycomestosetitright.Buttheeducatedpublicisnosoonersetrightinthis,thanthehonorwhichisduetogeniusdegenerates;justasthehonorwhichthefaithfulpaytotheirsaintseasilypassesintoafrivolousworshipofrelics.ThousandsofChristiansadoretherelicsofasaintwhoselifeanddoctrineareunknowntothem;andthereligionofthousandsofBuddhistsliesmore

invenerationoftheHolyToothorsomesuchobject,orthevesselthatcontainsit,ortheHolyBowl,orthefossilfootstep,ortheHolyTreewhichBuddhaplanted,thaninthethoroughknowledgeandfaithfulpracticeofhishighteaching.Petrarch'shouseinArqua;Tasso'ssupposedprisoninFerrara;Shakespeare'shouseinStratford,withhischair;Goethe'shouseinWeimar,withitsfurniture;Kant'soldhat;theautographsofgreatmen;thesethingsaregapedatwithinterestandawebymanywhohaveneverreadtheirworks.Theycannotdoanythingmorethanjustgape.

Theintelligentamongstthemaremovedbythewishtoseetheobjectswhichthegreatmanhabituallyhadbeforehiseyes;andbyastrangeillusion,theseproducethemistakennotionthatwiththeobjectsthey

arebringingbackthemanhimself,orthatsomethingofhimmustclingtothem.Akintosuchpeoplearethosewhoearnestlystrivetoacquaintthemselveswiththesubject-matterofapoet'sworks,ortounravelthepersonalcircumstancesandeventsinhislifewhichhavesuggestedparticularpassages.Thisisasthoughtheaudienceinatheatreweretoadmireafinesceneandthenrushuponthestagetolookatthescaffoldingthatsupportsit.Thereareinourdayenoughinstancesofthesecriticalinvestigators,andtheyprovethetruthofthesayingthatmankindisinterested,notinthe_form_ofawork,thatis,initsmanneroftreatment,butinitsactualmatter.Allitcaresforisthetheme.Toreadaphilosopher'sbiography,insteadofstudyinghisthoughts,islikeneglectingapictureandattendingonlytothestyleofitsframe,debatingwhetheritiscarvedwellorill,

andhowmuchitcosttogildit.

Thisisallverywell.However,thereisanotherclassofpersonswhoseinterestisalsodirectedtomaterialandpersonalconsiderations,buttheygomuchfurtherandcarryittoapointwhereitbecomesabsolutelyfutile.Becauseagreatmanhasopeneduptothemthetreasuresofhisinmostbeing,and,byasupremeeffortofhisfaculties,producedworkswhichnotonlyredoundtotheirelevationandenlightenment,butwillalsobenefittheirposteritytothetenthandtwentiethgeneration;becausehehaspresentedmankind



withamatchlessgift,thesevarletsthinkthemselvesjustifiedinsittinginjudgmentuponhispersonalmorality,andtryingiftheycannotdiscoverhereortheresomespotinhimwhichwillsoothethepaintheyfeelatthesightofsogreatamind,comparedwiththeoverwhelmingfeelingoftheirownnothingness.

Thisistherealsourceofallthoseprolixdiscussions,carriedonincountlessbooksandreviews,onthemoralaspectofGoethe'slife,andwhetherheoughtnottohavemarriedoneorotherofthegirlswithwhomhefellinloveinhisyoungdays;whether,again,insteadofhonestlydevotinghimselftotheserviceofhismaster,heshouldnothavebeenamanofthepeople,aGermanpatriot,worthyofaseatinthe_Paulskirche_,andsoon.Suchcryingingratitudeandmaliciousdetractionprovethattheseself-constitutedjudgesareasgreatknavesmorallyastheyareintellectually,whichissayingagreatdeal.

Amanoftalentwillstriveformoneyandreputation;butthespringthatmovesgeniustotheproductionofitsworksisnotaseasytoname.Wealthisseldomitsreward.Norisitreputationorglory;onlyaFrenchmancouldmeanthat.Gloryissuchanuncertainthing,and,ifyoulookatitclosely,ofsolittlevalue.Besidesitnevercorrespondstotheeffortyouhavemade:

_Responsuratuonunquamestparfamalabori._

Nor,again,isitexactlythepleasureitgivesyou;forthisisalmostoutweighedbythegreatnessoftheeffort.Itisratherapeculiarkindofinstinct,whichdrivesthemanofgeniustogivepermanentformtowhatheseesandfeels,withoutbeingconsciousofanyfurthermotive.Itworks,inthemain,byanecessitysimilartothatwhichmakesatreebearitsfruit;andnoexternalconditionisneededbutthegrounduponwhichitistothrive.

Onacloserexamination,itseemsasthough,inthecaseofagenius,thewilltolive,whichisthespiritofthehumanspecies,wereconsciousofhaving,bysomerarechance,andforabriefperiod,

attainedagreaterclearnessofvision,andwerenowtryingtosecureit,oratleasttheoutcomeofit,forthewholespecies,towhichtheindividualgeniusinhisinmostbeingbelongs;sothatthelightwhichheshedsabouthimmaypiercethedarknessanddullnessofordinaryhumanconsciousnessandthereproducesomegoodeffect.

Arisinginsomesuchway,thisinstinctdrivesthegeniustocarryhisworktocompletion,withoutthinkingofrewardorapplauseorsympathy;toleaveallcareforhisownpersonalwelfare;tomakehislifeoneofindustrioussolitude,andtostrainhisfacultiestotheutmost.Hethuscomestothinkmoreaboutposteritythanaboutcontemporaries;because,whilethelattercanonlyleadhimastray,posterityformsthemajorityofthespecies,andtimewillgradually

bringthediscerningfewwhocanappreciatehim.MeanwhileitiswithhimaswiththeartistdescribedbyGoethe;hehasnoprincelypatrontoprizehistalents,nofriendtorejoicewithhim:

_EinFürstderdieTalenteschätzt,EinFreund,dersichmitmirergötzt,Diehabenleidermirgefehlt_.

Hisworkis,asitwere,asacredobjectandthetruefruitofhislife,andhisaiminstoringitawayforamorediscerningposterity



willbetomakeitthepropertyofmankind.Anaimlikethisfarsurpassesallothers,andforithewearsthecrownofthornswhichisonedaytobloomintoawreathoflaurel.Allhispowersareconcentratedintheefforttocompleteandsecurehiswork;justastheinsect,inthelaststageofitsdevelopment,usesitswholestrengthonbehalfofabrooditwillneverlivetosee;itputsitseggsinsomeplaceofsafety,where,asitwellknows,theyoungwillonedayfindlifeandnourishment,andthendiesinconfidence.

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