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TRANSCRIPT
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Copyright©R.Palaniappan2003
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CompetencyManagement-APractitioner'sGuide
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Contents
PrefaceSectionOne:UnderstandingCompetenciesChapter1-Introduction1.Whatarecompetencies?
2.Twoterms
3.Confusion
4.Clarification
4.1Competency
4.2Competence
4.3Twomoreterms
4.4TheSMRperspective
5.Whycompetencies?
5.1Organisationalissues
5.2Employeeissues
5.3Thelinkagebetweencompetencyandperformance
6.Competencymanagement
7.TheSMRexperience
Chapter2-CompetencyModels1.Whataremodels?
1.1.Facts,inferences,andconstructs
1.2Examplesofmodels
2.Competencymodelsandfourquestions
2.1Needforacompetencymodel
2.2Strategiesformodelbuilding
2.3Availablefinancialandhumanresources
2.4Significanceofstakeholders
2.5Developingamodel
3.TheBoyatzismodelforeffectiveperformance
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3.1Competenciesandperformance
3.2Causalandassociationallinks
3.3Competencyclusters
4.Competencymodel-theSMRview
4.1TheRomanPavilioncompetencyframework
SectionTwo:CompetencyImplementationApproachChapter3-CompetencyImplementation1.Introduction
2.Gettingmanagementbuyin
2.1Getexplicitsupport
2.2Projectscopedocument
2.3Discussiononactionplan
2.4Initiatepilots
3.Implementingtheprojectplan
3.1Projectteam
3.2Establishingbusinessrules
4.Competencyprofiling
4.1Creatingthecompetencydictionary
4.2Competencymapping
4.3Competencymatrix
4.4Assessment
4.5Datamanagement
4.6Sustainingcompetencymanagement
Chapter4-SMRExperience1.SMRapproach
1.1Position
1.2Person
1.3Programmes
1.4Assessment
1.5Gapanalysis
1.6Evaluation
2.SMR'sSixstepsinimplementingcompetencyprojects
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2.1Commencement
2.2Development
2.3Pilot
2.4Rollout
2.5Linkingtoapplications
2.6Conclusion
3.Learningfromfieldexperiences
3.1Typesofusers
3.2Factorsaffectingsuccessorfailureofcompetencyproject
SectionThree1.Glossary
2.Frequentlyaskedquestions
BibliographyAboutSMR
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SectionOne:UnderstandingCompetencies
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CHAPTER1
Thischapterintroducesthetermcompetency.Thediscussionwillcoverthefollowingaspects.
Themeaningoftheterm'competency.'Theconfusionbetweentheterms'competence'and'competency.'SMR'sstandontheuseoftheseterms.Levelsofcompetency.Typesofcompetency:behavioural,functional,core,androlecompetencies.Relevanceofcompetencyframeworktoorganisationsandindividuals.Linkagebetweencompetencyandperformance.Thevariousapproachesincompetencymanagement.TheSMRexperience.
Introduction
1.Whatarecompetencies?Theterms'competencies,''competence,'and'competent'refertoastateorqualityofbeingableandfit.TheEnglishdictionarydescribestheword'competence'asthestateofbeingsuitable,sufficient,orfit.Theworkplacedefinitionof'competency'referstoaperson'sfitnesswithreferencetohisorherjob.Intheworkcontext,however,competencehastwovariationsthatdifferintheirmeaning,dependingonorganisationalframesofreference.
2.TwotermsThetwotermsarisefromdifferentstreamsofthoughtontheconceptoffitnessatwork.Theyare:
1.'Competency'whichisadescriptionofbehaviour,and2.'Competence'whichisadescriptionofworktasksorjoboutputs.
Despitethegenerallyaccepteddistinctioninmeaningasgivenabove,thetermsarestillinterchangeablyusedcausingthemtomeandifferentthingstodifferentpeople.Therearealsomanywhowonderifthereisanydifferencebetweenthetwoterms.
3.ConfusionPeopleusingthesetermsshapetheirmeaningtofittheirownconvenience.RonaldZemke'scommentsonthesetermsin1982remainvalideventoday:
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'Competency,competencies,competencymodelsandcompetency-basedtrainingareHumptyDumptywordsmeaningonlywhatthedefinerwantsthemtomean.Theproblemcomesnotfrommalice,stupidity,ormarketingavarice,butinsteadfromsomebasicproceduralandphilosophicaldifferencesamongthoseracingtodefineanddeveloptheconceptandtosetthemodelforthewaytherestofuswillusecompetenciesinourday-to-dayeffort.'
4.ClarificationLetusnowreviewthetermsastheyarecommonlyusedinpracticetoday.
4.1CompetencyCompetencyreferstounderlyingbehaviouralcharacteristicsthatdescribemotives,traits,self-concept,values,knowledgeorskillsthatasuperiorperformerbringstotheworkplace.
Accordingtothisdefinition,competenciesaremadeupofdifferenttypesofcharacteristics,whichdrivebehaviour.Theseunderlyingcharacteristicsareevidencedinthewayanindividualbehavesattheworkplace.Competenciesareaboutwhatpeopleareandcando,notwhattheydo.Thesecompetenciesareobservedinpeoplewhomaybeclassifiedaseffectiveorsuperiorperformers.Superiorperformancereferstoperformancethatisaboveaverage.Thisisusuallyattributedtothetoptenpercentofemployees.Forexample,asalespersonwithhigherachievementorientationsetschallenginggoalsandachievesthem,thisresultsingainsforthesalespersonandtheorganisation.Totakeanotherinstance,aninterpersonalcompetencywillbedemonstratedinhoweffectivelyapersongetsalongwithothermembersoftheteamattheworkplace.
Thepurposeofthisapproachwastousethecharacteristicsofsuperiorperformersastemplatesforemployeeselectionanddevelopment.Thisbuildsthebusinesscaseforusingcompetenciesbecausebetterhiringanddeploymentdecisionsarepossiblewhenweknowwhatcharacteristicsleadtosuperiorperformance.
TheconceptofcompetenciesoriginatedfromDavidMcClelland'sgroundbreakingarticle,TestingforCompetenceRatherthanIntelligence.Thearticlelaunchedthecompetencymovementinindustrialpsychology.Heconcluded,onthebasisofreviewofstudiesthattraditionalacademicaptitudeandknowledgecontenttests,aswellasschoolgradesandcredentials:
1.Didnotpredictsuccesseitherinjob/lifeand2.Weregenerallybiasedagainstthelowersocio-economicsectionsofsociety.
ThisledMcClellandtoaskwhatpredictedsuccess,ifnotintelligence?Hestartedtolookforresearchmethodsthatwouldidentifycompetencyvariables,whichwouldpredictjobperformanceandwerenotinfluencedbyfactorssuchassocioeconomicfactorsorrace.Heusedcriterionsamples,amethodthatcomparessuccessfulpeoplewiththelesssuccessfulinordertoidentifycharacteristicsassociatedwithsuccess.Thesecharacteristicsorcompetencies,whenpresentanddemonstrated,consistentlyledtosuccessfuljoboutcomes.
Thisledtovaryingdefinitionsofcompetencyofwhichthemostacceptableisthe
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followingone:'Acompetencycanbedefinedasanunderlyingcharacteristicofanindividualthatiscausallyrelatedtocriterionreferencedeffectiveand/orsuperiorperformanceinajoborsituation.'
Competenciesareunderlyingcharacteristicsofpeoplethatindicatewaysofbehavingorthinking,whichgeneraliseacrossawiderangeofsituationsandendureforlongperiodsoftime.Thereareatleastfivetermswithinthisdefinitionthatrequireunderstanding.Figure1describesthefivetypesofcharacteristicsusingan'icebergmodel'ofacompetency.
Figure1IcebergModeldescribingthecompetenciesrequiredofaprogrammer4.1.1Fivetypesofcompetencycharacteristics
1.KnowledgeThisreferstoinformationandlearningrestinginaperson,suchasasurgeon'sknowledgeofthehumananatomy.
2.SkillThisreferstoaperson'sabilitytoperformacertaintask,suchasasurgeon'sskilltoperformasurgery.
3.SelfconceptandvaluesThisreferstoaperson'sattitudes,values,orself-image.Anexampleisself-confidence,aperson'sbeliefthatheorshecanbesuccessfulinagivensituation,suchasasurgeon'sselfconfidenceincarryingoutacomplexsurgery.
4.Traits
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Traitsrefertothephysicalcharacteristicsandconsistentresponsestosituationsorinformation.Goodeyesightisanecessarytraitforsurgeons,asisself-control,theabilitytoremaincalmunderstress.
5.MotivesMotivesareemotions,desires,physiologicalneeds,orsimilarimpulsesthatpromptaction.Forexample,surgeonswithhighinterpersonalorientationtakepersonalresponsibilityforworkingwellwithothermembersoftheoperatingteam.
Motivesandtraitsmaybetermedasinitiatorsthatpredictwhatpeoplewilldoonthejobwithoutclosesupervision.
4.1.2FivekeytermsinthedefinitionWithanunderstandingofthefivetypesofcharacteristicsthatmakeupcompetencies,wecannowexplorethefivetermswithinthedefinitionofacompetency.
1.Anunderlyingcharacteristicmeansthecharacterreferredtoformsafairlydeepandenduringpartofaperson'spersonality.Inthisdefinition,itreferstomotives,traits,self-concept,andvalues.
2.Criterion-referencedmeansthatthecompetencycanbemeasuredonaspecificcriteriaorstandard.Acriterionsampleofsuperior,average,andpoorperformersaresystematicallyobservedandstudiedtounderstandwhatconstitutessuperior,average,andpoorperformance.Inthiscontext,itmeansthedemonstrationofacompetencyactuallypredictsifapersoncandosomethingwellorpoorly,asmeasuredonaspecificcriterionorstandard.Anexampleofacriterionisthesalesfigureforasalesperson.
Criterionreferenceiscriticaltothedefinitionofabehaviouralcompetency.Acharacteristicisnotacompetencyunlessitpredictssomethingmeaningful,andresultsinperformance.Ifitdoesnot,itisnotacompetencyandshouldnotbeusedtoevaluatepeople.ThispromptedpsychologistWilliamJamestocomment,'adifferencewhichmakesnodifference,isnodifference.'
3.Causalrelationshipsindicatethatthepresenceofacompetencyanditsdemonstrationpredictsorcausessuperiorperformance.Motives,traits,andself-conceptcompetenciespredictskillandactions.These,inturn,predictjobperformanceoutcomes.Competenciesalwaysincludeintent.Itisthemotivethatcausesanaction(behaviour)toleadtooutcomes.Forexample,knowledgeandskillcompetenciesalwaysaredrivenbymotive,trait,orself-conceptcompetencies.Thiscanbeexplainedusingtheexampleof'managementbywalkingabout.'Unlessweknowtheintentofamanager,i.e.,whyamanageriswalkingabout,wecannotknowifacompetencyisbeingdemonstrated.Themanagercouldbewalkingaroundtomonitorthequalityofwork,outofadesiretocoachandlead,orjustbecauseoflegcramps.
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Figure2CompetencycausalflowmodelAdaptedfromCompetenceatWorkbyLyleM.Spencer&Signe.M.Spencer
Causalflowmodelscanbeusedtoanalyserisks.Forexample,iftheorganisationdoesnotengageintheacquisitionordevelopmentofacompetencysuchasinitiativeinitsemployees,itcanexpectmoresupervision,rework,andcoststoensurequalityofservice.
4.Superiorperformanceindicatesthelevelofachievementofroughlythetoptenpercentinagivenworksituation.
5.Effectiveperformancereferstoaminimumacceptablelevelofwork.Thisisusuallyacutoffpointbelowwhichanemployeeisnotconsideredcompetenttodothejob.
4.1.3ThresholdanddifferentiatingcompetenciesThisresultedinthecategorisationofcompetenciesintotwo:
Thresholdcompetencies:Theseareessentialcharacteristicssuchasknowledgeandskillsthatoneneedstomeettheminimumrequiredlevelsinajob.Thresholdcompetencies,however,donotdifferentiatesuperiorfromaverageperformers.Differentiatingcompetencies:Theserefertofactorssuchasmotives,traits,selfconcept,andvaluesthatdistinguishsuperiorfromaverageperformers.
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Figure3DefinitionofcompetencyAdaptedfromCompetenceatWorkbyLyleM.Spencer&Signe.M.Spencer.
McClelland'sworkhasnowresultedinthedevelopmentofgenericcompetencymodels,mainlyformanagerialroles.Manyinternationalconsultingorganisationshavedevelopedcompetencymodelsforuseinorganisations.
4.1.4AcquiringordevelopingcompetencyWhattheicebergmodelimpliestoHRmanagementisthis:competenciesdifferintheextenttowhichtheycanbetaught.Skillsandknowledgeareusuallydenotedassurfacecompetenciesthatarevisible.Thesearerelativelyeasytodevelopanditiscosteffectivetotrainemployeestosecuretheseabilities.
Selfconcept,traits,andmotivecompetenciesarehiddenandthereforemoredifficulttodeveloporassess.Whilechangingmotivesandtraitsispossible,theprocessislengthy,difficult,andexpensive.Acosteffectivewayistoselectforthesecharacteristics.Thispromptedahumanresourcepractitionertosay,'Youcanteachaturkeytoclimbatree,butisofteneasiertohireasquirrel.'
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Figure4Centralandsurfacecompetencies.(AdaptedfromCompetenceatWorkbyLyleM.SpencerandSigneM.Spencer)
4.2CompetenceNow,letuslookattheotherwordthatisbeingused:competence.Itisadescriptionofworktasks.ThetermhasitsoriginsintheManagementCharterInitiative,UK,establishedin1988.
4.2.1PerformancetoindustrystandardsCompetenceisdefinedasanindividual'sabilitytodemonstrateknowledgeandskillstoprovideaproductorservicetotherequiredstandards,inagivencontext;andtheabilitytotransfertheknowledgeandskillstoanewanddifferingcontext.Putmoresimply,competencereferstotheskill,knowledge,andattitudesnecessarytoperformaparticularworktoastandardrequiredwithinindustry.
Tounderstandcompetence,weneedtoappreciatethesestandardscarefully.Theseoccupationalstandardsareendorsedeitherbythenationalindustrybodyortheorganisation.Theyexplainwhatjobholdersneedtodo,whattheyneedtoknowandhowbesttoachievestandardsthatarenationallyrecognised.Theyspecifytheknowledge,understanding,andskillsthatareessentialforeffectiveperformance.
Jobrelatedcompetencesarealsocalledthresholdcompetenciessincetheyrefertothesurfacecompetenciesofknowledgeandskills.Whiletheseknowledgeandskillsareessentialforminimumrequiredperformance,itdoesnotpredictsuperiorperformancethatdemonstrateunderlyingbehaviouralcharacteristics,suchasachievementorientation.Unlikecompetencies,whichcentreonthebehaviourofthetop10%inanorganisation,competencesrefertoknowledgeandskillsthatmeetbasicstandardssetforvariousjobs.Competencereferstowhatindividualsdointheirjobs,notwhattheyareintermsofwhatdrivesthem.
Forexample,thecompetenceexpectedofasalespersonistheabilitytowriteasales
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report.Possessingthiscompetenceensuresthatthesalespersonisabletopreparethereporttotherequiredstandard.Superiorperformancecanbesaidtooccurinthiscaseonlyifthesalespersondemonstratesunderlyingbehaviouralcharacteristicssuchasachievementorientation.
4.2.2RecognitionofpriorlearningSincecompetenceisbasedonindustrystandards,possessionofavocationalqualificationcertifiesapersontobecompetent.TheManagementCharterInitiativelaunchedoccupationalstandardsthataccreditedpriorlearning.Thissoughttoaddresstheissueofalargenumberofemployeeswithoutformaleducation.Onacquiringtheminimumacceptablelevelofcompetence,individualswereawardedvocationalqualificationsbasedonnationallyrecognisedstandards.
Inmostinstances,apersonwouldalreadyhavebeenworkingforseveralyearswhenajobcompetenceapproachisimplementedinthecompany.Insuchinstances,theemployeedoesnothavetoundergoanyfurthertrainingiftheassessorisconvincedthatthepriorlearningoftheemployeemeetsoccupationalstandards.Therearenoexaminationsinvolvedasinformaleducationalassessment.
Thisledtovariousindustries,forexample,construction,hotel,aviation,agedcare,andminingindustriesdevelopingtheirownoccupationalstandards.
4.2.3VocationalqualificationsNationalVocationalQualifications(NVQs)formaframeworkofnationallyendorsedstandardsdevelopedforeachindustrytofocusontheskillsandknowledgeusedinjobs.Theyarebasedonthefollowingaspectsofajob:
LevelofcomplexityResponsibilityAutonomy
TheseareawardedatfivelevelsofincreasingcomplexityfromLevel1to5.Level3isequatedtoacertificate,4toadiploma,and5toadegreelevel.
OtherawardingbodiesaretheCity&Guilds;theMalaysianNationalVocationalQualificationAuthority,andtheAustralianNationalTrainingAuthority.
Eveninnon-technicalareassuchastrainingandhumanresourcesmanagement,vocationalqualificationsareavailablethatrecognisepriorlearningorprovideopportunitiesforgainingaqualification.Forexample,theCharteredInstituteofPersonnel&DevelopmentintheUnitedKingdomgainedrecognitionfortheircertificatesintrainingpracticeandpersonnelpracticefromtheQualificationsandCurriculumAuthority(QCA).Withthisrecognition,trainingorpersonnelpractitionersarenowabletogainqualificationsthatarenationallyrecognisedandcompetencebased.
Manycountrieshaveadoptednationalvocationalqualificationframeworkthatuseacompetenceapproach.Thelevelofsophisticationdiffersfromcountrytocountry.InSpain,theappropriatestatutoryauthoritiescertifythelevelofcompetencewithanawardofavocationalqualification.Thisassurescustomersofacertainqualityofwork.The
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EuropeanCentreforDevelopmentofVocationalTrainingensuresconsistencyofnationalstandardsamongthevariouscountriesinEurope.
4.3TwomoretermsLetusnowreviewtwoothertermscommonlyusedastheyoriginatedandtheirrelevancetotheworldofwork:corecompetencyandrolecompetency.
4.3.1CorecompetencyThisreferstotheorganisationalproperties,usuallyabundleofskillsandtechnologies,thatcollectivelygivestheorganisationacompetitiveadvantage.
CorecompetencygainedprominencewiththeworkonstrategybyProfessorsC.K.PrahaladandGaryHamel.TheyintroducedcorecompetencyasaconceptintheirbookCompetingfortheFuture.Theydefinedcorecompetencyasabundleofskillsandtechnologiesthatenableacompanytoprovideadisproportionatelyhighvaluetocustomers.Theirworkwasmoreintheareaofstrategyratherthancompetency.Theirideaofcompetencystartswithdefiningthevision,strategy,andobjectivesoftheorganisation.
Foracompetencytobeconsidered'core',itmustmeetthreetests:
1.Customervalue:Doesitprovideadisproportionatevaluetothecustomer?2.Competitordifferentiation:Doesitdifferentiatetheorganisationfromcompetitionandmakeitmorecompetitive?
3.Extendability:Canthecorecompetencybeusedtodrivetheorganisation'ssuccessinthefuture?
PrahladandHamelcitetheexamplesofSonyandFedEx.AtSony,thevaluetothecustomerispocketability,andthecorecompetencyattributedtodeliveringthisbenefitisminiaturisation.AtFedEx,thevaluetothecustomerison-timedelivery,andthecorecompetencyislogisticsmanagement.FedExwasthefirstofthecouriercompaniestomanagetheirownfleetofplanestotransportconsignmentsinandaroundtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.AtNOKIA,thecorecompetencyisdigitalsignalprocessingandglobalcustomerservice.ThecorecompetenciesofSony,FedEx,andNOKIAhelpthemremaincompetitiveandachievemarketleadership.
Corecompetencycanbestatedasmoreofanorganisationalpropertyanditisveryunlikelytoresideinasingleindividualorasmallteam.Ifacompanywishestomanagetheircorecompetency,itmustdisaggregatecorecompetencyintotheirknowledgeandskillcomponents.
Usually,acorecompetencyisapplicabletoalljobswithinanorganisationandhencearegeneric.Theyaremostlywritteninabehaviouralframework,whichreflectexpectedbehaviours.Theyaregenericinthattheyapplytoalljobs.Butthebehaviourreflectingcorecompetenciesvarieswiththenatureofworkandassociatedresponsibilities.
AccordingtoPrahaladandHamel,tobenefitfromcorecompetencies,managementshould:
1.Identifyexistingcorecompetencyoftheorganisationthroughfocusgroup
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discussions,usuallywithseniormanagement.
2.Establishacorecompetencyacquisitionagenda.3.Buildcorecompetencythroughcontinuoustraining.4.Deploycorecompetencytomaximisecompetitiveadvantage.5.Protectanddefendcorecompetencyleadershipthroughproactivebusinessplans.
4.3.2RolecompetencyRolecompetenciesarethoseassociatedwithcontributorstoateameffort,inrolessuchasteamleadersandmembers;andmayincludemanagers,andsupervisors.Rolecompetenciesmanifestthemselvesinthefollowingareas:
ManagingpeopleManagingresourcesManaginginformationManagingactivities
Theyarerolebasedinthatthelevelsofcompetencyexpectedofaseniormanagerishigherthanthoseexpectedofamiddlemanager.
4.4TheSMRperspectiveWehavesofarseenhowthetermscompetencyandcompetencedifferintheirmeanings.Therefore,beforemovingontodiscussingcompetencymanagementanditsimplicationsonorganisationalandindividualperformance,weneedtoresolvethisissue:
Whichtermdoweuseinthisbookandwhatdowemeanbyit?
4.4.1TheconfusionandtheSMRresponseWithanunderstandingofthetermssuchascompetency,competence,corecompetency,androlecompetence,weatSMRusethefollowingtermsandmeaningsasgivenhere:
Competent:Apersonissaidtobecompetentwhenhisorherlevelofcompetence(suitability/ability)isrecognisedandverifiedbyacommunityofpractitioners.Competency:Referstoovert(visible)characteristicslikeknowledgeandskillsandunderlying(hidden)characteristicssuchasattitudes,motives,traits,self-concept,andvaluesthatdriveperformancetopre-determinedstandards.
Thepurposeofdefiningthesetermsistoadoptapracticalapproachratherthanengageinatheoreticaldebate.Thisstandenablesustoeitherfocusonthresholdcompetencies(knowledgeandskills)ortheunderlyingcharacteristicscausallyrelatedtosuperiorperformance,dependingontheorganisationalneedsandculture.
4.4.2LevelsofcompetencyCompetenciesrelatetovariouslevelsintheorganisation:
Organisationallevel
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PositionallevelIndividuallevel
4.4.3TypesofcompetencyFurthertoourdefinitionofcompetencies,SMRfollowsthefollowingclassification:
1.Corecompetencies:Theycorrespondtotheorganisationallevel.WefollowthesamedefinitionastheoneprovidedbyHamelandPrahlad.
2.Functionalcompetencies:Theydescribetheworktasksandoutputs,i.e.,knowledgeandskillsneededtoperformajob.Theycorrespondtopositionallevel.
3.Behaviouralcompetencies:Theyrefertotheunderlyingcharacteristicsneededtoperformajobandcorrespondtotheindividuallevel.
4.Rolecompetencies:Theycorrespondtothepositionallevelandrefertotherolesperformedbyteamcontributors.
5.Whycompetencies?Weneedcompetentpeopletoachieveresultsefficientlyandeffectively.Inaworldthatisdominatedbytheservicesector,theimportanceofhumancapitalcannotbeoverlooked.Wedependonthecompetencyofpeopletogenerateareturnoninvestmentontheuseofphysicalandtechnologicalresources.Toalargeextent,humancapitaldefinedastheskill,dexterity,andknowledgeofthepopulation,hasbecomethecriticalinputindeterminingeconomicgrowthtoday.Organisationsneedtosystematicallypursuecompetencyacquisitionanddevelopment.
Thefollowingissuesstrengthenthecasefororganisationstofocusoncompetencies:
5.1OrganisationalissuesWorldeconomyismarkedbyrapidchangesandtechnicalinnovation.Organisationsneedtocontinuallyupgradetheiremployeecompetenciestoperformandsucceed.Thereisanintensefocusonperformancewhichcanonlybeachievedbyinvestinginacompetentworkforce.Everyonedesiresperformance.WhatBillGateshasremarkedonMicrosoft'sneedtoperformconsistentlytoremainsuccessfulandrelevantintheneweconomy,appliesequallytootherorganisations.Organisationalaspirationsatthemarketplacecanonlyberealisedbyaworkforcethatismulti-skilled,mobileacrossjobs,andhighonself-esteem.Dissatisfactionwiththequalityofeducationhasledindustrytotakeupeducationandtrainingtomaintainawork-readyworkforce.Havingauniformunderstandingofcompetenciesintheorganisationallowsforacommonlanguagefordescribingeffectiveness.Flowingfromthepointdiscussedabove,organisationscanbenefitfromahighlevelofconsistencywhenassessingemployeeperformance,sinceassessmentisbasedoncommonlyheldandreferablecompetencies.Last,butnottheleast,thequalitymovementrequiresorganisationstoensuretheiremployeesarecompetent.Formostindustries,insurancecompaniesaredemanding
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evidenceofcompetency,theabsenceofwhichresultsindramaticallyincreasedpremiums.Oneofourcustomerswasfacedwiththeunfortunatepositionofhavingamajoraccidentattributedtotheincompetenceofitsstaff.Theinsurancecompaniesimmediatelyraisedthepremiums.Competenciesalsosupportastrategicintentonthepartoforganisationsandnations.TheexampleofSingaporetryingtobuildcorecompetencyinthefinancialservicesisacaseinpoint.ThecountryembarkeduponasystematicacquisitionofcompetencebyencouragingcompetentfinancialservicespersonnelfromvariouscountriestomigratetoSingapore.Thegovernmentalsoputinplaceasystematicdevelopmentplantodevelopcorecompetencyinthefinancialservicesfield.Similarly,MalaysiaimplementedtheMultimediaSuperCorridortodevelopcompetencyintheinformationtechnologyfield.
5.2EmployeeissuesDevelopingcompetenciesisnotonlyintheinterestoforganisations.Changesaffectingtheworldofworkshowsthatitholdssignificanceforemployeesaswell.
Inahighlyunpredictableworld,organisationsareexperiencingmajorchallenges.Hugelossesofjobshavetakenplace,muchmorethanthenewjobscreated,resultinginunemployment.Theconceptofemploymentitselfisundergoingchange;employmentisnolongerforalifetime:itisonlyforaslongasone'sskillsarerelevanttothebusinessenvironment.Toremainemployable,peopleneedtobeskillednotonlyinoneareaofspecialisation,butmany.Thisrequireswhatisbeingnowcalledasmultiskillingormultitasking.Inbranchbanking,tellersaretrainedtodomultipletasks.Intheaviationindustry,pilotsaretrainedtoflydifferenttypesofaircrafts.Competencyinjustoneareabecomesirrelevantwithchangingcircumstancessuchasgrowthorchangeinaworkprocess.Ifemployeesareunabletoremainrelevantbylearningandperforming,theywillexperiencethe'PeterPrinciple'inoperation.TheprincipleputforwardbyDr.LaurencePeterandRaymondHullsatirisedpromotiontothelevelofincompetenceintheirbookThePeterPrinciple.Ihavehadtheexperienceofwitnessingthisinmanyorganisations.Inaninsurancecompany,averysuccessfulsalespersonwaspromotedtoamanagerialposition.Afterthepromotion,theorganisationfoundthatthenewsalesmanagerwasnotabletoperformtoexpectations.Thecharacteristicsthatmadethepersonaneffectivesalespersonwerenotthecharacteristicsneededtobeaneffectivesalesmanagerintheinsurancecompany.Wepromotepeopleonthebasisoftheirpastresultsratherthanthecompetenciesrequiredinthenewpositions.Thisresultsinexpensivemistakessuchasfrustratedemployees,highturnovers,andpoordecision-making.Onecancitenumerousexamplesinindustry,government,non-profitorganisations,anduniversities.
Thoughtheeconomicfaceofthecompetencymovementfocusingonperformanceandemployabilitysuggeststhatitisanewthing,itisnot.Ithasnotbeenlongsincetheconceptofcompetenciescametotheforeinthebusinessworld.ButtheconceptofcompetencieshasbeenwovenintotheAsiansocialfabricforcenturies.
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5.3ThelinkagebetweencompetencyandperformanceToday,thereisgeneralconsensusontheimportanceofcompetencies.Thequestionthenis,'IsCompetencyenoughforPerformance?'ThoughsomegivetheimpressionthatcompetencyofanindividualwillresultinperformancebystatingsimplythatC=P,theSMRpositionisthatthoughcompetencyisessentialforperformance,itisnotbyitselfadequateforeffectiveperformanceinajob.
Performanceismorethanafunctionofmotivationandability.Itisinfluencedbytheorganisationalenvironment,thatincludesprocessesandsystems.Thisconclusionisbasedonthefactthatindividualknowledge,skill,andmotivation,bythemselves,donotleadtosuperiorperformance.Atbest,itonlyleadstoeffective(minimalrequirement)performance.Thelackofabilityisusuallyaddressedbydevelopmentalinterventions,whiletheissueofmotivationismanagedbyattendingtotheenvironmentinwhichworkiscarriedout.Organisationsprovideemployeeswithsupportiveleadership,developmentopportunities,adequateautonomy,andwell-designedincentivestoprovideanenvironmentthatwillcreateandsustainemployeemotivation.
Unlesstheworld'sbestengineerismotivated,heorsheisnotgoingtoperformtoworld-classstandards.Thepossessionofafunctionalcompetencysuchasengineeringexpertiseensuresapersonisabletodothejob,butthereisnoguaranteethatthiswillresultinsuperiorperformance.Asupportiveorganisationalenvironmentisequallysignificantinensuringthatapersonwhoisinherentlymotivatedanddriventoachievementcanfullyleveragetheseunderlyingstrengths.Often,itisnottheabsenceofcompetency,buttheinabilitytouseitthatlimitsperformance.Theinabilitycouldbeduetojobdemandsbeyondemployeecapability,lackofmotivation,oranorganisationalenvironmentthatisnotsupportive.
6.CompetencymanagementOrganisationswhounderstandthethoughtprocessesbehindthedifferenttypesofcompetencyapproachesdevelopabusinesscaseforimplementingcompetencies.Competencymanagementmaybedescribedasthecapturing,assessing,andreportingthecompetencylevelsofemployeestoensurethatthebusinesshasthehumanresourcestoimplementstrategy.
Therearethreemainapproachesincompetencymanagement:
Competencyacquisition:Theorganisationmakesaconsciousanddeliberateefforttoacquirethecompetenciesneededforbusinessgrowthandexpansion.Competencydevelopment:Competencylevelofexistingemployeesisraisedthroughsustaineddevelopmentprogrammes.Competencydeployment:Employeesaredeployedtovariouspositionsintheorganisationbasedonbestperson-positionfit.
7.TheSMRexperienceIdescribetheSMRexperienceusingfourtimebands:1978to1993,1993to1998,1998to2000and2000topresent.Eachtimebandledtosignificantlearningexperiencesthathelpedusformulateourownapproachtowardscompetencymanagement.Whilewe
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learned,therewerechangeshappeningontheorganisationalfront.
From1978to1993Ourexperienceinhumanresourcedevelopment,particularlytraining,extendswaybackto1978.Ourcompetencyadventurestartedonlyin1993,twentyyearsafterMcClellandpublishedhisarticleTestingforCompetenceRatherthanIntelligencewhichsetoffthecompetencymovement.Despitemypersonalbackgroundinindustrialpsychology,Iwasnotinitiallytakenupwiththecompetenciesframework.MycolleaguesandIusedtodebateonthemeritsofthebehaviouralapproachwhichfocusedonunderlyingcharacteristicsthatresultedinsuperiorperformance.
ThiswasmainlybecauseIconsideredtheAsiancontextasverydifferentfromtheAmericansituationwhere'employersofchoice'hadtheoptionofahugepooloftalentthatalreadypossessedtheminimumrequiredqualification.ButtheAsiansituationwasoneofenablingtheschoolleaverstobeworkready.TheeducationalinfrastructurewasverydifferentfromtheAmericanorEuropeansituation.IndustryinAsiahadtopreparepeopletobereadyforwork,ratherthansettargetsforsuperiorperformance.Towardsthis,theywereinvolvednotonlyintraining,butinsomecasesevenbuildingupbasicliteracylevelsandnumericskills.Asianeededthebasicskillsfirstbeforeembarkingupondrivestoengineersuperiorperformance.
Whilewewerefocusingonskillsdevelopment,anopportunitypresenteditselfatthe1993conferenceofAsianRegionalTrainingandDevelopmentOrganisation(ARTDO)inJakarta,whereIwaspresentingapaper.There,Ihadtheopportunityofpreviewinganoutstandingfunctionalcompetencysoftware.Itwasbasedonoccupationalstandards,whichlinkedtooureffortsonskillsdevelopment.Itsparkedoffanideatodistributethesoftware.
1994to1998WecontractedtodistributethecompetencysoftwareinSouthEastAsia.ThesoftwareinstallationshelpedusgainafirsthandknowledgeofwhatorganisationsweredoingaroundtheAsianregion.OurlinkswiththeInstituteofTraining&Development,UnitedKingdom,gaveusanopportunitytostudythedevelopmentsinthefieldofcompetencyintheUKasappliedintrainingaswellasotherfields.
Aroundthistime,therewasmuchconfusionamongpractitioners.Arecompetenciesbehaviourbasedortaskbased?Thedebateon'whatcompetenciesare'resultedinthepurposeofcompetencyimplementationorthebusinesscaseforcompetenciesbeingforgotten.
OurinterestsinitiallyweredovetailedwiththeUKcompetencemovementwhichfocusedondevelopingaworkforcethatcouldmeetminimumrequiredworkstandards.Weweretakenupbythefunctionalframeworkduetoourownemphasisondevelopmentofknowledgeandskillsthroughourtrainingprogrammes.Thesoftwareenabledustorecordandreporttheleveloffunctionalcompetencyeffectively.
Evenatthispoint,manyoftheAsiangovernmentswereonlykeenonequippingtheworkforcewithvocationalqualificationsduetoalargenumberofyoungpeoplewhowereeitheruninterestedinorunabletopursueacollegeeducation.
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1999to2000AstheAsianeconomiesprogressedrapidlyintheearlypartofthe1990s,theissueofhighperformingorganisationsdominatedtheorganisationalscene.Thefocusnowwasnotjusthavingtechnicallycompetentpeoplebutalsoasuperiorperformingworkforce.Werealisedtheimportanceofbuildingintegratedcompetencymodels.
Atthistime,twoimportantdevelopmentsinfluencedustofocusmoreoncompetencyframeworksandmodels.Onewasthereleaseofthebookfocusingoncorecompetenceindicatingcompetenciescanalsobedevelopedattheorganisationallevel.Secondwasourdecisiontodevelopourownsoftwarethatcouldaccommodateintegratedcompetencymodels,whichiscoveredindetailintheimplementationchapter.Initially,wedevelopedthesoftwareinAustraliatotapintothehugeknowledgerepositoryavailablethere.ThehugecostsofdevelopmentthereforcedustomovetoIndiaandthentoMalaysia.Eventually,wedevelopedHRDPower—inouropinionastateoftheartcompetencysoftware—whichhelpsacceleratetheimplementationofcompetenciesinorganisations.
Duringthisperiod,wefinetunedourcompetencyapproachbasedonourconsultingexperienceswithmanyorganisations.WewillsharetheSMRframeworkandourexperiencesindetailinthechapteronimplementation.
2001topresentDuringthelastthreeyears,wehavehadtheopportunityofworkingwithasmanyas35organisationsfromsophisticatedtonoviceusers.Eachexperiencewasaveryvaluableone.Howeverwemusthighlightthefollowingorganisationsfortheexperiencewegained:
MatsushitaAirConditioningNationalDrillingCorporationMalaysianShipyardEngineeringTenagaNasionalBerhadGenerationUniversityMalayaMedicalCentreTenagaNasionalBerhadEngineeringPanPacificHotelsWorldwideFree
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