santrock section 3 infancy

7/25/2019 Santrock Section 3 Infancy

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Success isnt about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.

Section 3:

INFANCY

CHAPTER 4:

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

IntroductionLatonya

Newborn baby in Ghana

First days of life: bottle fed

Mother was persuaded to bottle fed rather than breast fed

Mother: overdilutes the milk formula with unclean water

Her feeding bottles have not been sterilized

Died before her first birthday

Ramona

Born in Nigeria (has a baby-friendly program)

Nigeria:

babies are not separated from their mother

mothers are encouraged to breast feed

mother are told of the perils that bottle fedding canbring because of unsafe water and unsterilized

bottles

mothers are informed about the advantges of breast

milk

At 1 year of age, she becomes healthy.

Note:

Maternity units in hospitals favored bottle feeding and did

not give mothers adequate information about the benefits

of breast feeding.

In recent years, WHOandUNICEFhave tried to reverse

the trend toward bottle feeding of infants in many

impoverished countries.

Result of WHO and UNICEF effort = baby-friendly

program

Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital

In Philippines

Saved 8 percent of their annual budget

Disadvantage of breast milk:

Passing HIV

Africa

30% of mothers have human immunodefiency virus (HIV)

1PHYSICAL GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

First two years of lifemost crucial period for an infant

Newborn infants:

Heads are quite large

Little strength in their necks

Cannot hold their heads up

Have basic reflexes

In 12 months, infants are capable of:

Sitting

Standing

Stooping

Climbing

Walking

During the second year:

growth deceleratesrunning and climbing

PATTERNS OF GROWTH

headunproportional to the body

cephalocaudal pattern

- sequence of growth is from top to bottom

- shoulders, middle trunk

- headtop part of the head-eyes and brain- grow faster

than the lower parts, such as the jaw.

motor developmentfollows the cephalocaudal pattern

DEVELOPMENT DOES NOT FOLLOW A RIGID BLUEPRINT.

proximodistal pattern- sequence of growth starts at the center of

the body and moves toward the extremities.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT20 inches and 7 pounds

- newborn North-American

18 to 22 inches long and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds

- 95% percent of full term newborns

Figure 1

CHANGES IN PROPORTION OF HUMAN BODY DURING GROWTH.

Head becomes smaller in relation to the rest of the body.

First several days of life:

Most lose 5 to 7 percent of their baby weight

Before they adjust by sucking, swallowing, and digesting.

First month:

Grow 5 to 6 ouncesper week
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Fourth month:

Doubled their birth weight

First year:

Grow 1 inch per month

Second year:

Weighs approximately 26 to 32 pounds

Gained quarter to half a pound per month

Reached 1/5 of their adult weightAverage height: 32 to 35 inches

Reaches half of their adult height

First several days

of life

Lose 5 to 7 percentof body weight

First month Grow 5 to 6 ouncesper week

Fourth month Doubledtheir birth weight

First year Grow 1 inchper month

Second year Weigh: 26 to 32 pounds

1/5of their adult weight

Height: 32 to 35 inches

Halfof adult weight

THE BRAINInfantsingle cell to 100 billion neurons

Extensive brain development continues after birth, through

infancy and later.

infant's head- should be protected

Shaken Baby Syndrome

- brain swelling and hemorrhaging

- affects hundreds of babies in US

Perpetrators:1. fathers

2. child care provider

3. boyfriend of victims mother

Positon-emission tomography (PET)

- scans pose a radiation risk to babies

- uses radioactive tracer to image and analyze blood flow

and metabolic activity in the bodys organs.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

- infants wriggle too much to capture accurate images

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

- measures the brains electrical activity

Charles Nelson

- making strides in brain development

THE BRAINS DEVELOPMENT

At birth: 25 PERCENTof its adult weight

Secondbirthday: 75 percentof its adult weight.

BRAINS AREAS DO NOT MATURE UNIFORMLY.

MAPPING THE BRAIN

forebrain- portion farthest from the spinal cord

a. cerebral cortex- covers the forehead like a wrinkled cap.

left hemisphere

- location of logical and language thinking

- speech and grammar

right hemisphere

- location of emotion and creative thinking

- humor and use of metaphors

Four main lobes: FOTP

1. frontal lobe

voluntary movement

thinking

personality

intentionality or purpose

2. occipital lobe

vision

3. temporal lobe

active role in hearing

language processingmemory

4. parietal lobe

registering spatial location

attention

motor control

cerebral cortex- covers the forehead like a wrinkled cap.

Division of cerebral cortex:

1. left hemisphere

- location of logical and language thinking

- speech and grammar

2. right hemisphere

- location of emotion and creative thinking

- humor and use of metaphors

Note:

Reading and performing music requires the work of both

hemispheres.

Complex thinking is the outcome of the communication of

both hemispheres.

Lateralizationspecialization of function in one hemisphere of

the cerebral cortex

left hemisphere- has greater electrical activityin the left

hemisphere when they are listening to speech sounds.

CHANGES IN NEURONS

neurons- nerve cells that send electrical and chemical signals

- nerve cell that handles information processing


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a. The dendrites of the cell body receive rhe information

from other neurons, muscles, or glands through the

axon.

b. Axons transmit information away from the cell body.

c. A myelin sheath covers most axons and dendrites

and speeds information transmission

d. As the axons ends, it branches out into terminal

2 types of fibers:

1. axons- carries the signals away from the cell body

synapses- terminal buttons that are found at the end of the

axon

- tiny gaps between neuron fibers

- allows information to pass from neuron to

neuron through chemical interactions

terminal buttonsfound at the end of an axon

- releases chemicals called

neurotransmitters

metaphor:

Think of the synapse as a river that blocks a road. A

grocery truck arrives at one bank of the rover, crosses

ferry and continues its journey to market. Similarly, a

message in the brain is ferried across the synapse by a

neurotransmitter, which pours out information contained inchemicals when it reaches the other side of the river.

2. dendrites-carries signals toward

myelin sheathlayer of fat cells, encases many axons.

insulates axons

helps critical signals travel faster down

the axon.

myelinationinvolved in providing energy to neurons and

in communication

2 significant ways on how neurons change:

1. myelinationthe process of encasing axons with fat cells

- begins prenatally and continues after birth,

even into adolescence

2. expansion of dendritic connections

- facilitates the spreading of neural pathways

Synaptic connections:

Nearly twice as many of these connections are made

as will ever be used.

The connections that are used become strengthened

and survive, while the unused ones are replaced by

other pathways or disappear, these connections will be

pruned

CHANGES IN THE REGIONS OF THE BRAIN

synaptic densityimportant indication of the extent of

connectivity between neurons.

Synaptic overproduction:

1. visual cortexfourth postnatal month, followed by a

gradual retraction until the middle to end of the preschool

years.

2. hearing and languagelater

3. prefrontal cortexhigher level of thinking and self-regulation occur

- 1 year of age

- it is not until the middle to late

adolescence that the adult density of the synapses is

achieved.

Pace of myelination (speeds up neural transmission):

1. visual pathwaysoccurs after birth

- com: in the first six month

2. auditorycompleted until the 4 or 5 years of age

frontal lobesimmature in the newborns

NOTE: As neurons in the frontal lobes become myelinated and

interconnected during the first year of life, infants

develop an ability to regulate their physiological

states.

Prefrontal region of the frontal lobe has the most

prolonged development of any brain region, with

changes detectable at least into the emerging adulthood.

cognitive skills - do not emerge until the first year of life

EARLY EXPERIENCES AND THE BRAIN

NOTE:

Children who grew up in a deprived environment MAY

have depressed brain activity.

Deprived environments are reversible

The brain demonstrates both reversibility and

resilience.

Repeated experiences wires the brain.

Experiences determine how connections are made.

Before birth, it appears that genes mainly direct basic

writing patterns.

After birth, the inflowing stream help shape the brains

neural connections.

SLEEP

sleepconsumed more of an infants time

18 hours a daynewborns sleep

10 to 21 hoursrange of newborns sleeping time

NOTE:

Infants varyin their preferred timesof sleeping and their

patternsof sleep.

Total amount of time (10 to 21 hours) is consistent.

night walkingmost common infant sleep-related problem
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Factors of infant night walking:

excessive parental involvement

intrinsic factors

o daytime crying

o fussing

extrinsic factors

o distressed

o separated from the mother

o breastfeedingo sleeping with parents in their bed

CULTURAL VARIATIONS INFLUENCE SLEEPING PATTERN

Kipsigis culture, Kenya United States

night:

sleep with mothers

nurse on demand

day:

strapped to mothers back

3 hrs longest sleep 8 or more hrs of sleep

REM SLEEP

REM sleepeyes flutter beneath the closed lids.

Non-REM sleepeye movement does not occur and sleep is

more quiet.

ADULTHOOD INFANCY

1/5in REM sleep 1/2REM sleep

REM sleep: one hour after

non-REM sleep.

Begin their life cycle with

REM sleep.

After REM : dreaming After REM: unknown

Why do infants spends so much time in REM sleep?

- REM sleep provides infants with added self-stimulation

and promote brain development.

SHARED SLEEP

United States and Great Britain

- infants sleep in a crib, the same room or separate room.

Guatemala and China

- infants share a bed with mother.

INFANTS BEDDING MUST PROVIDE FIRM SUPPORT AND

THAT CRIBS SHOULD HAVE SIDE RAILS.

Benefits of shared sleeping:

1. promotes breastfeeding

2. quicker response to babys cries

3. allows mother to detect potentially dangerous breathingpauses

The American Academy of Pediatrics. Task Force on Infant

Positioning and SIDS

- thinks otherwise

Cons:

1. promotes the risk that the sleeping mother will roll over the

baby

2. increases SIDS

SIDSSUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME

SIDSinfant stop breathing, dies at night without an apparent

cause.

- highest cause of infant death

- 2 to 4 months of age

sleep on their backsreduce SIDS

- impairs the infants arousal from sleep

and restricts infants ability to swallow effectively.

9 RISK FACTORS OF SIDS:

1. Less likely to occur in infants who use a pacifier when

asleep.

2. Less likely to occur to infants who sleep in a bedroom

with a fan.

3. Low birth weight infants are 5 to 10 times more likely to

die of SIDS.

4. Infants who have siblings who died of SIDS. (2-4x).

5. Infants with sleep apnea (temporary cessation of

breathing in which the airways is completely blocked,

usually for 10 seconds or longer).

6. Prone to African American and Eskimo infants.7. SIDS is common in lower SE groups.

8. SIDS is more common to infants exposed to cigarette

smoke.

9. SIDS occur more in infants with abnormal brain stem

functioning involving the neurotransmitter serotonin.

NUTRITION1 year ofageinfantstripletheir weight and length by 50

percent

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS AND EATING BEHAVIOR

50 calories per day for each pound

- required infant consume

Development of motor skills:

1. suck-and-swallowmovements with breast milk or formula

2. chew-and-swallowmovements of semisolids

3. self-feeding: first year

NOTE:

Above 95th percentileof their age and gender on a

weight-for-height index : overweight

Between 85th

and 95thpercentile: at risk

Factors in increase of overweight infants:

1. poor dietary patterns

2. mothers weight gainduring pregnancy3. an infants is breast fed or bottle fed

Breast feedingreduces the risk of obesity

BREAST FEEDING VERSUS BOTTLE FEEDING

human milk or alternative formula

- babys source of nutrients and energy for the f irst four to six

months

American Dietetic Association and AAP

- endorse breast feeding throughout the infants first year.


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OUTCOMES FOR CHILD

1. gastrointestinal infections

2. lower respiratory tract infections

3. allergies

4. asthma

5. otitis mediamiddle ear infection

6. atopic dermatitis

7. overweight and obesity

8. diabetes

9. SIDS

OUTCOMES FOR MOTHER

1. breast cancer

2. ovarian cancer

3. type 2 diabetes

4. lower incidence of metabolic syndrome

Women who are likely to breast feed:

1. mothers who work full-time outside of the home

2. mothers under age 25

3. mothers without a high school education

4. African American mothers

5. mothers in low- income circumstances

NOTE:

Interventionincreased the incidence of breast feeding.

No psychological differences between breast feeding

and bottle feeding.

breast pumpwhat mothers used to extract milk that can be

stored for later feeding of the infant when they are not

present.

Mothers should not breast feed:

1. when she is infectedwith HIV or any infectious diseases

that can be transmitted through her milk.

2. has active tuberculosis.3. taking any drugs that can affectthe baby.

MALNUTRITION IN INFANCY

NOTE:

Early weaning of infants from breast milk to inadequate

sources of nutrients cause protein deficiency.

Breast feeding is more optimal for mothers and infants in

developing countries, except for mother with HIV/AIDS or

those suspected of having HIV/AIDS.

tapioca or ricesubstitute for breast milk.

2 life-threatening conditions:1. marasmus

severe protein-calorie deficiency and

results in a wasting away of body tissues in infants first

year.

infant becomes underweight and muscles atrophy.

2. kwashiorkor

severe protein deficiency

occur in 1 and 3 years of age

childs abdomen and feet are swollen with water

vital organ to collect the nutrients that are present and

deprive other parts of the body of them.

hair: thin, brittle, and colorless

behavior: listless

2

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW

maturationdevelopment comes about through the unfolding of

genetic plan.

DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY

Esther Thelen

Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting.

Motor skills represents solutions to infants goals.

Universal milestones are learned through this process of

adaptation:modulate their movement pattern to fit a

new task by exploring and selecting possible

configurations.

Motor development is not a passive process.

Nature and nurture are all working together.

Many converging factors:

1. development nervous systems

2. body's physical properties

3. possibilities for movement, the goal the child is motivated to

reach, and the environmental support for the skill.

NOTE:

Infants explore and select possible solutions to the

demands of a new task.

They assemble adaptive patterns by modifying their

current movement patterns.

Steps to mastering a motor skill:

1. infant is motivated by a new challenge.2. Infants tunes the movement to make them more

smoother and more effective.

tuningrepeated cycles of action and perception of the

consequences of that action

REFLEXESReflexes

Built-in reactions to stimuli

Govern newborns movements

Automatic and beyond the newborns control

Genetically carried survival mechanisms

Allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment.

MOST IMPORTANT REFLEXES: (SURVIVAL)

1. Rooting reflexWhen the infants cheek is stroked or the side of the

mouth is touched

Infants turns it head towards the side that was touched to

suck

2. Sucking reflex

When newborn automatically suck an object placed in

their mouth

To get nourishment

Self-soothing mechanism

Self-regulating mechanism

OTHER REFLEXES:


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1. Moro reflex

Response to a sudden noise or movement

Newborn:

Arches its back

Throw back its head

Fling out its arms and legs

Grabbing for support while falling

Survival value for primate ancestors

Rooting and Moro reflexdisappears: 3 to 4 months

REFLEX TO COMPLEX, VOLUNTARY ACTIONS:1. Grasping reflex

When something touches the infants palms

GROSS MOTOR SKILLSgross motor skillsskills that involve large-muscle activites.

DEVELOPMENT OF POSTURE

posturedynamic process that is linked with sensory information

in the skin, joints, and muscles

TIME TABLE:

Weeks

hold their heads erect

lift their heads

2 months

Sit while supported

6 to 7 months

Sit independently

8 to 9 months

Can pull themselves up and hold to a chair

10 to 12 months

Stand alone

LEARNING TO WALK

NOTE:

Locomotion and postural controlare linked in walking

upright.

Very young infants took more steps when they saw a

visual treadmill moving beneath their feet.o Perception + action in dynamic systems theory

(assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting).

The key skill in learning to walk appear to be stabilizing

balance on one leg enough to swing the other forward

and shifting the weight without falling.

When infants learn to walk, they typically take small

steps because of the limited balance control and

strength.

o Importance or perceptual-motor coupling in the

development of motor skills.

Practice is important in the development of new motor

skills

Combination of strength and balancingrequired to

improve their walking skills.

THE FIRST YEAR: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

MILESTONES AND VARIATIONS

NOTE:

The timing of these milestones may vary, and

experiences can modify the onsetof these

accomplishments.

American infantsnever crawl on their belly or on their

hands and knees.

African Malitribes: most infants do not crawl.

DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECOND YEAR

NOTE:

Toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile.

motor activityvital to a childs development

13 to 18 months

Can pull a toy attached to a string

Use their hands and legs to climb up a number of steps

18 to 24 months

Walk quickly

Run swiftly

Balance on their feet in squat position

Walk backward without losing balance

Stand and throw a ball

Jump in place

African, Indian, and Caribbean cultures

- massage and stretch infants during daily baths

Jamaican and Mali mothers

- regularly massage infants and stretch their arms and legs

Gusii culture of Kenya

- encourage vigorous movements

FINE MOTOR SKILLS

fine motor skillsInvolve more finely tuned movements, such as finger

dexterity.

Grabbing a toy

Using a spoon

Buttoning a shirt

2 types of grasps:

1. palmer grasp

Grip with the whole hand

2. pincher grasp

Grasp small objects with thumb and forefinger

Grip large objects with all of the finger of one hands or

both hands.

Four-month oldrely on touch to determine how they will grip

an object.

Eight-month oldrely on vision to determine how they will grip

an object.

Sticky mittensmittens with palms that stuck to the edges of

toys and allowed to infants to pick up toys.

3

SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL

DEVELOPMENT

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION?Sensationinformation interacts with sensory receptors

Sensory receptorseyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skinPerceptioninterpretation of what is sensed.

- designed for action

ECOLOGICAL VIEWEleanor and James J. Gibson

Perceptual systemcan select from the r ich information that

the environment provides.

ecological viewperceive information that exists in the world

around us.

ecologicalconnects the perceptual capabilities to information

available in the world of perceiver.


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affordancesopportunities for interaction offered by objects that

fit within our capabilities to perform functional activities.

visual preference methodmethod used to determine whether

infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by

measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli.

habituationdecreased responsiveness to a stimulus after

repeated presentations of the stimulus.

dishabituationrecovery of a habituated response after a

change in stimulation.

VISUAL PERCEPTION

VISUAL ACUITY AND HUMAN FACES

blooming, buzzing confusion

- Willliam James pov of the world

20/240newborns vision accdg. to Snellen chart

- an object 20 feet away is only as clear ot the newborn

a it would be if it were 240 feet away from and adult with

normal vision

20/20normal vision for adults

20/40average vision of infants of 6 months of age

Snellen chartuse for eyes examinations

MILESTONES:

Infants show interest to human facessoon after birth.

Infants spend more time looking at their mothers face12

hours after born.

3 months:

Infants match voices to faces

Distinguish between male and female voices

Discriminate between faces of their ethnic grp.

3 to 9 months of age:

Infants focus more on faces in animated film and less on

salient background stimuli.

2 to 3 week old:

Infants prefer to look at patterned displays rather than

nonpatterned.

Bulls eye or black-and-white stripes > circle

Normal face > scrambled features

COLOR VISION8 weeks:

Infants can discriminate colors.

4 months:

Have color preferences

Prefer saturated colors.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY

perceptual constancysensory stimulation is changing but

perception of the physical world remains constant.

perceptual constancyallows infants to perceive the world as

stable

2 TYPES:

1. Size constancy

Object remains the same even though the retinal image of

the object changes as you move toward or away from theobject.

Size as constant.

2. Shape constancy

Object remains the same shape even though its orientation

to us changes.

3 months:

Have shape constancy

Do nothave shape constancy for irregularly shaped

objects, such as tilted planes.

PERCEPTION OF OCCLUDED OBJECTS

NOTE:

INFANTS PERCEIVE WHAT IS VISIBLE.

2 months of age:

Infants develop the ability to perceive the occluded

objects as a whole.

Learning, experience, and self-directed exploitation

via aye movement play key roles in the development of

perceptual completion in young infants.

DEPTH PERCEPTION

depth perceptionrespond to differences in some visual

characteristics of the deep and shallow cliff, with no actual

knowledge of depth.

binocular cuesdevelop by abou 3 to 4 months of age/

stereoacuity- fine-detail depth perception

OTHER SENSES

HEARING

NOTE:

Last two months of pregnancyfetus can hear

Fetus can recognize mothers voice

Changes in Hearing:

1. Loudnesscannot hear soft sounds

- stimulus must be louder to be heard

2. Pitchperception of the frequency of a sound

- less sensitive to the pitch

- hear high-pitched sounds

3. Localizationdetermine the general location from where the

sound is coming from.

TOUCH AND PAIN

NOTE:

Infants can feel touch and pain.

Circumcisionthird day after birth with no anesthesia

SMELL

NOTE:

Newborns can differentiate odors

The expressions of their faces indicate what they like and

what they do not like.

TASTE

NOTE:

Sensitivity to taste might be present even before birth.

4 months of age:

Infants prefer salty taste.

INTERMODAL PERCEPTIONSintermodal perceptionability to relate and integrate

information from two or more sensory modalities, such as

vision and hearing.

NATURE, NURTURE AND PERCEPTUAL

DEVELOPMENTNativists

Nature proponents

Perceive the world in a competent, organized way is inborn

and innate

Ecological view _ Eleanor and James J. Gibson

Empiricist

Emphasize learning and experience


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Piagets constructive view

Infancy must await the development of a sequence of

cognitive stage for infants to construct more complex

perceptual tasks.

PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR COUPLINGperceptual-motor coupling

- distinction between perceiving and doing

Esther Thelens dynamic systems theory

- explore how people assemble motor behaviors

Ecological approach

- discover how perception guides action.

NOTE:

Action can guide perception, and perception can

guide action. Action educates perception


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CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN

INFANCY

IntroductionJean Piaget

Swiss psychologist

Children: Lucienne, Laurent, Jacqueline

1

PIAGETS THEORY OF INFANTDEVELOPMENT

ADAPTATION

adjusting to new environmental demands

PIAGET

Biology + experience

Child construct

Environment feeds information

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

SCHEMES

Schemes -actions or mental presentations that organize

knowledge.

- structured simple actions.

ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMODATION

assimilation- use their existing schemes to deal with new

information

- adapt to their surroundings.

accommodation- adjust their schemes to take new information

and experiences into account.

- look for a common ground

ORGANIZATION

organizationgrouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into

a higher-order system

EQUILIBRATION AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

disequilibriumcognitive conflict

- counterexamples to ones existing schemes

and with inconsistencies

PIAGET:an internal searchfor equilibrium creates motivation

for change.

Equilibrationmechanism by which children shift from one

stage to another

NOTE:

Cognitive is qualitatively different in one stage compared

with another.

THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGESensorimotor stage

Birth to 2 years of age

Infants construct an understanding of the world by

coordinating sensory experiences with physical,

motoric actions.

Beginning:

Newborn have more than reflexeswith which to work

End:

2 years-old can produce complex sensorimotor

patternsand use primitive symbols.

SUBSTAGES

SFSCTI : 148121824 MONTHS

1) SIMPLE REFLEXES

First month after birth

Coordination of sensation and actionthrough

reflexive behaviors.

After, infants produces behaviors that resemble reflex in

the absence of usual stimulus for reflex

Rooting

Sucking

Grasping

Newborn suck reflexively when their lips are touched.

2) FIRST HABITS AND PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

1 to 4 months

Coordination of sensation andtwo types of schemes:

habitsand primary circular reactions

Habitreflexes that have become completely separated

from its eliciting stimulus.

Circular reactionrepetitive actions

Primary circular reactions

- reproduction of an event that initially occurred by

chance

Infants bodyis the main focus

Sucking thumb

3) SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

4 to 8 months

Infants become object-oriented, moving beyond

preoccupation with the self.

Infants schemes are repeated because of their

consequences.

Infants repeat reactions for the sake of fascination.

Secondary circular reaction

- action repeated because of consequences

Infants imitate simple actions that he or she can

produce.

Infants coos to make a person stay.

4) COORDINATION OF CIRCULAR REACTIONS

8 to 12 months

Infants must coordinate vision and touch, hand and eye

(intermodal perception)

Actions are outwardly directed.

Coordination of schemes and intentionality.

Second achievementpresence of intentionality.

Infants manipulate a stick in order to bring an attractivetoy within reach.

5) TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS, NOVELTY, AND

CURIOUSITY.

12 to 18 months

Infants become intrigued by the main properties of objects

and by many things they can make happen to object

They experiment with new behavior.

Tertiary circular reactions


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- schemes in which the infant purposely explores new

possibilities with objects.

Marks thestarting point for human curiosity and

interest in novelty.

A block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and

slide across the ground.

6) INTERNALIZATION OF SCHEMES18 to 24 months

Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols

Infants develop ability to form enduring mental

representations.

Symbolsinternalized sensory image or word that

represent an event.

- allows the infant to manipulate and

transform the represent events in simple ways.

An infant who has never thrown a tantrum before sees

playmate throw a tantrum; the infants retains in memory

of the event, then throws one himself the next day.

(deferred imitation)

OBJECT PERMANENCE

Object permanenceobjects continue to exist even when they

cannot be seen, touched or heard.

EVALUATING PIAGETS SENSORIMOTOR

STAGE

A-NOT-B ERROR

A-not-B erroraka AB error

-infants continue to search for the initial location

of an object.

CAUSEs OF AB ERROR:

1. Due to failure in memory

2. Infants tend to repeat a previous motor behavior.

PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EXPECTATIONSintermodal perception ability to coordinate information from

two or more sensory receptors.

RESEARCH SUGGEST:

1. Infants develop the ability to understand how to world

works at a very early age.

2. Infants develop expectations about future events.

alternating sequenceLRLR

unpredictable sequenceLLRL

3. Infants did not develop expectations about where a

picture would be presented.

4. 4 months: infants expect object to be solid and

continuous.

substantialobjects cannot move through them

permanentexist even when it is absent.5. 6 to 8months: infants learned to perceive gravity and

support.

NATURE AND NURTURE ISSUE

NATURE

Core Knowledge Approach

Infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge

systems.

Influenced by evolution(core knowledge)

Innate core knowledge domains form a foundation around

which more mature cognitive functioning and learning

develop.

Space

Number sense

Object permanence and knowledge.

APPROACH SUGGEST:

1. Infants have sense of number.

2. Infants can distinguish between different numbers ofactions, objects and sounds.

temporal lobechanges in types

parietal lobechanges in number

CRITICISM:

Infants are merely reacting to the changes in display that

violated their expectations.

CONCLUSION

Understand changes in cognition take place and the big

issue of nature and nurture.

Determining whether the course of acquiring information,

which is very rapid in some domains, is best accounted for

by an innate set of biases or by extensive input of

environmental experiences to which infant is exposed.

2

LEARNING, REMEMEMBERING AN

CONCEPTUALIZING

Luciennes feetPiaget hung a doll

Behavioral and social cognitive & information processing

approaches

- development is gradual

CONDITIONINGINFANTS CAN RETAIN INFORMATION FROM THE

EXPERIENCE OF BEING CONDITIONED.

Operant conditioning important to understand babys

perceptionreinforcing stimulusincreases behavior

ATTENTION

ATTENTION

Attention focusingof mental resources on select information,

improves cognitive processing on many tasks

4 monthsinfants attend to an object

parietal lobeattention to an object or event.

orienting/investigative process

- process involves directing attention to where and

recognizing what

wherelocations in the environment

whatobjects and their features

sustained attentionaka focused attention

- allows infant to learn about andremember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes

familiar.

3 years : 5 to 10 secondsof sustained attention

HABITUATION AND DISHABITUATION

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated

presentation

Determines the extent to which an infant can see, hear,

smell, taste and experience touch.

Provides a measure of an infants maturity and well-being


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Say the same word several times in a row

Dishabituation

Increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation

Sucking behavior

Heart rates

Length of time infant look at an object

NOTE:

When an object becomes familiar, attention

becomes shorter, and infants become more

vulnerable to distraction.

JOINT ATTENTION

joint attentionindividuals focus on the same object or event

- occurs at 7 to 8 months

ATTENTION REQUIRES:

1. Ability to track anothers behavior

2. Directing anothers attention

3. Reciprocal interaction

JOINT ATTENTION INVOLVES:

1. Caregiver pointing

2. Turning the infants head

3. Snapping ones fingers4. Using words to direct attention

Gaze followingfollow eye movements of someone else.

- at 10 to 11 months

1 year oldcapture adults attention

7 to 8 months Joint attention

10 to 11 months Gaze following

1 year old Capture adults attention

FREQUENTLY ENGAGE IN ATTENTION:

1. Infants say their words earlier

2. Develop a larger vocab

MEMORYmemory - retention of information over time

encodinginformation gets into memoryimplicit memorymemory without conscious recollection

- skills, routines

explicit memoryconscious memory of facts and experiences.

NOTE:

Older infants showed more accurate and memory

and required fewer prompts to demonstrate their

memory than younger infants.

LINKED TO BABYS MEMORY DEVELOPMENT:

1. Maturation of hippocampus

2. Maturation of frontal lobes

infantile or childhood amnesiaremember little from their first

three years of life.

NOTE:

Difficulty recalling event form their infant and early child

years becomes prefrontal lobes of the brain are

immature.

IMITATIONNOTE:

Infants can imitate a facial expressionwithin the first few

days after birth.

Infants imitative abilities involve flexibility and adaptability.

Interplay between learning by observingand learning by

doing.

deferred imitationimitation occurs after a delay.

CONCEPT FORMATION AND CATEGORIZATION

categoriesgroup on the basis of common properties.

conceptsideas about what categories represent

categories & conceptshelp summarization

3 months of age - can group by appearance

NOTE:

Infants are more likely to look at a novel object than a

familiar object.

perceptual categorization based on similar perceptual

features.

conceptual categorizationcategorize by _______BOYS INTENSE INTEREST:

1. Vehicles

2. Trains

3. Machines

4. Dinosaurs

5. Balls

GIRLS INTENSE INTEREST:

1. Reading books

2. Dress-ups

3

INDIVIDUALS DIFFERENCES AND

ASSESSMENTS

MEASURES OF INFANT DEVELOPMENTDevelopmental quotient

Arnold Gesell

Help sort outbabies with normal functioning from ones with

abnormal functioning

Useful to adaption agencies.

Four categories:

1. motor

2. language

3. adaptive

4. personal-social

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

Assess infant behavior and predict later development

Current version: Bayley IIIFive categories:

1. motor

2. adaptive

3. language

4. cognitive

5. socioemotional

6 months:

1. able to vocalize pleasure

2. search for out of reach

3. approach a mirror

12 months:

1. inihibit behavior

2. imitate words

Fagan test of Infant Intelligence

Infants ability to process information in such ways as

Encoding the attributes of objects,

Detecting similarities and differences between objects

Forming mental presentations

Retrieving presentations

PREDICTING INTELLIGENCENOTE:

IQ pay attention to verbal ability.

Measures habituation and dishabituation


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Habituation assessed at 3 or 6 monthsof age was linked

to verbal skills and intelligence assessedat 32 months

of age.

4

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

EXAMPLES:

1. wild boy of Aveyron

2. Genie

DEFINING LANGUAGELanguageform of communication that is based on symbols

-spoken, written or signed

- highly organize and ordered

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Infinite generativity ability to produce an endless

number of meaning sentences using a finite set of

words and rules

2. Organizational rulesway language works

LANGUAGE SYSTEMS

PMMSP

FIVE SYSTEMS:

1. PHONOLOGY

Sound system of language

Provides a basis for constructing a lare and expandable

set of words.

phenomebasic unit of sound

-smallest unit of sound that affects meaning

2. MORPHOLOGY

Units of meaning involved in word formation

morphememinimal unit of meaning

- part of a word that cannot be broken into

smaller meaningful parts.

3. SYNTAX

Way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and

sentences

THE MOUSE THE CAT THE KILLER CHASED KILLED

ATE THE CAT

4. SEMANTICS

Meaning of words and sentences

THE BICYCLE TALKED THE BOY INTO BUYING A

CANDY BAR.5. PRAGMATICS

Appropriate of language in different contexts

HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPSFrederick II selected newborns and threatened caregivers to

never talk to them.

RECOGNIZING LANGUAGE SOUNDS

THEY RECOGNIZE WHEN SOUNDS CHANGE, NO MATTER

WHAT LANGUAGE

BABBLING AND OTHER VOCALIZATIONS

1. CRYING

signal distress

2. COOING

2 to 4 months

gurgling sounds

made in the back of the throat

express pleasure

3. BABBLING

first year

consonant-vowel combinationsGESTURES

Showing and pointingto draw attention

Pointingimportant index

FIRST WORDS

5 months of agerecognize own name

13 months50 words

5 months Recognize own name

13 months 50 words

Receptive vocabulary

words the child understands.

Spoken vocabularywords the child uses.

First words:

1. Impo people Dada2. Familiar animals Kitty

3. Vehicles Car

4. Toys Ball

5. Food Milk

6. Body parts Eye

7. Clothing Hat

8. Household items Clock

9. Greeting Bye

Vocabulary spurt - rapid increase in vocabulary

TIMING OF VOCABULARY SPURT VARIES

Overextension tendency to apply a words to object that are

inappropriate for the words meaning

Underextension - tendency to apply a word too narrowly

TWO WORD UTTERANCESTwo-Word Utterences:1. Identification

2. Location

3. Repetition

4. Negation

5. Possession

6. Attribution

7. Agent-action

8. Action-direct object

9. Action-indirect object

10. Action-instrument

11. Question

Telegraphic speech use of short and precise words without

grammatical markers.

BIOLOGICAL AND ENVI INFLUENCES

BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

100 YEARS AGOhumans acquired language

Brocas areaspeech production

Wernickes arealanguage comprehension

Aphasialoss of impairment of language processing

Language acquisitive device

- biological endowment

- detect certain features and rules of language

- theoretical


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ENVIRONMENTLA INFLUENCES

BEHAVIORIST:

Language is a complex skill

Criticism:

Does not explain how people create novel

sentences

Children learn the syntax of their own language

even if they are not reinforced

Impo:

Particular language to be learned and the context in which

learning takes places can strongly influence language

acquisition.

Language is not learned in a social vacuum.

Childs vocabulary development is linked to familys SES

and type of talk that the parents direct to the children

Mothers who spoke more often = high vocab

Parents should read book to and withtheir kids.

Interaction view of language

- emphasizes that children learn language in specific context

Child directed speech

- language spoken in a higher piych than normal with simple

words and sentences.

STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE LANG. ACQUISITION:

1. RECASTINGRephrasing what the child has said

Statements to questions

2. EXPANDING

Restating what the baby just said

3. LABELLING

Identifying names of objects

INTERACTIONIST VIEWINTERACTIONIST VIEW

- both biological and experience contribute to language

development


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CHAPTER 6: SOCIOEMOTIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

IntroductionDarius

17thmonth old

Mother is a landscape architect

Father is a writer

Fafa cares for him during the day

Spends one day a week at a child-care center because

they wanted him to get some experience with peers

and to give his father some time outfrom

caregiving

NOTE:

MANY AFTHERS ARE SPENDING MORE TIME WITH

THEIR INFANTS TODAY THAN IN THE PAST.

1

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENTWHAT ARE EMOTIONS?

Emotionsas feeling, or affect that occurs when a person is in

state or and interaction hat is important to him or her.

- involve an individuals communication with the

world.

Classifications of Emotions:

1) Positive

Enthusiasm

Joy

Love

2) NegativeAnxiety

Anger

Guilt

Sadness

BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

Brain stem, amygdala and hippocampus

- play a role in distress, excitement, and rage.

Gradual maturation of the frontal region of the cerebral

cortex

- tied to the ability to regulate emotions

Emotionsfirst language of communication

Social relationshipsprovide the setting for the development of

a rich variety of emotions.

East Asian infants

- display less frequent and less positive negative emotions.

Japanese parents

- prevent their children form experiencing negative emotions

Non-Latino white mothers

- respond after their children become distressed.

EARLY EMOTIONS

2 classifications of emotions, accdg to Michael Lewis:

1) Primary emotionsemotions that are present I

humans and other animals

- birth to six months.

Primary emotions:

Surprise

Interest

Joy

Anger

Sadness

Fear

Disgust

2) Self-conscious emotions

require self-awareness that involves consciousness

and sense of me

- 6 months to 24 months

Self-conscious emotions: Jealous18 months of age

- illustrates the complexity and

difficulty in indexing early emotions

Empathy

Embarrassment

Shame

Guilt

Pride

Other conscious emotions(involve the emotional

reactions of others when they are generated):

Embarrassment

Shame

Guilt

Pride

NOTE:

The structural immaturity of the infant brain make it

unlikely that emotions which require thought can be

experience in the first year.

EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND SOCIAL

RELATIONSHIPS

NOTE:

Infants modify their emotional expression I response to

their parent;s emotional expressions

Reciprocalor synchronous

- interactions are mutually regulated

Cries and smilesfirst forms of emotional communication.

CRYING

- most important mechanism

- verifies that the babys lungs have filled with air

- provide information about the health of the newborns CNR.

3 types of cries:


15/21


1. Basic cry

-rhythmicpattern that usually consists: 1- of a cry,

2- followed by a briefer silence,

3- then a shorter whistlethat is somewhat

higher in pitchthan the main cry,

4- then another brief restbefore

5- the next cry

-hungerincites the cry

2. Anger cry- variation of basic cry in which more excess airis

forced through the vocal chords.

3. Pain cry

- sudden long, initial loud cry followed by a breath

holding

- no preliminary moaning is present

- high-intensity stimulusstimulates the pain cry

SMILING

- critical as means of developinh a new social skill

- a key social signal

- John Bowlbycaptured th power of infants smiles.

2 types of smiling:

1. Reflexive smile

- a smile that does not occur in response to

external stimuli

- appears during the first month after birth

- appears during sleep

2. Social smile

- a smile that occurs in response to external

stimuli, which in early development is typically a

face.

- occurs at2 months of age

Duchenne marker and mouth opening

- occur in the midst of highly enjoyable interactions and

play with parents

- 6 to 12 months

Second year infants becomes aware of the social meanings of

smiles.

6 to 12 months Duchenne marker and mouth

opening

24 months Aware of social meanings of smiles

Anticipatory smiling communicate pre-existing positive

emotion by smiling at an object and then turning their

smile toward an adult.

FEAR

- one of babys earlies emotions

- appearsat about 6 monthsof age and peaksat about 18

months

Abused and neglected infants

- show signs of fear as early as 3 months

NOTE:

Infant fear is linked to guilt, empathy and low

aggression at 6 to 7 years of age.

Stranger anxietyinfant shows a fear and wariness of strangers

- emerges gradually

- shows up at 6 months of age in the form

of wary reactions

NOTE:

Infants how less stranger anxiety when they are in

familiar settings.

When infants feel secure, they are less likely to showstranger anxiety.

Infants are less fearful of child strangers than adult

strangers

They are also less fearful of friendly, outgoing,

smiling strangers than of passive, unsmiling

strangers.

Separation anxietyfear and wariness of strangers

- appears at second half of the first

years life

Separation protest distressed crying when the caregiver

leaves - appear at 7 to 8 months, and peaks

at 13 to 15 months

EMOTIONAL REGULATION AND COPING

NOTE:

Infants put their thumbs in their mouths to soothe

themselves.

Infants mainly depend on caregivers to help them

soother their emotions.

Caregivers help modulate their emotion and reduce

the level of stress hormone

Caregivers should soothe an infant before the infants

gets into an intense, agitated, uncontrolled state.

Infants redirect their attention or distract

themselves, in order to reduce their arousal.

2 years of age : toddlers use language to define

their feeling states and the context that is upsetting

them.

Contexts can influence emotional regulation.

Infants are often affected by fatigue, hunger, time of

day, which people are around them, and where they

are.

New demands appear as the infant becomes older and

parents modify their expectations.

TO SOOTHE OR NOT OT SOOTHE:

Caregivers quick, soothingresponse to crying increased

crying.

Caregivers quick,comforting response is an

important ingredient in the

development of a strong

bond between the infant

and caregiver.

Mothers who responded quickly when they cried at 3

months of age cried less later in the first year of life.

Parents should soothe a crying infant to develop a

sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver.


16/21


TEMPERAMENT

Temperament involves individual differences in behavioral

styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding.

DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFIYING TEMPERAMENT

CHESS AND TOMAS CLASSIFICATION

Alexander Ches

Stella Thomas

3 basic types:

1. Easy child

- in positive mood

- quickly establishes a regular routines in infancy

- adapts easily to new experiences.

2. Difficult child

- reacts negatively

- cries frequently

- engages in irregular routines

- slow to accept change

3. Slow-to-warm-up child

- has low activity level

- somewhat negative

- displays a low intensity of mood.

KAGANS BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION

Jerome Kagan

Focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid

child and a sociable, extraverted bold child

Inhibition to the unfamiliar

broad temperament category for shyness

- 7 to 9 months of ageInhibitionsis stable from infancy through early childhood.

Continuitywas demonstrated for both inhibition and lack of

inhibition

ROTHBART AND BATES CLASSIFICATION

Mary Rothbart

John Bates

Argues that three broad dimensions best represent what

researches have to characterize the structure of

temperament: extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity,

and effortful control (self-regulation).

3 dimensions:

1. Extraversion

Aka surgency

Includes positive anticipation, impulsivity,

activity level, and sensation seeking

2. Negative affectivity

Includes fear, frustration, sadness, and

discomfort

Children are easily distressed

May fret and cry often

Kagans inhibited children

3. Effortful control

aka self-regulation

Includes attentional focusing and shifting,

inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity and

low intensity pleasure

NOTE:

Children should not be pigeon-holed as having only one

temperament dimension.

A good strategy is thinking that TEMPERAMENT ASCONSISITING OF MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS.

The development of temperament capabilities allow

individual differences to emerge.

BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS AND EXPERIENCES

NOTE:

Children inherit a physiology that biases them to have a

particular type of temperament.

Through experience they may learn to modify their

temperament to some degree.

BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

Inherited temperament is associated with a UNIQUE

PHYSIOLOGICAL PATTERNSthat includes:

1. High stable heart rate

2. High level of cortisol

3. High activity in the frontal lobe of the brain

4. Excitability of the amygdala

Amygdalaplays a role in fear and inhibition

Temperament biologically based but evolving aspect of

behavior

GENDER, CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENT

Gender- influences the fateof temperament

NOTE:

Mothers were more responsive to the crying of

irritable girlsthan to the crying of irritable boys.

The cultural differences in temperament were linked

to parent attitude and behaviors.

Chinabehavioral inhibition

GOODNESS OF FIT AND PARENTING

Goodness of fitrefers to the match between a childs

temperament and the environmental demands the child mustcope with.

Adjustment problemscan be produced when there is lack of

fit

Parenting strategies to use on relation to childrens

temperament:

1. Attention and respect for individuality.

2. Structuring the childs environment.

3. The difficult child and packaged parenting programs.


17/21


Caregivers should be:

1. Sensitive to the individual characteristics of the child.

2. Flexible in responding to these characteristics.

3. Avoid applying negative labels to the child.

PERSONALITY DEVELPOMENT

Personalityenduring personal characteristics of an individual.

TRUST

Trust vs Mistrust

First stageof Erik Eriksons psychosocial theory

Infants learn trustwhen they are cared for in a consistent

and warm manner

Isnot resolvedonce and for all in the f irst year of life.

Example

Children who leave infancy with a sense of trust can

still have their sense of mistrust activated at a later stage,

perhaps if their parents are separated or divorced

under conflicting circumstances.

THE DEVELOPING SENSE OF SELF

mirror technique ingenious strategy to test infants visual

self-regulation

MIRROR TECHNIQUE EXPERIMENT:

1. An infants mother first puts a dot of rouge on the

infants nose.

2. Then an observer watches to see how often the infant

touches its nose

3. The infant is placed in front of a mirror, and observes

and detect whether nose touching increases

WHY IMPORTANT?

Increased nose touching indicated that the infant

recognizes the self in the mirrorand is trying to touch or

rub of the rogue because the rogue violates the infant

view of self.

2 years oldchildren recognized themselves in the mirror

Self-recognitioninfants develop such by 18 months of age

- self-understanding

INDEPENDENCE

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Important issue in the second year of life

Key developmental themeof the toddler years

Infants wants to do thing and learn things on their own.

It is important for parents to recognize the motivation of

toddlers to do what they are capable of doing at their

own pace.

Has important implications for the individuals future

development.

Autonomybuilds as the infants mental and motor abilities

develop

2

SOCIAL ORIENTATION/ UNDERSTANDING

& ATTACHMENT

SOCIAL ORIENTATIONS & UNDERSTANDING

8Relevant biological and cognitive factors:

SLIGCS

1. Social orientation

2. Locomotion

3. Intention

4. Goal-directed behavior

5. Cooperation

6. Social referencing

SOCIAL ORIENTATION

Face-to-face playcaregiver-infant interactions when the infant

sis about 2 to 3 months of age.

- focus includes vocalizations, touch,

and gestures

- part of mothers motivation to create a positive

emotional state in their infants

NOTE:

Frequency of face-to-face play interaction decreases

after 7 monthsof age as infants become more mobile.

Still-face paradigm caregiver alternates between engaging

in face-to-face interaction with the infant and remaining

still and unresponsive.

NOTE:

Between 18 to 24 months of age, children markedly

increased their imitative and reciprocal play. Coordinated actions of 1-year-old appear to be

coincidental

Coordinated actions of 2-year-old appear to be more

active cooperationto reach a goal.

LOCOMOTION

Gross motor skills- is the result of a number of factors including

the development of the nervous system, the goal the

infant is motivated to reach, and the environmental

support for the skill.


18/21


Locomotor skills- allow the infant to independently initiate

social interchanges on a more frequent basis.

INTENTION AND GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR

NOTE:

Joint attention and gaze following help the infant to

understand people have intention.

Joint attentioncaregiver and infant focus on the same object

7 to 8 months Joint attention

10 to 11 months Follow caregivers gaze

12 months Direct the caregivers attention to objects

that capture their interest.

SOCIAL REFERENCING

Social referencingreading emotional cues in others to help

determine how to act in a particular way.

- better at social referencing in the

second yearof life.

First year A mothers facial expression influences

whether an infant will explore an

unfamiliar environment.

Second year Infants become better at social

referencing.

INFANTS SOCIAL SOPHISTICATION AND INSIGHT

NOTE:

The sophistication and insight is reflected in infants

perceptions of others actions as intentionally

motivated and goal-directed and their motivation to

share and participate in that intentionality by their

first birthday.

ATTACHMENT AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

attachmentclose emotional between two people

FREUD

Infants become attached to the person or object that provides

oral satisfaction

HARLOWInfant monkeys from their mothers at birth; for six months

they were reared by surrogate (substitute) mothers.

One surrogate mother was made of wire, other of cloth.

Harlow frightened the monkeys, those raised by the cloth

mother ran to the mother and clung to it; those raised

by the wire mother did not.

BOTTOMLINE:

Feeding is not the crucial elementin the attachment

process and that contact comfort is important.

ERIKSON

Physical comfort plays a role.

Physical comfort and sensitive care are key to basic trust

infants.

Infants sense of trust is the foundation for attachment and

sets the stage for a lifelong experience that the world will

be a good place to live.

BOWLBY

Newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachmentbehavior.

FOUR PHASES: 2724 - on

1. Phase 1

Birth to 2 months

Infants direct their attachment to human figures.

2. Phase 2

2 to 7 months

Attachment becomes focused on one person,

usually the primary caregiver.

Baby learns to distinguish familiar fromunfamiliar people

3. Phase 3

7 to 24 months

Specifc attachment develops.

Baby actively seek contact with regular caregivers.

4. Phase 4

24 months and on

Children become aware of othersfeelings, goals

and plans and begin to take these into account in

forming their own actions.

1 Birth to 2 months Human figures

2 2 to 7 months One figure

3 7 to 24 months Specific

4 24 months and so on Aware of others

Internal working model

a simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship,

and the self as deserving of nurturant care.

- plays a pivotal role in the discovery f the links between the

attachment and subsequent emotional understanding,

conscience development, and self-concept.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT

Strange Situation observational measure of infant

attachment in which the infant experiences a series of

introductions, separations, ad reunions.

- provide information about the infants

motivation and the degree to which the caregivers

presence provides the infant with security and confidence.

According to SS, babies are:

1. Securely attached babies

Use caregiver as a secure base


19/21


caregiver in the room

Babies explore the room and examie the toys in it

caregiver out the room

Mildly protest

caregiver returns

Reestablish positive interaction

Resume playing with the toys inside the room

2. Insecure avoidant babies

Avoids the caregiver

If contact is established, baby leans away


Engage in little interaction with the caregiver


Are not distressed

caregiver returns

Do not reestablish contactMay turn their back on the caregiver

3. Insecure resistant babies

Cling to the caregiver

Resist her by fighting against the closeness


Cling to the caregiver

Will not explore the room


Cry loudly

caregiver returns

Pushes away if she tries to comfort them

4. Insecure disorganized babies

Disorganized and disoriented

Babies appear dazed, confused and fearful

Babies must show strong patterns of avoidance

and resistance.

EVALUATING THE STRANGE SITUATION

NOTE:

It may be culturally biased

German infants are more likely to show an avoidant

attachment pattern because the caregiversencourage them to be independent.

Japanese babies are resistant because their mothers

rarely let anyone unfamiliar with the babies care for

them.

Classification in every culture is secure attachment.

INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT

Secure attachmentprovides foundation for the psychological

development

Early secure attachmentlinked with positive emotional health,

high self-counselors and romantic partners in adolescence.

THREE TYPES OF INSECURE ATTACHMENT:

1. Avoidant

2. Insecure resistantnegative predictor of cognitive

development in elementary school

3. Disorganized attachmentlinked with externalizing

problems(aggression, hostility, opposition problems)

Insecure attachment at 18 was the occurrence of parental

divorce

Secure attachment and subsequent experiences

- linked with childrens later behavior and adjustment

CRITICISM:

Too much emphasis was place on the attachment bond

in infancy.

Infants are highly resistantand adaptive.

Genetic characteristics and temperament play more

important roles in a childs social competence.

It ignores the diversity of socializing agentsandcontexts that exists in an infants world.

o Infants in agricultural setting tend to form

attachment to older siblings.

Researchers recognize the importance of competent,

nurturant caregiving in an infants development

Short version of the 5-HTTLPR

- disorganized attachment style in infants develop.

5-HHTLPR - serotonin transporter

gene-environment interaction

- occur when mothers showed a low level of

responsiveness towards infants

secure attachmentit reflects positive parent-infant relationship

- provides the foundation that supports

healthy socio-emotional development

CAREGIVING STYLES AND ATTACHMENT

Securely attached babies - have caregiver who are sensitive

top their signals and are consistently available to respond to

their infants needs

Insecurely attached babiescaregivers tend to be unavailable

and rejecting

Resistant babes inconsistently available and are not very

affectionate

Disorganized babies caregivers often neglect or physically

abuse their babies.

Securely attached

babies

Sensitive to signals

Consistently available


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Insecurely attached

babies

Unavailable and rejecting

Resistant babies Inconsistently available

Not very affectionate

Disorganized babies Neglect

Physically abuse babies

Maternal sensitivity - linked to attachment security in United

States and Colombia

3

SOCIAL CONTEXTS

THE FAMILY

Familyconstellation of subsystema complex whole made up

of interrelated, interacting parts

defined in terms of generation, gender and role.

Subsystem a complex whole made up of interrelated,

interacting parts

- have reciprocal influences

HAVE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS ON EACH OTHER:

1. Marital relations

2. Infant behavior and development

3. Parenting

Example of direct effect:

Influence of parents behavioron the child.

Example of indirect effect:

How the relationship between the spouses

mediates the way a parent acts toward the child.

Marital conflict

Marital conflictreduces the efficiency of parenting

THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD

Parents face disequilibrium when they go through:

1. Pregnancy

2. Adoption

3. Separating

Baby- places new restrictions on partners

NOTE:

Late pregnancy3 years old

o Couples enjoyed more positive marital relations

before the baby was born.

There was an increase in marital satisfaction.

Being parents enhanced their sense of themselves

and gave them a new, more stable identityas a

couple.

Bringing Home Baby project

- workshop for new parents that emphasizes strengthening

the:

couples relationship,

understanding and becoming acquainted with

the baby,

resolving conflict, and

developing parenting skills.

RECIPROCAL SOCIALIZATION

Reciprocal socialization

- socialization is bidirectional

- children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children

mutual gazeaka eye contact

- engagement in variety of behavior increases

BEHAVIORS OF MOTHERS AND INFANTS INVOLVE:

1. substantial interconnection

2. mutual regulation

3. synchronization

parent-infant synchrony

- temporal coordination of social behavior

- 3 to 9 months of age: children were linked to self-regulation

scaffoldingparents time interactions so that infant experience

turn-takingwith the parents.

- caregivers provide a positive reciprocal

frameworkin which they and their child interact.

- involves parental behavior that supports

childrens efforts, allowing them to be more skillful

joint attentionpeek-a boo, turn-taking games

MATERNAL AND PATERNAL CAREGIVING

NOTE:

Stay-at-home fathers were as satisfied with their

marriage as traditional parents, although they

indicated that they missed their daily life in the work

field.

Aka pygmy cultureAfrica

- fathers spend as much time interacting

with their infants

maternal interaction center on child-care activities

paternal interactioncenter on rough- and tumble play

FATHERS ARE MORE INVOLVED IN CAREGIVING WHEN:

1. They worked fewer hours

2. Mothers worked more hours

3. Mother and fathers were younger

4. Mothers reported greater marital intimacy

5. Children were boys

CHILD CARE

PARENTAL LEAVE

FIVE TYPES OF PARENTAL LEAVE FROM EMPLOYMENT:

1. Maternity leave

Pre-birth leave is compulsory


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6- to 8-week leave following birth

14-week maternity leaveEU : 1922

2. Paternity leave

Briefer than maternity leave

Important when a second child is born and the first

child requires care

3. Parental leave

Gender-neutralleave

Follows a maternityleave

Allows either women or men to share the leave

policy or choose whichof them will use it.

1998EU mandated a three-month parental leave

4. Child-rearing leave

Variationof parental leave

Supplement to a maternity leave

Longer than maternity leave

Paid ata much lower level

5. Family leave

Covers reason other than birth

Can allow

o Time off from employment to care for an ill

child or other family mother

o Time to accompany a child to school for the

first time

o Time to visit a childs school

14-week maternity leaveEU : 1922

EU16 weeks of unpaid leave

US12 weeks of unpaid leave

Denmark unemployed mothers are eligible for extended

parental leave related to childbirth

Germanychild-rearing leave is available to almost all parents

Nordic countriesDenmark, Norway and Sweden

- have extensive gender-equity, family

leave policies for childbirth that emphasizes the contributors

of both men and women

VARIATIONS IN CHILD CARE

NOTE:

Increase in the number of child-care assignments

were linked to an increase in behavioral problems and a

decrease in prosocial behavior

Child-care quality makes a difference.

Infants from low-income families were more likely to

receive the lowest quality of care.

Higher quality of childcare waslinked to fewer child

problems.

HQ CHILD-CARE: EHRE

1. Encourage the children to be actively engaged.

2. Have frequent, positive interactions.

3. Respond properly to the childs questions or request.

4. Encourage children to talk about their experiences,

feelings and ideas.

5. Providing children with a safe environment

6. Access to age-appropriate toys.

7. Participation in age-appropriate activities.

8. Low caregiver-child ratio.

HOW DOES QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF CHILD CARE

AFFECT CHILDREN:

1. Patterns of use

2. Quality of care

3. Amount of child care

4. Family and parenting influences.

STRATEGIES PARENTS CAN FOLLOW IN REGARD TO

CHILD CARE:

1. Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key

factor in your childs development.

2. Monitor your childs development.

3. Take some time to find the best child care.

santrock section 3 infancy

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