salinity in lake kinneret (the sea of galilee) its history ......present along the dead sea rift....
TRANSCRIPT
Salinity in Lake Kinneret
(the Sea of Galilee) –
Its History, Environmental
Challenges, and Management
Alon RimmerIsrael Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd., the
Lake Kinneret Limnological Laboratory.
Mount of Beautitud - Dubi Tal and Moni Haramati
Lake Kinneret….Standing atop the Mount
of Beatitudes and observing
the landscape at its feet, it
becomes clear why it was
here, and not anywhere else,
that Christ gave his famed
sermon……
Lake Kinneret salinity in peer reviewed journals- special example
Lake Kinneret, Sea of Galilee, Israel• The most important surface water
resource in Israel,
• Lake Kinneret provides
approximately 35% of the annual
drinking water, through the National
Water Carrier (NWC).
• The area of the Lake Kinneret
Watershed is ~2730 km2, where
~2000 km2 are in Israel, and the rest
of the area is in Syria and Lebanon.
• The average area of the LK surface
is 166 km2, the average volume is
4,100 Mm3, the average annual
available water is ~470 Mm3, and the
average residence time is ~8.3
years. m3 = 0.000810713 ac*ft ; Mm3 = 810.713 ac*ft ; 470 Mm3 = 381,035.11 ac*ft ; About 0.25 of the CAP
Water supplyFishing
Lake Kinneret usages
Recreation and
tourist attraction
Lake Kinneret
Level
The natural water
sources of Israel
Mountain Aquifer
North and East (325)
(70)
(110)Western Galilee
(25)Carmel Aquifer
Coastal Aquifer (250)
Mountain Aquifer west (350)
(600)Galilee and Lake
Kinneret
Annual averages [million m3]
* sum: 1740
* runoff : 30
* Treated waste water 450
• in use 300
• Desalinization: 500
Mountain Aquifer west
(saline - 10)
Negev Aquifer
Arava Aquifer
NWCSapir
The National Water Carrier (NWC)
Sapir Site
NWC Canal
Inflow of saline springs into Lake
Kinneret (Israel)•The salinity of Lake Kinneret (190-
300 ppm Cl-), is significantly higher
than the salinity of the water from
the surface streams that flow to the
lake (10-40 ppm Cl-).
•The relatively high salinity of the
lake is a result of the activity of
saline springs located near the
shoreline, and offshore springs at
the bottom of the lake.
•The salinity of LK is considered as
a major environmental problem in
Israel, and reducing it is of high
interest.
The annual average and standard deviations of water and chloride balances of Lake Kinneret 1987–2010
(1)
(2)
(3)(4)
(5)
(6)(9)
(8)
(7)
(10)
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009
salinity
Salin
ity (
mg C
l/lit
er)
(11)
(12)
12
The history of Lake Kinneret salinity
measurements
1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.
2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;
3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;
4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing
to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.
5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%
compared to an average year).
6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.
7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.
8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.
9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.
10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.
11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.
[Cl-] mass exported from Lake Kinneret[C
l-]
10
6k
g
25000
50000
75000
100000
125000
150000
1968
-1969
1969
-1970
1970
-1971
1971
-1972
1972
-1973
1973-1
974
1974
-1975
1975
-1976
1976
-1977
1977-1
978
1978-1
979
1979-1
980
1980-1
981
1981
-1982
1982-1
983
1983-1
984
1984
-1985
1985
-1986
1986-1
987
1987-1
988
1988-1
989
1989-1
990
1990-1
991
1991-1
992
1992-1
993
1993-1
994
1994
-1995
1995-1
996
1996-1
997
1997
-1998
1998-1
999
1999
-2000
2000-2
001
2001
-2002
2002-2
003
2003
-2004
2004-2
005
YEAR
• Annual chloride export is 330 million m3. Assuming averageconcentration of 230 mgCl/L it sums up to 75,900 106 kg
What happened to
the salinity of the
Coastal Aquifer
[Cl-] concentration in the Coastal
Aquifer •The Cl concentration in the coastal
aquifer is 50 – 600 mg/l. This salinity
increase annually with 1 mg/l.
•The irrigation with the relatively high Lake
Kinneret water, and the strong evaporation
processes in the region adds significantly
to the salinization of the aquifer
•Domestic use usually adds 100 mg/l of Cl
to the waste water.
•Irrigation with treated waste water, and
the techniques of storing them in ground
water (SHAFDAN project) adds salinity to
groundwater
•Regular waste water treatment plants do
not remove salinity from the water, and
therefore waste water are usually more
saline than original Lake Kinneret water.
Note that the
more saline
areas are in
the east of
the aquifer,
which is far
from the sea
shore
16
[Cl-] concentration changes in the
Coastal Aquifer 1950-2008C
l co
ncen
trati
on
mg
/L
Year
Right: Map of lakes from the
past (20,000 years ago) and
present along the Dead Sea
Rift. Maximum coverage of
Lake Lisan, with salinity of
100 to 300 g\liter. Maximum
lake level was about 180
meters below sea level, for
few thousand years.
Left: Salinity and flow
directions during the stage
that Lisan level was 180
meters below sea level. The
development of salinity profile
within 1200 meters deep
bedrock, for 3,000 years as a
result of the penetration of
high salinity water from the
surface. Bottom: 17,000
years since withdrawn Lake
Lisan.
What is the source of the solutesA A’
Lake Kinneret is a fresh water lake
“floating” on a solute groundSalinity measured using TDEM at
different depths (5, 10 15 and 20
meters) below the bottom of the Sea
of Galilee in 1999. Red indicates the
high salinity of ~10,000 mg/liter, and
blue indicates the relative washed
areas where salinity is less than 500
mg/liter. Black dots indicate the
points at which the survey was
conducted.
Hurwitz, S., Stanislavsky, E., Lyakhovsky, V., & Gvirtzman, H.
(2000). Transient groundwater-lake interactions in a continental
rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
112(11), 1694-1702.
Hurwitz, S., Goldman, M., Ezersky, M., & Gvirtzman, H. (1999).
Geophysical (time domain electromagnetic model) delineation of
a shallow brine beneath a freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee,
Israel. Water Resources Research, 35(12), 3631-3638.
GFM
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How water and solutes flow into
Lake Kinneret? (side view)
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20
How water and solutes flow
into Lake Kinneret? (top view)
Practices to reduce Lake Kinneretsalinity
1. Capture the most saline springs in the west side of the lake and divert it around the lake to the Lower Jordan River (the saline water carrier SWC)
2. Pump the saline water near the lake directly from the aquifer, and direct it to the SWC.
3. Study the mechanism of salinization and decide on water management rules that will minimize lake salinization.
1. The saline
water carrier
(SWC)
2. Pump the
saline water
directly to the
SWC
Gravitational flow model (GFM)
Self potential model (SPM)
maximal level
low level
maximal level
low level
maximal level
low level
maximal level
low level
Dry winter Low runoff
Low lake level
Small dilution
with saline
discharge
low lake
level
small hydraulic
pressure on the
brine
High discharge
from saline
springs
Lake Salinity
increase
3. Study the mechanism of salinization
24
Lake Salinity increase
Self potential model (SPM)-
Major arguments 1. Fresh groundwater levels in the Eastern
Galilee (west of the lake) make a
counterbalance to the driving pressure
and therefore should not be decreased.
Consequently, pumping of groundwater
from this area should be limited.
2. The lake level should not be reduced
below a prescribed level. Lowering the
water levels in both the lake and adjacent
aquifers will increase the hydraulic
gradient between the saline water and
lake, and thus intensive seepage of saline
water through the lake sediments will take
place.
Gravitational flow model (GFM)
Major arguments
1. The flow of saline springs depends
on a ~ 100-m head difference
between aquifers in the Eastern
Galilee and Lake Kinneret, and
therefore the 1–4 m change in the
lake water level has negligible effect
on this flow.
2. Reduced hydraulic heads in deep
aquifers in the Galilee will lead to
reduction of the pressure applied on
the deep saline reservoir, and
therefore salt flux into the lake will
decrease.
The implications of the SPM-GFM
arguments on operational decisions
1. The SPM theory was dominating.
2. Pumping of groundwater from the Eastern
Galilee area was limited by the Israeli Water
Authority for four decades (1960–2000).
3. The lake level should not be reduced below
a prescribed “red line,” which was posed for
many years on − 212 m, and later on − 213
m a.m.s.l.
New studies in 1995–2000
A series of studies during the years 1995–
2000 came up with an important
understanding that the GFM mechanism
controls the discharge of the saline
springs. These findings resulted in the
decision to lower the “red line” during
1999–2001 without the fear of enhanced
salinization.
Incoming monthly solute mass vs
lake level for the years 1969-2000
Incoming monthly solute
mass increase with
increased lake level
-215.5
-215.0
-214.5
-214.0
-213.5
-213.0
-212.5
-212.0
-211.5
-211.0
-210.5
-210.0
-209.5
-209.0
-208.5
-208.0
1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Le
ve
l (m
)
Year
National Water carrier
-208.9
B. -212.0
C. -213.0
D. -214.87
A
Over decades the Water Authority's
policy was dictated by the SPM. The
“red line” of the lake was determined
by law, and pumping groundwater in
the eastern Galilee was prohibited.
Lake Kinneret level
and the Red Line
(1)
(2)
(3)(4)
(5)
(6)(9)
(8)
(7)
(10)
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009
salinity
Salin
ity (
mg C
l/lit
er)
(11)
(12)
31
Understanding the historic salinity
pattern of Lake Kinneret
1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.
2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;
3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;
4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing
to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.
5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%
compared to an average year).
6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.
7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.
8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.
9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.
10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.
11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.
Lake Salinity Model (LSM)
1. Rimmer, A. (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret
Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281/3
pp. 177-190.
2. Rimmer A., M. Boger, Y. Aota and M. Kumagai, 2006. A Lake
as a Natural Integrator of Linear Processes: Application to
Lake Kinneret (Israel) and Lake Biwa (Japan). Journal of
Hydrology, 319/1-4, pp. 163-175.
Sout: Cl outflow
from pumps and
water release
The Lake Salinity Model (LSM)
Cl and water inflow from saline springs
Cl and water
inflows from
surface sources
Sin
InputOutput
It is assumed that the
lake is completely mixed
Lakesolute flux
through the
outlet of the
lake is
proportional
with solute
storage
Schematic lake salinity response to change in solute inflow (Sin)
t0
Sin
So
lute
mass i
n t
he l
ake,
S S0
Sin1Sin0
t (year)
Sudden drop in solute inflows (operation of the SWC) will cause an exponential decrease of solute mass and salinity. The full change takes ~25 years
solute inflow
year
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
So
lute
in
flu
x (
106
kg
)
50
100
150
200
250
Average Cl inflows 1964-2000Calculated annual Cl inflows
Step function starting in 1964
Diverted to the SWC
The actual step change in solute inflow (Sin) starting in 1964
Model result for 1964-87
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
sa
lin
ity
(pp
m C
l-)
So
lute
ma
ss
(10
9k
g)
year
S0=1,550 106 kg
q=0.127
Sin=95106 kg
Model
Measured
The reduction in solute mass and salinity between 1964 and
1987 is an obvious result of the operation of the SWC in 1964
Schematic lake salinity response to gradual change in water inflow (Qin)
Qin
So
lute
ma
ss
in
th
e la
ke
, S
S0
Qin0
t (Year)
Gradual decrease in
water inflows will
cause an non linear
increase of solute mass
and salinity.
The actual gradual change in water inflow (Qin) since 1951
Annual exchange of water in the lake is reducing
continuously in the last 60 years
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1951/52 1961/62 1971/72 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12
An
nu
al d
isch
arg
e (
Mm
3)
Year
Available Water
AW = -3.54xYear + 576.55
Changes in solute mass in Lake
Kinneret 1963-2010
Year
So
lute
mass i
n t
he l
ake (
To
n) S0=1,655,000 ton
q= -0.0011 x year+ 2.319
Sin=107,000 ton
Measured
Model
Step change in solute inflows
Increase in salinity is
controlled by a constant
reduction in the quantity
of water that enters the
lake
Decrease in salinity
is controlled by a
step-change in the
quantity of incoming
solute (salt carrier
operation)
1964
7.50E+05
8.50E+05
9.50E+05
1.05E+06
1.15E+06
1.25E+06
1.35E+06
1.45E+06
1.55E+06
1.65E+06
1.75E+06
1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010
Conclusions• Salinity changes are the full lake salinity response to both
gradual reduction in water inflows and step reduction of solute inflows
• Since the middle of the 1980s a slow increase in lake salinity is observed as a result of reduced amount of inflows (and outflows).
• During the the 1980s the influence of the reducing water inflows became more significant than the effect of the step reduction of solute, 20 years earlier.
• We are now witness of the gradual increase of lake salinity due to the continuous reduction of inflows
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.35
1.45
1.55
1.65
1.75
1962 1972 1982 1992 2002שנה
חלמ
ר וג
א)
וןט
ן יולמ
(
ג
S0=1,655,000 tonא
q= -0.0011 x שנה +
2.319
Sin=107,000 ton
Predictions of future lake salinity:
Example• The salinity of the lake is expected to increase
significantly if reduction of inflows will continue
Lake Kinneret salinity
120
170
220
270
320
370
420
470
520
570
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
year
Lak
e K
inn
ere
t sa
lin
ity (
mg
Cl/l)
Predicted C_LAKEClake calculatedC_LAKEClake+ErrorsClake-Errors
(1)
(2)
(3)(4)
(5)
(6)(9)
(8)
(7)
(10)
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009
salinity
ת רכנ
הת
חולי
מ(
גכמ
(ל" (11)
(12)
42
The historic
record of lake
salinity during
1950-1964
1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.
2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;
3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;
4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing
to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.
5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%
compared to an average year).
6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.
7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.
8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.
9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.
10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.
11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.
Few more questions
• Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased
during the 1950?
• How it is connected to the LSM theory?
• How it is connected to the “Red Line”
policy?
Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased
during the 1950?Various academic references noted that the 50's and
beginning of the 60’s were relatively dry, and
therefore relatively little fresh water reached the a
lake and caused increased salinization.
/ דוח הידרו. ומאפייניה ההידרולוגים העיקריים2010/2011סיכום עונת הגשמים . 2011, השרות ההידרולוגי
.ירושלים. 2011/07
Is this a complete explanation?Calculations from 1 October 1954 to 1 October 1962
suggest additional solute inflows during this period. From
solute balance calculations, it is possible that during this
8-year period, the input of solutes to the lake increased
to an annual average of ~ 168,000 t of Cl−, i.e., 8,000 t
higher than any calculated average measured since
1960 (see details in the solute balance section).
maximal level
low level
maximal level
low level
maximal level
low level
low lake
level
small hydraulic
pressure on the
brine
High discharge
from saline
springs
Lake
Salinity
increase
Lets test the LSM and GFM through the
eyes of the decision makers at that time:
All conditions to support the SPM were filled: low lake
level, relatively high solutes flow, and increasing salinity!
Conclusion: The lake level drop should be limited in
order to prevent increased solutes input – a red line is
required!
Self potential model (SPM)
During the 1950s, the State
of Israel carried out intensive
research on the Lake
Kinneret salinity, in
preparation to develop and
operate the NWC. As part of
this research effort, at least
60 new boreholes (IHS
database) were drilled in the
region of the west coast of
the lake, from which at least
28 boreholes were drilled
offshore in the bottom of the
lake.
However,
טבחה
פוליה
טבריה
What was the result of drilling
dozens of wells in and around the
Lake Kinneret?Massive drilling during the 1950s
resulted in a temporary
disturbance to the steady
hydrological system of the lake-
aquifer and a temporary increase
in solute flux to the lake (~ 2,000 t
Cl− per offshore borehole). The
effect of these boreholes faded
throughout the years after they
were abandoned,
artificially blocked, or clogged by
natural sedimentation in the lake.
Summary• Since the operation of the “National Water Carrier” in
1964, the Lake Kinneret salinity causes major environmental problem. The following two aspects were discussed:
• Description of the case study: (1) the lake salinity as a source of solute export by the Israeli water supply system; (2) the hydrogeological causes for lake salinity; (3) history of salinity measurements;
• Management and operational aspects: (1) the proposed mechanisms of lake salinization, and the determination of ‘red line’ policy to ensure minimum allowed lake level; (2) a complete mixing type model to predict the future salinity of the lake; (3) summary of the current knowledge and operation of Lake Kinneret salinity. (4) Is there a justification for the ‘red line’ policy from the salinization point of view?
• Abbo H, Shavit U, Markel D, Rimmer A (2003) A Numerical Study on the Influence of Frac-tured Regions on Lake/Groundwater Interaction; the Lake Kinneret
Case. Journal of Hydrology, 283/1-4 pp 225-243
• Assouline S (1993) Estimation of lake hydrologic budget terms using the simultaneous solution of water, heat, and salt balances and a Kalman filtering approach
- application to Lake Kinneret. Water Resources Research, 29(9): 3041-3048
• Bergelson G, Nativ R, Bein A (1998) Assessment of hydraulic parameters in the aquifers sur-rounding and underlying Lake Tiberias. Ground Water 36: 409-417
• Goldman M, Gvirtzman H, Hurwitz S (2004) Mapping of saline groundwater beneath the Sea of Gallilee and its vicinity using the Domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
geophysical technique. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences. 53: 187-197
• Gvirtzman H, Garven G, Gvirtzman G (1997) Hydrogeological modeling of the saline hot springs at the Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water Resources Research, 33(5):
913-926
• Hurwitz S., Goldman M, Ezersky M, Gvirtzman H (1999) Geophysical (time domain electro-magnetic model) delineation of a shallow brine beneath a freshwater
lake. The Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water resources research, 35, 3631-3638
• Hurwitz S, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000a) Transient salt transport modeling of a shallow brine beneath a fresh water lake, the Sea of Galilee. Water
Resources Research, 36: 101-107
• Hurwitz S, Stanislavsky E, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000b) Transiet groundwater-lake interactions in a continental rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological
Society of America Bulletin, 112: 1694-1702
• Issar AS (1993) Recharge and salination processes in the carbonate aquifers in Israel. Environmental Geology, 21, 152-159
• Katz A, Nishri A (2013) Calcium, magnesium and strontium cycling in stratified, hardwater lakes: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 105, :372–394
• Klein Ben-David, Saas E, Katz A (2004). The evolution of marine evaporitic brines in Inland Basins: The Jordan-Dead Sea Rift valley. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 68:1763-1775
• Kolodny Y, Katz A, Starinsky A, Moise T, Simon E (1999). Chemical tracing of salinity sources in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Limnology and
Oceanography 44:1035-1044
• Mazor E, Mero F (1969) Geochemical tracing of mineral resources in the Lake Tiberias basin, Israel. J. Hydrol, 7:276-317
• Mero F (1978) Hydrology, In: C. Serruya [Ed.], Lake Kinneret, Monographiae Biologicae, Dr. W Junk, pp. 88-102
• Mero F, Simon E (1992) The simulation of chloride inflows into Lake Kinneret. J. Hydrol., 138: 345-360
• Nishri A, Stiller M, Rimmer A, Geifman Y, Krom M (1999) Lake Kinneret, The Sea of Galilee): The effects of diversion of external salinity sources and the probable
chemical composition of the internal salinity sources. Chemical Geology 158: 37-52
• Rimmer A (2000) The Influence of lake level on the discharge of the Kinneret saline springs. Advances in Limnology. 55:55-67
• Rimmer A (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281(3):177-190.
• Rimmer A (2007) System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science.
56:1–17
• Rimmer A, Gal G (2003) The saline springs in the solute and water balance of Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal of Hydrology, 284(1-4):228-243
• Rimmer A, Hartmann A (2012) Simplified conceptual structures and analytical solutions for groundwater discharge using reservoir equations. Chapter 10 in
InTech Open Access book, "Water Resources Management and Modeling", ISBN 978-953-51-0246-5
• Rimmer A, Aota Y, Kumagai M, Eckert W (2005) Chemical stratification in thermally stratified lakes: A chloride mass balance model. Limnol. Oceanogr. 50:147-157
• Rimmer A (2007). System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science.
56: 1–17.
• Rimmer A, Givati A, Samuels R, Alpert P (2011) Using ensemble of climate models to evaluate future water and solutes budgets in Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal
of Hydrology 410:248–259.
• Rimmer A, Hurwitz S, Gvirtzman H (1999) Spatial and temporal characteristics of saline springs: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Ground Water, 37(5): 663-673
• Simon E, Mero F (1992) The salinization mechanism of Lake Kinneret. Journal of Hydrology, 138: 327-343
• Starinsky A (1974) Relationships between Ca-chloride brines and the sedimentary rocks in Israel. PhD thesis. The Hebrew University Jerusalem (in Hebrew:
English Summary).
• Stiller M (1994) The chloride content of pore water of Lake Kinneret sediments. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 43:179-185
• Stiller M, Carmi I, Munnich KO (1975) Water transport through Lake Kinneret sediments traced by tritium, Earth Palent.Sci. Lett. 25:297-304
• Stiller M, Rosenbaum JM, Nishri A (2009) The origin of brines underlying Lake Kinneret. Chemical Geology 262 309-325
• Rimmer, A. and A. Nishri, 2014. “Salinity” Chap. 8 in “Lake Kinneret – Ecology and Management”.Zohary T., Sukenik A., Berman T. and, Nishri A. [eds]. Springer,
Heidelberg.
Lake Kinneret salinity in peer reviewed journals (incomplete list)
Thank you