schedule today: outline make sure that your thesis is written before you begin your outline ...
TRANSCRIPT
Schedule
Today: Outline Make sure that your thesis is written before you begin your outline
Thursday Mar. 25 Interview/Survey report; 15 note cards; MLA Chapter 3: Mechanics
Thursday Apr. 1 15 note cards due; How to create a power point presentation
April 6: Rough Draft due. Bring 3 copies to class for peer review with Peer Review sheet for each 2 copies. Upload to Safe Assignment on Black Board (instructions to come)
April 6, 8, 13: Peer Review. Meet in Michener Library 2nd floor. April 20, 22, 25, 27 Finals Week Power Point Presentations 10-
15minutes max.
Inductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningToulmin ModelRogearian Argument
Strategies for Developing Argument
Logic
Classical Greek: “the word” or “what is spoken”
Today: thought or reason The study of criteria for the evaluation of
arguments based on valid and false inferences to allow the thinker to determine logical arguments as opposed to flawed arguments
What is Argument?
Intellectual self-assertion designed to secure the consideration and respect of peers Reason Logic Supporting evidence
Audience
A clear sense of audience helps to develop a strong argument
Allows you to anticipate the opposing view objections your audience will likely have
Imagine a skeptical audience to anticipate opposing view and to offer counter arguments in order to build a stronger argument
Careful Audience Analysis
Who? What do they already know about the topic? What to they need to know? What views or opinions do they already
have? What is their attitude toward the topic? What is my purpose in presenting my thesis? What do I want my audience to do or think
after they have read my essay? (call to action in your paper)
What is your role as a writer? Advocate? Story Teller? Reporter? Instructor? One or all of these roles
To Develop a Strong Argument, Discover the Controversy
1. List the reason why you believe the way you do
2. Rate the your reasons from the most important to the least; consider, too, the degree to which you audience will be impressed
3. Make a second list of reason why audience might disagree with you
4. Make a third list that answers or refutes your audience’s reasons
Concession
What happens if you find a opposing reason that you agree with or one that you cannot answer?
Concede the point. Offering concession indicates that you have
reviewed both sides of the argument, that you are trying to be fair-minded.
Concession will help you bridge the gap between you and your opposition, making it easier to reach an agreement.
Don’t concede too much
More
Use good, concrete examples that your audience will understand and can relate to
Make abstract concepts concrete with examples
Be truthful
One More: Define Key Terms
It is important to isolate terms that will need definition so that both sides have an understanding of essential ideas
Jargon and terminology unique or specific to subject
Think of what audience needs to know Defining key terms will help control the
argument and eliminate misunderstandings
Inductive Reasoning: General to the Specific
General to the specific
Assemble the evidence and facts, then draw a conclusion based on the evidence
Key: Evidence only points to a conclusion that is likely to be true
A well-structured inductive essay gradually expands as it offers evidence so that the conclusion is supported by numerous details. Often writers organize their argument by presenting the weakest point first, the least important ideas first and building to the most important evidence and main points, saving them for the end to leave the readers with the most powerful evidence, the strongest point to the end for the greatest impact.
How
Use Synonyms Make Comparisons Use contrast-showing how your
definition differs from commonly accepted ones or opposing view’s
Define a term by telling what it is not Give examples
Deductive Reasoning: The Specific to the General
Evidence is secondary, unlike inductive reasoning that relies on evidence
Depends on a commonly held value or belief that his audience will share
State your argument
All children deserve the best education, don’t they?
All Americans deserve adequate and affordable health care, don’t they?
How to set up a deductive argument
You commonly accepted value becomes a premise
A good premise must meet two requirements: It is general enough so that the audience
will accept it, establishing a common ground with your audience
Must be specific enough to prepare the way for your argument
Keep in mind that your premise should inspire widespread agreement.
Cautions
Do not make the mistake of confusing generally accepted truths with privately held opinions
Do not expect or assume that your audience will readily accept your premise
You do need to offer evidence an proof, but the strength of your argument relies on the strength of your premise, that it is universally true and acceptable
Developing the Deductive Argument: Work Backwards
3. Write down the conclusion that you expect to reach
2. Ask yourself why you believe your#3 your conclusion, which will give you reasons that you can group together as statement 2
1. After you have looked at the conclusion and the reason for the conclusion that seem to justify the conclusion, you can ask what you have left out. Fill in the blanks. Assuming that your audience will agree with you, you have your premise or your thesis
In the end, you will have a policy making thesis, or a “’should” thesis. Somebody should do something.
The key to a good deductive argument depends on what your audience is willing
to accept
Test the strength of your argument: The Syllogism
A 3 part argument in which the conclusion rests upon tow premises: A major premise and 2 minor premises=the conclusion
Understanding how logic works
Major premise: All people have hearts
Minor premise: John is a person
Conclusion: Therefore, John has a heart
Major premise: All woman like to cook
Minor Premise: Elizabeth is a woman
Conclusion: Therefore, Elizabeth likes to cook.
Valid Reasoning Faulty Reasoning
Test your logic:
Major Premise: All Pit Bulls are mean.
Minor Premise: Jake is a bit bull.
Conclusion: Therefore Jake is mean.
Major Premise: Pit Bulls carry the reputation to be mean.
Minor Premise: Jake is a pit bull.
Therefore Jake has a reputation to be mean.
Is this syllogism logical? Is this any better?
Developing your deductive argument: planning/thinking stage
3. Draw your conclusion
2. Develop your reasons
1. State your premise (the right or value that you wish to deduce)
3. Public utilities should not burn coal that is high in sulfur content
3. Burning high sulfur coal causes acid rain that is killing American forests, endangering wildlife, and spoiling fishing.
1. Somebody must do something
Here Comes Your Thesis
Because acid rain, which is principally caused by burning high sulfur coal, is slowly killing American forests, endangering wildlife, and polluting lakes, rivers, and streams, the Federal Government should restrict the use of high sulfur coal.
Revised The Federal Government should restrict
the use of high sulfur coal because it damages the environment.
Final steps: Working your way to the outline
1. Federal government has the responsibility to protect the quality of American air, soil and water—the environment.
2. Acid rain, which is caused principally by burning high sulfur coal is A. slowly killing American forest B. endangering wildlife C. polluting lakes, rivers, and streams
3. Therefore, the federal government should restrict the use of high sulfur coal
The Outline
I. Introduction: Your favorite fishing spII. Explain the problem: High sulfur coal damages the
environmentA. Slowly killing American forestsB. Endangering wildlifeC. Polluting lakes, rivers, and streams
III. Opposing ViewA. Cheap fuelB. Creates jobs
IV. Refute Opposing ViewV. Offer concessionVI. Provide a clear, thoughtful, firm conclusion, call for action
Conclusion
If major and minor premises are true, then conclusion should be true.
Major and minor premise share a common term while a syllogism may be valid and looks to be true it can also be untrue when it rests on premise that can be easily disputed: Because Elizabeth is a woman she should like to cook, but does she?
Major premise must always evoke wide spread agreement
Summary
Inductive Reasoning: Ask a question,
develop a hypothosis
Present evidence until you can draw a reasonable conclusion
Make the inductive Leap
Deductive Reasoning Relies on a commonly
held value that you share with your audience
Recognize the difference between a commonly held value and your opinion (or the opposing view)
Evidence is necessary, but remember that it is secondary to the commonly held value that shapes your premise
Logic
Inductive and Deductive reason give you a plan for developing logical argument
A test for valid and true argument
Toulmin’s Model
Logic is more concerned with probability than certainty. He structured a 3 part model for argument:
CLAIM: the equivalent of the conclusion or whatever the writer wants to prove (your thesis)
DATA: the information or evidence that a writer offers to support the claim
WARRANT: a general statement that establishes a trustworthy relationship between the data and the claim
Toulmin says:
In any argument the claim and data will be explicit, but can also be implied, especially when the writer feels the audience will agree.
Toulmin’s Logic vs. Deductive Syllogism
Claim: Raymond is an American citizen Data: Raymond was born in Puerto Rico Warrant: Anyone born in Puerto Rico is an
American citizen The Syllogism
Major Premise: Any born in Puerto Rico is an American citizen
Minor Premise: Raymond was born in Puerto Rico Conclusion: Therefore Raymond is an American
Citizen
Explanation:
Toulmin’s model secures the argument when we consider the possibilities that the syllogism excludes: Raymond was born prematurely when his
French parents were on vacation in Puerto Rico—or
Raymond, a Russian, defected to Puerto and is given asylum
Qualifiers
Syllogism leads to a conclusion that is necessarily true. Toulim believes that syllogism is ill-suited for working to a conclusion that is probably true. He agued that there was a need for a working logic which is easier to apply in rhetorical situations, so he developed a strategy in which the writer/speaker can use qualifiers to develop an argument: probably, presumably, generally.
Syllogism revised:
Claim: Raymond is probably an American citizen
Data: Raymond was born in Puerto Rico Warrant: Anyone born in Puerto Rico is
entitled to American citizenship
Finally
Toulmin: Claim can come at point in the essay as appropriate
Inductive Reasoning: at the beginning Deductive Reasoning: at the end
Rogerian Argument
Problem Solving Highly emotional and controversial topics Seeks to establish a common ground with
audience Assumes a non adversarial position by
convincing reader that both writer and reader affected by the same problem
No pro/con side Introduction: Open essay in a manner that does
not demand one side or the other, avoids argument
Compromise
Next: The idea is to develop the problem in a way that the reader will begin to see things the writer’s way, paving the way for compromise
Must represent the reader’s position accurately Next: The writer presents his/her point of view of the problem
clearly and accurately Use clear, neutral language Use sound evidence Conclude not by asking reader to do something, rather by
showing the reader how he/she will benefit from writer’s solution Downplays adversarial and emotional argument; that all sides
will benefit from the solution, seeking common ground Writer must understand his/her audience for audience’s point of
view must be stated clearly, accurately, and fairly
Tips:
Use one or all of these strategies Carefully structure your argument by
writing a good, strong thesis Craft strong topic sentences for each
paragraph to show relationships between ideas
Use good transitions to create unity and coherence for your essay
Have a good outline to create good organization
Thanks to:
Miller, Robert K. The Informed Argument. Part 1. 1989
Writing AT CSU. http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/co300man/com5e1.cfm