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Unit 13 REPRODUCTION

Fig. 1 There is life almost everywhere on

the planet.

How does life carry on and how doesit survive?

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Getting started

Look at the picture. The kestrel has characteristics that helpit catch its prey. The mouse has characteristics that help itescape. Write one or two sentences about each one.

Your answer might include: eyesight, color, speed, hearing,and more.

Kestrel:

Mouse:

Fig. 2 A kestrel has caught

a mouse.

Characteristic

Somethingabout anorganism orother thing.For example,‘havingblack hair’or ‘havinglight greenleaves’ is acharacteristic.

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ConceptsIn completing this unit you will learn to:

• Compare sexual and asexualreproduction (L6)

• Explain examples of naturalselection (L7)

• Describe the advantages anddisadvantages of selective breeding(L8)

Key TermsThe meanings of these terms can be found

in the glossary on pages 275–90.adapt

antibiotics

asexualreproduction

bud

camouflage

characteristic

drug resistance

electron microscopeembryo

extinct

fertilization

fission

fragmentation

fusion

gamete

individual

inherit

mate

medical operation

misuse

multicellular organism

natural selection

nectar

offspring

organ

ovum

pollen

populationreproduce

resistant

rise

scar

selective breeding

species

sperm

variation

vegetativereproduction

zygote

Investigating ScientificallyS11

Success CriteriaLearning outcome L6

Here is what you might aim to achieve by the end of this unit:

• Emerging – identify examples of

sexual and asexual reproduction

• Developing – describe examples of

sexual and asexual reproduction

• Mastery – compare sexual and

asexual reproduction

Learning outcome L7


• Emerging – outline the process of

natural selection

• Developing – describe the process of

natural selection

• Mastery – explain examples of

natural selection

Learning outcome L8


• Emerging – identify examples of

selective breeding

• Developing – describe the process of

selective breeding

• Mastery – describe the advantages and

disadvantages of selective breeding

What level do you think you will be able

to achieve?

Learning Outcomes

I know what

these words

mean

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1 Reproduction

You have already learned about Euglena in Unit 3. It is a

unicellular organism. This means it is only one cell. ManyEuglena live together in a colony. Colonies of Euglena canmake lakes green, but each individual organism is asingle cell.

How many nucleuses does a single Euglena have?

Sometimes Euglena is carried to a new pond on the feet orbody of a bird. If conditions are right, soon the lake will havea large colony of Euglena. But how does a colony develop fromjust a few cells of Euglena?

The answer is that Euglena reproduces. It makes more of thesame species. In fact, all living things reproduce.

Activity 1.1

What to do:

Your teacher will show you a video of Euglena reproducing.As you watch it, answer these questions:

1. How many Euglena cells can you see at the beginning ofthe video?

2. How many Euglena cells can you see at the end?

3. How many nucleuses does each Euglena cell have?Carefully watch the video.

L6

Fig. 3 This is the

microscopicorganism Euglena.

Individual

A singleorganism.For example,you are anindividualhuman.

Reproduce

When anorganism ororganismsmake neworganismsof the samespecies.

Species

A type oforganism;for example,lions are aspecies ofmammal.Kestrels area species of

bird. Datepalms area species ofplant.

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The way Euglena reproduces is called fission. The cell dividesin two. Each new cell has everything the cell needs to live, andto reproduce again. Each cell is just like the original cell.

Budding

Yeast is a unicellular fungus that is used all over the world tomake bread rise. Yeast doesn’t swell and split into two identicalhalves like Euglena does. When yeast reproduces, a smaller copygrows on the side of the cell. This copy is called a bud. When itis ready, the smaller cell falls off and lives as a separate cell.

nucleus

vacuole

developingbud bud

nucleusdivides

bud

The original yeast cell is called the ‘mother’ and the newsmaller cell is the ‘daughter’. The mother and the daughterare not identical. The daughter is smaller. The mother has ascar where the daughter fell away.

Fission

When a cellreproduces bysplitting into

two identicalcopies.

Rise

When yeastproducesbubblesof carbondioxide andmakes the

bread mixtureincrease insize.

Bud

A bud is asmall growthwhich willbecomesomething

new. On atree, a budwill becomea new branchor a flower.

Fig. 4 This tree bud will become a

new leaf.

Fig. 5 This is how yeast

buds.

ScarA markwhere skinor anotherpart of aliving thinghas beendamaged.

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Asexual reproduction

Euglena and yeast, and organisms like them, only needone parent to reproduce. This type of reproduction is calledasexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction happens in different ways in different

organisms. But however it happens, the new organisms arevery similar to the parent organism.

The photos in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show asexual reproduction.The starfish can reproduce by fragmentation. Spider plantsuse a process called vegetative reproduction.

Fig. 6 Bread dough (top)

without yeast; thesame bread dough

(bottom) after it has

risen. It is yeast that

makes the dough rise.

Asexualreproduction

This isreproductionwith onlyone parentorganism.

Fragmentation

One part of amulticellular

organismbreaks offand growsinto a newindividual.

Vegetativereproduction

Small copiesof the

organismgrow as partof the originalorganism.They thendrop off andlive as newindividuals.

Fig. 7 One arm falls off and

grows into a new

starfish.

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Asexual reproduction makes nearly perfect copies oforganisms. This means that large populations have lots ofsimilar organisms. We say there is little variation. This canbe a problem when the environment changes, or when thereis an illness. It is hard for an organism that only reproducesasexually to adapt to a changing environment.

2 Sexual reproduction

You have looked at reproduction where there is onlyone parent. But many organisms need two parents

to reproduce. This is sexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction in flowers

You are going to look at how a flower reproduces and makesnew plants.

pollen

Fig. 8 Small copies of the plant drop off the

plant and grow into new plants. If you

plant a spider plant, you will soon have

lots of spider plant daughters!

Population

All theindividualsof a species.

We cantalk aboutthe totalpopulation,or thepopulationof an area.For example,the humanpopulation ofthe world is

7 billion. Thepopulation ofAbu Dhabi is2.2 million.

Variation

A measure ofthe differentcharacteristicsfound among

differentindividualorganisms ina species.

Adapt

Changes inan organism’scharacteristicsover time. The

species adaptsto havecharacteristicswhich helpit live in itsenvironment.

L6

Fig. 9 Insects and birds are attracted to

flowers by their colors and smell.

Many flowers make nectar which

insects and birds drink.

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Most people think flowers are pretty and smell nice. Manyother animals agree! Insects love flowers. Some flowersencourage insects to land on them by producing nectar.

When a bee visits a flower it doesn’t just drink nectar. Sometimesit brushes against sticky powder in the flower, called pollen.

Look at Fig. 9. You can see pollen stuck to the bee’s leg. If youlook through an electron microscope you will see pollen.

Nectar

A sweet liquidproduced bysome flowers.

Bees andother insectsdrink nectar.

Pollen

A stickypowder foundin flowers.Bees andother animals

move pollenfrom flower toflower.

Electronmicroscope

A microscopethat usesa beam of

electronsinstead oflight. It showsdetails at amuch highermagnificationthan anormalopticalmicroscope.

Fig. 10

Pollen from different

plants. This is a photo

taken under an electron

microscope, so the

colors are not real.

Fig. 11

Pollen on the leg of a

bee looks like this under

an electron microscope.

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Often pollen sticks to the body of a bee. When the bee visitsanother flower, pollen rubs off the bee and sticks to the newflower. In this way bees carry pollen from flower to flower.Pollen from insects rubs off on an organ of the flower calledthe stigma.

picks up pollen

drops somepollen, and picks up

some pollen

Organ

Part of an

organismwith aparticularfunction orfunctions.

Fig. 12 Here you can see

a bee moving from

flower to flower.

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Activity 2.1

anther

petal

stigma

style

ovary

ovule

filament

petal

sepal

s t a m e n

p i s t i l

What to do:

1. Look at Fig.13. Which parts of the flower make up thestamen?

2. Look again at the diagram. Which parts of the flowermake up the pistil?

3. Look at your flower. How many parts of the diagramcan you observe? Write down any observations on yourdiagram, for example the color of the flower part.

4. Remove the sepals and petals with the tweezers.

Equipment:

A flower,

scalpel,

tweezers,

magnifying glass

Fig. 13 Here are the parts of

a flower.

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5. Can you see any pollen in your flower? On your diagram,find the name of the part where you can see pollen. Writethe name here.

6. Carefully remove the stamens. Examine them withyour magnifying glass. Draw the pollen in the spacebeneath your diagram.

7. You should be left with the pistil. Carefully slice it inhalf, down the length from top to bottom. Use the scalpelfor this.

8. Observe the pistil with your magnifying glass. You shouldsee that the style is a tube. What else can you identify fromyour diagram?

When a pollen grain falls on the stigma, a tube grows from the

pollen down through the style. A single cell called a sperm celltravels down the tube to find an ovum inside the ovule.

Sperm

The gameteprovidedby a maleorganism.

Ovum or egg

The gameteprovidedby a femaleorganism(more thanone egg andwe say ‘ova’).

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Sexual reproduction and gametes

During sexual reproduction two parents are needed. Oneparent is male and one is female.

A cell from both parents joins to form the new organism.These are special cells called gametes.

The male gamete is called a sperm.

The female gamete is called an egg or ovum.

sperm

Sexual reproduction in fish

You have seen how the male and female gametes (sperm andovum) meet in some plants.

In sexual reproduction the sperm and ovum meet in differentways in different animals.

Gamete

A cell neededto make anew organismduring sexualreproduction.

Fig. 14 This shows sexual

reproduction in an

animal. A sperm joinswith an ovum. Ova are

usually much larger

than sperm.

Mate

The mate ofa female fishis a male fish;the mate of amale fish is afemale fish.

Fig. 15 This female fish is laying

her eggs.

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Most female fish release many eggs (sometimes thousands).They drop them into the water.

But the female fish can sexually reproduce only if it finds amate. The male fish has to release his sperm in the water atthe same place and time. As with flowers, a single sperm finds

a single ovum and reproduction begins.

Fertilization

The two gametes each have a nucleus. You already knowthat each cell has just one nucleus. Fusion occurs when thegametes meet and the two cells become one.

The nucleus from one gamete joins with the nucleus fromanother gamete to make a new nucleus. This process iscalled fertilization. The new nucleus has some propertiesof the sperm’s nucleus and some properties of the ovum’s

nucleus.The new cell is called a zygote and the new organismdevelops from it. The zygote splits into two new cells. Thisis not the same as the fission of Euglena in Unit 3. These arenot two new organisms. They are the first two cells of a newmulticellular organism. Each of the two cells splits again,then again, and again. A new organism is growing. Thisdeveloping organism is called the embryo.

All new multicellular organisms are formed when cells splitand split again in this way. For it to be sexual reproduction, asperm must fertilize an ovum at the beginning of the process.

fusion

sperm

ovum

zygote embryo

Fig. 16 This is what happens during fertilization in sexual reproduction.

Fusion

When the maleand femalegametes join.

The two cellsbecome one.

Fertilization

This happenswhen the maleand femalegametes(sperm andovum) meet

and join.We say thatthe ovum isfertilized.

Zygote

The fertilizedegg. It is asingle cell withproperties of

the sperm’snucleus andthe egg’snucleus.

Multicellularorganism

An organismwith morethan one cell.

Embryo

The groupof cells thatwill be a newmulticellularorganism.

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3 Natural selection

The offspring of sexually reproducing organismshave some properties, or characteristics, of eachparent.

Charles Darwin travelled to the Galapagos Islands in SouthAmerica. Birds called finches lived in the Galapagos Islands.Darwin noticed that their beaks were different depending onwhich island they lived on.

Galapagosislands

IslaIsabela

IslaSantiago

IslaBaltra

IslaSan

Cristobal

IslaSanta Maria

leaves

buds and fruit

insects

grubs

tool using finch

seeds

Fig. 17 Finches on the Galapagos Islands come in many shapes and sizes.

This allows them to survive in different environments on different islands.

Eventually, Darwin realized that the beaks of these fincheshad changed over time to adapt to the environments ofdifferent islands.

A finch with a beak tough enough to eat cactus will probablysurvive if it lives in an environment with lots of cactus.A finch with a beak that is not good at eating cactus willprobably go hungry and die.

Finches with beaks that are good for eating cactus will surviveand find a mate. They will reproduce. Their offspring willusually inherit their parents’ useful beaks.

L7 OffspringThe neworganism ororganisms;

for example,the offspringof birds arebaby birds.

Inherit

When anorganism

has acharacteristicthat is thesame as acharacteristicfrom one orboth parents.

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Organisms with useful characteristics are likely to survive andreproduce. Organisms with unhelpful characteristics probablywill not survive and reproduce. Darwin called this processnatural selection. Natural selection means that organismswith useful characteristics survive.

Natural selection: peppered moths

Peppered moths are insects with black or white spotted wings.They are found in the UK. Their color and markings are auseful camouflage.

Here is a picture of two moths on a tree.

You can see that one of these moths is well camouflaged. Theother one is not!

It’s not just you who can spot the black one more easily. Birdscan, too, and birds eat moths.

Which of the two moths is more likely to survive and reproduce?

Naturalselection

The processwhere

organismswith usefulcharacteristicssurvive andreproduce.Naturalselection‘chooses’ usefulcharacteristicsover time.

Camouflage

Colors ormarkingswhich can’teasily beseen in theenvironment.

Fig. 18

This tiger is camouflaged –

it is hard to see among

these grasses.

Fig. 19 Two peppered moths –

a black one and a pale

one. Can you see them

both?

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Natural selection: dodos

The dodo was a bird living on the island of Mauritius in theIndian Ocean. We can’t show a living dodo in Fig. 21, becausethe last one died around 1693.

Once many dodos lived on Mauritius and the island had nohumans living there. When humans arrived, the dodo wasn’tafraid of them. Dodos couldn’t fly and they laid eggs in nests onthe ground. Humans, rats and dogs could easily catch the dodo.

About 100 years after people arrived there were no dodos left.The dodo by then was extinct. The environment changed tooquickly for the dodo. It wasn’t able to adapt quickly enough.

Which of these animals is extinct? Put a tick next to all thecorrect answers. Use an encyclopedia or the Internet to findout about any of the animals you don't know.

elephants [ ]

dinosaurs [ ]

woolly mammoths [ ]Tasmanian Wolf [ ]

oryx [ ]

Even though we now recognize when animals are in dangerof becoming extinct, hundreds or thousands still becomeextinct every year.

Fig. 21

This stuffed dodo ‘lives’ in

a museum.

Extinct

When all

organisms ofa species aredead.

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4 Comparing asexual and sexualreproduction

Activity 4.1The lists below show the features of asexual and sexualreproduction.

For each one, decide whether it is an advantage ordisadvantage.

Put a tick in the correct box.

Advantage Disadvantage

Asexual reproduction

• If one organism cannot fightoff a disease, this will be truefor all the organisms [ ] [ ]

• Reproduction is fairly fast [ ] [ ]

• If the environment changes,the organism cannot adaptquickly [ ] [ ]

• Less energy is needed toreproduce [ ] [ ]

• There is no need to find a mate [ ] [ ]• Useful characteristics will

definitely be passed on to thenew organism [ ] [ ]

Sexual reproduction

• The process of reproductiontakes time and energy [ ] [ ]

• Variation means the organism

can adapt over a fewgenerations to adapt to achanging environment [ ] [ ]

• A male and a female need tobe in the same place to meet [ ] [ ]

• Variation helps defend thepopulation against disease [ ] [ ]

L6 L7

S11

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5 Selective breeding

You have looked at how natural selection can selectcharacteristics of species over time. People have usedthis idea to change the plants and animals we farm.

Humans carry out selective breeding on plants and animalsto get the characteristics we want. For example, we want

plants which produce lots of food. By breeding wild grassesover thousands of years we now have modern wheat.

By carrying out selective breeding on animals we get moremilk, wool or meat.

The most obvious way to breed for a characteristic is to choosemale and female individuals with that characteristic. If wewant sheep with thick coats, we breed from a male and afemale with thick coats.

L8

Fig. 22

This is a wild

grass – the sort that

existed thousands of

years ago.

Fig. 23 Modern wheat

provides much more

food than wild grass.

Selectivebreeding

Whenhumanschoose whichindividualswill be theparentsfor sexualreproduction.

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Problems with selective breeding

Selective breeding can lead to problems. Because humansare looking at just a few characteristics, over time othercharacteristics can be lost from the population.

Individual animals or plants in a ‘wild population’ arevery different from each other. There is a large amount ofvariation. This can be an advantage. If some individualscatch a disease, others will not catch it because they havedifferent characteristics.

Selective breeding of animals and plants chooses just a fewuseful characteristics. This means there is less variation inthe population. If an individual catches a disease, otherindividuals are likely to also catch the disease. Eventuallythe disease might affect every individual in the population.If the disease causes death then all individuals will die.

Selective breeding of horses and dogs

Horses have been bred selectively for many hundreds of years.Humans have chosen the characteristics they want. Arabianracehorses have been bred to have features including beingtall, well-muscled, with a strong neck and easily trained.

Fig. 24 A wild horse which has not been bred for racing (left); an Arabian racehorse (right).

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Sometimes, the characteristics that humans want are actuallydangerous for the health of the dog. Modern English bulldogsare the result of years of selective breeding. These dogs nowhave trouble breathing, staying cool in hot weather, andhaving puppies. Their median age at death is just 6 years old.

Fig. 25 An English bulldog 100 years ago (left); a modern English bulldog (right).

Selective breeding is very useful to us, but we must not makeorganisms that cannot survive in their environment.

Drug resistance

Sometimes selective breeding happens by accident and not

because humans want to breed for characteristics. Drugresistance is an example of this.

Antibiotics are very useful medicines. First used in the 1930s,they are essential in modern medicine. They stop infectionsfrom killing the patient after medical operations. They alsocontrol infection in farm animals.

Most antibiotics kill unicellular organisms called bacteria.Bacteria cause infections in humans, which can often kill.

But other organisms cause infection as well; for example,colds and flu are caused by viruses, not bacteria. People

sometimes take antibiotics for illnesses which are not causedby bacteria. This is misuse of antibiotics.

Drugresistance

When a drugdoes not

work to killan organismwhich causesdisease. Thisis because theorganism haschanged.

Antibiotics

Medicines

which killbacteria. Theyare usefulfor someinfectiousdiseases, andto controlinfectionafter injuriesor medicaloperations.

Medicaloperation

Cutting opena humanbody to treatan illness.For example,to removecancer or tofix the heart.

Misuse

Usingsomethingwrongly, orfor the wrongpurpose.

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Sometimes people who take antibiotics start to feel betterso do not finish all their medicine. They may feel better but

not all the harmful bacteria have been killed. This gives thepopulation of bacteria in the body a chance to recover. Itallows bacteria to become resistant to the antibiotic. Becausethese resistant bacteria will probably survive, they pass onantibiotic resistance to their offspring. Bacteria are even ableto spread resistance from one species to another.

Drug resistance means that many antibiotics don’t work anymore. The bacteria that they attack have become resistant.This is a big problem. It is difficult and expensive to find newantibiotics – and it may even be impossible to find them in time.

One day we may not have antibiotics that work – so peoplewill die from infections that are easy to control today. It willbe much more dangerous to operate in hospitals.

It is very important only to take antibiotics when told to by adoctor, and to take them for as long as the doctor says – evenafter you begin to feel better.

Fig. 26

Alexander Fleming

discovered the first

antibiotic, penicillin,

in 1928.

Resistant

Not affectedby somethingvery much.

Resistantbacteria arenot killed byantibiotics.

Fig. 27

Your doctor knowswhen you need

antibiotics, and how they

should be taken safely.

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6 Presentation Task

You need to investigate selective breeding in a particularorganism. You can choose your own example, or you couldlook at one of these:

• camels

• date palms

• prehistoric crops

• carrots in The Netherlands

• tomatoes.

Research how the original wild forms are different from themodern organisms.

Why have the characteristics been chosen?

How has the selective breeding been done?

How successful has the selective breeding been?

Give a short talk to the rest of the class, using PowerPointslides to illustrate what you say.

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7 Feedback Medals and Missions

Self Assessment

Shade in the level you have achieved for each outcomein this unit.

Concept Learning

Outcome

Emerging Developing Mastery

L 6Identify examples of

sexual and asexual

reproduction.

Describe examples of

sexual and asexual

reproduction.

Compare sexual and

asexual reproduction.

L 7

Outline the process of

natural selection.

Describe the process of

natural selection.

Explain examples of

natural selection.

L 8Identify examples of

selective breeding.

Describe the process of

selective breeding.

Describe the

advantages and

disadvantages of

selective breeding.

Skill Learning

Outcome

Emerging Developing Mastery

S 11

Draw a conclusion. Draw a conclusion,

related to the scientific

question or prediction.

Draw a conclusion,

consistent with the

data, and explain

it using scientificknowledge and

understanding.

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Medals

What have been your greatest achievements during this unit? For example,mastering a concept outcome, improving a skill or feeling proud of yourorganizational abilities, team work or presentation.

What did you do well? How did you do it?

1.

2.

3.

Missions

What are your targets for improvement? Select two Learning Outcomes to focuson and set yourself a target. For example, if you have reached ‘developing’, whatdo you need to do next time to achieve ‘mastery’?

Learning Outcomes Target

1.

2.

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N o n - m e t a l

K

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