SCHOOLS AND MEDIA

Chapter 9

Schools

◦Class Size

◦Types of School Environments: Montessori and Traditional Approaches

◦Teacher-Student Relationships

◦Dropping Out

Class Size and Project STAR◦Grades K-3: Fewer than 20 students has positive effect on achievement

◦Project STAR: Tennessee State Department of Ed randomized experiment◦ Kindergarten through 3 grade (4 years); 12,000 students in 300+ classrooms across state

◦ IV = size of class: small (13-17 students); full size (22-26 students); full-size plus teacher’s aide

◦DV = Spring achievement test scores, subject grades, student engagement

◦ 4 Main Findings◦ Small classes → higher academic performance in every subject in every grade◦ Small classes → greater engagement in learning◦ Benefit of small classes greatest for at-risk students◦ No differences b/w full-size classes with and without teacher aides

◦ Replicated in other states: Wisconsin, NC, California

Class Size and Project STAR – Follow-up

◦4th grade: all students returned to full-size classes, but continued to collect data

◦Attending small classes in K-3 associated with greater academic achievement in grades 4-8 in all subject areas◦Effect strongest for students who◦attended small classes in K and Grade 2◦ remained in small classes for 3 or more years

◦Small class size linked to greater likelihood of taking SATs/ACTS and higher test scores◦Especially among at-risk students

Class Size and Project STAR – What works?◦Developmental Timing – start intervention early and continue

◦Program Intensity – high intensity

◦ Teacher-directed learning

◦ Project STAR – high-intensity intervention (full-day Kindergarten)

◦Head Start and other intervention programs◦ Begin early – around ages 3 or 4◦ Low intensity – last for 1 year, 2 at most; 203 hours per day, 4-5 days per week◦ Upon leaving – enter half day Kindergarten◦ Most benefits lost 3 years after students leave program

Montessori Approach◦ Children learn most effectively when information is

developmentally appropriate.

◦Sensitive periods determine when child is ready to acquire skills and information◦ Children choose activities because sensitive periods will select

tasks for which they are developmentally ready

◦ Students, not teachers, direct learning

◦ Based on Vygotsky’s proximal zone of development

Montessori vs. Traditional Classrooms◦Physical classroom environment◦ Open concept – desks arranged in rafts across 3-year age

range◦ Traditional: desks facing one direction and same-grade

students

◦ Instructional method◦ Montessori: 3-4 hours on self-selected and small-group

work; 1-hour on whole-group instruction◦ Traditional: teacher-directed work that delivers

information to students

◦Classroom atmosphere◦ Montessori – cooperation – no tests, grades, textbooks,

etc.◦ Traditional - competition

Montessori vs. Traditional Classrooms◦ Past research suggested Montessori schools resulted in better outcomes

◦ Higher achievement test scores 2nd thru 8th grade (Daux, 1995)◦ Minority Montessori students showed higher standardized test scores than minority traditional

students (Dawson, 1987)

◦ Limitations◦ Lack of comparison groups (compare to national norms)◦ Lack of significance testing to compare groups◦ Participants from traditional school not matched to Montessori – lack of statistical control

Montessori vs. Traditional Classrooms◦ IV: Type of School Environment (all 4th and 8th graders)

◦ Montessori school◦ Structured Magnet: teacher-directed, drill-and-practice, textbooks, exams, structure and discipline◦ Open magnet: large community spaces, team teaching, small group, multiage groups◦ Traditional non-magnet: typical public school; basic curriculum, direct instruction, drill-and-practice

◦DV: Math and language arts scores in 4th and 8th grade

◦ Findings◦ Grade 4: no differences in LA; on math, Montessori higher than open, but lower than traditional ◦ Grade 8: no differences in math; Montessori performed lower on LA compared other schools

◦Montessori students do not have a major advantage compared to other schools◦ Math advantages in Grade 4, disappear in Grade 8.

(Lopata, Wallace, & Finn, 2005)

Montessori vs. Traditional Classrooms◦ IV: Type of School Environment (1997-2001)

◦ High school students who attended public Montessori school for preschool – 5th grade

◦ Matched High school students who attended traditional school for preschool – 5th grade

◦DV: ◦ Standardized tests by subjects: reading, LA, math/science, social studies

◦ GPA

◦ Findings◦ Montessori participants higher Math/Science scores

◦ No differences on reading, LA, social studies

◦ GPA: No differences

◦ Attending Montessori schools may have a positive influence on math/science achievement in HS

◦ But, again major findings emphasize lack of significant differences(Dohrmann et al., 2007)

Teacher-Student Relationships◦What are some good qualities of a teacher? Bad qualities?

◦ Social and academic outcomes linked to teachers who◦ Communicate values and goals to students◦ Structure, guidance, autonomy◦ Warmth, absence of conflict, open communication◦ A teacher who models appropriate behavior elicits this behavior from his/her students

◦ 2 dimensions determine 4 teaching styles (think Baumrind’s parental styles!)◦ Teacher Caring: affective relationship teacher exhibits toward students◦ Academic Press: high expectations set by the teacher for the students

Authoritative

Authoritarian

Permissive Uninvolved

Teach

er

Contr

ol /

Aca

dem

ic P

ress

Warm, responsive Rejecting, unresponsive

Teacher caring / Teacher Support

und

em

andin

gdem

and

ing

What type of teaching style?◦ Teacher #1

◦ Teacher #2

◦ Teacher #3

◦ Teacher #4

◦ Teacher #5

Outcomes of Teaching Styles◦Authoritative

◦ Highest levels of academic performance and motivation◦ Teacher caring results in positive outcomes for students IF the teacher is also demanding

◦ Students less likely to drop out (Croninger & Lee, 2001)

◦ Fewer off-track behaviors – repeating grade, suspensions, expulsions (Crosnoe & Elder, 2004)

◦ Academic self-efficacy, school competence, greater motivation (Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Marchant et al., 2001)

◦ Teacher demandingness associated with◦ Higher attendance and academic performance (Phillips, 1997)

◦ Self-regulation and self-efficacy (Middleton & Midgley, 2002)

◦Permissive◦ Lowest levels of academic performance◦ Teacher caring can lead to negative outcomes for students IF teacher has few demands

◦Authoritarian◦ Lowest levels of student motivation

Dropping Out of High School◦ 2000: 12% of 18-24 year-olds dropped out of high school

◦ 2013: 7% of 18-24 year-olds dropped out of high school

◦Why?◦ Minority drop-out rates have reached a record low◦ More minority youth are attending college

◦Outcomes of Dropping Out◦ In US, HS drop-outs commit 75% of crimes◦ In US, HS drop-outs have high unemployment rates◦ Lower income – HS drop-outs earn $200,000 less than HS

graduate and $1 million less than college grads over their lifetime

Why do students drop-out?

◦Dislike of school, school is boring, school is unrelated to their needs

◦Low academic achievement, poor grades, academic failure

◦Need for money, desire to work full-time

Some Causes of Dropping Out◦ School Environment

◦ Less-qualified teachers, large school settings, less individualized attention

◦ Student Characteristics◦ Absenteeism, poor grades, poor achievement test scores, repeating a grade◦ Minority students, disabled students◦ Peer Status: Neglected and popular-aggressive more likely to drop out◦ Friends who drop out◦ Externalizing problems◦ Biological Sex - males

◦Home and SES environment◦ Families with incomes in the lowest 20% of the population◦ Single-parent families, large families, early parenthood for the student, insensitive parents◦ Urban environments

3 Main Causes of School Drop-outs◦History of Poor Academic Performance

◦ Starting in early elementary school

◦ Educational Engagement◦ Fewer hours on homework, watching more TV, working more hours, attending classes

without textbooks

◦Academic Delay◦ Children who are older than the normal range for their current grade◦ Children who have received fewer than required number of academic credits for grade

(National Research Council, 2001)

Poor Academic Performance◦High school Drop-outs (vs. those remaining in school)

◦ 3rd Grade: lower achievement test scores◦ Grades 7 -12: failed greater number of courses

◦ In 1st Grade, receiving As and Bs (vs. Cs and Ds)…◦ For males, 2 times more likely to graduate HS◦ For females, 1.5 times more likely to graduate HS.

Grade 1: avg of math scores,

reading scores, teacher ratings

Grade 6 academic

performance

Dropping out in high school

(-.24) (-.30)

(Barrington & Hendricks, 1989; Garnier et al., 1997; Ensminger & Slusarcick, 1992))

Class Size and Dropping Out◦ 5,000 Project Star participants

◦ Is participation in small classes in the early grades (K–3) related to high school graduation?◦ Attending small classes for 4 years (K-3) associated with higher HS graduate rates (vs. full-size classes)◦ Attending small classes for 3 years same graduation rates as full-size classes◦ **For at-risk students: increased odds of graduating by 67%

◦ Is academic achievement in K–3 related to high school graduation?◦ Reading and math achievement scores in K-3 positively associated with graduating from HS

◦ Small class size increases likelihood of graduating HS, beyond the effect of early academic performance.

(Finn, Gerber, & Boyd-Zaharias, 2005)

Interventions for Dropping Out◦ EARLY INTERVENTIONS ARE IMPORTANT - Dropping out is a process that begins

early in elementary, in which students gradually disengage from school setting◦ Not an isolated event that occurs in high school

◦ 3 Successful Interventions◦ Individual-level counseling to change students’ thoughts about education◦ Creating smaller school settings within a larger school◦ Authoritative teachers who increase student engagement

◦ So why don’t we implement these changes??? ◦ These changes require more staff and more $$$$$$

Summary

◦ The type of school environment (Montessori, magnet, traditional) does not matter

◦ Small class size and authoritative teaching styles do matter!!◦ Small class size (20 or less) in early elementary school for 4

or more years is BEST!

◦ Lack of these two components in elementary school puts students at risk for dropping out