safety note final

8/20/2019 Safety Note Final

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/safety-note-final 1/56

NOTE

On

ENGINEERING SAFETY(BEG 468 CI)

BACHELOR IN CIVIL ENGINEERINGIV Year, I Part (Seventh Semester

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY ENGINEERING.

1.1 Introduction to Safety Engineering and its scope.

In engineering fields, many small and big works are to be executed. For the execution of these

works, skill and unskilled men power along with the various machines, tools and equipments are

employed. Machines are used much these days to increase the efficiency of the work. Along with

the utilization of various machines, tools and equipments, the number of accidents is also

increasing. It is the fact that where safety ends, the accidents start.

An accident can be defined as an unplanned or unexpected occurrence which offsets the plan

sequence of events and actions resulting in loss of production, injury to the person and damage to

the plants. To prevent any loss due to accident, safety should be given due consideration. Safety

engineering deals with the conducting or supervising of something especially to executive functions



of Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, controlling and Supervising any

industrial or business project or activities with responsibility for others.

Safety engineering education can furnish engineers the reason for and methods of accomplishing

safe systems and indeed general safety education can improve safety attitude and increase

knowledge about accident prevention.

Safety is not always uppermost in individuals mind. A method of external government is required

to provide some regularity in the department necessary for safety achievement. There must be

management committee to prevent accidents or to ensure safety. The aim of prevention of accident

is to safe the human life, equipment and materials etc.

Protection of human life and property should be in top priority in every workshops or work field.

All workers, supervisors and engineers should be aware of possible accidents which may happen by

their negligence and consequences. Engineers are the responsible person to save the workers from

the accidents and different types of hazards. Workers and technicians should be aware of personal

safety as well as safety of the fellow workers.

Safety engineering deals with;- Safety planning

- Safety Environment

- Safety Rules

- Hazard Analysis

- Accident Investigation etc.

Scope of Safety Engineering;

Safety is required in every field. General knowledge of safety requires to everybody. In every walk

of life, there is danger. In engineering, the major field where safety precautions have to be takencan be broadly classified as;

a) Construction Field: Dangerous works

b) Production Field: Hazards from Machines and Chemicals

c) Service Field: Chemicals, Pollution from Hospitals etc.

Safety Engineering Includes;

-

Hazard Identification - Risk Analysis

- Hazard Evaluation - Safety Programs

-

Hazard Control - Safety and Health Standards etc.

1.2 Relationships between Human / Machinery / and Environmental Elements;

A term "Human Factor" is generally used which is defined as the study of the interrelationship

between the humans, the tools and equipment they use in the work place, and the environment in

which they work. One can apply human factor knowledge to wherever human work.

Previously the machines were designed just by paying attention on their performance and utility

without considering much the comfort of workers, which resulted adverse effects in safety.

Recently the focus on user-friendly design of technical systems, machine and tools has increased

with the recognition that such systems provide effectives support for users, improving not only

their effectiveness and efficiency but also satisfaction. It also helped increase in safety and health ofthe workers.



Obviously there is interrelationship among human, machinery and working environment. Accidents

can be prevented only if all necessary elements of these three components of an industry are

functioning well.

The following elements (factors) play the role for accidents;

a) Human Elements;

- Negligence - Fatigue

- Over confidence - Stress (Tension)- Less skill - Frustration

- No training - Instability

- Poor sight (vision) - Inexperience

- Hearing Defect - Alcohol, Drugs etc

- Age

b) Machinery Elements:

- Improper machines - Improper installation

- No safety guard - Mechanical fault

- Electrical Fault - Overload

c) Environmental Elements:

- Working space - Lighting

- Ventilation - Noise

- Atmospheric condition - Chemicals

- Fumes - Water

- Pollution

1.3 Impact of human and machine characteristics on safety.

The machine can perform most efficiently than the individuals but a person must be adapted to a

variety of task and the environment. A suitable person can be assigned to others or sometimes more

task while the flexibility of machine is limited to the purpose of their design. The system therefore

has to be responsive to the needs of personnel as well as to the company‘s mission. Therefore

mainly there are three causes for any kind of accidents, they are;

a. Physical causes

b. Physiological causes

c.

Psychological causes

Physical causes

The physical causes are related to the machines, tools, material and physical environment

etc. The physiological causes are related to human factors.

Accidents due to machines being unsuitable for the job, due to wear and tear, due to

constant use and due to brittleness nature of used tools and due to explosive and

petroleum products handless carelessly etc. These are the examples of physical causes of

accident.

Physical causes may be occurred due to the failure of the system also.

The only way to improve them is by practicing developed ergonomics.



a. Physiological causes

Accidents due to the poor eye sight, poor health, intoxication are the physiological causes.

These are the causes of accidents because of the beyond control of the human. These causesare related to the human anatomy.

b. Psychological causes

Accidents due to mental tension, emotional attitude, overconfidence, carelessness are the

causes related to psychology.

System ergonomics

Now, there is a big debate in either work perform by man is safer or by machine. In this

matter, there must always be good relationship and better understanding between man and

the machine.

Since, neither of them are complete in themselves, any organization must design such

environment and significant point at the design process is called system ergonomics.

Human and machine characteristics:

Machine can perform any job most efficiently than the individual but the ways in which a person may be adapted to a variety of task and the necessity for providing works are

satisfying. Therefore, the system has to be responsive to the needs of person as well as to

company’s mission.

A study conducted by a National Safety Council (USA) has concluded the following results.

- 18% injuries are due to mechanical factors

- 19% injuries due to the personal factors

- 63% injuries are due to the combination of both.

Now, there can be big debate in either work perform by man is safer or by the machine. We

must see under relative cost (i.e. purchase, maintenance, depreciation etc.) for the adapting amachine as oppose to the employer expenses (i.e. compensation, insurance, benefit etc) that

would be incurred if the work is done by the person.

In summary, we can say that the study and solution of behavior related safety problem cannot

proceed simply in one dimension mode. Therefore there must be always good relationship

and better understanding between man and machine that are in use.

Some other studies shows, it seems that 88% accidents are caused by the act of individuals

and 12% are caused by physical environment.

Above study indicates that human characteristics are very important factors to cause accident.

So safety should be focused on that sector. Some of the examples of human characteristicsare experience, training, sex, i.e. male or female, age, education, facilities desires, situation

etc.

1.4 Machine operations and regulations covering safety

To increase productivity, the use of machines and equipment is increasing day by day. Hence,

it is very important to take proper precautions while operating machines and equipment.

There are three principles of safe guarding equipment

* Engineering the hazard equipment

* Guarding the hazard

* Educating the workers

Depending upon the size of project, nature of the work, the machine should be selected. The

maintenance and servicing of the machines should be done regularly by qualified person. For

operating the machine, only qualified and trained person should be appointed. Untrained or



unauthorized person should never be allowed to handle the machines as they are bound to have

accidents. Person working under machines should be mentally and physically fit. Faulty and

defective machines should never be used. Dangerous part of machine such as belt, chain, drive etc,

should be provided with proper cover. Exposed parts of electrical units should be corrected. While

starting the machine, the operator should give a working signal and nobody should be allowed to

stand under the raised part of the machine. While engine is running, replacement, of oil or repair

work should not be done. One should not jump into or from the moving vehicle or equipment .

Machine should not be left running.

The five source of injury that mechanical guarding must protect against are as follow:

o

Direct contact with the moving parts of machines

o

Work in progress (metal chips, hot metals, chemicals, etc)

o

Mechanical failure

o

Electrical failure

o

Human failure

1.5 Safety control device (sign, signals & instructions)

Sign and signals are these systems which convey message instantly to their viewers or listeners

without brief description. So it is easy method to convey, important message promptly.

For the prevention of hazards, different types of signals and signs are provides. Generally, there are

three types of signals.

Generally there are three types of sign and signals being used to prevent accidents;

a. Danger sign and signals

b. Caution signs and signals

c. Informative signs and signals

a.

Danger signs and signals

They are used where special precautions have to be taken. E.g. Danger sign board

“DANGER” must be kept up to 13 M distance from risky working areas such as blasting

areas, demolishing of structure.

b. Caution signs and signals

They are used to warn the people where accidents may happen, e.g. at the explosive storage place. Sign should be like “NO SMOKING”.

c. Informative sign and signals

They are used to give information to workers and others. E.g. for traffic safety, various signs

such as: STOP, LEFT TURN, BRIDGE AHEAD, etc. are must be placed at the height ortaller place which is clearly visible to driver.

INSTRUCTIONS – General instruction are provided by machine supplier. Those instructions

should be studied carefully before installing and during operation.

- Some instruction should be given to the workers by providing training or generalclasses.

- Some instructions are written on board which is intended for workers as well as general

public.

Warning signals such as sirens must be sounded promptly, in case of fire hazard; blasting,

sufficient warning time should be given to enable people working at the site to go to the safe placeor to be used on highways, streets, etc

Safety code of practice



Government prepares acts, regulations and code of practices for different purposes. Act andregulations are intended to regulate the work to save live and property, job guarantee and security

etc.

The code of practice gives the instruction to the practicener about the work- what to do and how to

do. Different countries and international agencies have different types of acts and regulations but

basic elements are almost similar. Some well known acts and regulation which covers health and

safety at jobs are:

o

The Occupational Safety and Health Association(OSHA) act of USAo The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 UK

o ILO convention and recommendation 1981

o

Labor act 1992 (2048, Nepal)



2. ATTITUDE TOWARDS SAFETY

The attitude of any human being drives towards its behavior. The attitude of all relevant

stakeholders plays vital role in maintaining the safety environment in any workplace. No matter

what level of investment is made, if the attitude of the workers, supervisors, managers or owner is

not positive, then there is always high chance of accident.

2.1 Attitude SurveyAn employee attitude survey, also called an employee opinion survey, is a tool used by employers

to measure employees' attitudes about their workplace environment. Its general purpose is to

pinpoint problems and make improvements within the company or organization, with the goal of

enhancing employee morale and productivity. An employee attitude survey might be given to

measure employee satisfaction, to identify training and development needs, to improve

communications between managers and employees and for various other reasons. Employee

attitude surveys might be given at regular intervals to monitor employee opinions continuously or

in relation to specific needs assessments, depending on the surveying company or organization.

The questions on an employee attitude survey often are multiple choices, with employees

designating whether they strongly agree, disagree, strongly disagree or are undecided about a particular statement. Employee attitude surveys might also ask open-ended or yes-or-no questions,

or they might contain a combination of question formats. Questions often are divided into specific

sections that ask how well employees think the company is doing in certain areas. Common

measurement areas found on employee attitude surveys include overall satisfaction with the

organization, compensation, benefits and working conditions. Other measurement areas include

safety concerns, recognition and rewards, career development, corporate culture and more.

The attitude survey provides valuable answer and knowledge about the workforce. The survey

provides various information regarding varieties of safety factors.

The benefits of safety attitude survey are;

* Finding clear picture of organization’s current safety climate,

* Identifying current worker’s attitude to important aspects of safety,

E/g; attitudes to rules and regulation, Production pressures, Incident Reporting, Risk taking

behavior and more,

* Identifying strength and weaknesses of each work site or department,

The outcome of attitude survey can be used to;

target Training

know the strengths and weaknesses of each work site or department

know how supervisors view their own ability to lead with the safety message

know how workforce views management's commitment to safety, their attitudes to rules and

regulations and more

The survey process can be further enhanced by gathering anecdotal feedback from workers

regarding their perceptions of safety in their workplace.

Survey information is normally collected in a confidential manner and results are reported as group

data - individuals are not identified.



2.2 Value of Safety Survey

The value of safety survey is as follow;

Safety survey assists in planning and launching safety programs.

It increases the employee participation in safety activities. The results drawn from the more

safety minded employee are of real value.

It gives the idea to the top level management committee to plan new and effective

programs.

These types of survey can point out the most risky or accident happening equipment or

plants. It forces the management to repair or replace such equipment or plants.

The survey shows the validity of various safety rules. It can help to review the safety rule

books.

Safety survey helps employees to express their problems and feeling without any fear or

favor.

After doing such survey, all of the workers can be categorized into different group

according to the level of their safety knowledge and different training can be started as per

their experience and knowledge.

The survey can help in accident investigation, plant investigation, job analysis and cause of

accident.

Survey can help to check the view of employees before launching a new program. If their

views match with the theme of new program, then there is high chance of success otherwise

the planner need to review their program.

After the careful analysis of survey reactions, detail report can be made which can be

presented to top supervisor throughout the system. This shows the real picture of safety

concern in that organization.

2.3 Reports from the safety personnel.

To plan and launch any safety program, previous data is essential. To maintain the data, properreporting system must be developed within the organization. There may be various steps for

reporting;

* Safety Inspector;

- Full time safety inspector can be instructed to write a report in their day to day work inspection

and the attitude of workers by asking many questions such as the difficulties, risk at work,

advantages and disadvantages about the used plant and equipment etc,

- The survey should be verbal since workers have no time to answer the question in written form

and that also disturb their work,

- These questionnaire by the safety inspector should not be done each day as it irritates theworkers.

* Worker’s safety committee;

- Workers safety committee is formed to raise their voice up to safety management committee

and help them in planning, coordinating and monitoring safety program for worker’s welfare.

- A report from such committee at sometimes in favorable situations can be valuable source of

information on the attitude of their fellow workmen toward safety as the workmen will usually

talk freely in their fellows.

* Union representative;

- Union leaders sometimes can provide valuable information on the attitude of their members

towards the safety program. When there is good coordination union leader and management, the

union can be particularly helpful in bringing safety complaints to lights.

-It also helps in correcting employee’s wrong attitude.



* First aid attendants;

- First-aid attendants such as nurse who has good understanding, friendly and intelligence can

determine without much effort the reaction of most of those who go to first aid. From those

reactions, she can draw fair conclusion.

* Foreman Canvass;

- Foreman is the person to supervise the workmen and work which is the key work in accident

prevention. If the foreman is safety minded and active participant in the safety program, their

canvas becomes worthwhile in achieving safe working environment.

- Small notes should be kept as the foreman may need in order to make his report. It is based not

to let the workmen know that notes are taken. After the brief study of his finding his canvas can

measure the current effectiveness of the safety program or some phase of it.

* Sampling by personal contacts;

- A safety director or engineer can make a survey by selecting the personnel I his organization.

While conducting survey, he must keep his power uninfluenced so that the workers will be able

to react or convey the fact thing. Then this method very useful to cross check employee attitude.

* Suggestion box;

- The suggestions given by the employee can be proved very beneficial for improvement of anyorganization. The same concept can be used in case of safety attainment also.

- Suggestions and comments may be invited by different means such as by placing suggestion

box, publishing in bulletin etc.

* The safety inventory or questionnaire;

- The inventory is a means of finding facts, defects and effectiveness of already launched

program or current working environment of the organization for further planning and

improvement.

- In safety management, findings from safety inventory helps in planning safety program more

effectively for coming years.

2.4 The interface between safety problems and concerned parties.

The safety program today has evolved from the combined effort of safety engineers, concerned

legislates and sound management. The basic objectives of safety programs include;

- Gaining and maintaining support for the safety program at all organizational level,

-

Motivating, educating and training the participants to recognize and correct all reported

hazards,

- Engineering hazard control into the design of machines, tools, processes and facilities,

-

Providing a program for inspection of machine, tools, processes and facilities,-

To act in accordance with established safety and health standard.

The effectiveness of such safety programs increases with the interaction between safety problems

and concerned parties. Here the concerned parties including safety engineers, safety managers,

safety legislatives and employees face the real safety problems. The safety problems are taken off

by the employees and the top level managers come down to workers level with their planning. At

that interaction, they can interact and discuss with each other and with their own safety agencies.

For such discussions and interactions, safety management committee can organize such programs,

meetings etc by inviting the key persons such as executive officers, safety engineers, specialist

employees, members of workers safety committee, member of labor union, foreman, supervisors

etc. In this way, they can work together to achieve objectives of safety programs and finally todevelop safe working system in that organization.



3. BASICS OF SAFETY ENGINEERING: HAZARD IDENTIFICATION.

The first step in safety engineering is "hazard identification." A hazard is anything that has the

potential to cause harm when combined with some initiating stimulus.

Many system safety techniques have been pioneered to aid in the identification of potential system

hazards. None is more basic than "energy analysis." Here, potential hazards associated with various

physical systems and their associated operation, including common industrial and consumer products and related activities, can be identified (for later evaluation and control) by first

recognizing that system and product "hazards" are directly related to various common forms of

"energy." That is, system component or operator "damage" or "injury" cannot occur without the

presence of some form of hazardous "energy."

"Hazard identification" in reality can be viewed as "energy identification," recognizing that a

unanticipated undesirable release or exchange of energy in a system is absolutely necessary to

cause an "accident" and subsequent system damage or operator injury. Therefore, an "accident" can

now be seen as "an undesired and unexpected, or at least untimely release, exchange, or action of

energy, resulting, or having the potential to result, in system damage or injury." This approach

simplifies the task of hazard identification as it allows the identification of hazards by means of afinite set of search paths, recognizing that the common forms of energy that produce the vast

majority of accidents can be placed into only ten descriptive categories.

The goal of this first step in the hazard control process is to prepare a list of potential hazards(energies) in the system under study. No attempt is made at this stage to prioritize potential hazards

or to determine the degree of danger associated with them. That will come later. At this first stage,

one is merely taking an "inventory" of potential hazards (potential hazardous energies). A practical

list of hazardous energy types to be identified might include:

3.1 MECHANICAL ENERGY HAZARDS

Mechanical energy hazards involve system hardware components that cut, crush, bend,

shear, pinch, wrap, pull, and puncture. Such hazards are associated with components that

move in circular, transverse (single direction), or reciprocating ("back and forth") motion.

Traditionally, such hazards found in typical industrial machinery have been associated with

the terms "power transmission apparatus," "functional components," and the "point of

operation."

The major sources of mechanical hazards are;

* Unguarded shafts,

* Shaft ends,

* Belt drives,* Gear trains,

* Rotating parts,

* Chain drives,

* Shear points,

* Points of operation (Working Points),

* Pressure, etc.

Some hazardous machine/equipments;

Elevators, * Wire-ropes, * Furnaces

Hoists, * Boilers, * Construction equipments, etc.



3.1.1 Protection from Mechanical Hazards;

a. Mechanical Guards;

All danger points of a machine should be enclosed by guards. Most of such points are

already guarded by the manufacturer but some other parts which are open and need to

guard in the real field should be protected by appropriate type of guards.

There are various types of Mechanical guards, Such as;

* Fixed Guard,

* Interlocked guard,

* Automatic Guard,

* Trip guard,

* Barrier Guard,

* Presence sensing device.

b. Basic requirements of Mechanical guards;

The basic requirements for a mechanical guard are as follow;

* Strong enough,

* Easy to maintain,

* Properly mounted,

* No detachable parts which can be lost easily,

* Easy to inspect,

* Easy to handle (If required to handle frequently).

Safety engineers should have basic knowledge about the sources of mechanical hazards and

methods of protection from them. So that s/he can check and guide to the supervisors.

3.2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY HAZARDS

Electrical energy hazards have traditionally been divided by the general public into the

categories of low voltage electrical hazards (below 440 volts) and high voltage electrical

hazards (above 440 volts).

Electricity is one of the most essential means of development. It is a useful servant when it

is under control but it may create great hazard and is responsible for injury when;

- A person becomes a part of an electrical circuit

- The circuit is overloaded and

-

There is sparking.

3.2.1 Normal Voltage and Electric Shock:

* Normal Voltage for house circuit ----- 110 and 240 volts (Low voltage)

* Industrial Voltage ------------------------440 Volt and above (High Voltage)

An electric shock is the rate of current flow. In some conditions as little as 0.05 ampere (A)

may cause a fatal shock. Electric shock depends upon person to person and situation.

Dry skin resistance is 1, 00,000 ohms but Wet skin can resistance is only 1,000 ohms



3.2.2 Sources of electrical energy hazards;

a. House and industrial wiring,

b. Electrical heating – Water heater, Boiler, Air heater.

c. Electrical Utensils – Heater, Cooker, Microwave, TV, Computer, Refrigerator etc.

d. Electrically operated machines – Welding machine, Lathe, Drilling machine etc.

e. High voltage cables etc.

3.2.3 Protection from electrical hazards;

The following are some protection measures that have to be followed to be safe from

electrical hazards;

a. Safety designed machine and equipments should be used.

b.

Wiring system should be designed and worked by qualified and experienced

person.

c.

All live parts should be protected using fuse, circuit breakers.

d.

High voltage cables should be far away and well protected.

e. Earthling should be provided to all machines.

f. Working area should be clear from wires.

g. Flammable vapors, gases or explosive s should be kept away from sparking points.

3.3 CHEMICAL ENERGY HAZARDS

Chemical energy hazards involve substances that are corrosive, toxic, flammable, or

reactive (involving a release of energy ranging from "not violent" to "explosive" and"capable of detonation"). During the time of its production or use, we should be very

careful.

Chemicals may be;

a. Reactive: -- reacts when two or more chemicals come together.

b. Toxic: -- difficult and dangerous in breathing.

c. Highly Flammable: -- easily takes fire.

d. Corrosive: -- eats away some material.

Safety precautions;

a. Expert: --should follow expert's suggestions.

b. Exposure: -- should not be exposed to the atmosphere.

c. Fire: -- keep away from fire.

d.

Safety equipments: -- use masks, gloves, shoes and appropriate aprons.

e.

Guards: -- provide guards, signboards and keep the chemicals out of public reach.

f.

Ventilation: -- provide proper ventilation.

3.4 KINETIC (IMPACT) ENERGY HAZARDS

Kinetic energy hazards involve "things in motion" and "impact," and are associated with the

collision of objects in relative motion to each other. This would include impact of objects

moving toward each other, impact of a moving object against a stationary object, falling

objects, flying objects, and flying particles.



If a moving particle touches to the people that may cause injury. Moving body is dangerous.

So workers should be careful when working on machines. The metal chips, metal parts,

broken nuts and bolts from moving machine may create hazard. Machine should be well

guarded and proper supervision is required.

3.5 POTENTIAL (STORED) ENERGY HAZARDS

Potential energy hazards involve "stored energy." This includes things that are under

pressure, tension, or compression; or things that attract or repulse one another or the bodywhich is elevated. Potential energy hazards are associated with things that are "susceptible

to sudden unexpected movement." Hazards associated with gravity are included in this

category, and involve potential falling objects, potential falls of persons, and the hazards

associated with an object's weight. This category also includes the forces transferred

biomechanically to the human body during manual lifting.

3.6 THERMAL ENERGY HAZARDS

Thermal energy hazards involve things that are associated with extreme or excessive heat,

extreme cold, sources of flame ignition, flame propagation, and heat related explosions.

Thermal Stress:

When temperature rises above 250

3.7 ACOUSTIC ENERGY HAZARDS

Acoustic energy hazards involve excessive noise and vibration.

3.8 RADIANT ENERGY HAZARDS

Radiant energy hazards involve the relatively short wavelength energy forms within the

electromagnetic spectrum including the potentially harmful characteristics of radar, infra-

red, visible, microwave, ultra-violet, x-ray, and ionizing radiation.

3.9 ATMOSPHERIC/GEOLOGICAL/ OCEANOGRAPHIC ENERGY HAZARDS

These hazards are associated with atmospheric weather circumstances such as wind and

storm conditions. Atmospheric air contains suspended dust particles, lint and various gases.

Geological structure characteristics such as underground pressure or the instability of the

earth's surface that may cause collapse of land or land slide. Oceanographic currents, wave

action, tsunami may create hazardous condition.

3.10 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

These hazards are associated with poisonous plants, dangerous animals, biting insects and

disease carrying bacteria, etc.

To develop a list of potential system hazards, one should consider each form of energy in turn.

First, list each particular type of energy contained in the system under study, and then describe thevarious reasonably foreseeable circumstances under which it might become a proximate cause of an

undesirable event. Here, full use of the published literature, accident statistics, system operator

experience, scientific and engineering probability forecasting, system safety techniques, and team

brainstorming are brought to bear on the question of how each form of energy might cause an

undesirable event.

Specifically, one must thoroughly understand (a) the engineering design of the system, including all physical hardware components - their functions, material properties, operating characteristics, and

relationships or interfaces with other system components, (b) the intended uses as well as the

reasonably anticipated misuses of the system, (c) the specific (demographic and human factor)

characteristics of intended system users, as well as reasonably anticipated unintended users, taking

into account such things as their educational levels, their range of knowledge and skill, and their

physical, physiological, psychological, and cultural capabilities, expectancies, and limitations, and



(d) the general characteristics of the physical and administrative environment in which the system

will be operated. That is, one must have a thorough understanding of the man / machine / task /

environment elements of the system and their interactions.

Apart from energy hazards, various other terms are also used for hazard;

Physical hazard

A substance is classified as a physical hazard if it ignites and burns easily, has the potential to

explode, or can cause a violent reaction. Organic peroxides, oxidizers, and water-reactive

substances are examples of materials that could be involved in violent reactions. A water-reactive

substance is a chemical that reacts with water to release a gas or vapor that either is flammable or

presents a health hazard. Physical hazards are grouped into four categories:

fire hazards

compressed gases

explosives

reactive/unstable chemicals

Fire hazards

Fire hazards are substances that can ignite and burn easily. These substances are classified by their

flash point-the lowest temperature at which a liquid will give off vapors in sufficient concentrations

to ignite. Combustible liquids have flash points above 100°F but below 200°F. Pyrophoric

substances ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature of 130°F or below. Flammable liquids have

flash points below 100°F. Chemicals with flash points above 200°F are considered nonflammable.

Compressed gases

Compressed gases are contained gases with pressures greater than 40 psi (pounds per square inch).

Propane cylinders and welding gases are compressed gases that may be used for building

maintenance. If a container with compressed gas is not secured properly, it may fall and sustain

damage. A damaged container could become a projectile and cause property damage and/or injury.

Some gases are colorless and odorless. If these gases are released, they may pose a serious health

hazard, because they displace oxygen or cause reactions at low-level exposures.

Explosives

Explosives cause a sudden, almost instantaneous release of pressure, gas, or heat. Very few, if any,

explosive substances should be used for building maintenance. Some epoxy systems use materials

that may be an explosive hazard if improperly used or stored.

Reactive/unstable chemicals

Reactive or unstable chemicals are substances that produce or release energy in the form of heat or

an explosion when under pressure, exposed to light, or subjected to friction or ignition. These

materials may also develop toxic or flammable vapors when mixed with water.



4. BASIC OF SAFETY ENGINEERING: HAZARD EVALUATION

A hazard is anything that has the potential to cause harm when combined with some initiating

stimulus. The evaluating stage of safety engineering i.e. hazard evaluation process has the goal of

prioritizing or ordering of the list of potential system condition or physical stage of hazard that are

identified in hazard identification process. The mare pressure of potential hazard tells us nothing

about its potential danger. To know the danger related to the particular hazard, one must first

examine associated risk factor. Risk can be measured as the products of 3 components;

1.

The probability that an injury or damage producing mishap will occur during any one exposure

to the hazard.

2.

The potential severity or degree of injury or damage that will likely result after a mishap

occurrence.

3.

The estimated number of times a person or persons will likely to be exposed to the hazard over

a specific period of time.

In the evaluation of hazards, consideration should be given to horizontal incident data and

reasonable methods of prediction. An accident event can have less probability of occurrence duringany single exposure or during any finite period as a result of exposure to the particular hazard and

could be certain to occur if exposure to that hazard is allowed to be repeated over a long period of

time. Therefore a long term or large sample of probability should be taken for proper evaluation.

Determination of severity potential should centre on most likely resulting injury or damage as well

as the most sever potential outcome. Severity becomes the controlling factor when sever injury or

death may occur as a result of mishap. The risk associated with such hazard must be considered as

being unaccepted and strict attention should be paid to the control of such hazards and related

mishaps.

Exposure evaluation should consider the typical expectancy of the system containing a particular

hazard, the number of systems in use and the number of individuals who will be exposed to thesesystems overtimes.

In any investigation, “never accept anything as fact until it has been proven”. The most useful word

in an investigation is “Why?”. In safety engineering the questions like; - Why plan?, design?,

operate?, provide?, guides?, signals?, safety equipment? etc. are very important. Too often,

hazardous, inefficient operations and arrangements are permitted to exist simply because “they

always been that way”.

In hazard evaluation and injury investigation, the investigator should attempt to know;

a) History of the events – Past history of the factory etc.

b) Facts from the reliable witnesses

c) Physical environment – errors in design, faulty planning

d) Casual factors – guards, speed limit etc.

e) Workers behaviors

Hazard evaluation process with ultimate severe can be divided as a group of acceptable hazards and

unacceptable hazards. Acceptable hazards are those, which are associated with acceptable risk

factors and unacceptable hazards are associated with unacceptable risk factors.

The evaluation stage of the safety engineering process has as its goal the prioritizing or ordering of

the list of potential system condition or physical state hazards, or potential system personnel of

human factors compiled in Step #1.



The mere presence of a potential hazard tells us nothing about its potential danger. To know the

danger related to a particular hazard, one must first examine associated risk factors. Risk can be

measured as the product of three components: (a) the probability that an injury or damage

producing mishap will occur during any one exposure to the hazard; (b) the potential severity or

degree of injury or damage that will likely result should a mishap occur; and (c) the estimated

number of times a person or persons will likely be exposed to the hazard over a specific period of

time. That is...

(1) H x R = D, and since

(2) R = P x S x E, then

(3) H (P x S x E) = D

Where:

H = HAZARD

R = RISK

D = DANGER

P = PROBABILITY

S = SEVERITY

E = EXPOSURE

In the evaluation of mishap probability, consideration should be given to historical incident data

and reasonable methods of prediction.

Use of this equation must take into account that an accident event having a remote probability of

occurrence during any single exposure or during any finite period as a result of exposure to a

particular hazard IS CERTAIN TO OCCUR if exposure to that hazard is allowed to be repeated

over a longer period of time. Therefore, a long term or large sample view of probability should be

taken for proper evaluation.

Determination of severity potential should center on the most likely resulting injury or damage as

well as the most severe potential outcome. Severity becomes the controlling factor when severe

injury or death is a likely possibility among the several plausible outcomes. That is, even when

other risk factors indicate a low probability of mishap over time, if severe injury or death may

occur as a result of mishap, the risk associated with such hazards must be considered as being

"unacceptable and strict attention given to the control of such hazards and related mishaps.

Exposure evaluation should consider the typical life expectancy of the system containing a

particular hazard, the number of systems in use, and the number of individuals who will be exposed

to these systems over time.



4.1 Acceptable vs. Unacceptable Risk.

Risk may be defined as the possibility that an event take place which may have an adverse effect.

All the time and in every field, there is risk. Some works are more risky than others. The risk

should be kept as low as possible.

An acceptable risk can be thought of as a risk that a group of rational, well informed ethical

individuals would dear to expose themselves in order to acquire the clear benefits of such exposure.

An unacceptable risk can be thought of as a risk that a group of rational, well informed ethical

individuals would not dear accept to expose themselves in order to acquire the exposure benefits.

Hazard associated with an acceptable risk are traditionally called “Safe”, while hazard associated

with an unacceptable risk are traditionally called “Unsafe”. Therefore what is called a safe does not

mean that it does not contain elements of risk. It is just that such elements have been judged to be

acceptable once again. The mere presence of hazard does not automatically mean that the hazard is

associated with any real danger. It must first be measured as being an acceptable. The result of this

evaluation process will be the compilation of a list of hazards or risks or dangers that are

considered unacceptable. These unacceptable hazards are then carried to the third step of safety

engineering process called “Hazard control”.

Risk and Hazard control.

Risk and hazards should be eliminated if possible. But, that is almost impossible. So, that should be

reduces or protected.

Hazard control can be thought in various steps;

In case of pre-cast slab (Chart showing hazard control);

Change design. Yes Risk eliminated

No

Yes Provide hooks in pre-cast slab Reduced

No

Yes

Use safe methods of works Managed

NoYes

Provide safety equipment Protected

It shows that risk elimination is difficult but could be managed to acceptable (tolerable) condition

by using different methods and equipment. Acceptable level depends upon different factors. It

varies with situation and time.

Eliminate

Reduce

Manage

Protected



Degree of control;

Total

BEP

Degree of control

When degree of control increases, The cost of damage (Injury) decreases

But

The cost of control increases.So, management tries to minimize the total cost which is breakeven point.

Cost Total cost Cost of control

Cost of damage



5. BASIC SAFETY ENGINEERING: HAZARD CONTROL.

The primary purpose of engineering and design of products and facilities is the physical control of

various material and process to produce a specific benefit. The central purpose of safety

engineering is the control of system hazard which may cause system damage, system user injury or

otherwise decrease system benefit. Current and historic safety engineering references have

advocated a specific order or priority in which hazards are best controlled. Listed in order of

preferences and effectiveness, these control methods have come to be called “Cardinal rule of safedesign” or “the cardinal rule of hazard control”.

1. The first cardinal rule of hazard control: It is concerned with the hazard elimination or

inherent safety, i.e. if practical; one should avoid producing potential hazardous components

while designing them “on the drawing board”. This is accomplished through the use of such

interrelated techniques as hazard removal, hazard substitution and hazard attenuation through

the use of the principle and techniques of system and product safety engineering, system and

product safety management, human factor engineering, beginning with the concept and initial

planning stages of the system design processes.

2.

The second cardinal rule of hazard control: It is concerned with the minimization of systemhazard through the use of “add-on-safety device” or safety feature engineering or facilities on

the drawing board to prevent the exposure of product or facility users to potential hazards. This

preplanned hazard control is called “Extrinsic safety”. A sample of such devices would include

screens or barriers which will guard or enclose hazardous components. Interlock, pressure

relief valve, stairway handle, speed limit etc could be introduced for hazard minimization.

3. The third cardinal rule of hazard control: It is concerned with the control of hazard through

the development of warnings and instructions, i.e. through the development of effective

communication for safe system use, method and procedures. First, warn persons of the

associated system, regarding dangers that may potentially be encountered under reasonable

foreseeable condition of system use or misuse of service and then instruct them regarding the

precise step that must be followed to cope with or avoid dangers. This third approach must only

be used after all feasible design and safeguarding have been exhausted.

Passive Vs Active Hazard control.

A principle that applies equally to the first two cardinal rule of safe design and minimization of

hazard is that of passive Verses active hazard control.

Simply, a passive control is a control that works without requiring the continuous or periodic

involvement of system user. An active hazard control, in contrast requires the system user oroperator to do something before system use, continuously or periodically during system operation

in order to avoid injury. Passive controls are automatic controls whereas active controls can be

thought of as manual control. Passive control is unquestionably more effective than active control.



6.0 Safety Performance

Accident Vs Injury

An accident is a non-deliberate, non intentional, unplanned event which may produce

undesirably effects and is predicted by unsafe acts and condition. It is also defense as a

harmful encounter with the environment, a danger not adverted. An accident is subjected to

prediction and control.

An injury is the outcome of accident and accident are caused due to the pressure of potentialhazard at that place or system or equipment. So each injury itself proof that hazards or

combination of hazards has not been adequately controlled, injury are mainly of two kinds:

Disabli ng injury

This injury which disable the injured workers to work for more than the day or shift

during he is injured is known as disabling injury

Lost time in jury

This injury which does not disable the injured workers to work for more that day or

shift during his injury is known as lost time injury.

6.1 Injury Frequencies Survey

Injury frequency survey is that which collects the answer of the questions such as:

o

What is the number of accidents for a definite time period?

o Who was injured?

o What was the injury?

o How many days, he lost due to injury?

o What machine was involved?

The result obtained from the survey is used to calculate injury frequency rate. Injury survey

rate and those can be used to measure the injury experience of given department or branch,

to compare the experience of one operating unit with one or more other units, etc.

Injury Frequency Rate (IFR)

The injury frequency rate answer the question how often do injuries occur and is defined as the no.

of disabling injuries per one-million man – hour worked.

IFR= No. of injuries * 10, 00000

Total no. of man-hours worked

Injury Severity Rate (ISR)

The injury severity rate answers the question how serious are the injuries and is defined asthe no. of days of lost time per one-million man-hour worked.

ISR= No. of days lost * 10, 00,000


ISR= No. of days lost * 10, 00,000

Total no. of workers * working hrs per week * worked weeks

Example 1

What are the injury and severity rates of a firm with 80 workers averaging 40 hours a week each ifin 6 months 4 workers were injured and if they lost jointly 103 days from work?

Solution

IFR= No. of injuries*10, 00000 = 4 * 10, 00,000 = 52.09

Total no. of man-hours worked 80 * (6 * 4) *40



ISR = No. of days lost * 10, 00,000


= 103 * 10, 00,000

80 * (6 * 4) 40

= 1341

Example 2What are the IFR and ISR for a firm with 120 workers working 40 hrs per week in average

20 workers are injured in a year and they lost 116 days from work.

o Given

No. of workers =120

No. of injury = 20

Working hrs = 40

No. of days lost= 116 days

IFR = No. of injuries * 10, 00,000

Total man-hours worked

= 20 * 10, 00000

40 * 120 * 52

= 8.012

ISR = No. of days lost * 10, 00,000


= 116 * 10, 00,000

40 * 120 * 52= 464.74

Example 3

Firm A has 115 workers averaging 40 hrs a week each. In 9 months, 3 workers were injured. Firm

B has 132 workers averaging 37 hrs a weak each. In 10 months, 3 workers were injured. Which

firm has the better Injury Frequency Rate and Injury Severity Rate if both firm lost 100 days from

work?

Solution:

Firm A

Injury Frequency Rate (IFR) = 3 x 10, 00,000

115 x 40 x 9/12 x 52 = 16.6

Injury Severity rate (ISR) or Severity Frequency Rate = 100 x 10, 00,000

115 x 40 x 9/12 x 52 = 557.4

Firm B

Injury Frequency Rate (IFR) = 3 x 10, 00,000

132 x 37 x10/12 x 52 = 14.7

Injury Severity rate (ISR) or Severity Frequency Rate = 100 x 10, 00,000

132 x 40 x 10/12 x 52 = 472.5

* Both IFR and ISR of firm B is less than firm A, so firm B has better frequency rate.



6.2 Factors to be considered for operating plant condition

o House keeping

o Maintenance

o Adequacy of safety equipment.

o Provision for work comfort

o Safety training program

o

Machinery safe guard

a. Housekeeping: Good housekeeping is equally essential for every industry or construction sites.

It is the measure of good work environment. Building codes and fire regulations must be

observed. For wiring, a qualified technician must be utilized. No smoking sign should be places

where necessary. Materials should be placed in proper location so that it does not create any

hindrance in smooth movement.

b. Maintenance: Good maintenance of plant and equipment is an essential part of good

management. The machines, equipment and tools should be in proper condition all the time to

minimize the injury.

c. Adequacy of safety equipment: Depending the work condition and situation, proper safety

devices must be made available in the site. It should be easily accessible and easy to use. The

workers should be given proper instructions for use of safety gadgets in advance.

d. Provision for work comfort: It is difficult to show the relation of facilities with rate of

accident. But, workers facilities, like toilets, wash rooms, drinking water, lunch rooms etc. may

change workers attitude to work efficiency and safety.

e. Safety training program: Training for safe work practice is an essential of good safety

program. Safety training should be provided to each worker from time to time. The appraiser

should find out what provisions have been made for the safety training.

f. Machinery safeguard: Machines are one of the major sources of hazard. They should be used

safely. Provision of necessary safeguard is must for the machineries to reduce the serious

disabilities.

Management must accept the responsibilities for the safety and must lead and direct the

preventive effort.



7. SAFETY PROGRAMME

In any establishment, following aspects must be considered for better safety performance;

1.

There must be forceful, continuous executive leadership.

2.

Plant and equipment must be made safe.

3.

Supervision must be competent and intensively safety minded.

4.

Full employee cooperation in accident prevention must be secured and maintained.

Whether there is an establishment, already in operation or going to be existed, a definite plan and

program is essential regarding the safety performance.

In every case of work-connected injury there must be some degree of hazard (chance of injury) and

unsafe or otherwise faulty behavior. But no work-activities can ever be made entirely hazard free.

Perfect behavior by everyone cannot be attained. Therefore, top-rate safety performance (the

maximum injury elimination) can be had only by reducing the factor of hazard to the minimum,

and concurrently developing employee behavior to the maximum degree of excellence.

The main purpose of the activities carried under safety program is;(a) reducing the hazard factor and

(b) Developing safe and adequate behavior by every employee.

7.1 Finding and correcting Hazards.

Hazards can be minimized by finding its causes and correcting it. For these purposes, following

activities are essential;

1.

Planning

2. Safety in purchasing

3.

Inspection

4. Job safety (or hazard) analysis

5. Accident investigation

1. Planning.For the prevention of accident, planning plays an important role. With better planning and

development of safe behavior, human injury can be practically eliminated in its operation. Slight

modification in process, procedure and handling can contribute a lot in elimination of hazard factor.

Planning that does not eliminate or reduce hazard is useless.

2. Safety in pur chasing. While purchasing new equipment or purchasing modified part of existing plant, the equipment

entering the plant should meet the desired objective of safety. Such procedure will allow the

purchasing department to review a;; the specification for the purchasing of plant material and

equipment. Every specification should be examined to ensure safety. For example, the less toxic

material is substituted where possible instead of toxic components. The equipment with less

probability of hazard is preferred to buy instead of the one with high probability of hazards. If the

safety director or his department is not capable of checking specification for inherent hazards, the

engineering department of the organization should be asked for help in such work.

3. Inspection.

A definite system of inspection should be set up to check all of the plant and every thing init. The consideration made to reduce hazard during planning, purchasing and erecting



equipment is not sufficient but it is more important to inspect the daily wear and tear,

changes made etc. In absence of adequate inspection, it is likely to come to light when theyyield injury. Therefore every management should set up a system of inspection suitable to

its need. Inspection that does not discover conditions subject to correction or improvement

is useless.

4. Job safety (or hazard) analysis.

The job safety analysis is to eliminate accidents in work. It is not only important for production jobs but also equally important for non-productive works, such as shipping, repair and maintenance

etc. All these are high hazard activities. If the safety methods of work for such jobs are worked out,

the hazard points discovered, the advisable safeguards determined and provided for, and proper

training provided, injuries can be eliminated effectively.

Thus the job safety analysis helps to develop better working method and information that will be

helpful in placing and training workers. Job safety analysis that does not develop better working

methods and information that will be helpful in placing and training workers has been wasted.

6. Accident Investigation. Even if all of the above processes are followed, some hazards will remain under looked or not

adequately safeguarded and some behavior faults will continue. Therefore there will be someaccidents resulting in human injury. Any event, which causes injury, must be investigated.

Accident investigation, therefore, is in the nature of post-mortem whereby the investigator seeks to

discover information that will be helpful in preventing a repetition. An accident investigation that

that results in no useful information or any recommendations for corrective action might as well not

has been made.

7.2 Development of safe behavior.

There is not any definite technique that has proved effective in dealing on safety factor. An

adequate program of developing and maintaining safe behavior must include the continuance ofsafety advertising where by all the employees are ready to receive specific ideas and participate in

specific safety activities. Therefore, all of these must be supplemented by on-the-job training in

specific procedures on an individual basis.

Specific activities whose primary purpose is to develop safe and adequate behavior are;

1. Placement

2. Training

3. Supervision

4. Education

5.

Employee participation

1. Placement: For specific job, people have to have specific capabilities. Job safety analysis

incorporates the proper pre-employment physical and aptitude tests and in some cases,

psychological analysis, which makes it possible to place the job applicant in work, best suited to

his/her abilities. Haphazard placement is the root of many injuries.

2.

Training: The worker should be properly trained, regarding his nature of job. The specific

training method has the simple formula; “Tell him/her, Show him/her, Have him/her do it,

Correct him/her until he/she has it, Supervise him/her to see that he/she keeps it.”

3. Supervision: Supervision plays major role in accident prevention. The foreman is the key man in

safety so that the most careful attention should be given to the selection and training of foremanso that they can function responsibly.

4. Education: There is clear distinction between education and Training. Education increases the

general knowledge in relevant and allied fields whereas training helps developing skills in



specific task or types of work. Safety education should be related to the workmen doing and

should be presented in a manner that will stimulate their thinking.

5.

Employee Participation: The most effective learning takes place by doing. So that optimum

employee participation in safety activities should be sought.

Effective safety program.

The effective safety program has mainly two purposes;

i. Reducing the hazard factor and

ii. Developing safe and adequate behavior by every employee.

In every case of work connected injury, there is not some degree of hazard faulty behavior but

neither any work activities can ever be made entirely hazard free nor perfect behavior of everyone

can be attained. Therefore effective safety program should be launched to reduce the hazardous

factor to minimum and concurrently developing employee behavior to the minimum degree of

accidents.



8. SAFETY AND HEALTH STANDARD

8.1 Health hazard in construction industries.

Various hazardous conditions may have to be faced by workmen in the construction industries.

There are common hazards that exist in the building and the construction industries. It is important

to learn about these hazards and how to work safely in these environments. Within this industry, we

may be involved in the range of work activities such as setting of simple working platform for thesafe operation, maintenance of equipment including hand tools and power tools, taking

measurement and site levels, performing land excavation, preparing site for concreting etc. As in

other jobs, hazards for construction works are classified as 4 classes.

a. Physical,

b. Biological,

c. Social and

d. Chemical.

a. Physical Hazards:

Physical hazards are presented in every construction project. These hazards include noise, heat and

cold, radiation, vibration and pneumatic pressure. Construction works may have to be carried out in

extreme hot, cold, rainy, foggy or snowy weather or at night. The construction industries are being

mechanized in the present situation. The uses of machines are also contributing to make the

construction sites very noisy. The sources of noise are machine or engines of all kinds, such as,

vehicles, air-compressor, cranes, pneumatic hammer, conveyors, mixers and many more. If the

project requires demolition works then it will not only add the noise but also pollute the

environment by releasing dusts in the surrounding environment.

b. Biological Hazards:

They are presented by exposure to infections micro-organisms to natural substances of biological

origin as animal attacks. Excavation works, for example, can develop histoplasmosis, an infection

of the lung caused by common soil fungus. Since there is a constant change in the composition of

labor for in any one project, individual worker come in contact with other workers and as a

consequence may become affected with diseases like influenza, T.B. etc. Workers may also be at

risks of malaria, rheumatic fever etc. Sometime the work may need to be conducted in areas where

there may be dangerous insects like scorpion, snacks and other poisonous creature. These can be

great threat for the safety of the workers.

Some substances of plant origin can cause skin eruption. Some wood dust are carcinogenic (cancer

causing diseases) and some are allergic.

Attack by animal is rare but may occur. Whenever a construction project disturbs them orencroaches their habitat, it may become aggressive. Underwater workers may be at risk from attack

by danger fishes, crocodiles etc.

c. Social Hazards:

Construction sites are normally close to some society. Workers may have to be recruited within

from this community or may require to be brought from other community. Locals will consider

others as outsiders and sometimes it is difficult to internalize all the workers.

The expectation and demand of local people may cause conflict in construction projects. Since the

workforce is constantly changing and the hour as well as location of work is also changing, many

project require living in work camp, away from the family. These workers may lack stable and

dependable networking of social support. Feature of construction work such as heavy work load,limited control and limited social support are associated with increased stress which varies from

other industries. These hazards are not unique to any trade but are common to all construction

works in one way or others.



d. Chemical Hazards:

In the construction work, the workers come in contact with various chemicals. The engineer must

know about the type and effect of the chemical that they have to face with. Cutting fluid used

during metal cutting process, fumes released during welding, cement, lime etc. are hazardous if

came in contact with skin or inhaled during breathing. Proper precaution must be taken while

handling various chemicals.

Due to use of various heavy machineries, handling of construction material and different level oflabor forces in mass, the construction industry is considered as accident prompt region. The various

sources of hazards in construction industries are as follow;

i. Hazardous fields;

- Road and Highway construction,

- Bridge construction,

- Dams and tunneling,

- Electrical powerhouse and towers,

- Electrical and mechanical plants installation,- Construction of high rise buildings etc.

ii. Some hazardous equipments;

-

Cranes - Dozer - Loaders,

-

Earth roller, - Earth mover, - Graders

-

Excavators, - Trippers - Electrical machines,

-

Mechanical machines etc

iii. Unhealthy environment in indoor industries;

-

Uneasy floors, - Different floor levels, - Slippery floor

-

Narrow doors, - Narrow pass ways, - Inadequate ventilation

-

Inadequate storage space - Poor house keeping - Poor control of dust/fumes.

8.2 Government standards of safety and health;

Industrial safety is a new and rapidly developing field. It has developed many standards but many

more are still necessary to be developed because of new technology, equipment and different

human behaviors have been exhibited from place to place and from generation to generation.

Safety is needed for everybody and at every field of works or life. It is the Government to

formulate safety policies and regulation to save its people from accidental activities and hazardous

working environment. National safety policies and work standard should be prepared to save lives

of worker, employees or consumers.

Basic safety standards are basically the same in all countries, but some are detailed out to suit

national requirements. The safety and health standards are based on the following bases;

a. Accountability in health and safety:

- Worse working place, working environment, working process and worker's protection.

b. General duties of employers, employees, designers, manufacturers.

Occupational safety and health standards (OSHA).

Occupational safety and health standard (OSHA) is a rule that requires "conditions or use of one or

more practices, means, methods, operations or processes, reasonably appropriate to provide safe

or healthful employment and places of employment".



8.3 Development of self applied standards.

Basically there are two types of standards. They are;

a. Voluntary or self Applied Standards and

b. Regulatory Standard

Voluntary standards are developed by the various interest groups and individuals, who were

involved in accident prevention work. The standards were developed by the experienced persons,so, that was practicable and accepted by many people although that was not compulsory.

These self applied standards were developed after the production failure of many weapons during

First World War In 1918, the five leading engineering societies of US initiated to form a national

organization to work in the field of health and safety. With the help of government departments,

they formed the American Engineering Standard Committee.

In 1928, the scope of the work was broadened and the name changed to American Standard

Association (ASA). In 1948, ASA was incorporated under the laws of the state of New York. There

are hundreds of technical societies and thousands of companies as the member of ASA. It has

approved more than 2000 standards as American standard.

8.4 Regulatory standards.

Regulatory standards are those which are prepared by the government or accepted by the

government which is developed by civil organizations. Laws or rules, having force or effect, have

been adopted by the government for the prevention of hazards are regulatory standards.

Most of the drafts of standards developed in the industry are created because of a demand for safer

conditions and performances. Definite process must be followed in the development of regulatory

standards. The following is a simple procedure which can be adopted.

a. All groups having legitimate interest in the standard to be drafted are invited to take part in

its drafting.

b.

This inspection service agency having duty of administrating the standards usually preparestentative drafts and submits to the concerned committee.

c. This drat of standards with changed or additions as approved by this committee then go to

the approval authority for its consideration and action as required under the law.

In some cases parliamentary investigation may need before final approval and certification of the

standards.

The national safety standards may be categorized in following groups:

a. General standards, system structures, terminology, organizations.

b.

Standard for harmful agents (physical, chemical, biological) exposure limits, measurements,

working with dangerous substances.c. Standard for materials used in industries.

d. Standards manufacturing practices, including technical lay outs, duties and responsibilities,

worker's protection and supervision.

8.5 Plant Standard.

Every machine, plant should have minimum standards. The standards may be of different types.

Most of the modern plants producers supply manual for installation, operation and general

maintenance. Some give detail description of standards and other provide short. Those manuals

should be studied before installation and operation of machines.Standards are developed as needed. Some plants may work in simple standards but plants, say B-52

bombers needs very accurate and detailed standards and that should be strictly followed by the

operators.



Job safety standards.

Standards are developed to control. The control requires in;

* Production

* Installation

* Operation

* Maintenance

* Quality of work piece produced

* Size of work piece

* Working (Place /space) environment

All these job safety standards are related to the;

- Standard for safeguarding,

- Standard for safety equipment,

- Standard for inspection,

- Standard for safe practice,

- Standard for safety rules.

The following points should be considered in developing the safety rules and standard;

a. Every rule be practical with the view point of those to whom it applies,

b.

Each hazard condition should be definitely demonstrable as unsafe,

c. Rules should be limited to safety matters, that should not be diverted to other matters,

d.

The work men affected must have a full part in developing the rules.



9. INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

9.1 Introduction.

The industrial revolution was brought about by the development of mechanized equipments and

applications of steam and electrical energy. Up to this point, the industry was primarily interested

in improving productivity with a little thought to human society.

The new technology brought about a concern for the working conditions and fatal injuries of

workers. Labor unions, newspaper men, and humanitarians raised voices about the industrial safety.

They focused mainly on the following two issues;

a. Installation of safety guards on equipment and

b. Compensation for accidental victims and their dependents.

9.2 Employer Liability Laws.

Installation of safety guards on hazardous machinery was developed in 1970s in Europe and

America. But, the compensation issue was remained unsolved for many years. “Employer

Liability Law” was the first step, which intended to provide the compensation for the accidental

victims due to employer’s negligence.

Although the employer liability law initiated to provide compensation to victims in the industry, it

was difficult to prove employer’s negligence. So, this law also could not be effective and the

“Worker’s Compensation Law” came into existence.

9.3 Worker’s Compensation Laws.

In 1885, legislation was developed in Germany under Bismark to provide compensation to the

injured workers. This legislation spread out across the Europe in the name of “Worker’s

Compensation Legislation”. Later the “laws of employees Compensation” passed in all the

countries.

The purpose of the law is “to provide compensation to all the injuries arising out of, or in

connection with the employment”. It compels the employers to pay the injured workers for their

medical and hospital expenses along with the compensation to their dependents.

The compensation law was passed in America in 1908 at first. The law passed in all states from

1911 to 1919 with some differences from state to state. In Nepal, “Labor Act 2048” has made

provisions for compensation to workers and their dependents.

9.4 Agencies rendering safety services.

All countries do have more or less service agencies to maintain safety at work. The following are

some agencies in Nepal.

a. Ministry of Labor

b. Department of Labor and Transport

c. Labor Trade unions



Nepal Labor Act 2048.

Condition of work (Section 3, Article 16-20);

* Working hours – 8 hours a day or 48 hours a week (16)

* Starting time to be decided by the management (17)

* Provision for rest and Tiffin time – no more than 5 hours of continuous work – half an hour break(17)

* Provision for overtime – 1.5 more wage, no compulsion for overtime.

* Required to keep attendance record.

Compensation (Wage – Section 4, Article 21 – 26):

* Minimum wage, Dearness allowance benefits to be set by a minimum wage setting committee

(Employee, Nepal Government representative, Management representatives in equal number –

21) – Minimum wage information to be published in gazette.

* Provision for annual increment – half a day wage.

* Payment of salary, wage in time – management’s responsibility (Article 22 – 23).No pay cut

except in the following condition (24).

Conditions for pay cut ( Article 24);

* Imposed fine, pay cut for being absent,

* To cover the loss of the firm due to the negligence of the employee,

* For the benefits being provided,

* Excess payment,

* Medical benefit coverage during suspension,

* Pay cut from the order of the court, Government office,

* Tax deduction.

Health and security Provisions: Section 5:

* Clean working environment (Article 27 Ka),

* Enough air and light at the work place, Proper waste disposal system, protection from air andnoise pollution, adequate working space, safe drinking water, modern toilet facility at convenient

place for both male and female employees, fire exit and extinguisher, smoke free environment,

health checkup each year,

* Eye protection – use of protection devices (28),

* Protection from chemicals (29),

* Protection from fire (30),

* Protection from dangerous machines (31),

* Lifting weight – specified maximum weight (32),

* protection arrangement for workers who work in pressure plant,

* Labor department can order firms to apply safety measures,



Employee Welfare:

* provision for employee welfare fund (37) – section 6,

* Compensation for injury or loss of body part,

* Gratuity, Provident Fund, Medical expenses (39),

* Leave – Public holidays, study leave, home leave, maternity leave, mourning leave, special leave,

* Housing arrangement (5% of the annual profit to be used for gradual development of housing

facility),

* Childcare provision ( if more than 50 women employee),

* Rest rooms and canteen (if more than 50 employee are working).

9.5 Industrial relations, Trade Unions and Safety Representatives.

9.5.1 Industrial Relation

The term ‘Industrial Relations’ comprises of two terms: ‘Industry’ and ‘Relations’. “Industry”

refers to “any productive activity in which an individual (or a group of individuals) is (are)engaged”. By “relations” we mean “the relationships that exist within the industry between the

employer and the workmen.”

The term industrial relation explains the relationship between employees and management which

stem directly or indirectly from union-employer relationship.

Industrial relations are the relationships between employees and employers within the

organizational settings. The field of industrial relations looks at the relationship between

management and workers, particularly groups of workers represented by a union. Industrial

relations are basically the interactions between employers, employees and the government, and the

institutions and associations through which such interactions are mediated.

Three main parties are directly involved in industrial relations:

Employers: Employers have the right to hire and fire them. Management can also affect workers’

interests by exercising their right to relocate, lose or merge the factory or to introduce technological

changes.

Employees: Workers seek to improve the terms and conditions of their employment. They

exchange views with management and voice their grievances. They also want to share decision

making powers of management. Workers generally unite to form unions against the management

and get support from these unions.

Government: The central and state government influences and regulates industrial relations

through laws, rules, agreements, awards of court ad the like. It also includes third parties and labor

and tribunal court.

The concept of industrial relations has a very wide meaning and connotation. In the narrow sense, it

means that the employer, employee relationship confines itself to the relationship that emerges out

of the day to day association of the management and the labor. In its wider sense, industrial

Industrial Relation

Employer’s

Association.

Trade Union

Courts and

Tribunals

Employer

Employees

Government



relations include the relationship between an employee and an employer in the course of the

running of an industry and may project it to spheres, which may transgress to the areas of quality

control, marketing, price fixation and disposition of profits among others.

Industrial relations is a multidisciplinary field that studies the employment relationship. Industrial

relation is increasingly being called employment relations because of the importance of non-

industrial employment relationships. Many outsiders also equate industrial relations to labor

relations and believe that industrial relations only studies unionized employment situations, but

this is an oversimplification.Industrial relations has three faces: science building, problem solving, and ethical.

9.5.2 Trade Union.

A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English) is an organization of workers

that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade

union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and

negotiates labor contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. This may include the negotiation

of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of

workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. The agreements negotiated by the union leaders

are binding on the rank and file members and the employer and in some cases on other non-

member workers.

Originating in Europe, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial

Revolution, when the lack of skill necessary to perform most jobs shifted employment bargaining

power almost completely to the employers' side, causing many workers to be mistreated and

underpaid. Trade union organizations may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past

workers, or the unemployed. The most common, but by no means only, purpose of these

organizations is "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment".

Trade Union in Nepal

The history of trade union movement in Nepal is of recent origin. There were no trade unions in Nepal before 1945 as the country was under the family rule of Ranas. Nepal had followed closed-

door economy having almost no relations with the outside world. In 1946 All Nepal Trade Union

Congress (ANTUC) was formed. In 1947, Biratnagar Workers Union (BWU) was set up. In March

1947 the first workers’ movement took place at Biratnagar for the establishment of democracy. In

1951 ANTUC and BWU became united and formed the first trade union federation in Nepal. The

World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) in 1953 granted membership to ANTUC. After the

democratic change of 1950, the freedom of association allowed the opportunities to many voluntary

organizations in the country and the workers, too, felt the need to be united under one umbrella to

fight against the exploitation of the management and the government. The unions existed at that

time were:

Biratnagar Workers’ Union, Cotton Mills Workers’ Union, All Nepal Trade Union Congress,

Independent Workers’ Union, Biratnagar Mills Workers’ Association, All Nepal United Workers’

Union, All Nepal Trade Union Organization and Nepal Labor Union. But these unions were merely

instruments of the political parties without the capacity of free collective bargaining. This is clear

from the fact that Girija Prasad Koirala, and late Mana Mohan Adhikari, were active both in trade

unions and their respective parties. After the success of democratic struggle against 104 years of

Rana family rule in 1950 freedom of expression and organization became part of political life.

The Nepalese political history took a new turn in 1960 when the King staged a putsch, banned the

political parties and trade unions and established a partyless Panchayat system in 1962. This system

limited the freedom of expression and association but envisioned creating exploitation-free society

through the harmonization and co-ordination of the interests of different classes. For this, sixdifferent class organizations including Nepal Labor organization were created. As this organization

was controlled by the system and also that the central body was heavily politicized, the objective of

ensuring the labor welfare remained unfulfilled. Still, some of the noticeable achievements were

also made during this period in the field of labor administration, such as, establishment of a

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_relations



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_conditions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_and_employment_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_safety



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining_power


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retiree


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployed



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployed



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_and_employment_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_conditions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English






separate labor ministry, department and some labor offices and the admission of Nepal into the

International Labor Organization (ILO) as a member.

Multi-party democracy was restored in the Spring of 1990 in the country after the success of

people's movement, in which many professional organizations, including workers had actively

participated. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 guaranteed multi-party parliamentary

system, human rights, constitutional monarchy and the sovereignty of people. It also granted the

freedom of expression and association, which inspired the formation of trade unions. At an early

stage, there was mushrooming growth of trade unions. They were heavily divided in the line of political ideologies. Each party has its own unions, if not general federation. With the passage of

time, most of these unions could not exist and some of the unions were merged.

Three major federations existing in the country are Nepal Trade Union Congress

(NTUC), Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions (DECONT) and General

Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions (GEFONT).

* Nepal Trade Union Congress (NTUC) was established in 1947 with the objectives of promoting

workers rights. The labor movement in Nepal started on March 4, 1947 in Biratnagar against the

hereditary Rana rule for the establishment of democracy and advancement of workers’ rights.

The ideology of NTUC was based on democracy, nationalism and socialism. After the

establishment of democracy in the country in 1950, NTUC became active in the promotion ofworkers’ rights to organize, express and struggle for their collective welfare. In 1960 with the

dissolution of multi-party democracy in Nepal, trade unions were banned along with political

parties for almost 30 years of Panchayat system. With the overthrow of Panchayat polity in 1990

following popular movement for the restoration of democracy, freedom of expression and

organization became a part of national life. Nepal Trade Union Congress also revived its

organization in 1990 and now works closely to ruling Nepali Congress party in general and

current prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala in particular.

* Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions (DECONT) is established on May 1,

1997 after it broke away from NTUC. It is not affiliated to Nepali Congress party but works

closely with former Prime ministers Krishna Prasad Bhattarai- Sher Bahadur Deuba group in particular. This division extends to the grassroots level on factional lines of the political party.

* General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions (GEFONT) was established in July 20, 1989

with four founder federations: Nepal Independent Workers Union (NIWU), Independent

Transport Workers’ Association of Nepal (ITWAN),Nepal Independent Workers’ Union

(NIHWU) and Trekking Workers’ Association of Nepal (TWAN). It is affiliated to Communist

Party of Nepal Unified Marxist-Leninist party (CPN-UML). A small faction splinted from

GEFONT formed Independent Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions (ICONT) on March 14,

1998. ICONT is affiliated to CPN Marxist-Leninist party (CPN-ML).

9.5.3 Safety Representatives.

There are various types of safety representatives in different levels. Some of them are;

- Safety inspectors from the company.

- Worker safety committee men.

- Trade union representatives of the company.

-First-aid attendants.

- Inspection officer from the government.

- Representatives from central level trade union.

- Representatives of national safety council.

- Representatives of community safety council,

- Representatives of bureau of labor standards etc.

These representatives work together to formulate safety rules, control the industries to operate and

workers to follow the same. They also work to provide the facility which has to be obtained by the

employees.

http://www.ntuc.org.np/


http://www.decont.org/


http://www.gefont.org/







10. RISK MANAGEMENT

Introduction

According to Oxford dictionary, Risk is defined as “the possibility that something unpleasant will

happen”, or “a situation that could be dangerous or have a bad outcome”.

Risk is possibility or chance of meeting danger, suffering or injury. So, risk is the variability ofreturns from an investment. If the probabilities of possible outcome of a given problem are known,

we can conclude that the problem contains risk, in other words, the problem is risky.

On the other hand, if the probabilities of possible outcomes of a given problem are not known, we

can conclude that the problem has an element of uncertainty, i.e. the outcome cannot be predicted.

The choice of approach for dealing with the analysis depends on the size, type and general nature of

the project or the problem being modeled, the amount and reliability of information available and

the nature of output required.

Identification of Risk.

In any project, there can be various types of risks. It can be divided as;

a. Internal and External.

b. Predictable and unpredictable

c. Technical and Non-technical.

Some major project risk can be listed as;

a. Management Risk,

b.

Resource risk,

c. Technical Risk,

d.

Political risk,

e. Legal Risk

f. Environmental Risk

g. Financial Risk

a. Management Risk.

Completing the project in time and within the estimated cost itself is a major achievement. A

project that is delayed will result in time over-run which will consequently result in cost over-run.

In the project promoters are not able to pump in additional funds required to meet the cost over-run,

the project runs the risk of coming to standard.

Construction industries require quite-a-few manpower. Sometimes massive turn-over of the worker

creates a big problem and this probability has always high risk.

b. Resource Risk.

Raw material, power, fuel, manpower etc are the resources used by a project. Shortage of raw

material may lead to reduction in capacity utilization and higher cost of production, which will

make all profitability estimate wrong. Similarly, shortage of power, fuel and shortage of skilled

manpower will also jeopardize the project profitability calculations and the project may run the risk

of not earning the estimated returns.

c. Technical Risk.



Rapid growth in technology may make a project obsolete in recent future. The variation in design

due to local condition or faulty design is also a risky factor. It will demand change in design or

extra investment which can have adverse effect on the project.

d. Political Risk.

Political risk is major risk since it cannot be predicted easily. Government intervenes in many

forms such as; levying and regulating taxes, regulating monopolistic trade practices, imposing

import duties etc.

e. Legal Risk

Before launching or during the execution of any project, National and local legal requirements must

be fulfilled. Various legal problems may exist which cause delay in the project completion and

sometimes the whole project may even collapse.

f. Environmental Risk

Environmental factors are generally considered during the design phase of any project but

sometimes unexpected condition may occur suddenly which is out of normal condition and can

cause delay or damage of the built structure.

g. Financial Risk

This is the most concerned risk factor for any project. Mare the management of estimated amount

may not be enough. Sometimes the hike in prices of construction material and unexpected accidents

etc may require more money for the continuation of the project. Due to various other factors too,

the project cost may go up affecting the overall profit. Proper margins must be there to cope with

such risks.

10.1 Techniques of Risk Analysis

a. Brainstorming

Is used extensively in formative project planning and can also be used to advantage to identify and

postulate risk scenarios for a particular project. It is a simple but effective attempt to help people

think creatively in a group setting without feeling inhibited or being criticized by others.

The rules are that each member must try to build on the ideas offered by preceding comments. No

criticism or disapproving verbal or nonverbal behaviors are allowed. The intent is to encourage as

many ideas as possible, which may in turn, trigger the ideas of others.

b. Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis seeks to place a value on the effect of change of a single variable within a

project by analyzing that effect on the project plan. It is the simplest form of risk analysis.

Uncertainty and risk are reflected by defining a likely range of variation for each component of the

original base case estimate. In practice such an analysis is only done for those variables which have

a high impact on cost, time or economic return, and to which the project is most sensitive.

Some of the advantages of sensitivity analysis include impressing management that there is a range

of possible outcomes, decision making is more realistic, though perhaps more complex. And the

relative importance of each variable examined is readily apparent. Some weaknesses are that

variables are treated individually, limiting the extent to which combinations of variables can be

assessed, and a sensitivity diagram gives no indication of anticipated probability of occurrence.

c. Probability Analysis

Probability analysis overcomes the limitations of sensitivity analysis by specifying a probabilitydistribution for each variable, and then considering situations where any or all of these variables

can be changed at the same time. Defining the probability of occurrence of any specific variable

may be quite difficult, particularly as political or commercial environments can change quite

rapidly.



As with sensitivity analysis, the range of variation is subjective, but ranges for many time and cost

elements of a project estimate should be skewed toward overrun, due to the natural optimism or

omission of the estimator.

d. Break-Even Analysis

It is a financial analysis where we analyze mathematically and check whether the project will be at

profit or loss. The break-even point is such a case which indicates that there is neither profit nor

loss. If the earning or benefit is above the break-even point then there is profit and vice versa.

For example;A production industry that manufactures

e. Monte Carlo

“Monte Carlo” is a code name given by Von Newmann and Ulam to the techniques of solving

problems using random numbers.

The Monte Carlo method, simulation by means of random numbers, provides a powerful yet simple

method of incorporating probabilistic data. Basic steps are:

a. Assess the range of the variables being considered and determine the probability distribution

most suited to each.

b. For each variable within its specific range, select a value randomly chosen, taking account of the

probability distribution for the occurrence of the variable.

c. Run a deterministic analysis using the combination of values selected for each one of the

variables.

d. Repeat steps 2 and 3 a number of times to obtain the probability distribution of the result.

Typically between 100 and 1000 iterations are required depending on the number of variables and

the degree of confidence required.

f. Decision Tree Analysis

Decision tree approach is a graphical technique that can be used for analyzing the possible

alternative decisions and choosing the best possible course of action. In real life situation, decisions

are taken under conditions of uncertainty. In project management, this is more so in view of the

multiplicity of factors involved. For example, a company might have to decide whether to go for

investment in a large plant or a small plant, whether to invest in a new venture or to acquire an

existing company etc.

The point to be noted is that the factors that have a bearing on a project are not constants but are

subject to variations. Hence, there is always an element of uncertainty involved in any project

decision. A decision tree is a diagrammatic representation of the logical relationship between the

different parts of a complex situation and the possible outcomes of different decisions.

A decision tree is made up of nodes and branches. Nodes are of two types. Such as,

- Decision node (also called decision point) and

- Chance node (also called chance point or chance event).

A decision point is represented by a square and chance point is represented by a circle. A different

alternative available for the given situation emerges from the decision point. At each chance point,

the different possible outcomes of one of the alternative decisions are marked.

Rules for drawing decision tree.

* Identify all the alternative decisions available at the initial decision point (i.e. at decision point-1).

* Identify all possible subsequent decision points.

* Identify all possible chance points and the likely outcome of the chance points. Construct thedecision tree diagram from the left to the right. Denote the decision point by a square and the

chance point by a circle.



* After constructing the decision tree, work backwards (i.e. from right to left), computing EMV of

each chance point and each decision point till the initial decision point is reached.

* Determine the best alternative at the initial decision point.

Expected Monetary Value (EMV),

The effectiveness of any decision is measured only in terms of money. Hence, the outcomes of all

decisions are measured in terms of the expected monetary value (EMV). It provides a common base

for comparing the outcomes of different decisions and choosing the one that is found moreadvantageous.

The Quality Risk

This risk can best be expressed by the question: “What if the project fails to perform as expected

during its operational life?” This may well be the result of less than satisfactory quality upon

project completion, and is especially true if quality is not given due attention during the project life

cycle. Since the in-service life of the resulting product is typically much longer than the periodrequired to plan and produce that product, any quality shortcomings and their effects may surface

over a prolonged period of time.

Consequently, of all the project objectives, conformance to quality requirement is the one most

remembered long after cost and schedule performance have faded into the past. It follows that

quality management can have the most impact on the long-term actual or perceived success of the

project.

Risk Perceptions

1. People do not, in fact, demand zero risk. They take risk every day, both consciously and

subconsciously, and they are willing and able to take benefit/risk decisions, as in driving andspeeding.

2. Peoples’ judgment of degrees of risk is not, however, coincident with most methodologies for

measuring risk statistically. The public may greatly underestimate familiar risks (e.g. driving)

while greatly overestimating unfamiliar risks (e.g. buying a home near a nuclear facility).

3. A variety of emotional, not logical, factors control risk perceptions:

a. Primary is the sense of personal control and the ability to manage the risk

b. Secondary is qualities of familiarity and conversely, dread. The greater the unfamiliarity and

potential for connection to gruesome, the more it is likely to be judged as highly risky and

therefore unacceptable.

4. Once established, risk perceptions are extremely hard to change. New information may beabsorbed by the intellect, but it is not readily absorbed at an emotional level.

5. Risk perceptions reside fundamentally at an emotional level.

10.2 Interpretation of Risk analysis:

In order to make a decision, we assemble information, analyze it and interpret the results.

Interpretation of information or analytical results is influenced, among other things by professional

experience, the quality of judgment, knowledge of subjective information which may not have been

included in the analysis- and our attitude to the problem under consideration.

The risk analysis tends to encourage professionals to use their experience and judgment more fully.Quantitative techniques are important but it is equally important that the user of a technique be

fully aware of its strength and weakness, the context of the decision and the factors which influence

attitude.



Risk attitude in gambling ‘card counting’.

The most famous contemporary professional gambler is Dr. Edward O. Thorpe. Thorpe is an

American mathematician, who although he now specializes in playing the stock market, began

gambling career by applying optimal strategies for betting casino ‘Blackjack’ gambler. He was

eventually banned from the premises by several casino owners.

Card counting is method of analyzing risk and taking with high bets only when the odds are

relatively favorable.

In the broad context of business decision making a key feature is the risk to reward ratio. Where the

risks are high, the investor requires an additional premium to make worth while carrying such risk.

Example; higher motorcar insurance premium for fast cars and young drivers. Risk attitude and

Utility theory.

Utility theory suggests that instead of maximizing expected monitory value, people maximize their

own utility. The equation which describes the utility curve is the utility function. Utility functions

vary from person to person. The utility function of an individual is unlikely to be identical to the

utility function of that individual’s employing organization. Therefore, people have different risk

attitude according to their utility purposes.

10.3 Human Behavior:

Aspects of risk taking (The allais paradox)-This paradox explains how people, who are aware of the probability calculus, are considered to be

rational and whose proposal capital is small compared to the sums involved. It is a case of

psychology of risk. Let us consider the so-called Allias paradox that is credited with prompting

many of the advances is the general theory of random choice and psychology of risk. See an

example.

A decision maker has been faced with two questions as follows:

Case A:

1. Do you prefer situation A or B?

Situation A: Receive a certain amount of Rs. 1 million.

Situation B: Receive a lottery ticket with-

a. 10% chance of winning Rs. 5m, (0.1 x 5 = 0.5)

b. 89% chance of winning Rs. 1m, (0.89 x 1 = 0.89)

c. 1% chance of winning nothing. (0.01 x 0 = 0)

Total 1.392. Do you prefer situation C or D?

Situation C: receive a lottery ticket with a. 10% chance of winning Rs. 5m,

b. A 90% chance of winning nothing,

Situation D: receive a lottery ticket with; a. 11% chance of winning Rs. 1m,

b. 89% chance of winning nothing

People aware of probability calculus are considered rational and whose capital is small compared to

the sums involved, tend to prefer A over B and C over D. On the face of it, this seems at first

irrational. The relevant EMV are as follows- A=Rs. 1m, B=Rs. 1.39, C=Rs.0.5m and D=Rs.0.11m.This paradox demonstrates that people are both risk adverse and risk seeking depending upon the

context. To be more specific, subjects intuitively have quite a sophisticated understanding of utility,

which takes account of the distribution of utility about its mathematically expectation as well as the



expected utility itself. This is the case particularly when the figures involved are large in relation to

the subject’s own capital.



11. SAFETY MANAGEMENT

11.1 Role of Employees

In safely management, the management in any organization concentrates on the safety of its people.

Management concentrates on safety because of the following reasons.

1.

People of the organization are the organizational assets (resources), it should be not lost in anyway,

2. Human resources are on top of the priority of any other resources on any ground- cost wise and

humanitarian wise,

3.

The government and the court consider the injured people to get penalties from the organization,

4.

The organization loses its name and fame form the losses of its people and people’s lives, which

are the intangible assets of the organization,

5. People fear of joining the organization, from which the organization faces shortage of qualified

and active staffs.

The management can initiate to make the employees aware of the hazards in the working fields by,

1. Communicating them

2. Assigning responsibilities to them

3. Granting authorities to them

4. Seeking accountability from them

The management thinks that its employees have become aware of the hazards in their work fields

from the above initiations, which is in fact not true. Individual employees and the group of the

people working together have been influenced from different factors. Those factors can be used by

the management to educate them for the safe working conditions. The influences on the employeesso far found effective have been listed below:

1. The influence of the attitude of the group towards the safety,

2. The influence of selection and placement,

3. The influence of training and education,

4. The influence of supervision,

5. The influence of special-emphasis programs,

6. The influence of media.

1. The influence of the attitude of the group towards the safety

The employees have usually to work in a group and hence the management has to understand the

group psychology to implement safety programs. Groups may be strong and weak.

Strong group voluntarily;

- try to deserve praise from the rest of the group,

- seek recognition from the group leader,

- exert special efforts to achieve group goals,

-

Put special efforts into achievement of the group goals.

In a weak group, the members of the group are;

- From clique and subgroup,



- Exhibit little cooperation,

- Are unfriendly

- Use no initiatives

- A void responsibility

- Have no respect for group policies.

The employees need to have following essentialities to make strong group:-

1. Individual competence,

2. Individual maturity,

3. Individual strength, and

4. Common objectives.

2. Influence of selection and placement

Like- minded people should be in a group to make a secured effort. So, the management can

select and place the employees in a group on the following bases;

1. Biographical data 2. Tests

* Application

* Interviews,

* References,

* Other sources:-

-Credit, Schools,

- Driving record,

- Agencies

Physical examination

Qualification,

Defects,

Skill Tests,

Job knowledge Tests,

Psychological test.

11.3 Influence of training

Training imparts knowledge to the trainees. The knowledge changes attitudes. Attitude brings skill.

Skill changes behaviors. Therefore, training finally brings changes in behavior. Knowledge,

attitude, skill and behavior promote safe behaviors, which increase safety in the work behaviors.

Management also gets background knowledge, skill and the causes that bring motivation. Training

can be effective it is need based.

Tell → Show → Observe → Correct.

There are many methods of training and following may be needs for employees:-

1. Orientation for new employees,

2.

OJT for new employees,

3. Upgrade/change/refresh/new techniques for experienced,

4. New jobs training for transferred employees,

5. Group toolbox meeting,

6. Other employees as need arise.

Objectives of training decide the type of training. So, the management must be clear of the output

of the employees after training. The objectives must be clear and well defined for all the

management, trainers and the trainees/ employees.

4. The influences of supervision

Supervisors are the first line managers who come direct in contact with the employees in relation to

works, which usually need safeties. Supervisors evaluate and control the employees. So, employees



are responsible to the supervisors. The employees carry out + supervisor’s directions and

instructions. So, the supervisors can play an impressive role in influence the employees so that they

become aware of unwanted accidents/hazards. The management can control the employees through

the supervisors’ instruction. So, supervisors must be motivated to inculcate the employees for

safety.

5. The Influence of special-emphasis programs

It is coordinate campaign aimed at a defined problem. A well-run and well-devised special-emphasis program can exert an important influence on employees. For example, ‘Knowing is not

Enough’ program was conducted by United States Steel Company a nos. of years ago. It was

assumed that employees know what to do, they just do not do it often enough.

‘Everywhere- All the time’ was another special – emphasis program conducted by Allis-Chalmers

Company and later adopted by the national safety Council. It was under the same assumption of

‘Knowing is not Enough’ and defined problem was ‘off the job’ injuries.

Special emphasis programs are effective because:-

1. They are directed at defined problem,

2.

They utilize a recall symbol, which trigger response over and over,

3. They contain enough elements to convince employees that mgt. is

4. really interested in their safety.

6. Safety Media

Safety media are extremely valuable only when they are heard by receptive ears and seen by

receptive eyes. One should utilize media properly. Media alone does not motivate individuals. In

the industry, the employees are considered having motivators and dissatisfiers in the work field.

Herzberg propounded it and hence it is known Herzberg’s dual factor or Motivation- hygiene

theory. With the fulfillment of dissatisfiers, employees do not become motivated, but these arenecessary to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors relate to the job context. They are hygiene factors.

They are;

1. Company policy and administration,

2. Technical supervision,

3. Interpersonal relation with superiors, peers and subordinators,

4. Salary,

5. Job security,

6. Personal life,

7.

Work conditions8. Status, Motivational factors or motivators:-

a. Achievement,

b. Recognition

c. Advancement,

d. The work itself

e. The possibility of personal growth,

f. Responsibility

11.2 Role of Supervisors

1. Introduction

The attitude of majority of supervisor today lies somewhere between total acceptance and flat

rejection of comprehensive accident prevention programs. Safety is considered far more less than

production, quality, cost control or method improvement in the organization. The manager’s

attitude towards safety depends upon the following three things.



1. Abilities 2. Role of perceptions 3. Effort

1. AbilitiesThe performance of manager depends upon the his/her ability brought to the task. The abilities refer

to both inherent capabilities and to specialized knowledge in a particular field of endeavor.

Sufficient knowledge of safety would be ensured through training to supervisors. First line

managers would acquire sufficient knowledge of safety through supervisory training to control

subordinates and working conditions under which they would work.

In most industries, lack of knowledge of safety is not a problem. Usually, line managers know far

more about safety knowledge than they apply. In case the first managers or supervises have little

safety knowledge; the situation can be handled through training.

2. Role perceptions

Line manager's role in safety determines the direction in which they will apply their efforts. Role

perception is more important that ability. In safety, role perception has to do whether line

managers(supervisors) know what management wants in accident control and with whether they

know their duties are. In the area of role perception, the safety professional should search for

answers to some questions about the organization and about each line managers in it. Those

questions concern the content and effectiveness of management's policy on safety, the adequacy ofsupervisors' training, company safety procedures, the system used to fix accountability etc.

3. Effort

The following two factors determine how much effort should a supervisor put into a job

1.

His/her opinion of the value of the rewards, and

2.

The connection the person sees between efforts and those rewards.

The supervisor will decide whether his effort put on the job reward him or not at first. The

supervisor considers if the value of rewards obtained from the management for achieving the goal

is great, s/he will decide to expend effort much on his/her job.

"Rewards" here means much more than just financial reward. It includes all the things that motivate

people, recognition, opportunity for advancement, increased pay etc. Research shows that the

rewards of Advancement and Responsibility are two greatest motivators.

If the rewards consist of advancement and additional responsibility, the supervisor will put more

effort on the job.

Safety Measurement system needs to be devised to measure a line manager's safety performance in

term of ability, effort and role perception. Such system would enable the management to decide

what level of safety achievement should be expected from the line manager (supervisor). Such a

system of measurement would have been based on self-rating or management's rating.

A system of rating the three elements that go in to safe performance(in term os points, percentage

points, whatever seems logical) would help to identify supervision performance in safety. A

equation can be developed as below:-

Effort X Ability X Role Perception=Safety Performance.

A rating system can be devised for each of the three factors, resulting in a final number which

could be an indicator or manager's safety performance.

Motivators and Dissatisfiers

Herzberg's hygiene theory of motivation states that unless an organization brings up its context up

to the level, motivating factors do not motivate the workers. They are called hygiene factors or

maintenance factors. Company policies, Supervision, working conditions, Salary, relationship can

status are hygiene factors.



On the other, motivator factors are those, which if employed, the employees become motivate and

put more efforts on jobs. Motivators' are:-

Advancement- It is most important for supervisor,

Responsibility- It is important next to the advancement for supervisors,

Possibility of growth-It is far more important to supervisor than to employees,

Achievement- It is important to supervisors but not as important as to employees.

Application of the motivators in Supervision

Advancement and Responsibility:

Safety programs should be made an integral part of supervision work so that supervisors can

exercise and maintain safeties in their working field. Supervisors should be evaluated on the three

elements of measurement of effectiveness of safety.

Responsibility growth:

Supervisors should be given free hand in how they control accidents and retain accountability in the

work fields. They should be encouraged to maintain low accidents records in the work field.

Growth and Responsibility:

Supervisors should be assigned specials projects in safety so that new and practicable measures can

be sought for further actions. Safety measures have been learnt from learning by doing in most

cases.

Training

Training is a source of motivation to Supervisors as to employees in addition to knowledge and

skill imparting. There are many sources of help for Supervisory training, including training

packages, self- study courses, programmed courses, an discussion courses.

The institutions that provide training to supervisors are Universities, vocational schools,

government schools, insurance carries, Trade associations or others.

There are a number of courses bout the selection of the course should be made to fit intended

program with specific objectives. At first, it is to determine whether training is the answer to your

defined problem. In case if it is the answer, you should the objective of the training to specifically

solve the problem.

It will be effective if the management conceive the need of the training to particular group of

workers and present the training, implying the importance of aura of training.

11.3 Motivating Management

Motivating is as the willingness to exert high level of efforts towards organizational goals,

conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual needs (Robbins, p.169).

Needs mean some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. Therefore, the

motivating agencies identify the needs of managers so that the agencies may help to fulfill the

needs and the managers can be motivated to exert high level of effort to their works.

Motivation by nature is;

1. Psychological concept e.g. needs, desire, motives and drives,

2.

Complex and unpredictable: e.g. difficult to predict as if differs from individual to individual,

3.

Concerned with individual e.g. it is different for people to people,

4.

Continuous process, e.g. when one need is fulfilled another emerges.

5. Pervasive, e.g. it is necessary to all level of organization,

6.

Behavior oriented e.g. motivation reflects in behaviors,



7. Positive and negative e.g. carrot and stick or hot wave stove techniques.

Mangers, system or knowledge represents managements, which is responsible for all policy and

rules and regulation that links external and internal environment of the organization sphere. There

are basically three managerial roles played by the management:-

Interpersonal roles Information roles Decision making roles

1. Figure head Spokesman Negotiator

2. Leader Disseminator Entrepreneur

3. Liaison Informational news center Disturbance handler

Resource allocator

From the above roles of management, it can be assumed that management plays an important roles

in the organization. Unless management is not satisfied with what it has to play because of de-

motivation, the outcomes shall be extremely undesirable.

With the roles of interpersonal roles, the management maintains integrity, leadership and liaison in

the organization. Unless the organization has sound integrity, visionary leadership and relationship

with inside and outside environment, it will be lost. Integrating the efforts of the efforts of theorganizational staff, leading towards the goal of the organization and maintaining hormonal roles

with the external agencies makes the organization popular and efficient.

With the informational role, the management plays informational center, spokesman ad

disseminator. The management is the only authentic body for accepting or rejecting information.

Outer world believes on the news disseminated by the management. A hearsay information about

organization is not authentic. Whenever outer world seeks information about the organization, it is

only the management that can play as an authentic spokesman.

Decision making roles

The management has to make decision on behalf of an organization and at the same time to play arole as an entrepreneur in organizational business, calm the conflict in the organization smoothly

and allocate resources so that all the wings of the organization works perfectly and efficiently.

With all those very important roles that the management has to perform, makes the people,

appointed at the management positions very crucial on the part of organization. They are in fact at

the driving seats of the organization. If they feel de- motivated, certainly their performances

directly affect the organization's existence. Therefore, they must be all the time motivated.

The major two motivating factors to the management are profitability of the organization and the

well being of employees. Therefore, management is interested in the relationship of the safety

professional's ideas to the profits of the organization. Whenever one talks to management, s/heshould be dollar-oriented.

It is natural to worry about the safety of the employees who works for the organization. They are

the costliest resources of all in the organization.

Getting to the executive Major problem in dealing with executives is accessibility- getting to them when we need to. Policy

makers can only motivate executives through working and fringe facilities.

Work performers, who intend to have safety management, will encourage the management, but

management is the one who lifts the panics of safety management in the organization. The

management becomes motivated if the employees initiate safety management, because its roles

become fulfilled.



If we know the traits of executives, it will be easier to switch on them for making them motivated.The following traits have been identified as traits of executives;

1. They are usually family oriented and have happy home lives,

2. They are educated and intelligent,

3. They are interoperated in further self-development,

4. They have many outside interests,

5.

They are usually religions,6. They are vitally interested in people,

7. They enjoy good health,

8. They take risks after through study of facts,

9. They are interested in new and different approaches to problems,

10. They are objectives in their approaches and straightforward in their relationship.

Annual report

Every safety professionals ought to utilize the tool of the annual report to motivate management.

Often management does not ask annual report, but it should be submitted anyway. Appointed forsafety maintenance needs to project him/him self before the management of the expense n its

activities.

The safety professional would want the management to know the following through annual report:-

1. How did we fare last year? (give results expressed in management's terms).

2. What did we accomplish last year? In what ways are we stronger than we were before?

3. What are our objectives for next year? How will we be stronger at this time next year?

4. What do we need from management? What is it letting us down?

Management Motivators

For the management, there are only two concerns-employees oriented and production oriented as

per Michigan University Research in behavioral theory.

This states the concern of safety professionals with the top management. Management is mainly

interested in the relationship of the safety professional's ideas to the profit of the organization.

Management always wants to be in the best position, which is High/High at right hand top corner.

Here both production and employee concerns are high/high.

11.4 Stress Management

"Everybody knows what stress is and yet nobody knows what is it"- Selye.

A few definitions of stress are given below:-

" Stress is any condition that disturbs normal functioning"- Arnold. 1960.

"Stress is the state of an organism where s/he perceives that his well-being is endangered and thatthe he must divert all his energies t its protection" – Cofer & Appley, 1964.

"Stress is a dynamic state within an organism in response to a demand for adaptation"- Wolf, 1968.

Employee Low/High High/High

Oriented Low/Low High/Low



So, Stress occurs to an organism simply to adapt a change in the environment, may it be at work or

in any other. Stress is multifaceted in nature and stress response arousal involves work or in any

other and tissues in our body. There are usually three types of stress;

1. Anticipatory stress, 2. Current stress and3. Residual stress.

1. Anticipatory Stress

It is one's response to expected stresses. For example, Mind and body prepare in advance for a

change, crises or challenges or tension before test. It is useful in moderate amount because it

prepares one's body and mind for events that are about to happen. Thus, Anticipatory stress can be positive. But, it can also interfere with the life in present, as a person might pay more

attention to what might happen than to what is happening.

2. Current StressIt occurs during an experience; for example, mental alertness in the midst of debate, the surge of

energy in the final 100m of race. Current stress if harnessed effectively is vital for optional

performance.

3. Residual StressIt occurs after the experience has passed. The body remains in a state of alarm for some time

after a near collision on the highway. Over stimulation, whether pleasant or unpleasant, can havethe same effect (Schafer, 1992).

Stress management is an adaptive process in which one's body and mind prepares or adjust to a

threatening situation from environment. Stress is manifested in physical, psychological and

behavioral deviation.

What is stress then?

Stress is not simply anxiety. Anxiety is emotional and psychological. Stress is emotional,

psychological and physiological. Stress is generally accompanied by anxiety.

Stress is not simply nervous tension may result from stress.

Stress is not necessarily something damaging bad or to be avoided. It is inevitable inindividuals, especially managers. The key is how to handle it.

Positive and Negative stress

Positive stress is known as Eustress. It is needed for people to grow to their full potential. It is

something people should seek out rather than avoid.

Negative stress is known as distress. It has dysfunctional consequences. It should be presented or

effectively controller.

Work

load

Sources of stress

The following are the sources of stress;

1. Individual stressors,

2.

Group stressor

DistressStress



3. Organizational stressor

4.

Extra Organizational stressor

1. Individual StressorsThe following are the individual stressors:-

Body oriented:- Sudden appetite loss, sleepless, unfit, feeling of lethargy of tense,

Emotional oriented:- Extended period of sadness, depression, loneliness, frustrated etc.,

Relationship oriented:- Unhappy, bad feeling, unsupported feel, uninvolved feel, ineffective

performance, uninterested in skill increase, not relaxing through yoga, role conflicts etc. in the

org., works or peers,

Event oriented:- Event can be conditioned with S= shared vision, U=understand the need for

change, C= cultural alignment, C= communication, E=expert help (in/outside), S=strongleadership at highest level, S= shareholder’s ownership (SUCCESS)

Personality oriented:- Patterns and Traits create stress like-long hour working, taking work at

home, setting ambitious standards, frustration at work situation, lack of personal control on

environment or jobs, psychology hardness or poor stress tolerance capacity.

2. Group stressors

The following are the causes of group stressors:-

1. Lack of group cohesiveness,

2. Lack of social supports,

3. Intra-individual, interpersonal and inter-group conflicts,

4. Goal incompatibility,

5. Unclear roles,

6.

Overconfidence.

3. Organizational stressors

Physiological Individual stress Behavior

Psychological



1. Administrative policies/ strategies: Staff cutoff, competitive pressure in job enrichment,

work shift, over or under work, new technology, pay plans to remuneration, bureaucratic

rules and procedures.

2. Organizational structure/design: Line staff conflicts, poor promotion opportunity,

centralization/ specialization, untrusting culture, Role ambiguous.

3. Organizational processes: One-way communication, lack of participation, tight control, and

defective performance appraisal system.

4. Working condition: Noise, heat, cold, poor lighting, polluted water, air, stinking toilet,

crowded work area, physical/mental strains, health hazards in the job, poor quality of work

life.

4. Extra organizational Stressors

Extra organizational stressors are as follows:-

1.

Social change: pace and arte of social change is accelerating,

2. Family,

3.

Relocation due to life’s changes: economic condition in the country, community

condition etc.

Strategies for Stress Management

1. Individual stress management:

Exercise: Walk, jog, play and swim

Relaxation: Yoga, meditate, book reading, listening music, watching beautiful news

Behavioral self control: Control situation instead of letting the situation control you

Social support: Through networking,

Good eating habit,

Effective time management,

Clinical therapy: Consult a doctor,

Avoid irritating people,

Have sense of humor

Recognize potential limits,

Set realistic ambitions.

2. Organizational stress management

- Creating a supportive org. climate,

- Job design or job engineering,

- Job enrichment,

- Proper placement-fit jobs with skilled people,

- Conflict management,

-

Planning a career path for employees,

- Alternation in stressful policies or strategies,

- Training stress management,

- Improving working condition,



- Promoting employees,

- Providing counseling for stress management.

3. Extra organizational stress

Adapt to environment change. Pro-act rather than react to such changes,

Stress is not automatically bad. Low level of Eustress can even enhance performance andeffectiveness. Managers, above all, must manage stress effectively. They should not try to above

all, must manage stress effectively. They should not try to avoid it or be afraid of it.

Consequences of Stress

The following may be the consequences of stresses:-

1. Physiological impact: The conditions resulting from stress can be;

Alcoholism, arthritis, asthma, cancer, diabetes, eating disorder, hair loss, headache, heart

disease, heart burn etc.

2.

Psychological impact: Absenteeism, fatigue, dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression,

frustration, conflicts, irritability, or even suicide, drug addiction etc.

3. Organizational impacts: low motivation, low job performance, low productivity,

high turnover, high absenteeism, lower quality of interpersonal relationship, quality degradation

etc.

So, implement strategies for stress management in any organization for sound, hormonal and

efficient utilization of resources for better productivity.

Stressors:- Stressors relate to any factor within the individual or from the external environment,

which is conductive to stress. Stressors are either Episodic disruption or Chronic condition, whichcauses one's automatic nervous system and Endocrine gland system to disrupt one's normal

biophysical equilibrium in preparing one to " fight or flight". Stressor is also defined as a factor,

which produces stress.

Strains:- Strain is the state of being stressed; and it can be physiological, psychological or

Behavioral, but it is by definition an indicator of ill health of the individual. In other words, stressor

usually refers to environment stimulus and the term 'Strain' to individual response.

11.5 Safety Management

All organizations have three things in common:-

1. Management functions,

2.

Management tasks, and

3. Management roles

Management functions- management functions can be grouped into four:-

1. Planning,

2. Organizing and staffing

3.

Controlling4. Leading

Management Tasks-Management must perform the following three tasks:-

1. Carry out the purpose and mission of the organization,



2. Increase productivity, and

3.

Manage social impacts and social responsibilities.

Also management skills are of the following three levels;

a. Conceptual skill,

b. Human skill,

c.

Technical skill

Management skills:

Top Management Middle Management Lower Management

Safety programs.

So, management has every possible opportunity in the organization for attaining organizational

goals. If management involves employees in attaining goals from the very beginning of setting

goals, the employees will become committed to the attainment of goals. As a result, MBO has been

emerged. Employees should be involved in a participatory ways in setting goals, monitoring

progress, implementing feedback of the performances.

Safety Management is in fact implementing safety programs. The National Safety Council, India

suggests the following objectives of safety programs:-

1.

Gaining and maintaining support for the safety programs at all organizational levels,

2. Motivating, educating and training programs for participants to know, recognize andcorrect or report hazards,

3. Engineering hazards control in to the design of machines, tools, processes and facilities,

Planning

LeadingOrganizing and

Staffing

Controlling

Or anizationalOrganizational goals

Conceptual

Human

TechnicalTechnical

Technical

Human

Human

Conceptual

Conceptual



4. Providing programs for inspection of machines, tools, processes and facilities,

5.

Complying with established safety and health standards.

Safety programs in construction

1. Secure full support of the top management:- The top management has the obligatoryresponsibility towards the promoting of safety programs. So, the construction site should secure

the support from top management.2.

Deputation someone to direct safety programs at site:-Some one, as specific person

should be deputed to look after safety programs in the construction site.

3. Publicizing safety programs:- every employee should be made conscious of the fact that

safety is not the responsibility of a person. Safety is every body’s job.

4. Develop a safety program to each job:- Since each job has its own safety hazards, it is

not possible to develop a standardized safety program, which is equally effective for all types of

construction.

5. Install a safety program on a competitive basis:- there should be a system of providing

awards to the supervisor for having the best safety record every year.

6. Indoctrinate new employee:- The physical condition of a new employee must be

thoroughly checked by a medical examination prior to employment and at the same time, he

should also be informed of the hazards of his job.

7. Make the safety practice effective:-

An effective safety program must install a sense of safety consciousness in every employee.

Some of the major elements for making safety practices effective include the following:-

- Educating top and middle level management in the fundamentals of safety and effective

accident prevention programs,

- Formal supervising safety training program for all supervisors,

-

Formal training programs for all new employees,

- Program of regular visit by safety director to review and control job hazards,

- Periodic safety meeting conducted by the supervisor relating to topics such as how to cause

accidents and how to prevent them,

-

Periodic refreshing training for each workers,

- Good communication system by way of publishing and distributing safety hand book to each

employee, displaying of posters depicting safety programs and film and video show.

8. Promote good housekeeping:- Good house keeping means clan job and so promote clean job

everyday in al jobs.

9.

Maintain adequate first aids facilities and other infrastructure:- the following infrastructures

should be available at site as far as possible:-

- Telephone service,

- Vehicles,

- Sufficient numbers of fire extinguishers,

- Sufficient nos. of safety accessories to each worker,

-

Proper communication system.

10. Seek assistance from Insurance office for accidents

The national safety council recommends a policy statement, which also reflects the following:-

1.

The importance that management places on the health and well-being of

Employees,

2. Management’s commitment to occupational safety and health,



3. The emphasis the company places on efficient operations, with a minimum of accidents andlosses,

4. The intentions of integrating hazard control into all operations, including compliances with

applicable standards,

5. The necessity for active leadership, direct participation and enthusiastic support of the entire

organization.

11.6 Consideration of human error.

Reason(1990) defines human error, as cited by Singh and Dewan, as “a generic term to encompass

all those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its

intended outcome, and when these failures cannot be attributed to the intervention of some change

agency” (p.294)

The possibilities Human error is always there in any field. Due to various mental and physical

conditions, there is chance of human error. Sometimes it can be corrected easily and sometimes it

may be very critical. There should be provision of correcting human error but at the same time

intended mischief should not be ignored in the name of human error.

11.7 Contracts and legislation

A contract has the following essential elements:-

1. Offer and acceptance,

2. Competent parties,

3. Legal relationship,

4. Free consent,

5. Lawful consideration,

6. Not expressly declared void,

7. Writing and registration,

8. Possibility of performance,

9. Certainly

10. Lawful object

1. Offers and Acceptance

When a party offers some work to do or not to do, then it is termed as an offer. If the offeree or

promises accepts it to do or not to do, it becomes a contract. The offer should be accepted in the

form of what has been offered. One cannot accept if in a changed form. But there is a ‘counter

offer’ provision too. When an offeree wants to have some change, in that case s/he can counter

offer and that is a changed offer from offeree. The contract takes place only when the offeree

accepts the counter offer produced by offeree. Offer can be of the following;

1. Offer can be express or implied offer expressed through behavior is also an offer.

2. Direct or indirect offer. Indirect offers are those expressed through public announcements,

advertisement, law etc.

3.

An offer made to a definite person. To some definite class or person or to the world at large.

Specific offer to some person and general offer to all people.

4.

Clear terms: offers to should be in a clear term without ambiguity.

5. An intension to purpose is not a proposal.

6.

Knowledge of offer must be known to offeree.

7. Standing contract or open proposal.

8.

An invitation o make an offer is not offer.

9. Legal relationship-offer should intend to establish legal relationship.



10. Communication of proposal can be made through any channel. It cannot be a contractwithout knowing an offer.

Termination of offer;

1. by notice of revocation,

2.

By lapse of time,

3.

By non fulfillment of condition,

4. Death or unconsciousness offeree before the acceptance of offer.

Contract law, 2023 governs the contracts in Nepal till today. The law has been named as “The

Contract Law 2023, Nepal,” This law shall be regulated throughout Nepal kingdom, It has been

regulated on 1 Paush 2023 in Nepal.

The law has defined contract as “the agreement made between two or more than two parties to do

or not to do any work”.

Similarly, the law has defined Proposer as the person or party who propose something to the

Proposee with the view of being acceptance to do or not to do it.

Acceptance means, according to the law, as the acceptance agreed upon with the view of the proposer by the propose.

The parties or persons except the following can make contract:-

1.

Below 16 years of age,

2. Unconscious persons

The guardian, on behalf of the person who is below 16 years, can make contract for the benefit of

the person.

Contract Law, 2023. Proposal and acceptance

The acceptance of the proposal from the proposer by the propose shall be considered as

contract.

In case, the proposer has asked to get information of acceptance within certain dates and if the

proposer does not get the information of acceptance within the stated dates even if the proposal

has been accepted, shall not be considered as contract.

In case, the proposer has not asked the propose to get information of acceptance within certain

date and if the propose does not give information within a reasonable time, the proposal shall

not be considered as contract even if accepted by the propose.

In case, if the proposer has asked to get information within certain dates of the rejection of the proposal and if the propose fails to inform the proposer within that dates will automatically

mean to have accepted will not mean accepted either.

If the proposer dies or lost consciousness before the proposal being accepted, the proposal shall

be considered in valid.

Propose accepts the proposal and dies or lost consciousness before the proposer receives theacceptance, such contract shall be in valid.

If the propose accepts the proposal along with alternation or change of certain condition shall

be considered in valid.

Cancellation of proposal or acceptance.

Proposer can cancel his/her proposal through information, but if the proposal is accepted before

getting the information of cancellation, the proposal shall be considered cancelled.



The propose can cancel the acceptance through information. But if the acceptance has been

already sent to the propose before getting the information of cancellation, the proposal shall not

be cancelled.

The party, who send cancellation through information, can also send information of acceptance

again. But, among the information of acceptance or rejection of the proposal, if the cancellation

reaches earlier, it will not be considered contract taken place. If acceptance information reaches

earlier, contract will take places.

Cancellation of the proposal after sending proposal or after acceptance a notice of cancellationor after the cancellation, sending a notice of acceptance, thus concerning these two contrasting

information, contract will be considered cancelled.

Contract from the proposal placed before the public

If any person tendered notices with certain prize or gift against some work performance and if s/he

performs the job, the notice provider shall give the stated prize. Notices published through any

media can also be cancelled through the same media notices.

If the proposal of the notice of doing work within certain time has been delayed in its performance,

the contract shall automatically be cancelled.

If the work has been performed by many people advertised in the public notice, only the personwho first perform but, two or more than two, whoever complete the job at a time shall be awarded

the sum equally. In case the prize cannot be divided equally, the prize shall be sold and the amount

shall be distributed to each member equally.

Voidable contracts;

1. Contract under forceful compulsions,

2. Illegally agreed contract,

3. Forgery contract,

4.

Deceivable contract.

Cancelable contracts;

1. Any contract that Nepal laws restrict profession, business, trade from doing it. Unrestricted

marriage by Nepal Laws but the contract restricts them,

2. Any contract that restricts the use of facilities which Nepal Law allows common people to use

them

3. The contract that restrict to use the existing legal rights by using any court or law

offices,

4.

Any contract that has been made against the existing law of Nepal,5. Any contract that has been made to obtain unethical or against public interest,

6. The contract that was made without knowing the conditions of contract to complete

them by all parties involved in it and has reached at the condition of impossibilities,

7. Any contract that was impossible during signing the contract or it is now impossible

to complete it,

8.

Unclear and unable to give reasonable meaning of the contract

safety note final

Documents