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ANALOGIES OF PSYCHOLOGY Michael McLane

Sterling Heights High School Psychology Program AP Psychology: Volume I

Analogies of Psychology Sterling Heights High School McLane

History of PsychologyChapter 14

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History of Psychology

1. What are the two components of the definition of psychology?

A. Identify the two roots for the definition of psychology?

2. Who believed that the mind and body are separate; supported the nature side of the argument?

A. How did Aristotle disagree with Socrates and Plato?

B. Who stated, “That the mind is but a white paper that we write experiences on?”

1. Which argument did this support?

C. Who mediated and said the mind and body do interact and what his approach called?

3. Define Nature:

A. Define Nurture:

4. Which term refers to the premise that science should be based on the idea that knowledge should come from direct experience or observation?

A. What did this idea separate psychology from?

Contributions of Wilhelm Wundt

5. How did Wilhelm Wundt separate psychology from philosophy?

A. What was the name of the book that helped to explain this notion?

B. What was Wundt’s educational background?

C. In what year and where did Wundt begin lay the foundation for the birth place of psychology?

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D. Define introspection:

School of Structuralism

6. Who was a student of Wilhelm Wundt’s and initiated the school of Structuralism?

A. Why is this school considered important?

B. What was the rationale to the school of structuralism?

C. What was a problem with the methods they used to study conscious experience?

Gestalt psychology

7. Who studied how we perceive or organize mental processes?

A. How did the Gestalts disagree with the Structuralists?

B. What did they believe about perception?

William James and the School of Functionalism

8. Where did William James study and what was his educational background?

A. What was the title of his book that helped to popularize psychology in America?

B. Define James’s school of Functionalism:

C. How did Charles Darwin influence the school of Functionalism?

D. Structuralism implemented introspection; what did the Functionalism rely on?

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Legacy of William James

9. Identify some of the achievements of G. Stanley Hall.

10. Why should Mary Whiton Calkins be upset and disappointed with the field of psychology?

A. What were some of her accomplishments later in career?

11. How was Margaret Floy Washburn treated differently than Mary Whiton Calkins?

A. How did she influence the school of behaviorism?

Sigmund Freud

12. How did Freud believe personality and behavior; normal and abnormal could be explained?

A. Define the unconscious:

B. How can the unconscious be accessed?

C. What did Freud’s study of the unconscious lead to?

D. Identify the name of Freud’s viewpoint that all behavior can be traced to the unconscious and early childhood experiences?

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

13. In the early 1900s how did the study of psychology shift?

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A. Define overt behavior:

B. Whose work did the Behaviorist based their work on?

C. Who in American championed the ideas of Behaviorism and what did he focus on?

D. What was B.F. Skinner’s role in furthering the ideas of Behaviorism?

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow the Humanistic Approach

14. When did the Humanistic approach emerge? And what is it referred to?

A. What was the focus of the Humanistic approach?

B. What did Carl Rogers and Maslow believe?

C. From working with Freud, how did Rogers disagree with him concerning their work?

D. How did Rogers differ from the Behaviorists?

E. What did Abraham Maslow support?

STOP COMPLETE Table 1 PAGE 8

Psychological Perspectives

15. What is a psychological perspective?

A. Identify the buzz words for the following psychological perspectives:

a. Biological:

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b. Behavioral-genetics:

c. Psychodynamic:

d. Behaviorism:

e. Humanistic:

f. Cognitive:

g. Cross-cultural:

h. Evolutionary:

Different area and Specializations in Psychology

16. What is the main difference between basic research and applied research?

A. Which type of psychologists examines how people change over their lifetime?

B. Which type of psychologists would be interested in improving people’s health, for example in stressful situations?

C. Which type of psychologists looks at maximizing the workplace and helping people work better at their job through finding methods that help them work better with technology and human factors?

D. What is the difference between a clinical psychologists and a psychiatrist?

E. What is psychometrics?

F. What is the main initiative of community psychologists?

STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 11

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1. Psychology originated from philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) and physiology (brain

and body)

2. Behavior genetics- perspective of psychology studied influences of nature (genetics) vs.

nurture (environment)

3. Behaviorism- observable (overt) behavior- in order to be studied behavior must be based

on observable and identifiable behavior- John B. Watson (founder of American

behaviorism)

4. Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener- first school of psychology that

believed conscious experiences could be broken down into simplest components like

feelings, thoughts/ introspection- technique used by structualists to look inward at the

parts of consciousness but proved to be unreliable as subjects reported different answers

on different occasions.

5. Empiricism- knowledge has to come from experience or direct observation supported by

John Locke who stated the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) that we write our

experiences on- supports nurture side of the argument. Critical thinking- thinking that

includes scientific reasoning or empirical evidence (provided by Wilhelm Wundt who

introduced experimental design separating psychology from philosophy in 1879 in

Leipzig Germany, and questioning- not assuming or speculating

6. Mary Whiton Calkins - first women to finish requirements for PhD. but was denied by

Harvard

7. Margaret Floy Washburn - first women to be awarded PhD

8. Francis Sumner - first African American to be awarded PhD

9. William James - supporter for Functionalism- first American school of psychology that

applied Darwin’s thoughts in terms of how an organism adapts (natural selection) and

functions in its environment. Evolutionary perspective- viewpoint that suggests all

organisms will do whatever necessary to survive which include mating and defending

their young or offspring.

10. Historical order : Structuralism then Functionalism then Psychoanalytical then

Behaviorism

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Key Terms Definition Analogy

Psychology The scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Psychology’s roots are from philosophy and physiology

Science The utilization of systematic methods to study and conclude behavior and phenomenon

What separated psychology from philosophy- scientific proof rather than just ideals

Behavior Information that can be directly observed

Overt behavior is behavior that can be measured and observed

Mental processes Thoughts, feelings, and motivations that cannot be directly observed

What you CANT observe/ psychology started out just as the study of mental processes

Plato and Socrates Supported dualism belief mind and body are separate and distinct

Led to the nature vs. nurture debate

Aristotle Believed that the mind and body are same

Nature vs. Nurture Nature refers to genetics and nurture refers to environment

Nature= NATURAL Behaviors- did not have to learnNURTURE stands for U R a product of what happens to you in the environment

Rene Descartes Believed in “interactive dualism” that the mind and body are separate but interact to produce conscious experiences

Nature and nurture are responsible for who you are and what you do

John Locke Supported “tabula rasa” the notion that the mind is but a white paper on which people add experiences

Supported nurture side of the argument- a blank book that you are born with and each day fills up the pages

Critical thinking Thinking that is not limited to speculation or assumptions, but the consideration of all factors

Backbone for scientific thought

Empirical data Belief data come from direct observation or experimentation

You don’t believe your friends until provide you PROOF

Wilhelm Wundt Considered the “father of psychology” credited with opening first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879, authoring Principles of

Separated psychology from philosophy through providing EMPIRICAL EVIDINCE through his EXPERIMENTATION of reaction time to sensory stimuli

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Physiologically Psychology, and separate philosophy from psychology

Edward Titchener A student of Wundt, initiated the school of Structuralism

Structuralism An early school of psychology that stressed conscious experiences could be broken into parts or structures

A good day can be broken down into happy emotions, interpretation, people/ similar to PIECES of a puzzle

Introspection A technique used by structuralists to look inward and study the elements of consciousness

Was not reliable because each day participants saw the stimuli different because each day they felt different which affected what they observed

William James Credited with “father of American Psychology,” wrote the book, Principles of Psychology, and influenced the ideals of the school of Functionalism

Think of “Jamestown” as the first American colony and William James the first American psychologist

Functionalism An early American school of psychology that focused on how organisms function and adapt to their environment

Americans have always emphasized what you DO or FUNCTION rather than what you KNOW or HOW you know it- Structuralists’ point of view

Natural selection Charles Darwin’s belief that nature selects organisms that are best suited to survive in a particular environment

We are in a place for a reason

G. Stanley Hall A student of William James, he was the first American to earn his Ph.D., and initiated the American Psychological Association (APA), and American Journal of Psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins

Was the first woman to finish all of her requirements for her Ph. D but was not awarded because of her gender, did later become the first woman president of the APA

Think of Mary stating, “Y (Whi-ton) did I not get my Ph.D.?”

Margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to receive her Ph. D and became the second woman president of the APA

Margaret experience JOY (FLOY) because she did get her Ph.D.!

Sigmund Freud Initiated the psychodynamic UNCONSCIOUS

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perspective focusing on the effects of early childhood and unconscious determinants through the use of case studies

EARLY CHILDHOOD

John B. Watson A Behaviorists who focused on measurable and overt behavior

Sherlock Holmes and WATSON looked for OBSERVED clues

Carl Rogers A Humanistic psychologist who disagreed with Freud’ emphasis on the unconscious and rather in a person’ unique characteristics and growth

Think of Mr. ROGERS- he wanted to make people FEEL GOOD on his talk show

Abraham Maslow Humanistic psychologist who believed people motivated to reach self-actualization

Think of Abraham Maslow’s initials AB- we are always trying to get As and Bs

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___ 1. Psychology originated from which two areas of study.

A) Empiricism

___ 2. John Locke's belief that the "mind is but a white paper that we write experiences on."

B) John B. Watson

___ 3. A technique used by Structuralists that means to look inward at conscious experiences.

C) Margaret Floy Washburn

___ 4. The belief that science should be based on knowledge taken from experience or observation.

D) Sigmund Freud

___ 5. William James's ideals led to which school of thought that emphasizes how an organism functions and adapts to its environment.

E) Natural selection

___ 6. According to Charles Darwin, nature selects organisms best suited for survival in its environment.

F) Functionalism

___ 7. The first woman to finish the requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology but was not awarded because of her gender.

G) Tabula rasa

___ 8. The first woman to actually be awarded her Ph.D. in psychology.

H) Philosophy and Physiology

___ 9. Emphasized the role of the unconscious and early childhood experiences in the development of personality and psychological disorder.

I) Mary Whiton Calkins

___ 10. Believed that psychology should focus on overt or observable behavior which led to the school of Behaviorism.

J) Introspection

Key Term Definition Analogy

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Perspective of psychology

A particular viewpoint and approach to studying various phenomenon and behavior

Everyone has a perspective or opinion of how things happen

Cognitive perspective Focused on the study of how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information

Thinking

Biological perspective

The study of the nervous systems, parts and functions of the brain, and neural communication’s via their influences on behavior

Brain and Body

Social-cultural perspective

The study of how social and cultural factors affect people’s behavior and viewpoints

Where you live and cultural heritage

Psychodynamic perspective

The study of how early childhood events and unconscious determinants affect people’s thoughts, feelings, act

Unconscious and Early Childhood

Behavioral perspective

The focus of overt or observable behavior and how that is affected by learning and social situations

How you act or behave from what you learn

Evolutionary perspective

The study of how species adapt and survive in particular environments

Natural Selection and Charles Darwin

Humanistic perspective

The beliefs that behavior is affected by free will and decision-making, and the pursuit of human satisfaction and potential

Be the best HUMAN you can be

Behavioral-genetics perspective

Studied the role of nature vs. nurture and the effects it has on development

Nature vs. Nurture

Positive psychology The focus of human strengths and potential

Feel good- Do good

Industrial-organizational psychology

A field of psychology that focuses on improving worker performance and productivity at the workplace

Also called consultants and human resources or personnel directors

Health psychologist A field of psychology that studies how to improves the lives of others Psychiatrists Treat people often with psychotic disorders utilizing medications-

which they are qualified to prescribe

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___ 1. A perspective of psychology that emphasizes the brain, nervous system, and the endocrine system.

A) Biological

___ 2. A perspective of psychology that examines the role of nature vs. nurture on development.

B) Behavioral genetics

___ 3. A perspective of psychology that Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused on human potential and free will.

C) Evolutionary

___ 4. A perspective of psychology that examines mental processes, thinking, and problem-solving.

D) Psychiatrist

___ 5. A perspective of psychology developed by Sigmund Freud that focused on the unconscious and early childhood experiences.

E) Industrial-organizational psychologist

___ 6. A perspective of psychology that emphasized the study of overt or observable behavior.

F) Psychodynamic

___ 7. A perspective of psychology that emphasized the ideals of Charles Darwin and focused on the survival of species.

G) Behavioral

___ 8. A type of psychologist that focuses on the improvement of working conditions and work productivity.

H) Cognitive

___ 9. A type of psychologist who can prescribe medications for psychological disorders.

I) Health psychologist

___ 10. A type of psychologists that focuses on improving the well-being and health of people.

J) Humanistic

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Term “Buzz word(s)” Term “Buzz word(s)” John Locke Tabula rasa, blank

slateRene Descartes Interactive dualism

Nature Genetics, natural Nurture Environment, work, learn

Wilhelm Wundt Experimental, Germany

Structuralism Parts, Titchener

Introspection Inward, unreliable William James American, Functionalism

Functionalism Adapts, functions Natural selection Darwin, survival, nature, instincts

G. Stanley Hall First Ph.D., president APA

Mary Whiton Calkins

No Ph.D. woman

Margaret Floy Washburn

Ph. D. first woman Sigmund Freud Unconscious, early childhood

Psychodynamic Perspective, Freud, unconscious

Psychoanalysis Treatment, unconscious

Behaviorism Overt, observable behavior

John B. Watson American Behaviorist

Humanistic perspective

Free will, human potential

Carl Rogers Humanistic, self-worth

Abraham Maslow Self-actualization- potential

Cognitive perspective

Thinking, remembering

Biological perspective

Brain, nervous system

Behavioral-genetics Nature vs. nurture

Evolutionary Darwin, survive, mating, instincts

Community psychologists

Need, impoverished

Industrial-organizational psychologist

Workplace, job satisfaction

Psychiatrists Medical degree, prescriptions

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States of Consciousness

Chapter 7

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1. What is conscious awareness?

2. What is the level just below the level of consciousness for which it is easy to retrieve this information?

3. What is the level of consciousness that includes material absent from conscious awareness, but still can influence personality and behavior?

Exploring Levels of Consciousness

4. What is dualism?

5. What refers to the mind and the body are of the same?

A. How is materialism supported?


6. What is a state of consciousness?

A. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream that always is changing but keeps flowing?

B. What is an example of a stream of consciousness?

Circadian Rhythms

7. What are circadian rhythms?

A. What is considered the internal clock that is located in the hypothalamus that receives information from the retina in response to lighting conditions?

B. In response to light what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus instruct the pineal gland to release?

C. What happens when melatonin is released? Suppressed?

D. When external cues are not present how does this affect circadian rhythms?


E. How does jet lag occur?

Stages of Sleep

8. How are researchers able to study sleep?

A. Define beta brain waves:

B. Alpha brain waves:

C. Theta brain waves:

D. Delta brain waves:

9. Which brain waves are present in NREM stage 1 of sleep?

A. How long does NREM stage 1 last?

B. What are vivid sensory experiences, like falling in NREM stage 1 called?

C. What is a myoclonic jerk in NREM stage 1 characterized by?


A. What is a characterization of NREM stage 2?


A. What is NREM stage 3 of sleep referred to?

12. Which brain waves are present during REM sleep?

A. Where do most dreams occur?

B. What refers to muscle activity that is nonexistent or suppressed?

C. What is occurring to physiological activity during REM sleep?

D. What refers to the brain being awake and the body experiencing muscle atonia during REM sleep called?

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Sequence of Sleep Stages

12. How many cycles of sleep does a person normally experience?

A. List the Sequence of a sleep cycle:

Begins with _________________________ that lasts a few minutes then is followed by about 20

minutes in ____________________. Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in ______________

Once a person is relaxed and sleeping deeply the sequence ___________________ and the

person goes back to NREM stage 2 then the person enters ___________________ which lasts

about 5-15 minutes.

B. As sleep throughout the night continues how is REM sleep, NREM stage 2 and NREM stage 3 sleep affected?

C. As a person gets older what is occurring to NREM stage 3 sleep?

i. Give an example:

Functions of Sleep

13. How does not getting enough sleep affect a person?

A. What occurs when a person does not get enough REM sleep?

i. What is REM rebound?

Sleep theories

14. Which neurotransmitters and associated with sleep?

A. Which area of the brain is in charge of attention and arousal?

B. Which system is comprised of nerves that run through the reticular formation that affect our level of arousal?

C. Which areas of the brain is responsible for REM sleep?

15. What does the restorative theory of sleep suggest about the need for sleep?

A. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons especially with forming new memories?

B. Which parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?

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C. What does NREM sleep allow; which is why NREM occurs in the beginning of sleep?

16. What does the Adaptive theory of sleep suggest?

A. How does the evolutionary perspective influence the adaptive theory of sleep?

17. Which theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is nothing to do?

Sleep Disorders

18. What is the most common sleep disorder?

A. When is help required for most sleep disorders?

B. What is the sudden falling asleep into REM sleep without warning at non opportune times?

C. What is sleep apnea?

D. When does sleep walking or somnambulism occur?

i. What is usually the cause associated with sleep walking?

E. When does nocturnal enuresis or bed wetting occur?

F. What is the difference between night terrors and nightmares?

G. How is REM sleep disorder characterized?

i. Why and when does this disorder occur?

H. What sleep disorder refers to grinding one’s teeth during sleep?

Dream Theories

19. What is lucid dreaming?

20. How is the brain affected during REM sleep?

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A. Which neurotransmitters are reduced during REM sleep?

21. Who suggested that thoughts, feelings, and wishes are repressed into the unconscious?

A. What is the goal of dream analysis?

B. In his book, Interpretation of Dream, how did Freud refer to dreams?

C. According to Freud, what is the remembered content or meaning of a dream?

D. What is the symbolized part of the dream; the deep seated wishes of the unconscious?

22. Describe the Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming:


Hypnosis

23. How is hypnosis described?

A. What are the two most popular reasons why someone would seek hypnosis?

B. What refers to suggestions that maybe carried out after a person is hyptonized?

C. What refers to the absence of memory that occurs when a person can’t remember the process of being hypnotized?

24. Who belied that hypnosis is a splitting of consciousness called “dissociation”?

A. Describe the neodissociation theory of hypnosis:

B. Which stream of consciousness refers to a stream that is distinct that the person being hypnotized is not aware of?

25. Which theory of hypnosis believes that hypnosis is not an altered state but rather a role one believes he or she play?

A. Who supported the Role and Belief expectancy theory?

Psychoactive Drugs

26. Which area of psychology studies that effects of drugs?

A. How does a drug affect the brain?

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B. What refers to a drug mimics or excites a neurotransmitter?

i. What refers a drug that blocks or inhibits a neurotransmitter?

Effects of Drugs

27. What occurs when a drug interferes with personal and social meaning?

A. When does psychological dependency occur?

B. What is the body’s need for a drug called?

i. What occurs when a body does not receive the required amount of the drug one is addicted to?

ii. What refers to the more of a drug a person consumes the more of the drug is needed?

Types of Drugs

28. What are physiological effects of taking depressants?

A. What are some examples of depressants?

29. Which group of drugs speed up in the central nervous system and increase the release of norepinephrine and dopamine?

A. What are some examples of stimulates?

B. What could occur that is comparable to schizophrenia from the abuse of stimulants?

30. Which type of drugs are agonists for endorphins that cause sleepiness and relieve pain?

A. What are some examples of opiates?

31. Which neurotransmitter does hallucinogens or psychedelics affect?

A. What are some examples of hallucinogens?


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1. An EEG measures brain activity- alpha waves- alert but drowsy could fall asleep/ beta

waves- is wide awake/ delta waves- deep sleep during NREM stage 3/ Reticular

formation part of the brain in charge of arousal (ARAS- ascending reticular activating

system- comprised of afferent nerves that run through reticular formation in charge of

arousal)

2. Circadian rhythms - occur every 24 hours based on environmental cues- if no

environmental cues have a tendency to drift toward a 25 hour schedule; monitored by the

suprachiasmatic nucleus- sensor in the hypothalamus- which receives input from the

retina about lightness which based on this instructs the pineal gland to either release or

decrease that amount of the hormone melatonin – increase when dark then become

tired/ ; could be affected by jet lag

3. Each sleep cycle (stage 1 – 2 – 3 - 2- REM (does not go back into stage 1 which is just

falling asleep) is 90 minutes- last four hours of sleep mainly spent in REM and Stage 2

NREM sleep.

4. Restorative sleep theory - Stage 3 NREM (deep sleep); body repairs itself

(physical/muscle damage) delta waves are produced here- no brain activity;

sleepwalking, sleep talking, bed wetting, and night terrors occur here (due to immaturity

of nervous system and babies tend to spend the most of sleep in Stage 3/ REM sleep is

when the brain repairs itself

5. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep –occur in the pons and midbrain- vivid dreams

occur; also known as paradoxical sleep - muscles are paralyzed, relaxed but other

systems (the brain and autonomic nervous system) working, nightmares occur here / as

night progresses more time is spent in REM

6. Freud’s view of dreams – wrote book titled Interpretation of Dreams / manifest content-

remembered part of a dream / latent content- underlying meaning of dream - what Freud

was interested in as it describes unconscious conflicts (dream analysis)

7. Activation-synthesis model of dreaming (Hobson and McCarley) – dreams are nothing

more than neural bursts (activation) and our brain puts these bursts together to form a

story (synthesis)

8. Insomnia- most common sleep disorder- inability to fall asleep and stay asleep/

narcolepsy- sudden falling asleep when should not/ Night terrors- occur in Stage 3

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NREM / Nightmares occur in REM sleep/ REM rebound- when not get enough sleep go

right into REM sleep instead of normal sleep cycle

9. Tolerance- more you do the more you need/ withdrawal symptoms associated with

physical addiction/ Alcohol- affects GABA- neurotransmitter that calms brain down/

stimulants affects dopamine- pleasure neurotransmitter associated in the hypothalamus

of the limbic system- cocaine can cause induced psychosis- because of too much

dopamine activity/ Opiates are agonist or mimic endorphins- body’s natural painkillers.

10. Hypnosis - state theory- during hypnosis an altered state of consciousness is produced

(unconscious) as described by Ernest Hilgard dissociation theory of hypnosis which

involves tapping into the unconscious or hidden observer/ role theory- a person just acts

as if they were hypnotized based on what others tell them they should feel or act

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Key Term Definition AnalogyConscious awareness The mental processes a person is

aware of at present momentYou are CONSCIOUS or aware of your surroundings

Preconscious or subconscious level

Located just below conscious awareness making it relatively easy to access

What you had for dinner the previous night- not consciously thinking about it at the time asked but easy to remember

Unconscious level Information not retrievable into conscious awareness, but still can influence thoughts and behavior

Unconscious- you are UNAWARE

Dualism Belief that the mind and body are separate

TWO people dual against each other in a match

Materialism Mind and body are the same Stream of consciousness

According to William James, thoughts, perceptions, feelings are continuously flowing through conscious awareness

Like a river that is continuously flowing towards you

Theory of mind The understanding that themselves and others have thoughts, feelings, and experiences unique to themselves

States of consciousness

Mental awareness at a particular moment

Your PRESENT state of mind- presently thinking about

Automatic processes State of consciousness that requires little attention but still aware of what is going on around you

Sitting in a classroom you are aware who is sitting around you even though you are not paying attention to them

Circadian rhythms Repeated fluctuations within the body over a 24 hour period

Circadian is like a circle

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

An “internal clock” located in the hypothalamus receives information from the retina about light/ darkness- this input then causes pineal gland to produce melatonin making one tired or decrease causing to wake

This is like a sensor for outdoor lights that detects when it is getting dark or light out then responding by turning off or on your outdoor lights

EEG Measures brain activity: beta waves- wide awake/ alpha waves- awake but tired/ theta waves- ready to fall asleep/ delta waves- low brain activity, deep sleep

NREM sleep (non rapid eye movement)

Stages of sleep 1-3 one ends up in deep sleep stage 3

N means you are NOT aware that you are sleeping

Hypnagogic hallucinations

Vivid sensory experiences, like falling, in NREM stage 1

You often observe someone nod off and quickly pop up

Mycoloinc jerk Involuntary muscle spasm that occurs in NREM stage 1

When a person leg or arms shakes

REM sleep (rapid eye Brain becomes active, dreams You are R(em) dreaming in REM

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movement) occur, also called paradoxical sleep as brain is awake but body is asleep

sleep/ but your body is asleep which is why you don’t fall out of bed

REM rebound Entering right into REM sleep instead of normal sleep cycle because of a lack of REM sleep

People that fall asleep and instantly start dreaming

Ascending reticular system (ARAS)

Nerves that run through the reticular formation affecting level of arousal

Pay particular-reticular attention

Pons/ Midbrain Responsible for REM sleep Serotonin/ GABA Neurotransmitters responsible for cycle of sleep Restorative theory of sleep

REM restores brain, NREM restores the body

Restoring your brain and body because you are tired

Adaptive theory of sleep

Sleep is necessary for survival according to the evolutionary perspective

Bad things happen at night so you adapt and spend that time safe in bed

Behavioral theory of sleep

People sleep because there is nothing more to do

If there is nothing on TV you basically give up and go to bed

Insomnia Most common sleep problem preventing people from falling asleep or staying asleep

I for insomnia- “I can’t sleep!”

Narcolepsy Suddenly falling into REM sleep at improper times Sleep apnea Difficult breathing periods during sleepNight terrors Very frightening experiences that

occur during NREM stage 3 of sleep

Very frightening because the child can’t remember the dream

Nightmares Conscious recalls of scary events that occur during REM sleep

REM means you REMEMBER the dream or nightmare

REM sleep behavior disorder

Physically acting out dreams during sleep

Dogs are prone to act out their dreams like stimulating running

Sleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep You grind your teeth you won’t have any left to BRUSH

Lucid dreaming One believes can control their dreams/ lucy controls her dreamInterpretation of Dreams

A book by Sigmund Freud that suggests dreams are “a royal road to the unconscious mind”

In therapy, Freud would use a person’s dreams as a road map to their unconscious

Manifest content According to Freud, the remembered story of a dream

MAN I had a crazy dream- which you remember to tell

Latent content According to Freud, the symbolic, unconscious part of the dream Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming

Dreams result from random neurons that fire while amygdala (emotion) and hippocampus (memory) try to make sense

Like a fireworks show- you are making sense out of the lights which often shows images

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___ 1. Suggested that consciousness is like a stream that always changes but keeps on flowing.

A) Circadian rhythms

___ 2. Repeated fluctuations within the body that occur over a period of 24 hours.

B) Beta waves

___ 3. Referred to an internal clock within the hypothalamus that receives information from the retina concerning lighting conditions.

C) William James

___ 4. A hormone produced by the pineal gland that when released will cause a person to become tired.

D) Manifest content

___ 5. Brain waves that indicate a person is awake but drowsy.

E) Suprachiasamatic nucleus

___ 6. Stage of sleep where delta waves exceed 50% resulting in the person not experiencing any sensory stimulation and very hard to wake up.

F) NREM stage 3 and REM

___ 7. Stage of sleep that is referred to as paradoxical sleep when the brain is awake but the body is asleep; where most dreams occur.

G) Night terrors

___ 8. Last few cycles of sleep are mainly in _________ and________

H) Melatonin

___ 9. Type of sleep disorder that can be very frightening and often occurs in NREM stage 3 not allowing the person to remember the content or imagery of the dream.

I) NREM stage 3

___ 10. According to Sigmund Freud, the remembered portion of the dream.

J) REM sleep

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Key term Definition AnalogyHypnosis An altered state of consciousness that may make a person more

susceptible to suggestion that could affect thinking and behavior Posthypnotic suggestion

Suggestions that could be carried out after the person is hypnotized

Post means AFTER

Posthypnotic amnesia Events that cannot be recalled during hypnosis Neodissociation theory of hypnosis (divided consciousness view hypnosis)

According to Ernest Hilgard, people experience multiple streams of consciousness during hypnosis, including “hidden observer” unattainable to hypnotic suggestions

Like someone putting a wall in the middle of a stream producing two different streams

Role and belief expectancy theory of hypnosis

Hypnosis is just a person playing a role expected by the hypnotist

Like an actor or actress playing a ROLE

Psychopharmacology The study of how psychoactive drugs affect a person’s thoughts and actions

Blood-brain barrier A protective barrier that prevents certain substances from entering the brain

Like a pool filter that does not allow harmful agents that could ruin the filter

Agonist Drugs that mimic a neurotransmitter

Like a duplicate key that fits a lock and opens the door

Antagonist Drugs that block the effects of a neurotransmitter

Like a key that fits the lock but does not open door preventing real key from entering

Psychological dependency

A person’s belief and reasons to take a drug

A PERSON’S reasons why he or she needs a drug

Physical dependency A body’s need to take a drug due to continued consumption

The BODY’s reasons why it needs a drug

Withdrawal symptoms Intense cravings for drug resulting in unpleasant feelings and symptoms if not consumed

The body DEMANDING it needs a drug

Tolerance Increased amount of drug needed to produce an effect

The more you do the more you need

Depressants Slows down the central nervous system, increases NT GABA, slows down brain activity

GABA- g for go to sleep which eventually happens when you take depressants/ alcohol

Stimulants Speeds up activity in the central nervous system, increase NT’s norepinephrine and dopamine linked to pleasure and arousal Nicotine, caffeine, cocaine/ S for speed up

Opiates Causes sleepiness, relieve pain through mimicking the NT endorphins/ Motrin

Hallucinogens Also called psychedelics, distort perceptions and moods/ LSD


___ 1. A theory of hypnosis that suggests people experience distinct multiple streams of consciousness.

A) Blood-brain barrier

___ 2. A second stream of consciousness that is so distinct from consciousness that it is unattainable by the subject.

B) Hidden observer

___ 3. Refers to the understanding that people who are hypnotized will not be able to remember the hypnotic session.

C) Posthypnotic amnesia

___ 4. A theory of hypnosis that suggests it is not an altered state of consciousness but rather an expected role one should entail under hypnosis.

D) Depressants

___ 5. An area of the brain that protects and prevents harmful substances from passing through.

E) Tolerance

___ 6. A type of drug that mimics a neurotransmitter producing similar effects.

F) Opiates

___ 7. The more a drug is consumed the more of the drug is needed to produce an effect.

G) Agonist

___ 8. A type of drug that affects the NT GABA and slows down activity in the central nervous system.

H) Hilgard's neodissociation theory of hypnosis

___ 9. A type of drug that affects the NT dopamine and speeds up activity in the nervous systems.

I) Role and belief expectancy theory

___ 10. A type of drug that serves as an agonist for endorphins.

J) Stimulants

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Term “Buzz Word (s)” Term “Buzz Word (s)”Consciousness Aware Preconscious/

SubconsciousJust below/ accessible

Unconscious Unaware, Freud Dualism separateMaterialism Same States of

ConsciousnessPresent state of mind

William James Stream of consciousness

Circadian rhythms 24 hours, fluctuations

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Sensor, internal clock Pineal gland Melatonin release

Melatonin Hormone, Tired EEG Identify brain wavesBeta waves Wide awake Alpha waves DrowsyTheta waves Beginning sleep Delta waves Deep sleepNREM stage 1 First few minutes Hypnagogic

hallucination falling

Myoclonic jerk Muscle spasm NREM stage 2 Sleep spindles, burstsNREM stage 3 Deep sleep REM sleep Dreams, beat wavesParadoxical sleep Brain awake/ body

asleep/ REMMuscle atonia Body sleeping

Sleep cycles 4-6 REM sleep/ NREM 2 Longer night goes on REM rebound Right to REM sleep Serotonin, GABA NTs for sleepReticular formation

Attention, arousal Ascending reticular activating system

Nerves in reticular formation

Pons, Midbrain REM sleep Restorative sleep theory

REM- brain/ NREM body

Adaptive theory of sleep

Survival best in day/ evolutionary theory

Insomnia Most common, can’t sleep

Sleep apnea Stop breathing Narcolepsy Sudden sleepingNight terrors NREM, no memory Nightmares REM, memorySleep walking NREM stage REM sleep disorder Act out dreams Lucid dreaming Control Interpretation of

DreamsFreud’s book royal road

Manifest content Remembered portion Latent content Symbolic, unconsciousActivation-synthesis theory

Neurons firing in pons

Hypnosis Altered state

Posthypnotic suggestion

After hypnosis Posthypnotic amnesia

Can’t remember hypnosis

Ernest Hilgard Neodissociation , separate streams

Hidden observer 2nd stream, unaware, unconscious

Role/belief theory Acting out hypnosis Psychopharmacology Study drugsAgonist Mimics NTs Antagonist Blocks NTsWithdrawal symptoms

Body needs, headache

Tolerance More do more need

Depressants GABA,slows, alcohol Stimulants Speeds up, dopamineOpiates Agonist endorphins Hallucinogens Serotonin, altered

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PersonalityChapter 10

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Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach

1. How did Freud’s personality development begin?

A. How did Freud believe that personality was influenced?

B. What are wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that are not consciously present but could affect personality/behavior?

The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego

2. What did Freud believe personality is the result of?

A. Which component is present at birth and is completely unconscious; not affected by morals or values?

B. Where does the Id’s psychological energy come from?

i. Which part is to preserve life like getting hungry?

ii. Which part is responsible for aggressive and destructive behaviors?

C. What governs the Id and demands immediate gratification?

3. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the Id and is partly conscious and represents the rational, decision-making part of personality?

A. What does the ego rely on in terms of delaying gratification of the Id until a more appropriate time?

4. When does the superego emerge?

A. What does the Superego represent?

i. What does one experience if they don’t live up to the demands of the superego?

Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms

5. What does the ego use to mediate intrapsychic conflicts from the urges of the id and demands of the superego with the hope of reducing anxiety?

A. Describe the following defense mechanisms:

1. Repression:

Example:

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2. Rationalization:

Example:

3. Projection:

Example:

4. Reaction formation:

Example:

5. Sublimation:

Example:

6. Displacement:

Example:

7. Compensation:

Example:

8. Denial:

Example:

9. Regression:

Example:

Stages that Occur Through Personality Development

6. How did Freud believe that personality develops?

A. How is each stage characterized?

B. What occurs if the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy the needs associated with that particular stage?

D. How does fixation affect people later in life?

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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

7. What is possible fixation associated with the oral stage (0-1 age)?

8. Which activity is occurring during the anal stage (2 years)?

A. What is a possible fixation of this stage?

9. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the phallic stage (3-5 age)?

A. What does this lead to the start of?

10. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the latency stage (late childhood)?

11. What starts during the genital stage (adolescence)?


Neo-Freudians View of Psychology- Carl Jung

12. How did Carl Jung disagree with Freud?

A. What did he believe people are instead of progressing through developmental stages?

B. How did he define the personal conscious?

i. What is the collective unconscious?

ii. What are generational symbols or perceptual themes contained in the collective unconscious?

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Neo-Freudians

13. What did Alfred Adler believe people desire?

A. What does childhood inferiorities lead to later in life?

14. What did Karen Horney believe could lead to anxiety and defensive personality traits?

A. Define moving toward relationships:

B. Moving against:

C. Moving away:

Evaluating Psychodynamic Approach

15. What is the main criticism of the psychodynamic approach?

A. What did Freud primarily use to study people and what is the problem?

B. What cultures did he only focus on?

Trait theories

16. What are internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time?

A. What do trait theories provide?

B. What is the difference between personality traits and personality types?

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

17. Who was one of the first researchers to identify over 18000 traits?

A. What is a cardinal trait?

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B. Which traits do most people have that are easily identifiable and have a strong influence on personality?

C. Which traits are more isolated to specific situations and change over time?

Trait theorists

18. Who developed a questionnaire that used a factor analysis, a mathematical formula that explains how traits are related to other traits?

A. What did he find through a factor analysis?

i. As a result, what did he identify?

19. Who believed that people could be described through introversion-extroversion and emotionality-stability of which are inherited or born with?

A. Define introvert:

B. Extrovert:

C. Emotionality:

D. Stability:

The Big-Five Model of Personality

20. Who used a factor analysis to identify five central or source traits?

A. Define the five traits:

1. Openness:

2. Conscientiousness:

3. Extraversion:

4. Agreeableness:

5. Neuroticism:

Evaluation of the Trait Approach

21. What is trait theory good at?

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A. What does the trait theory lack?


Social-Cognitive Approach

22. What did Social-cognitive approach suggest about personality?

A. What did Julian Rotter believe shaped personality?

i. What refers to when a person believes he or she has control over their environment?

ii. What refers to when a person believes he or she has not control and their environment dictates their outcome?

Albert Bandura

23. Who believed in reciprocal determinism that cognitive, behavior, and environment interact to shape personality?

A. How did Bandura define self-efficacy beliefs?

Identify the parts of Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism:

Larry has high self-efficacy or confidence pertaining to tonight’s basketball game

__________________ he shows up to practice early ____________________ and as a result the

rest of the team feeds off of his energy and plays better ____________________.

Walter Mischel

24. How did Walter Mischel define cognitive personal variables?

A. What did he conclude about personality?

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Evaluation of the Social-Cognitive Approach

25. What is an advantage of the social-cognitive approach?

A. However what does it not address?

Humanistic Approach

26. How does the humanistic approach explain personality?

A. What did the Humanistic approach believe about people?

B. What does phenomenology refer to?

Humanistic Theorists

27. Who believed that people have an actualizing tendency or an innate drive that motivates a person to reach their full potential?

A. What is a self-concept?

B. What is the acceptance of a person for who they are instead of what they do?

i. What does this lead?

C. What refers to affection based on meeting a conditions or rules?

i. What does this lead to?

Abraham Maslow

28. According to Maslow, what is deficiency orientation?

A. Which orientation occurs when people focus on what they have, how they perform, and the importance of achievements?

Evaluation of Humanistic Perspective

29. What is a criticism of the humanistic approach?

Assessing Personality

30. Objective/ Self-report Personality Tests: Multiple Choice- True False/ NEO-PI= measures the Big 5 personality traits/ MMPI- most widely used personality test- 500 True-False Questions (originally designed to measure mental health problems)

A. What are some of the advantages of using a self-report objective test?

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B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with this these test?

31. Projective Tests- unstructured stimuli- subjective scoring on interpretation/ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ambiguous scenes/ Rorschach inkblot test- a series of 11 inkblots

A. What are some of the advantages associated with a projective test?

B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with a projective test?


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1. Psychodynamic approach (Sigmund Freud) / Unconscious - not aware but controls

personality / Preconscious or subconscious - easy to retrieve- memories; thinking about

what you had for dinner last night / Id – present at birth located in the unconscious and

demands immediate gratification because it operates on pleasure principle/ Ego – the

decision maker; largely conscious and operates on reality principle; tries to find ways to

satisfy the Id while being realistic. Superego - morals and ethics; formed through

defense mechanism of identification with same sex parent that arises from resolving

Oedipus complex in the psychosexual phallic stage

2. Defense mechanisms - ego uses to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and

superego / Repression - found in all defense mechanism; automatic unconscious

ejection/rejection of traumatic desires, thoughts / Regression - retreat back to infantile

reaction / Denial- don’t accept truth / Reaction Formation- say or do opposite of

unacceptable urge / Projection- mentally putting weakness onto other people; I’m

overweight, now I will say everybody else is overweight to make feel better /

Rationalization- justify behavior through excuses / Displacement - taking out physical

anger on less threatening person or object especially when having a bad day /

Sublimation - substituting acceptable actions or thoughts for unacceptable unconscious

thoughts or actions; playing football instead of displaying aggression/ Compensation-

doing something nice to make up for doing something bad

3. Neo-Freudians- followers of Freud- Alfred Adler - Inferiority complex - motivation to

become superior by overcoming childhood inferiority or being dependent on parents /

Karen Horney- thought Freud was too male dominated; believed social relationships

responsible for personality development / Carl Jung- collective unconscious-

generational knowledge that is passed down through generations- information contains

archetypes which are universal symbols- snakes are evil- passed down from past

ancestors that help promote survival by providing bad feelings also believed personality

comes from energy of being an introvert- keeping to oneself or extrovert being around

other people and social situations.

4. Humanistic perspective - emphasized free will and self-growth and awareness that is

thought to be innate / Carl Rogers- self-concept - beliefs about oneself that are influenced

by conditional positive regard- the belief that you are only loved when you meet their

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expectations or rules which leads to distorting self-concept or lying/ or unconditional

positive regard- no matter what you do or who you are people will love you which leads

to a healthy self-concept or congruence// Rogers also believed in the actualzing

tendency- the innate and internal motivation to be competitive and succeed

5. Trait theory – a description of behavior like a personal ad / Gordon Allport researched

traits- believed people have one cardinal trait- the most influential trait that determines

personality (not present in everyone) and also source traits or central traits- very few-

building blocks of personality/ surface traits or secondary traits- what other people can

see often based on the social setting / cardinal trait= caring like MLK/ source traits=

kind, trusting, dependable/ surface traits- impatient in stressful situations

6. Hans Eyensck- certain traits are inherited like: extraversion or introversion/ emotionality

(neuroticism) or stability and a person’s level of psychoticism- are welfare or caring for

other people

7. Raymond Cattell – used a Factor Analysis - mathematical formula that shows how

certain traits or items are related to other traits which resulted in 16 source traits in people

/ Paul Costa and Robert McCrae narrowed the 16 down to the Big Five Traits- Openness

or curious, Conscientiousness or organized, Extraversion or outgoing, Agreeableness or

forgiving, Neuroticism or anxious (OCEAN)

8. Social-cognitive perspective - Albert Bandura- Reciprocal determinism- personality

results from 3 parts: cognitive (self-efficacy beliefs- our thoughts about how we will do at

a task our confidence), behavior, and environmental factors which means each part can

influence the other part / Julian Rotter- stated our expectations of events or outcomes

determine our personality- external locus of control – other people and situations control

you / internal locus of control- you control your life and situations/ Walter Mischel-

believed in cognitive personal variables- and believed that expectations about a situation

dictate personality and that because of this personality is not as consistent as people

believe

9. Measuring personality - Projective personality tests- tests to assess the unconscious that

are left for interpretation by tester; Rorschach inkblot test- comprised of 11 inkblots /

TAT thematic apperception test- ambiguous scenes or pictures requiring a participant

to tell a story- also used to measure a person’s need for achievement motivation-

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problems with projective tests is that they are vague and require interpretation by tester

which maybe biased/ Objective personality or self-report inventories test are multiple-

choice or have a specific question and answer- easy to grade but participants can’t

explain their answers- the MMPI is the most widely used objective personality test that

was originally designed to measure abnormal behavior

10. Barnum effect - people believe that everything they hear or read describes themselves

like a horoscope. Halo effect- we believe if someone is good at something or attractive

then they are good at everything- one good quality equals many good qualities/ Horn

effect- one bad quality equals many bad qualities

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Key Term Definition AnalogyPersonality Unique and consistent patterns of thinking, behavior, and feelingSigmund Freud Through treating people with disorders felt

that not all symptoms had physical causes leading to the development of his theory of personality development and the psychodynamic approach

Stressed the unconscious and early childhood experiences in the development of personality

Unconscious Contains wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that are not attainable by conscious awareness

U for unconscious U are not aware of the unconscious

Preconscious or subconscious awareness

Memories and information that are not presently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed- memories

What had for dinner the last night- even if not thinking about easy to retrieve

Id Component of personality is present at birth, primarily unconscious, operates according to the pleasure principle, and is not affected by ethics and morals

Id stands for I DO whatever I want whenever I want

Pleasure principle

Governs the id and demands immediate gratification

Responsible for temptation

Libido An individual’s psychological energy provided by sexual energy Ego Component of personality that emerges

from the energy of the id, partly conscious, operates on reality principle, and represents the decision-making part of personality

The ego GOES and makes a decision

Reality principle Delays the demands and needs of the id until a more appropriate and better time

“The REALITY of the situation is that it is wrong”

Superego Component of personality that develops around age 5 or 6 and represents a person’s ethics, reasoning, and morality of right vs. wrong

SUPERMAN had a SUPEREGOHe always did good

Defense mechanisms

According to Freud, the demands of the id and reasoning of the superego cause “intrapsychic” conflicts for which defense mechanisms used to mediate these conflicts

Defense mechanisms DEFEND your personality by battling anxiety- the enemy

Repression A defense mechanism involving the unconscious banning painful and bad memories from conscious awareness

The P in repression stands for PRESSING DOWN into the unconscious

Rationalization A defense mechanism that provides excuses or explanations that justify thoughts or behaviors

Telling your parents you could not concentrate, teacher

Projection A defense mechanism directs one’s personal undesirable thoughts and feelings onto others

To PROJECT is to direct your thoughts onto another person

Reaction formation

A defense mechanism where a person behaves in a way that is opposite of their actual thoughts and feelings

To REACT means ME ACT the OPPOSITE of WHO I AM

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Sublimation A defense mechanism that finds an acceptable behavior to counteract an unacceptable thought or feeling

You SUBSTITUTE A BAD THOUGHT with A GOOD BEHAVIOR

Displacement A defense mechanism that directs anger away from real threat or target onto a target that will not cause any harm or threat

TO displace means to PLACE your anger onto something won’t fight back

Compensation A defense mechanism makes an attempt to make up for guilty thought or action

Buying flowers for someone when you feel bad

Denial A defense mechanism that refuses to accept the reality or truth of the situation

Deny- “yeah-yeah”

Regression A defense mechanism that occurs during stressful times and in reaction the individual reverts back to childish behaviors and reactions

The G in Regression stands for GOING back to infancy/ crying when you don’t get your way

Psychosexual stages

According to Freud, personality develops through four stages that include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stage

Fixation A defense mechanism occurs when the id did not get adequate time to search a specific erogenous zone (area of the body associated with pleasure) during a psychosexual stage and becomes fixated with that zone leading to compensation with the characteristics of that zone

Oedipus complex

Occurs when son learns attraction t mother is inappropriate and later through the defense mechanism of identification sides with the father allowing the superego to emerge

When the son can IDENTIFY with the father or male role model then the son will listen and the dad can teach or model the superego

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___ 1. A level of awareness that is one is unaware of that is comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories.

A) Repression

___ 2. A structure of personality present at birth, controlled by the pleasure principle, which seeks immediate gratification, largely unconscious, and is not affected by ethics and morals.

B) Id

___ 3. The ego, which is the decision-maker of personality, relies on what principle that delays gratification of the id.

C) Projection

___ 4. A type of defense mechanism that automatically excludes traumatic and unwanted thoughts into unconscious.

D) Displacement

___ 5. A type of defense mechanism that directs a person's insecurities and undesirable feelings towards another.

E) Regression

___ 6. A type of defense mechanism that involves reverting back to infantile types of behavior in certain situations.

F) Reality principle

___ 7. A type of defense mechanism that shifts anger and aggression towards a target of non-threatening stature.

G) Unconscious

___ 8. A type of defense mechanism that occurs when the individual is stuck or locked in a particular zone due to the Id not achieving time to explore.

H) Sublimation

___ 9. Through the defense mechanism of identification in the phallic stage, a boy is able to identify with his father who then is able to teach right vs. wrong allowing which component of personality to develop?

I) Fixation

___ 10. During the latency stage, a boy is able substitute an unacceptable urge for a productive activity referred to as:

J) Superego

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Key Term Definition Analogy Neo-Freudians Followers of Freud who modified and taught his theories Carl Jung A neo-Freudian who disagreed with

Freud concerning libido and psychosexual stages, but believed a person is an introvert (someone who prefers privacy) or an extrovert (someone who is social and outgoing)

I for introvert- “I prefer to be me myself” The Ex for extroverts prefer to do EXTRACURRICULAR events

Personal conscious

According to Jung, repressed material like Freud’s unconscious

Collective unconscious

According to Jung, past experiences and knowledge inherited and passed between generations

A COLLECTION of GOOD ADVICE passed down from ancestors meant to help you

Archetypes Symbols in the collective unconscious A snake is a symbol for evil Alfred Adler A neo-Freudian who believed people

have innate desire to overcome childhood inferiorities and as a result develop a superiority complex

The A for Alfred and A for Adler means that if you get 2 As in a class you are superior

Karen Horney A neo-Freudian who disagreed with Freud about the development of women and believed harmony is social relationships affects personality

Personality traits

Internal characteristics stable and consistent in many situations

Similar to a description in a personal ad

Gordon Allport A trait theorist who believed people possess three traits: cardinal traits- rare and only present in unique people/ central or source traits- very influential in their personality description/ secondary or surface traits- specific to certain situations and tend to change over time

Cardinal trait- Martin Luther King- leadershipCentral or source traits- few but describe who we areSecondary or surface traits- traits other people would use to describe us

Factor analysis A mathematical formula that explains how traits are related to other traits

Similar to what Match.com

Raymond Cattell

Through a factor analysis believed certain central traits are related to certain secondary traits and that people have 16 basic personality factors shown through the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

Hans Eysenck Believed that people could be described through either introversion-extroversion and emotionality-stability and psychoticism dimension all of which are nature or born with

Introversion- shyExtraversion- outgoingEmotionality- dramaticStability-doesn’t get upsetPsychoticism- welfare others

Big-Five Model of Personality

According to Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, people have 5 central or source traits: openness, conscientious, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

Remember: Openness- curiousConscientiousness- reliableExtraversion- outgoingAgreeableness- forgivingNeuroticism- anxious

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__ 1. Carl Jung believed that each person has a personal conscious, similar to Freud's unconscious, but also suggested that beneath this is a collection of past experiences shared by ancestral backgrounds and containing archetypes or shared symbols referred to as:

A) Neuroticism

___ 2. Who believed that personality is affected by one's pursuit to be superior and overcome childhood inferiorities?

B) Trait

___ 3. A relatively stable, enduring or long-lasting, predisposition to act a certain way:

C) Factor analysis

___ 4. Gordon Allport believed that some people possess a dominating trait that solely defines who one is referred to as:

D) Secondary or surface traits

___ 5. Traits that are easily recognizable and have a strong influence on personality:

E) Alfred Adler

___ 6. Traits that are more specific to certain situations and change over time:

F) Central or source traits

___ 7. Raymond Cattell used a mathematical formula that explained how certain traits are related to or can predict other traits.

G) 16 Personality Factor

___ 8. Who believed that people could be described along an extroversions-introversion and emotionality-stability dimension.

H) Cardinal trait

___ 9. Raymond Cattell administered the __________ questionnaire to assess personality.

I) Collective unconscious

___ 10. According to Paul Costa and Robert McCrae the big five source traits include openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and:

J) Hans Eysenck

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Key Term Definition Analogy Julian Rotter Social-cognitive approach who

emphasized people’s expectations If you EXPECT to have a bad time you will

Internal locus of control

A person believes that he or she could control environment

I for internal “I am IN CONTROL”

External locus of control

A person believes he or she has no control in environment can lead to learned helplessness

E for external “Everyone and Everything else is in control”

Reciprocal determinism

According to Albert Bandura, personality is interaction of cognition, behavior, and environmental factors

How you THINK affects how you ACT (BEHAVE) which then affects your environment

Self-efficacy beliefs Confidence a person has about their abilities and situations

Similar to the “little engine that could- I think, I can”

Collective self-efficacy You social support system Friends and familyCognitive personal variables

According to Walter Mischel, a person’s thoughts, emotions, and expectations affect how people behave and is responsible for different personalities

Disagreed with personality being consistent throughout a person’s life but more dependent on present situations

Humanistic approach (phenomenological approach)

Personality is the result of self-awareness, creativity, personal responsibility, and free will

Emphasize you being the BEST HUMAN YOU CAN BE/ BE ALL YOU CAN BE

Self-concept According to Carl Rogers, how a person describes him or herself Actualizing tendency According to Carl Rogers, an innate

desire to achieve one’s personal potential and satisfaction

The “little voice” that tells you can do one more rep or run one more mile

Unconditional positive regard

Acceptance of a person for who they are not necessary what he or she does “Love you no matter what”

Conditional positive regard

Affection based on what a person does instead of who he or she is

“I will love you if you meet the following conditions”

Deficiency orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person loses focus of self-actualization and strives for materialistic goals

Growth orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person focuses on what they have, their efforts, and pursuit of achievements

NEO-PI test An objective or self-report inventory test that measures and indicates the Big 5 Personality Traits

MMPI An objective or self-report inventory and the most widely used personality test that is comprised of 500 T-F questions (Like the WAIS is the most popular intelligence test)

Thematic Apperception Test

A projective test developed by Henry Murray that uses picture scenes to measure a person’s need for achievement (TAT) test

Rorschach Inkblot test A projective test developed by Hermann Rorschach that instructs a person to respond to what he or she sees in a inkblot

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___ 1. According to Julian Rotter, a person's belief that he or she has control over their environment and their outcomes.

A) Incongruence

___ 2. Albert Bandura's belief that personality is the result of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors.

B) Internal locus of control

___ 3. Refers to the confidence a person has about their abilities to complete or attempt a task or challenge.

C) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

___ 4. According to Walter Mischel, refers to a person's thoughts, emotions, and expectations which show personality inconsistency and consistency.

D) Carl Rogers

___ 5. A perspective of psychology that emphasizes an innate drive to reach potential and be the best human.

E) Cognitive personal variables

___ 6. Believed that people have innate drive or actualizing tendency to reach their potential.

F) Self-efficacy

___ 7. The acceptance of a person for who they are rather than what they do, which in turn will lead to a healthy self-concept.

G) Humanistic or phenomenological perspective

___ 8. Refers to when conditional positive regard may negatively affect a person's self-concept through lying and trying to live up to people's expectations or conditions

H) Reciprocal determinism

___ 9. A type of self-report or objective test that includes 500 T-F question to assess personality and is considered one of the most popular personality tests.

I) Unconditional positive regard

___ 10. A type of projective test developed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan that uses pictures or scenes to measure unconscious desires for achievement.

J) MMPI

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Term “Buzz Word(S)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”Sub(pre)conscious

Memories, just below Id Temptation, aggressive

Pleasure principle Immediate gratification, Id

Ego Decision-maker, adult

Reality principle Mediator, ego Superego Morals, ethicsDefense mechanisms

Band aids, reduce anxiety

Repression Gone, not aware

Rationalization Excuses Projection Placing blame, faultsDisplacement Taking it out on Sublimation A distractionCompensation Make up for Denial Don’t think aboutRegression Go back, infantile Fixation Stuck, make up for Defense mechanism identification

Superego, same sex parental bonding

Neo Freudians Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney

Collective unconscious/ Jung

Passed down unconscious info

Archetypes Symbols in the unconscious

Superiority complex/ Adler

Not weak anymore Karen Horney Relationships, anxiety

Cardinal Trait (Allport)

Dominating single trait, rare

Central (source) traits

Few, building blocks of personality

Secondary (surface) traits

Depends on situation Factor analysis Trait math formula shows connections

16 Personality Factors (Cattell)

Factor analysis Introversion (Eysenck)

Born with shy

Extroversion Born with outgoing Emotionality Born with dramatic Stability (Eysenck)

Big 5 Traits 1. Openness- curious 2. Conscientiousness- organized 3. Extraversion- outgoing 4. Agreeableness- forgiving 5. Neuroticism- anxious

Julian Rotter Expectations guide personality

Internal / External locus of control

I control vs. I don’t have control

Bandura- Reciprocal determinism

Thoughts affect behavior changes environment

Self-efficacy Confidence to do well

Cognitive personal variables

Thoughts, emotions, expectancies

Humanistic- Self-concept (Rogers) who I am

Unconditional positive regard

Love you no matter what

Congruence- What I say and what I do match

Conditional positive regard

I love you if…… Incongruence What I say what I do don’t match

Self-report objective tests

Good- comparison easy score, people lie

Projective tests Freud, interpretation, unconscious

MMPI objective test

Most popular personality test, 500

NEO-PI objective test

Big 5 personality traits

TAT projective Ambiguous scenes, Rorschach 11 inkblots,

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test achievement projective test unconscious

Testing and Individual DifferencesChapter 9

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Theories of Intelligence

1. What is intelligence?

2. Who was the father of psychometrics, which is the measurement of knowledge defined by scores on a test?

A. What did he believe about intelligence?

i. Who did he only study?

3. Who used a factor analysis, a statistical method used to show the relationship between variables to study intelligence?

A What did he believe about intelligence?

B. What did he believe contributed to the g factor?

4. How did L.L. Thurston challenge Charles Spearman’s theory?

A. What did Thurston propose about intelligence?

B. What did J.P Guilford suggest about intelligence?

i. How many types of intelligence did Guilford find through a factor analysis?

5. Who believed that emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of oneself and other?

6. Who developed one of the most popular theories of intelligence?

A. Define the three types of intelligence that Sternberg came up with?

1. Analytical intelligence:

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2. Creative intelligence:

3. Practical intelligence:

7. Who believed that human beings possess strengths and weaknesses defined in multiple intelligence?

A. How did Garnder base his theory?

B. Define the different types of multiple and separate intelligences:

1. Linguistic:

2. Logical-mathematical:

3. Musical-compose:

4. Bodily-kinesthetic:

5. Spatial:

6. Interpersonal:

7. Intrapersonal:

8. Naturalistic:

Influences of Intelligence

8. What type of studies have offered support that intelligence is primarily nature or born with?

9. What support or argument offers support that intelligence is more nurture?


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Testing Intelligence: Individualized Testing

10. Who wrote the first modern intelligence test to assist the French government in identifying special need students?

A. Describe the mathematical formula that Binet came up with to determine intelligence?

i. What is a potential problem with his method?

11. Who proposed multiplying the score from MA/CA by 100 that would equal the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

12. Who from Stanford University translated Binet’s French test into English resulting in the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale?

A. What was this test considered?

13. Who developed an intelligence test to be measured in both children (WISC) and adults (WAIS)?

A. How was the test comprised?

B. How are the scores calculated?

C. Where did most of the scores fall?

D. What did these results indicate?

Aptitude and Achievement Testing

14. Which type of test is designed to measure a person’s performance potential; such as the SAT?

15. Which test is designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular subject or area; like an AP exam?

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Individual and Group Testing

16. What are the advantages of an indivualized test?

A. What are the disadvantages of an individualized test?

17. What are the advantages of a group test?

A. What are the disadvantages of a group test?

Measuring Tests

18. What is the test’s ability to yield or give the same results each time given as test-retest strategy?

A. What is split-half reliability?

19. What refers to how well a test measures what it was designed to measure?

A. What refers to information included on a test in terms of how well the test measures what it was designed to measure?

B. What refers to the ability of test to predict how well a person will do in the future?

C. What refers to how well a test is designed to measure an outcome?

20. What is the process of setting a common standard by comparing one’s score to those attained by a pretested group?

Evaluating Intelligence Tests

21. What are some examples of biases that appear on intelligence tests?

Diversity in Cognition and Creativity

22. What refers to the ability to generate novel ideas or products?

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A. What is the ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem?

B. What is the ability to narrow down to a single best solution or answer to a problem as a good test taker is able to do?

Unusual Cognitive Abilities

23. What is considered gifted?

A. Who used a longitudinal study 1500 10 year old gifted children called Terman’s termites?

B. What did he find?

C. What does the drudge theory suggest about gifted children?

D. What has been sited as saying that intelligence scores have gradually increased over the last several decades and years?

24. What are the intelligence scores of those that are considered mentally challenged?

A. Mild:

B. Moderate:

C. Severe:

D. Profound:

Factors Associated with Mental Impairment

25. What is a genetic disorder caused by presence on an extra 21st chromosome?

A. Describe fetal alcohol syndrome:

B. What is a genetic disorder caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome causing cognitive impairment?

C. What is Williams Syndrome?

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Autistic Spectrum disorder

26. What refers to impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or compulsive behavior?

A. When is autism diagnosed?

Savant Syndrome

27. What refers to cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities that are displayed on a genius level?

A. Whose intelligence theory supported cases of Autism?


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1. Psychometrics - Sir Francis Galton- father of the measurement of knowledge

2. Divergent thinking- discovering or brainstorming as many ideas as possible- important for

creativity/ convergent thinking- narrowing down ideas to overall good choice or idea

3. Intelligence - Charles Spearman - g factor or single gene (general intelligence) responsible

for everything which is determined by a single number like an IQ test/ LL Thurston- believed

were 7 primary mental abilities each independent/ Howard Gardner- people have separate

multiple intelligence which helps to explain savant syndrome when you have a special skill

but are overall mentally challenge/ Robert Sternberg- three types of intelligence- analytical-

problem solving like math and science in school, practical- using information for interacting

in the environment, creative- applying information to different situations like what is learned

in elective courses

4. Emotional Intelligence - Daniel Goleman- interpersonal intelligence- ability to understand

emotions of others/ intrapersonal intelligence- ability to understand one’s emotions.

5. Measuring intelligence: Alfred Binet- designed first intelligence test based on how children

solved problems rather than what they know first used in French schools / David Wechsler-

WAIS test- mostly widely used IQ test based on verbal and performance scores which score

is then based on how you perform COMPARED to other people in your age bracket Wilhelm

Stern- developed the IQ quotient- MA (mental age) divided by CA chronological age

multiplied by 100 equals IQ / Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test to be used in America

called the Standford-Binet Test (good for children but no MA bracket for adults)

6. Test construction - standardization- defining scores by comparing it to a previous group

who took the test / Validity- what does the test measure broken down into content validity-

questions that cover specific material or correct material/ construct validity- how well the test

was written- questions understandable/ criterion (predictive) validity- questions answer a

specific question or theory- questions that are designed to see if students are reading the

book/ Reliability- same results every time the test is given and taken / test-retest is a way to

measure reliability is by giving test over and over and looking for similar results- ACT test is

reliable as students tend to get same scores/ split-half- comparing odd and even questions

also measures reliability

7. Normal curve , also known as a bell-shaped curve; majority falling around average

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8. Aptitude tests make predictions on how well you will do, such as the ACT / Achievement

test- measure mastery or what you are supposed to know, like the AP Psych test

9. Measures of Central Tendency / mode - most frequently used number / median- middle

number or score / mean- average

10. Skewed distribution - atypical scores that fall away from the average or mean

11. Measures of Variation – Range - difference from lowest to highest score / Standard

deviation- how much scores vary from mean

12. Statistical significance- resulting data is not determined by chance but raw data

13. Inferential statistics- allow the researcher to apply his or her results to the general

population

14. Flynn effect- intelligence scores have risen over the last few decades

15. Savant syndrome- person who has cognitive impairments but excels in one or more abilities

of genius level/ Down syndrome- trisomy 21- extra 21st chromosome/ Fragile X syndrome-

mutated gene on the X chromosome/ Autism- impairment in social communication and

interaction/ 70 IQ indicated mentally challenged/ over 135 IQ genius studied by Lewis Terman-

“terman’s termites.

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Key Term Definition Analogy Intelligence The cognitive abilities that a person uses

to think, reason, and for problem-solvingPeople win on jeopardy know answer but answer quickly

Sir Francis Galton The father of psychometrics Psychometrics The measurement of knowledge and ability by using defined tests Factor analysis Statistical method used to show

relationships between variables used to study intelligence

Match.com - someone who likes to be outside is RELATED to outgoing

G factor According to Charles Spearman, there is a single intelligence responsible for all types of thinking

Similar to your GPA- one number indicates all of your work

7 primary mental abilities (PMAs)

According to L.L. Thurston, 7 sets of independent intellectual abilities

Similar to your grade for each class in schedule

Emotional intelligence

According to Daniel Coleman, the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of oneself and others /Important for therapists

Triarchic theory of intelligence

According to Robert Sternberg, 3 types of intelligence: analytical intelligence- a person’s accumulated knowledge at school, creative intelligence- ability to generate new ideas, and practical intelligence- ability to interact successfully with one’s environment

Sternberg wore thinking CAPC- creative- thinking outside of the box A- analytical- math and science grades P- practical- working well with other

Multiple intelligence

According to Howard Gardner, human beings possess separate multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal (emotions of others), intrapersonal (emotions of oneself), and naturalistic

Like a GARDEN has MULTIPLE items in the garden

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___ 1. According to Sir Francis Galton, the measurement of knowledge and ability by using defined tests.

A) Psychometrics

___ 2. Believed through a factor analysis that there is a single intelligence called the g factor responsible for areas of intelligence.

B) Howard Gardner

___ 3. Believed that each person has 7 primary mental abilities (PMAs) which are sets of independent intellectual abilities that each person possesses.

C) Robert Sternberg

___ 4. According to Daniel Coleman, the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of one and others.

D) Emotional intelligence

___ 5. Discovered through a factor analysis that there are over 180 types of intelligence.

E) J.P. Guilford

___ 6. Developed the Triarchic theory of intelligence that persists of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

F) Creative intelligence

___ 7. Component of the Triarchic theory of intelligence that persists of a person's accumulated knowledge gained through school; school smarts.

G) Analytical intelligence

___ 8. Component of the Triarchic theory of intelligence that refers to the ability to generate new ideas.

H) Practical intelligence

___ 9. Component of the Triarchic theory of intelligence that is a person's ability to interact with one's environment; street smarts.

I) L.L. Thurston

___ 10. Believed that human beings possess independent strengths and weaknesses referred to as multiple intelligence.

J) Charles Spearman

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Mental Age According to Alfred Binet, mental age abilities of certain age determined: wrote the first intelligent test

“he is 6 years old (chronological age) but he reads at an 8th grade level(mental age)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

According to Wilhem Stern, a formula that divides mental age by chronological age then multiply by 100 equaling IQ

Normal distribution bell-shaped curve majority of scores falling around middle average Aptitude test Designed to measure a person’s

performance potential The P stands for- A-PREDICTION test

Achievement test Designed to measure a person’s knowledge of particular topic

The C in achievement stands for “C what I have learned”

Reliability Giving a test multiple times and receiving the same results through test-retest procedure

Split-half reliability Assessing reliability where odd and even questions are compared Validity How well a test measures what

that test is designed to measure To validate means to make sure its real- like a valid license

Content validity The material on a test matches the material meant to be tested Criterion (predictive) validity

The ability of test to make predictions about future performances

Construct validity How a test is designed written How the test is Constructed Standardization Process comparing a score with

previous scores administered under identical conditions

A good basketball player sets the STANDARD for future basketball players to meet

Creativity Ability to generate new and novel ideasDivergent thinking Ability to generate multiple

solutions to a problem The D stands for DISCOVER new ideas/ like brainstorming

Convergent thinking Narrowing down to one best alternative for a problem

To converge means to CLOSE in on one good idea

Mental impairment IQ that generally falls below a score of 70Giftedness IQ that generally is above 135Autism Impairments of social and communication skillsAsperger syndrome Display very attentive skills and sometimes obsession with routines

Savant syndrome Cognitive impairments, but possesses abilities at genius level

Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale

Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test to be used in the United States

Lewis Terman was DETERMINED to bring Binet’s test to the USA

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)/Wechsler Intelligence Scale Children (WISC)

Written by David Wechsler, intelligence tests based on verbal and performance tests where scores are compared to people of the same age

This is the most popular intelligence test because scores can be compared to people of the same age/ not tied to mental age

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___ 1. Wrote the first modern intelligence test that was designed to assist the French government in identifying special need students.

A) Standardization

___ 2. Developed the formula for the intelligence quotient (IQ)- mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100.

B) Wilhelm Stern

___ 3. Adopted Alfred Binet's test for use in America and called it the Stanford-Binet test.

C) David Wechsler

___ 4. Developed a way to measure intelligence in children and adults through the development of two tests: verbal and performance test that then could be compared to people of the same age; called the WAIS and WICS.

D) Lewis Terman

___ 5. Tests that are designed to measure a person's performance potential on future tasks.

E) Alfred Binet

___ 6. Tests that are designed to measure a person's knowledge of a particular subject or area.

F) Reliability

___ 7. The tests ability to yield consistent results after repeated testing or test-retest or split-half procedures.

G) Content validity

___ 8. A type of validity that dictates if a test measures what it is designed to measure.

H) Criterion/predictive validity

___ 9. A type of validity that measures a specific measurement or a future type of ability or performance.

I) Achievement tests

___ 10. The process of setting a common standard by comparing one's scores to those attained by a previous group.

J) Aptitude tests

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Quarter Midterm 1

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Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)Intelligence Cognitive abilities Sir Francis Galton Father of testsCharles Spearman

G factor one single L.L. Thurston 7 primary mental abilities

J.P Guilford 180 types of intelligence

Daniel Coleman Emotional intelligence

Robert Sternberg

3 type of intelligence thinking CAP

Howard Gardner Multiple and separate

Alfred Binet First test Wilhem Stern IQ- MA/CA times 100

Lewis Terman Stanford-Binet test David Wechsler (WAIS, WISC)

Age comparison test

Verbal test Definitions, math, memory

Performance test Manipulation, assembling

Aptitude test Potential Achievement test What you knowReliability Same results Test-retest Give it twiceValidity Test does what it is

supposed to doContent validity Questions match

what was studied Criterion validity

Makes predictions Construct validity Well written

Standardized Same conditions, comparison

Divergent thinking

Brainstorming

Convergent thinking

One best idea Gifted child 135 Lewis Terman

Mentally challenged

Below 70 Down syndrome Extra 21st chromosome

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Alcohol Fragile X syndrome

Mutated X chromosome

William’s Syndrome

PKU toxins Drudge theory Hard work and nature

Flynn effect Scores going up Autism Communication impairment

Savant syndrome

Special ability Cultural and SES bias

testing


Review

History of Psychology

1. Who believed in dualism, that the mind and body are separate through ideas being innate or a person being born with? Socrates and Plato

a. Who believed that the mind was connected to the body and that ideas came from experience? Aristotle

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b. Rene Descartes believed that the mind and body are separate entities, but do interact to produce conscious experiences, which is referred to as Interactive Dualism

2. The modern debate of are we products of heredity or products of our environment is referred to as the nature vs. nurture/ nature meaning genetics and nurture meaning environment.

a. If a person was born with an addiction to alcohol this would support which side of the debate? Nature

b. If a person drank alcohol with his buddies every night and as a result developed an addiction to alcohol this would then support which side of the debate? Nurture

3. Who was considered one of the founders of modern science and believed that research should be based on experimental design and experience? Francis Bacon

a. According to John Locke, science should be based on knowledge that comes from experience and observation referred to as empiricism rather than intuition and speculation

b. According to Locke, the mind was a blank slate on which people “wrote” their experiences as they lived them referred to as ___________________

Contribution of Wilhelm Wundt

4. Who was a German physiologist, credited as the founder of modern psychology as he was one of the first researchers to apply laboratory techniques that helped psychology separate from philosophy in 1879 through his opening of the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany?

___________________________________

a. What technique did Wilhelm Wundt use to look inward into a person’s mind where he observed and measured people’s conscious experience to the presentation of stimuli?

__________________________________________

b. What was the name of Wundt’s book, which suggested psychology should be separated from philosophy? Principles of Physiological Psychology

School of Structuralism

5. Which Wilhelm Wundt student started the school of structuralism? Edward Titchener

a. A school of thought that was based on the idea that conscious experiences could be broken down into structures or parts was called ___________________________

b. What problems did the technique of introspection present?

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Introspection did not prove reliable- subjects reported different responses to the same stimulus, could not be with used with children or animals

William James and the School of Functionalism

6. William James began his career as a physiology teacher at Harvard University, but later concentrated on aspects of psychology. What was the name of James’s influential psychology book that helped to popularize psychology in America?

Principles of Psychology

a. James’s ideas and beliefs were important to the formulation of a new school of thought called ______________________________

7. The study of how an organism functions and adapts to its environment was studied in the school of Functionalism. This school’s emphasis on observation techniques was different than the school of structuralism, which relied on introspection that turned out to be unreliable because subjects often reported different perceptions (did not take into consideration people’s moods/ and mentally challenged people did not understand what they looked at.)

a. Functionalism relied on naturalistic observation and could be applied to several areas of interest: school, work, family

Legacy of William James

8. Which William James student became the first person in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, initiate the first psychological journal- American Journal of Psychology, and started the American Psychology Association?

G. Stanley Hall

a. Which other James student was denied her Ph.D. in psychology, even though she did finish all of the requirements, but later become the first woman president of the APA? ___________________________________

b. Which Edward Titchener student actually became the first woman to earn her Ph.D. in psychology, and later become the second president of the APA?

_________________________________________

Sigmund Freud

9. As new ideas challenged the schools of structuralism and functionalism, who believed that personality and behavior could be explained through the role of the unconscious- the part of person that he or she is unaware of, but affects personality behavior? _________________________________________

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a. Freud’s theories led to the development of psychoanalysis, which studied the origins and influences of personality, mental disorders, and the treatment of disorders.

John B. Watson

10. Behaviorism dismissed the role and study of consciousness (structuralism and Freud) but instead focused on overt behavior- behavior that could be observed and objectively measured. Whose work with the digestive system of dogs and later development of classical conditioning helped lead to the development of behaviorism?

Ivan Pavlov

a. Who, in America, extended the ideas of Ivan Pavlov, and focused on how behavior developed by behaviors that could be modified through environmental stimuli?

__________________________________________

b. Who agreed with Watson that behavior should be studied overtly, and also that reinforcement and punishment could affect a person’s motivation and behavior?

B.F. Skinner

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

11. Behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated psychology during the early 1900s, but what new school of thought emerged in the 1950s, referred to as the “third force of psychology,” and believed that not all human behavior and mental processes could be explained by associations, rewards and punishments, or unconscious conflicts?

______________________________________

a. Who influenced the development of the humanistic thought?

_______________________________________b. Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality development through his work with

his patients, which led him to disagree with Freud’s viewpoints of the role of the unconscious, and emphasize more of conscious experiences such as a person’s unique potential and psychological growth. As a result, he focused instead on how self-determination and free will affect a person.

a. Which Humanistic psychologist developed a theory of motivation that underlined psychological growth through a person’s pursuit of self-actualization or self-mastery?

______________________________________

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___ 1. Which of the following statement best describes empiricism? *RC: E for evidence E for experience*A) Research that is based on speculation and opinions.B) Research that draws upon replication rather that retention.C) Research that is based on knowledge and experience through observation. D) Research that is based on what other researchers have speculated.E) Research that makes use of pseudoscientific facts

___ 2. Who was credited with separating psychology from philosophy through setting up an experimental design in Germany? *RC: Look for a German name*A) William James D) Wilhelm WundtB) Mary Whiton Calkins E) Sigmund FreudC) Edward Titchener

___ 3. Which of the following was one of the first psychological techniques to be used to study mental processes; but let to be a unreliable measure? *RC: Remember in means to look inward*A) Introspection B) Lesioning C) Masking D) Empiricism E) Inquiring

___ 4. Who was responsible for initiating the field and study of Behaviorism in America? *RC: remember the B stands for Behaviorism*A) Wilhelm Wundt D) Ivan PavlovB) Sigmund Freud E) John B. Watson C) William James

___ 5. Who was denied a Ph.D. in psychology because of her gender even though she completed the requirements? *RC: Remember "Whi didn’t I get my Ph.D.!*A) Margaret Washburn D) Anna FreudB) Anne Frank E) Betsy Ross C) Mary Whiton Calkins

Psychological Perspectives

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1. Identify the following characteristics pertaining to certain psychological perspectives (viewpoints that explain behavior and thinking)

Perspective Origins of Influences

Area of Interest

Biological(Neuroscience)

Physiology Interaction between physical bases- brain, nervous system, endocrine system and human behavior

____________ ____________

Nature versus nurture debate

How genes and environment influence our behavior

_____________

Sigmund Freud Importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences affecting the unconscious and personality development and therapeutic methods designed to show and resolve unconscious conflicts and motivations known as psychoanalysis

______________

John B. WatsonB.F.SkinnerIvan PavlovAlbert Bandura

Focus on observable behavior through observation and measurementStudy how behavior develops and how modified through behavioral techniques such as reinforcement and punishment

______________

Carl RogersAbraham Maslow

Importance of the self-concept and how the self-concept develops through free will, self-determination, and reaching one’s potential

Cognitive Jean PiagetNoam Chomsky

Importance of mental processes that include thinking, language development, problem-solving strategies, and memory

Cross-cultural(Sociocultural)

Emerged in the 1980s as psychologists became increasingly interested in the role of diversity

Focus on how thinking and behavior are affected by cultural and environmental factors such as poverty or environmental factors such as poverty or environmental settings

______________

Charles Darwin’s book, On the Origins of Species by means of Natural Selection

How natural selection, innate necessary characteristics passed from generation to generation that enable survival

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Different areas of Specialization in Psychology

2. Identify the subfields of psychology:

Specialty Subfield of Psychology

Area of Study

Biological psychologist Relationship between the brain and nervous system, how biological affect behavior

Cognitive psychologist Mental processes- thinking, language, problem-solving, memory

Experimental psychologist Research on psychological topics such as learning, emotion, memory, etc.

Developmental psychologist Physical, social, and psychological changes over a lifetime

Personality psychologist Origins of personality and why people are alike and different

____________________ Psychological factors that affect a person’s health, immune system; treatment strategies aimed at improving person’s lifestyle

Educational/ school psychologist

How people of all ages learn and how a proper educational environment can lead to improved learning

____________________ ___________________

Proper matching of employees with specific jobs; how to improve working conditions using psychological concepts

Social psychologist How certain social and cultural settings affect thinking- behavior

Clinical psychologist Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing psychological treatments and prevention strategies

Counseling psychologist Helping people improve everyday functioning by providing productive and positive thinking and acting skills

____________________

Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing treatments and prevention strategies- they have medical degrees in addition to training in psychology/ clinical psychologists don’t have medical degrees so they can’t prescribe medication

____________________ ____________________

Working to make sure that people who are unable or unwilling to seek psychological treatment receive it

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___ 1. Which perspective in psychology stressed the role of the unconscious and early childhood determinants? *RC: Think Freud*A) Behaviorism D) Cross-culturalB) Psychodynamic E) EvolutionaryC) Humanistic

___ 2. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were supporters of which of the following psychological perspectives? *RC: Think about being the best HUMAN you can be*A) Behaviorism D) Cross-culturalB) Psychodynamic E) GestaltC) Humanistic

___ 3. Which of the following perspectives did Charles Darwin's research, described in the, Origins of Species, help to initiate? *RC: Think of Natural Selection- Nature selects*A) Behaviorism D) Evolutionary B) Cognitive E) Functionalism C) Psychodynamic

___ 4. Which type of psychologist focuses on improving working conditions, making machinery and technology more applicable for people, and helping employees reach their potential and perform at an optimum level? *RC: How you organize an industry affects the way the industry runs*A) Health psychologist D) Cognitive psychologistB) Psychiatrist E) Industrial-organizational psychologistC) Community psychologist

___ 5. Which type of therapist possesses a medical degree and is thus able to prescribe medications to his or her patients? *RC: Think of which profession requires the most amount of schooling*A) Clinical psychologist D) Community psychologistB) Social psychologist E) I/O psychologist C) Psychiatrist

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1. The origins of psychology can be traced to (A) the unconscious mind (B) philosophy and physiology (C) botany and kinesiology (D) working to reach one’s potential (E) speculation and hindsight

2. Empiricism refers to (A) scientific methods based on

information and knowledge derived from direct observation or experience

(B) scientific methods based on speculation and intuition

(C) the wishes and motivations embedded in the unconscious

(D) reaching and achieving self-actualization

(E) how nature selects organisms best suited for survival in a particular environment

3. The method Wilhelm Wundt used to study the elements of the mind was called (A) observation (B) case study (C) introspection (D) dream analysis (E) resistance

4. Sigmund Freud believed that (A) research should be based on

observable and measurable data (B) reaching one’s potential by

developing a positive self-concept was important

(C) nature selects organisms best suited for an environment

(D) cultural and social backgrounds play a crucial role in development

(E) unconscious motivations and wishes affect personality and well-being

5. Behaviorism was built around the idea that (A) research should be based on

observable and measurable data (B) reaching one’s potential by

developing a positive self-concept is important

(C) nature selects organisms best suited for an environment

(D) cultural and social backgrounds play a crucial role in development

(E) unconscious motivations and wishes affect personality and psychological well-being

6. Who contributed to the ideas of the evolutionary perspective by suggesting that nature selects organisms best suited for survival in a given environment? (A) Charles Darwin (B) Sigmund Freud (C) John B. Watson (D) William James (E) Wilhelm Wundt

7. Which school of thought focused on how an organism adapts to the environment rather than on the study of mental components or parts? (A) Structuralism (B) Gestalt (C) Psychoanalysis (D) Behaviorism (E) Functionalism

8. The belief that the brain and nervous

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system affect behavior is fundamental to which perspective of psychology? (A) Evolutionary (B) Psychodynamic (C) Behavioral (D) Cognitive (E) Biological

9. Faris has been conducting research that may help people improve their ability to process and retrieve explicit memories. Which perspective does Faris’ inquiry support? (A) Evolutionary (B) Psychodynamic (C) Behavioral (D) Cognitive (E) Biological

10. A researcher supporting which psychological perspective might recite the following quotation: “I believe that the memories and events of early childhood contribute to unconscious development affecting personality”? (A) Evolutionary (B) Psychodynamic (C) Behavioral (D) Cognitive (E) Biological

11. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were influential with the emergence and development of which psychological perspective? (A) Evolutionary (B) Psychodynamic (C) Behavioral (D) Cognitive (E) Humanistic

12. The ideas of William James agreed with and founded which psychological school of thought? (A) Structuralism (B) Functionalism (C) Gestalt (D) Psychodynamic (E) Behaviorism

13. For the past several years Jerry has been conducting research on teenage smoking and the possible long-term effects that could later occur in adulthood. Jerry’s research would coincide with which subfield’s goals and ideals? (A) Cognitive psychology (B) Clinical psychology (C) Psychiatry (D) Biological psychiatry (E) Developmental psychology

14. When describing her job, Jenny says she makes sure that people who need psychological care receive it. Jenny is what type of psychologist? (A) Cognitive psychologist (B) Industrial psychologist (C) Community psychologist (D) Biological psychologist (E) Developmental psychologist

15. Which subfield of psychology would study how a stroke could affect the functions of certain parts of the brain? (A) Cognitive psychology (B) Educational psychology (C) Community psychology (D) Biological psychology (E) Psychometrics

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1. Answer: B. The development of psychology was influenced by questions and beliefs of philosophy

and the scientific approach and underlying principles of physiology

2. Answer: A. Empiricists believed in tabular rasa that the mind was a blank sheet on which

experiences were “written” and, as a result, should be based on actual experience and observations.

This idea went against the beliefs of the older philosophers

3. Answer: C. Introspection meant to “look inward” and was a technique relied on by Wundt and the

structuralists

4. Answer E. Sigmund Freud believed that the unconscious contributes to personality development by

providing inner conflicts that must be resolved

5. Answer: A. Behaviorism was developed around the idea that research should be based only on data

that could be observed and measured

6. Answer: A. Charles Darwin theorized natural selection, which is the premise that nature selects

organisms best suited for survival in an environment

7. Answer: E. Functionalism, a school of thought championed by William James, was predicated on the

consideration of how organisms adapt to the environment

8. Answer: E. The biological perspective stated that the brain and nervous system affect the behavior of

an organism

9. Answer: D. The cognitive perspective is based on research that examines how cognitive processes,

such as thinking, remembering, and communicating, occur

10. Answer B. Those supporting the psychodynamic perspective believed that events in early childhood

affect the development of the unconscious, which in turn affects how personality develops

11. Answer: E. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed in free will, self-determination, and the

importance of the self-concept, which gave rise to the humanistic perspective

12. Answer: B. Functionalism was a school of thought that focused on how an organism adapted to

enhance its survival in a particular environment. William James rejected the ideas of structuralism

and instead concentrated his studies on how organisms adapt and function

13. Answer: E. Developmental psychologists study ways in which psychological and physical changes

occur over a lifetime

14. Answer: C. Community psychologists make sure that people who either cannot seek help or are

unwilling to do so receive psychological care

15. Answer: D. Biological psychology studies the functioning of the brain and nervous system and how

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that affects functioning and behavior


1. The mental processes a person is aware of at any given moment, for example answering this question, refers to conscious awareness

a. Resides just below the level of consciousness, which makes it easy to access, like a recent memory is called the preconscious levelb. Absent from conscious awareness, but still could influence a person’s thoughts or actions. Sigmund Freud was very interested in this area of consciousness as he believed this to be comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories, which he referred to as the unconscious level

Exploring the Levels of Consciousness

2. The belief that the mind and body are separate is referred to as dualism.

a. The suggestion that the mind and the body are one and the same is called materialism, which was supported through damage to one’s brain causing that person’s consciousness to be affected.


3. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream; always changing but always flowing?

____________________________

Circadian Rhythms

4. Throughout a day, human beings experience fluctuations in their physiological (body temperature) and psychological processes (alertness.) These repeating fluctuations, such as sleeping and waking, occur over a 24 hour period are referred to as _____________________

a. What is the “internal clock” located within the hypothalamus that monitors circadian rhythms? ________________________________

b. Where does the suprachiasmatic nucleus receive information from in terms of whether it is light or dark out? Ganglion cells of the eye

c. Neurons within the suprachiasmatic nucleus, trigger the decrease or increase of the hormone melatonin produced by pineal gland. When it starts to become light outside the suprachiasmatic nucleus recognizes this change and _______________ the production of melatonin, which helps to wake us up. On the contrary, when it starts to become dark melatonin production _________________ causing us to become tired.

d. What can possibly also affect circadian rhythms? Give an example:

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Environmental factors/ jet lag flying from New York to LA

Stages of Sleep

5. What instruments do researchers use to monitor a person’s different stages of sleep and brain activity? ______________

a. A person who is awake and attentive would be showing __________ waves.

b. A person who is awake but inattentive or staring to become sleepy would be show ________________ waves.

c. Which type of waves follow alpha waves and indicate even slower brain activity?

Theta

d. Which waves show very low brain activity and area associated with deep sleep?

Delta

6. Identify the characteristics of the following sleep stages:

Sleep stage Brain Waves Characteristics

_______________ _______________ _______________

Alpha and theta waves

Lasts only a few minutes/ Person can quickly gain consciousness/ Experiences hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid sensory experiences- sensation of falling- also myoclonic jerk- involuntary muscle spasm throughout body that often awakes person

_______________ Theta and start of delta waves

Start of true sleep/ sleep spindles in EEG patterns- sudden bursts of brain activity

_______________ Delta waves Considered NREM stage 3 when 20% of brain activity shows delta waves

______________ ______________

Beta waves Brain activity becomes more active, resembling that of an awakened state; 85% of dreams occur in this stageMuscle activity is suppressed- called muscle atoniaPhysiological arousal is high- heart rate, blood pressureEyes move readily back and forth beneath eyelids- Rapid eye movement- also called paradoxical sleep

Sequence of Sleep Stages

7. How many cycles do people experience of NREM and REM sleep each night?

Four to Six

1) Begins with NREM stage 1: lasts a few minutes2) Followed by about 20 minutes in NREM stage 2

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3) Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in NREM stages 34) Once a person is relaxed and deeply asleep in NREM stage 3 the sequence reverses5) The person then goes back through NREM stage 2

6) After NREM stage 2, the person enters REM sleep (not NREM stage 1), which usually lasts for about 5 to 15 minutesa. As sleep continues the periods of ________ sleep get longer and NREM stages 3 become ___________________

b. The last few sleep cycles are primarily NREM stage ____ and REM sleep

c. As a person gets older, what stages of sleep start to gradually decrease?

__________________________

d. As a young child, how much time is usually spent in NREM stage 3?

Two or more hours

Functions of Sleep

8. Studies of sleep deprivation have provided evidence that sleep is necessary for adequate physiological and psychological functioning. What tasks seem to be affected the most by lack of sleep?

Tasks are considered boring and repetitive

a. A person who does not get enough REM sleep will experience REM rebound, which is defined by a person going right into REM sleep instead of the proper sequence of sleep.

Sleep Theories

9. Which theory of sleep suggests that sleep in necessary for the body to repair itself?

_________________________________

a. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons, which are essential to understanding newly learned material?

______________________

b. What parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?

_______________________________

c. Which type of sleep is necessary for the body to physiologically repair itself?

NREM

10. Theory of sleep that suggests sleep is a behavior that promotes the survival of species and is based on the evolutionary principles and suggests that humans and animals sleep when it is dangerous to be awake is called adaptive theory of sleep

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11. What theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is no more stimulation to keep us awake? _________________________________

Sleep Disorders

12. Fill in the chart explaining the characteristics of sleep disorders:

Sleep disorder CharacteristicsNarcolepsy Falling suddenly into REM sleep at any time of the daySleep apnea Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep- stop

breathingSomnambulism (sleep walking)

Occurs in NREM stage 3

Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting)

Occurs in NREM stage 3

_______________ Occurs in NREM stage 3- high physiological arousal/ especially in children/ no recollection of the events

______________ Occurs in REM sleepREM sleep behavior disorder Acting out your dream; connected with damage to the

lower brain centers/ common in older menSleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep

Dream Theories

13. What stage of sleep do dreams occur most vividly? __________________

a. People who feel that they can control their dreams in terms of outcomes and decisions is referred to as __________________

b. During REM sleep which part of the brain is inactive, making it hard to form new memories? _____________________

c. Sigmund Freud, who was very interested in the content of dreams thought that during dream analysis he could tap into a person’s unconscious. What was the name of Freud’s influential book that outlined his approach?

_________________________________

d. According to Freud, dreams consisted of two parts: the __________ content consisted of the remembered meaning of the dream; and the ________ content was the symbolized part of the dream that Freud thought represented the deep wishes of the unconscious.

e. The idea that signals within the brain activate other areas of the brain, including the amygdala an hippocampus, and that the brain synthesizes these signals as it attempts to provide meaning refers to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming

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___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for receiving information from the retina regarding light or darkness; then initiates the pineal gland to release or decrease the production of melatonin? *RC: think of a light sensor that activates or deactivates the outdoor lights depending if it light or dark out*A) Hippocampus D) FoveaB) Thyroid gland E) Bipolar cellsC) Superchiasmatic nucleus

___ 2. According to an EEG, if a person was wide awake then that person would display which type of brain waves? *RC: remember you Beta be awake when you take an exam*A) Alpha B) Beta C) Delta D) Theta E) Maya

___ 3. Paradoxical sleep is defined as: *RC: remember paradox indicates opposite*A) REM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is wide awake.B) REM sleep where the legs continue to move despite no brain activity.C) REM sleep that is measured by beta waves in the brain and no movement in the

body.D) NREM sleep where the brain is wide awake and the body is wide awake.E) NREM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is awake.

___ 4. According to Sigmund Freud, the part of the dream that could lead to possible unconscious conflicts and if often not understand by the person who dreamt it is referred to as the__________ component. RC: remember man I had a crazy dream- which means the part of the dream you can remember*A) Pons B) Symbolic interlude C) Manifest D) Fixated E) Latent

___ 5. Night terrors differ from nightmares because night terrors occur in: *RC: remember delta waves means deep sleep which means the brain is turned off; not recording*A) NREM stage 1 D) NREM stage 3B) REM sleep E) Sleep thinking periods C) First 20 minutes of NREM stage 2

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Hypnosis

1. An altered state of consciousness that could produce increased responsiveness to suggestion that could in turn lead to changes in behavior and thinking is called __________________

Explaining hypnosis

2. Suggestions that are made my hypnotist that maybe carried out after the person has been hypnotized are called posthypnotic suggestion

a. meaning that can’t be recalled of what took place during the hypnotic session is called posthypnotic amnesia

b. Who determined that during hypnosis people experience a splitting of consciousness called “dissociation” referred to the neodissociation theory of hypnosis where a person experiences distinct multiple streams of consciousness?

___________________

c. The first stream of consciousness is tuned to the hypnotist’s suggestions, while the second stream is so distinct from consciousness that is unattainable to the subject, which he called the _________________

d. Nicholas Spanos believed that hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness as Hilgard believed, but rather an expected role that a person believed he or she should perform or act when being hypnotized. This theory is called ______________________ ______________________

Psychoactive Drugs

3. An area of psychology that studies the effects of psychoactive drugs on the brain and nervous system is called psychopharmacology

a. The blood-brain barrier helps prevent certain substances from entering brain tissue, but if does bypass this barrier will affect the way a person thinks and feels.

b. If a drug mimics/excites it is called __________ versus if a drug blocks/inhibits the role of a neurotransmitter it is called an ___________________

Effects of Drugs

4. Occurs when a pattern of drug use interferes with personal and social meaning and functioning is called substance abuse

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a. When a person chooses to take a drug despite knowing the ramifications it could cause in other areas of his or her life is called psychological dependency

b. Referred to as addiction, results in the body’s dependence on the drug to function is called physical dependency and if the body does not get the required drug then a this person will experience unpleasant headaches, shaking, or intense cravings for the drug called ______________________

c. The type of a drug a person continuously does; the greater need for the drug which refers to a person’s ___________________________

Types of Drugs

5. Identify the effects of drugs:

Drug Classification

Physical effects on the brain and body

Example Psychological effects

_____________

Slows activity in central nervous systemIncreases GABA- neurotransmitter that inhibits brain activity

Alcohol, barbiturates, sleeping pills, tranquilizers, GHB- club drugs

Mild euphoria, talkativeness, friendly, reduces inhibitions, aggressiveness, impair judgments

____________

Speeds activity in nervous systemsIncreases neurotransmitter’s norepinephrine (arousal) and dopamine (pleasure)

Amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, ecstasy

Increased mental alertness, reduce fatigue, produces induced psychosis- schizophrenic like symptoms- hallucinations

____________Causes sleepiness and relieves painAgonist for endorphins

Opium, morphine, heroin

Intense rush of euphoria, feelings of contentment, severe withdrawal symptoms

_____________

Also called psychedelicsSimilar to nt serotonin-regulates moods and perceptions

LSD, ketamine, mescaline, marijuana

Loss of contact from reality, altered emotions, perceptions, hallucinations

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___ 1. Which of the following statements would Ernest Hilgard agree with in terms of describing his theory of hypnosis? *RC: if a log fell into a stream it would divide or produce two separate streams; however both streams are still flowing in the same direction and to the same place*A) That a person is simply playing a part acting in a way that he or thinks they

should act during hypnosis.B) That the brain switches from left to right brain causing the power of suggestion to

exist.C) Mirror neurons are activated which cause a person to feel or sense they are being

hypnotizedD) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as

the hidden observer which taps into the unconscious and is subtle to hypnotic suggestion.

E) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as the partial observer which taps into the unconscious.

___ 2. Motrin’s and Tylenol mimic endorphins through blocking pain signals; this would classify them as a: *RC: think of a key that is duplicated; not the same but can still unlock and lock- same as the original*A) Antagonist B) Mirrors C) Agonist D) Plasticity E) Replication

___ 3. If a person continues to use or expose themselves to a drug; then over time that person is going to require greater quantities in order to achieve the designer effects of that drug. This greater need is referred to as: *RC: the more you do; the more you need- you can tolerate more*A) Withdrawal symptoms D) ToleranceB) Dependency E) ResistanceC) Physical need

___ 4. Alcohol, which is classified as a depressant, slows down neural activity and activates which of the following neurotransmitters that is known to slow down brain activity. *RC: saying GABA slowly calms you down through slowing down your brain activity*A) Serotonin B) Dopamine C) Acetylcholine D) GABA E) Substance P

___ 5. If a person abuses the stimulant cocaine and raise the level of dopamine in their system then they could experience symptoms comparable to schizophrenia. This is referred to as: *RC: psychosis means break- break from reality*A) Pleasure principle D) Induced psychosisB) Reaction formation E) Lavational psychosisC) Sublimation

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1. Susanne is paying close attention to her teacher as he lectures about the history of psychology. Which level of awareness describes Susanne’s attentiveness?(A) Conscious awareness(B) Preconscious awareness(C)Nonconscious awareness(D)Subliminal awareness(E) Nocturnal awareness

2. Carlos's friend asks Carlos what he ate for dinner last night. Carlos hesitates a few moments and then is able to remember. Which level of awareness describes his ability to remember last night's dinner?(A) Conscious awareness(B) Preconscious awareness(C)Nonconscious awareness(D)Subliminal awareness(E) Nocturnal awareness

3. Jen is excited to be taking the AP psychology exam. She is fully alert and ready to handle the task at hand. Which waves of brain activity is Jen displaying?(A) Delta(B) Theta(C)Beta(D)Alpha(E) Circadian

4. As Tracy sits in class she grows tired. She is having a hard time paying attention to the teacher and often loses her place in her book. Tracy is experiencing which type of brain waves?(A) Delta

(B) Theta(C)Beta(D)Alpha(E) Circadian

5. REM sleep is characterized by(A) delta brain activity and

muscle atonia(B) cessation of breathing and

heavy snoring(C)muscle atonia and high

levels of beta activity in the brain

(D)vivid sensory imagery(E) myoclonic jerks displayed by

the body

6. As an individual sleeps throughout the night, which two stages of sleep become longer?(A) NREM 1 and NREM 2(B) NREM 1 and NREM 3(C)REM and NREM 2(D)REM and NREM 3(E) NREM 3 and NREM 4

7. Jon traveled from Nashville to Los Angeles yesterday. He has had a hard time adapting to the time change. Last night he found it hard to fall asleep and during the day he has had a hard time staying awake. The time change has affected Jon’s(A) circadian rhythms(B) memory consolidation(C)adrenal cortex(D)biopsychological timing(E) ultradian rhythms

8. What hormone, when released by the pineal gland, causes a

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person to become drowsy and tired?(A) Adrenaline(B) Corticosteroid(C)Catecholamine(D)Melatonin(E) Testosterone

9. The restorative theory of sleep suggests that ___ sleep helps the brain to restore and ___ helps the body to recover.(A) NREM; REM sleep(B) REM; NREM sleep(C)REM; REM sleep(D)NREM; NREM sleep(E) NREM Stage 3; NREM Stage 4

10. Jim has reported that he can control his dreams and affect the content of his dreams. This is referred to as(A) wishful thinking(B) NREM sleep(C) lucid dreaming(D)hallucinogenic dreaming(E) the Muller-Lyer illusion

11. Nate has had problems quitting smoking in the past. A friend suggested he see a hypnotist. Nate was a bit reluctant but agreed. After the hypnotic session, the hypnotist told Nate that he would no longer have the urge to smoke. This is referred to as(A) posthypnotic suggestion(B) posthypnotic amnesia(C) suggestion of the mind(D)posthypnotic fugue

(E) social conforming

12. The role theory of hypnosis states that(A) a hypnotist produces a

“hidden observer” unresponsive

(B) people fall into a deep sleep(C)altered states of

consciousness are produced(D)a dissociation is produced

and causes multiple streams of

(E) hypnotized people are acting in accordance with the socially accepted behavior of what is shown during hypnosis

13. Which of the following is characterized by an altered state of consciousness in which the power of suggestion is able to affect behavior?(A) Shock therapy(B) Operant conditioning(C)Token economy(D)Systematic desensitization(E) Hypnosis

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14. Ever since Deb quit smoking, she has experienced terrible headaches, nausea, and a tremendous craving for nicotine. Deb is experiencing what kind of symptoms?(A) Toxic(B) Withdrawal(C)Hormonal(D)Synaptic(E) Distortion

15. Depressants depress activity in the central nervous system by causing neural communication to slow down. Which of the following is an example of a depressant?(A) Heroin(B) Cocaine(C)LSD(D)Alcohol(E) Caffeine

1. Answer: A. Conscious awareness describes mental activities a person is aware of at a given moment

2. Answer: B. Preconscious awareness resides just below conscious awareness, which makes it easy to retrieve the content into conscious awareness

3. Answer: C. Beta waves show brain activity, indicating that a person is awake and attentive

4. Answer: D. Alpha brain waves indicates that the person is awake but drowsy and inattentive

5. Answer: C. REM sleep is characterized by beta brain activity and full relaxation in the body and muscles

6. Answer: C. A person progresses through NREM Stages 1–4 and then reverses from NREM 4 to 3 and then 2. After NREM Stage 2, REM sleep takes over. As the night goes on, more time is spent in REM sleep and in NREM Stage 2

7. Answer: A. Jon is experiencing jet lag, and it has affected his circadian rhythms, which cycle periods of wakefulness and tiredness

8. Answer: D. Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in response to darkness monitored by the suprachiasmatic nucleus

9. Answer: B. REM sleep is necessary for the brain to revitalize neural communication, and NREM sleep is necessary for the body to rebuild muscle

10.Answer: C. Lucid dreaming occurs when a person feels that he or she can control the content of his or her dreams

11.Answer: A. The posthypnotic suggestion refers to the hypnotist’s instruction that is to be carried out by the subject after the hypnotic session

12.Answer: E. The role theory of hypnosis suggests that people who undergo hypnosis are conforming to the demands of the expected roles associated with

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the process of hypnosis 13.Answer: E. Hypnosis uses techniques to help subjects relax, enabling

suggestion to cause changes in behavior 14.Answer: B. Withdrawal symptoms are physiological changes that result from

the body’s not being able to get a drug on which it has depended 15.Answer: D. Alcohol is an example of a depressant. It depresses, or slows down,

the central nervous system

Personality

1. The unique and consistent pattern of behavior, thinking, and feeling that makes up an individual is called personality.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach

2. Sigmund Freud believed that personality is influenced by the ______________ , which is comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that we are unaware of but that still affect our behavior.

a. All of the mental processes a person is aware of at an given moment is called the _____________________ awareness

b. All of them memories and information that are not presently in conscious awareness but can easily be recalled is called the ____________________ awareness

The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, and Superego

3. Freud believed that personality is the result of psychological energy that produces three distinct components of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. The unconscious portion of personality, present at birth, primitive, not affected by values, ethics, or morals is called the ________________

a. The id’s psychological energy comes from two opposing instinctual drives: Eros and Thanatos. The nature of the Eros is to preserve life by alerting an individual to hunger, thirst, and sexuality.

a. Freud believed a person’s sex drive, or libido produces psychological energy.

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b. The death instinct, which is responsible for aggressive and destructive behavior Freud called the Thanatos

c. The id is governed by the ____________________ , which demands immediate gratification- for example a baby that cries until he or she gets taken care of.

b. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the id?

a. The ego is partly conscious and represents the rational, decision-making part of the personality. The ego relies, on the ______________ principle, which, when necessary, delays the demands and the needs of the id until an appropriate time.

c. Emerges at age five or six and represents the internal voice of reason, or the judge and jury of our behavior is called the ________________. A person who does not live up to the expectations of the superego experiences guilt and anxiety.

Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms

4. Freud believed that urges of the id and the demands of the superego could cause conflicts, and that the role of the ego is to mediate such conflicts called “intrapsychic.” In order to reduce this anxiety and protect itself the ego relies on defense mechanisms.

a. Fill out the following chart describing the different types of defense mechanisms:

Defense Mechanism

Definition

______________The exclusion from conscious awareness of a painful, unpleasant, or undesirable memory or urge/ remember suppression is a conscious decision to forget about something

_______________ Providing excuses or explanations to justify thoughts or behaviors_______________ Ascribing or assigning one’s undesirable feelings or thoughts to

others_________________ ________________

When a person behaves that contradicts their actual thoughts

________________ Attempting to turn unacceptable thoughts or actions into socially acceptable behaviors

________________ Shifting anger and hostility to a less threatening target_______________ Trying to make up for unconscious impulses or fears_______________ Not being willing to accept the truth________________ In times of stress, an individual’s reverting to a behavior that is

associated with an earlier stage of development Stages that occur Through Personality Development

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5. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of five distinct psychosexual stages- each associated with an area of pleasure (erogenous zones) in which the unconscious searches for satisfaction. IF the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy the needs associated within a particular stage then _______ occurs, a defense mechanism that occurs when the individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage because his or her needs were either under- or- over-gratified during that stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual stages

6. Identify the milestones and fixations associated with each stage: Oral Stage (birth-1 year old)

Pleasure: associated with mouth areaActivities: putting objects in mouth such as a pacifier, biting toysFixation: oral fixation- compulsion of oral activates in adulthood- smoking, biting nails

Anal Stage (two years old)Pleasure: associated with anal areaActivities: proper toilet training: child learning control over bowelsFixation: anal retentive- obsessive neatness or perfection/ anal expulsive- messiness

Phallic Stage (3-5 years old)Pleasure: associated with genitals (one’s own)

Occurs when the son displays incestuous feelings for his mother and resistance towards his father is referred to the Oedipus complexOn the other hand, the Electra complex occurs when girls question why boys have certain body parts that they do not resulting in incestuous feelings for their father and resentment of their mother.Boys resolve and reduce the anxiety caused by the Oedipus complex and castration anxiety by forming an alliance with their father this result in the defense mechanism of ____________________ which involves imitating the father’s attitudes and values allowing them ___________________ to develop

Latency Stage (late childhood)Sexual feelings lay dormant as boys emphasize same sex friendships and develop social and intellectual skills. Through the defense mechanism of ___________________ the child redirects sexual energy into social and emotional acceptable outlets

Genital Stage (adolescence)Sexual impulses reemerge with emphasis on genitals- theirs and others with the hopes for forming loving, intimate relationships

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___ 1. According to Sigmund Freud, the component of personality that is governed by the pleasure principle, completely unconscious, and comparable to animal-like behavior? *RC: think of "I" like to do whatever "I" like*A) Ego B) Id C) Superego D) Oedipus E) Latency

___ 2. A type of defense mechanism, that involves behaving or thinking in an opposite manner when compared to the truth or true motivation. *RC: think about whey people may laugh during a funeral- they ACT in an opposite way*A) Projection D) Reaction formationB) Rationalization E) Denial C) Displacement

___ 3. Which of the following would be an example of projection? *RC: remember when you project you are displaying your personality onto other people or situations* A) Lacy slams her pen on the table when she gets a poor test score.B) Julie does not admit that she cheated on the test.C) Mario claims that everyone else was cheating on the test.D) Jim laughs right before he is going to find out if he got into college.E) Jimmy accuses his girlfriend of cheating when he's been the one cheating.

___ 4. Rachel begins to cry when she gets pulled over by the police for speeding. This reaction seemed to work when she was an infant in terms of getting her own way. According to Freud, this is an example of which type of defense mechanism? *RC: remember the G stands for Going back*A) Displacement D) CompensationB) Repression E) Rationalization C) Regression

___ 5. During which psychosexual stage does the superego develop as a result of the defense mechanism of identification? *RC: remember when you identify with someone then he or she can teach you right and wrong; you learn to say P-lease in the P-hallic stage*A) Oral B) Latency C) Phallic D) Genital E) Freudian

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The Neo-Freudian View of Personality

Neo-Freudians were followers of Freud who taught and delivered his theories and ideas, but as time went on many neo-Freudians developed their own ideals and viewpoints

Carl Jung1. Carl Jung disagreed with Freud primarily on the role of the libido. He believed that it

was not primarily for sexual interest, but also brings human growth and conflict. He also did not believe in distinct personality stages, but rather a person is either an ____________, someone who prefers privacy and ponders his or her own actions and thinking, or an _______________, someone who receives energy through being active and part of the outside social world.

a. Jung also believed in a collection of past experiences shared by all people that are inherited from ancestors and passed from generation to generation referred to as the ____________________________

b. Jung further believed that the collective unconscious contains _______________- which are generational symbols of perceptual themes and symbols- snake representing evil

Alfred Adler2. Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome inferioriti3es experienced in

childhood. These _______________________stem from our reliance on others (primarily parents) in caring for us when we were not able to care for ourselves. This leads to a desire to be _________________, which results in different personality styles to achieve this.

Karen Horney3. Karen Horney was the first female personality researcher and disagreed with Freud that

women experienced penis envy, but rather social restraints made women feel inferior to men. She believed males experienced womb envy instead. She believed that conflicts within social relationships could result in personality problems. She identified 3 types of personality styles:

a. Moving toward need for approvalb. Moving against demand for controlc. Moving away desire for independence

Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach4. Researchers have given limited support to the psychodynamic perspective with the main

criticism proving the existence and consequent influence of the unconscious. There is little empirical evidence to back up his theory, and since Freud used case studies it is hard to generalize his findings to the population. In addition, Freud’s theory was based on Western European thought not American values.

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Trait Theories5. Internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time, and displayed through

multiple situations are called personality traits. Trait theories predict how people will act or think in most situations.

Type versus Trait6. Traits provide a list, or number, of descriptors (quantitative) that are used to describe a

person, whereas types address whether a person “fits” that particular type, or whether he or she has certain characteristics. Feeling type has the traits: affection, sympathy, and dependability (qualitative)

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory7. Who was one of the first trait theorists to identify traits?

Gordon Allport

a. He grouped the 18,000 traits he identified into 2 groups: central/ source traits and secondary traits/ surface traits. Easily recognized and have a strong influence on personality are called _________________________

b. Traits more specific to certain situations and have less of an effect on personality are called ______________________________

Raymond Cattell8. Raymond Cattell based his research on Gordon Allport’s research and used a

questionnaire that asked people to rate themselves on a number of traits for which ones best described them. He then used a technique which is a mathematical formula that explains how traits are related to one another called a ________________________ . This would show how certain central traits would give rise to certain secondary traits.

a. Through factor analysis, Cattell was able to identify 16 basic personality factors- he verified his findings through a Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Biological Trait Theories

9. Who believed that people inherited certain personality factors and could be described along introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability dimensions?

_______________________________

a. People who were moody and worried were characterized as _________________

b. People who were calm and relaxed were characterized as _________________

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The Big-Five Model of Personality

10. What two researchers believed that Raymond Cattell identified too many traits and Hans Eysenck identified too few and rather used a factor analysis to develop the big-five model of personality?

a. What are the big five traits?

1. __________________ : curious, insightful, imaginative, creative

2. ___________________ : organized, reliable, hardworking

3. _________________ : active, energetic, affectionate

4. __________________ : forgiving, generous, trusting

5. ____________________ : anxious, tense, vulnerable

Evaluation of the Trait Approach

11. The trait theory is good at labeling behavior, but does not explain why a person acts a certain way. This perspective also does not consider how social situations could affect a person’s traits. The big-five is accepted by many, but does fail to show why people possess those traits.

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___ 1. According to Carl Jung, archetypes or universal symbols are contained in the ___________ which is passed from generation to generation for the purpose of assisting in healthy development and pursuit of successful outcomes. *RC: think about a phone that comes equipped with apps already built into the phone that will help you to use your phone*A) Personal unconscious D) Personal fableB) Collective conscious E) Relational informationC) Collective unconscious

___ 2. Which of the following statements would Alfred Adler agree with in terms of personality development? *RC: think of getting two As- that makes you superior*A) James gives up half way through his math test because it is too hard.B) Lacy laughs at a student who fails a test.C) Rich catches up and passes several contestants at the finish line.D) Lucy does not study for 3 midterms because she is lazy.E) Mike can ride his bike with no hands but then falls off.

___ 3. According to Gordon Allport, a person who just gets nervous when he talks in front of people would be displaying which type of trait? *RC: remember on the surface refers to how people act some of the time or dependent on the situation but it is not the source of who they are*A) Cardinal B) Central C) Source D) Surface E) Primary

___ 4. A mathematical formula that is used to show how traits or factors are related; used by Raymond Cattell to establish the 16 personality inventory in called a: *RC: match.com uses a statistical test to show how one trait predicts many traits*A) PPI D) Programmed inventoryB) Tally and Tell E) MMPIC) Factor analysis

___ 5. Which of the following is NOT considered one of the Big 5 source traits? *RC: remember OCEAN or CANOE*A) Extraversion D) OpennessB) Agreeableness E) Neurotic C) Revengeful

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Social-Cognitive ApproachSocial-cognitive theorists believed personality to be the interaction of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors.

Social-Cognitive Theorists

Julian Rotter1. Who believed that people’s expectations shape behavior and personality?

Julian Rotter

a. Those expectations are based on either a person believing he or she could control environmental influences called ______________________________

b. Or a person believing that he or she cannot control environmental factors called _________________________________ like surgery

Albert Bandura

2. Who believed that personality is the result of the interaction between thoughts, behavior, and environmental factors? _______________________ which he referred to as _________________________________

a. Bandura also believed that the expectations that play a role in how a person behaves or acts called _____________ are also very important in how people act.

Evaluation of the Social –Cognitive Approach

3. An advantage of the social-cognitive approach is that it includes cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors. However, it does not include any information pertaining to the unconscious.

Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach explains personality by describing how people differ in terms of self-awareness, creativity, decision-making, and responsibility. A humanistic psychologist believes that all people have an innate or inborn drive that promotes and directs growth and helps them achieve the potential.

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Humanistic Theorists

Carl Rogers4. Carl Rogers developed his theory based on a belief that people have an innate drive that

motivates a person to reach his or her full potential called the ______________________

a. Rogers termed how a person perceives him or herself as their ________________

b. The acceptance of a person for who he or she is/ is called ________________ ____________ which leads to congruence when a person can be him or herself and not worry about trying to impress others with false beliefs or actions- self-concept matches or is congruent with reality. This results in an accurate and healthy self-concept.

c. Rogers believed that conditional love or _______________________ could to an unhealthy self-concept by the person acting in incongruence when self-concept does not match reality. This could occur if a person believed that only when certain conditions are met that love and affection will be shown or given.

Abraham Maslow

5. Abraham Maslow believed the pursuit of fulfilling and realizing one’s potential which he called _______________________________

a. People may lose focus of self-actualization through focusing on materialistic, meaningless goals referred to as deficiency orientation

b. When people focus on what they have, how they perform, and the importance of their achievements they exhibit growth orientation

Evaluation of the Humanistic Perspective

6. The humanistic perspectives see a person as unique, which is based on the importance they place on events and situations. However, some believe that this perspective is too optimistic and naïve by believing that every person is good.

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Assessing Personality

7. Personality tests are either objective (self-report) or subjective (projective tests.)

a. Identify the following characteristics of personality tests:

Type of test

Format Advantage Disadvantage Example

OBJECTIVESelf- report

Multiple-choice/ true-false

Questions can be machine score saves time and money- ensures reliabilityA score for each test can be interpreted by the test-giver, providing a label that people can understand

People can fake responses, answer how they think they should answer, rush through questions, may not understand the questions. maybe cultural bias with the answers

1. NEO-PI measures the big five personality traits2. _________ most widely used personality tests/ 500 TF questions/ originally designed to measure mental health

Type of Test

Format Advantage Disadvantage Example

PROJECTIVE

Unstructured stimuli that are subjective scored

The psychodynamic approach uses projective tests because vague stimuli tend to reveal contents of the unconsciousmaking it hard for a person to fake responses because they don’t know what researcher is asking

Researcher’s subjective interpretation may not accurately describe test takerTests are not reliable as daily emotions play a factor in answers

1. _____________ _______________ developed by Henry Murray- picture scenes to measure need for achievement2. ____________ ______________ developed by Hermann Rorschach- inkblot are described by test taker

Applications of Personality Tests

8. Personality tests are administered for a variety of reasons. Industrial-organizational psychologists, who try to improve work conditions by improving the ways businesses operate and by placing people in the right jobs based on their personality.

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___ 1. Raymond decides to give up trying to study for his AP test; when asked why he commented, what is the point he does not know how the teacher is going to test. According to Julian Rotter, what was the reason why Raymond stopped studying? *RC: remember Ex means extraneous or other factors that determine the outcome*A) Internal locus of control D) Self-actualizationB) Personal inventory E) Self-fulfilling prophecy C) External locus of control

___ 2. According to Albert Bandura, what are the three components of the reciprocal determinism explanation? *RC: think about a person's bad attitude could change the way people act which could result in a distrustful classroom*A) Cognitive, motivation, environmentB) Cognitive, behavioral, parental okC) Behavioral, environmental, sibling inputD) Cognitive, behavioral, environmentalE) Attitude, brains, adjustment

___ 3. According to Carl Rogers, which of the following would demonstrate unconditional love resulting in a healthy self-concept? *RC: remember U are U with Unconditional*A) Larry behaves differently with his friends than he does his family.B) Mitch is afraid to tell his coach he does not want to play soccer any longer.C) Beth feels that her boyfriend will not like her real aspirations in life.D) Rick can tell his mother that he failed a test in class.E) Norman sneaks past his father and out the door.

___ 4. Which type of objective test is comprised of true-false questions originally designed to test abnormal traits? *RC: if you can't think your more honest in your answers*A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) FUN

___ 5. Lindsey was asked to look at a series of inkblots that were supposed to help her understand why she cannot remember certain events from her childhood. Which type of subjective test is Lindsey participating in? *RC: remember if you don't know what you are looking at; you don't know what your expected to report*A) MMPI B) TAT C) OPER D) Rorschach E) Vagueness

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1. Personality is defined as(A) infrequent and often omitted

behavior(B) a unique and consistent

pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

(C)a universally accepted way of viewing behavior

(D)a perception based on past experiences and viewpoints

(E) something that happens by chance or is based on one’s current situation

2. Which of the following individuals developed his personality theory from treating people with symptoms that had no physical causes?(A) Gordon Allport(B) Raymond Cattell(C)B.F. Skinner(D)Sigmund Freud(E) Carl Rogers

3. Sigmund Freud believed that a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are determined by(A) various unconscious

influences(B) the interaction of thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors(C)central and secondary traits(D)self-actualization(E) secondary traits

4. A baby cries hysterically when he or she can’t reach a toy, not stopping until immediate gratification is given by his or her caregiver. Freud would suggest that this child’s immediate gratification is based on the(A) reality principle(B) pleasure principle(C)actualizing tendency(D)moral principle(E) inferiority complex

5. Suzy was tempted to cheat on her exam, but quickly remembered that cheating is wrong and immoral. Freud would say that the thought that cheating was wrong came from the(A) ego(B) id(C) superego(D)collective unconscious(E) unconditional positive regard

she received as a child

6. Will received an “F” on his exam. He quickly pointed out to fellow classmates that certain exam questions were not covered on the review. Will is exhibiting which type of defense mechanism?(A) Compensation(B) Displacement(C)Sublimation(D)Rationalization(E) Regression

7. During which psychosexual stage does the defense

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mechanism of identification emerge, allowing the superego to develop?(A) Anal stage(B) Oral stage(C)Genital stage(D)Phallic stage(E) Latency stage

8. Stan is the youngest in a very competitive family. As a result, Stan often does not get attention or succeed in family activities. Stan’s classmates have noticed that he strives to win at all classroom activities to make himself feel superior to his classmates. Which Neo-Freudian would state that Stan’s competitiveness is in response to his childhood experience?(A) Carl Jung(B) Karen Horney(C)Alfred Adler(D)Erik Erikson(E) Carl Rogers

9. Everyone who knows him describes Tom as a caring person. No matter what the situation, he is always there to offer support to those who need it. According to Gordon Allport,

Tom’s display of caring would be an example of what trait?(A) Stable(B) Central(C)Secondary(D)Preferred(E) Loving type

10. A mathematical formula that is used to describe the relationships among traits is called(A) factor analysis(B) case study(C)naturalistic observation(D)longitudinal study(E) survey

11. The big-five traits: conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism,(A) optimism(B) pessimism(C)openness to experience(D)happiness(E) self-actualization

12. According to Albert Bandura, reciprocal determinism is the interaction of thinking, behavior, and(A) environment(B) verbal skills(C) stability(D)optimism(E) conditions

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13. Carl Rogers said that the ___ is (are) an innate drive that motivates all human behavior toward growth.(A) unconscious(B) central traits(C)actualizing tendency(D)wish fulfillment(E) ego

14. Jane was asked to look at a series of ambiguous pictures and describe what she saw. This would be an example of which

type of personality test?(A) Case study(B) Naturalistic observation(C)Surveys(D)Projective(E) Factored

15. The MMPI is classified as a(n)(A) objective or self-report

inventory test(B) projective test(C)descriptive study(D)interview(E) experiment

1. Answer: B. Personality is a unique pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting and is consistent in various situations

2. Answer: D. Sigmund Freud believed that some people who displayed neurotic disorders did not have physical causes to explain their behaviors. He believed that other factors should be considered such as biological drives and past psychological factors, which also could explain personality development.

3. Answer: A. Freud believed that unconscious processes, the main influence on a person's thoughts and behaviors, were the underlying causes of personality

4. Answer: B. Freud believed that the id operates according to the pleasure principle, which constantly demands gratification

5. Answer: C. Freud defined the superego as the part of personality that tells a person what is or is not acceptable, thus serving as a moral guide

6. Answer: D. Rationalization provides excuses that justify a wrong decision or act to reduce anxiety

7. Answer: D. Freud believed that through resolution of the Oedipus complex in the phallic stage the defense mechanism of identification occurs allowing the superego to develop

8. Answer: C. Alfred Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome childhood inferiorities in order to gain control over their lives

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9. Answer: B. Gordon Allport labeled central traits as the traits most easily noticed by others; these traits are in control of behavior in all situations

10. Answer: A. Factor analysis was used by trait researchers to establish relationships and predictability among traits

11. Answer: C. Openness to experience is the part of the big-five model. This dimension is described as curious, imaginative, and original

12. Answer: A. Albert Bandura believed that personality emerges through a combination of thinking, behavior, and environment

13. Answer: C. Carl Rogers believed that people have an actualizing tendency that is an innate drive that guides behavior resulting in personality

14. Answer: D. In projective tests subjects look at vague stimuli and report their feelings and thoughts

15. Answer: A. The MMPI is most commonly used objective test or self-report inventory tes

Testing and Individual Differences

1. The cognitive abilities (thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) of a person based on his or experiences is called intelligence

Theories of Intelligence

2. Who is considered the father of psychometrics, the measurement of knowledge and ability by using defined tests?

Sir Francis Galtona. What did Galton believe to be credited for intelligence?

Heredity (nature)

b. What was a criticism of Galton’s work?

He only studied males

c. Charles Spearman was the first to use a statistical method to show the relationship between variables to study intelligence, which was called a __________________

d. From this type of method, Spearman believed that there was a single intelligence, which he called __________________ or g factor. If a person was intelligent in one area, then he or she was intelligent in other areas. He also noted that within the g factor there exist specific intelligences, or s factors.

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e. L.L Thurston believed that Charles Spearman oversimplified intelligence and that one type of intelligence was not enough. Thurston believed that each person has sets of independent abilities that each person possesses in varying degrees which he referred to as _______________________________. He believed that each person has 7 PMAs.

f. Who was the first to suggest that were over 180 different types of intellectual abilities and thus challenging Thurston and Spearman? J.P. Guilford

g. Robert Sternberg hypothesized that there were there different types of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical, known as the ______________________________

i. According to Sternberg, a person’s accumulated knowledge gained through education or book smarts is called _______________________ intelligence

ii. The ability to generate novel (new) ideas and solutions is called ___________ intelligence

i. The ability to interact with one’s environment or street smarts is called ______________________ intelligence.

h. Howard Gardner believed that intelligence tests do no show a person’s true cognitive abilities. He believed human beings possess numerous strengths and weaknesses, which he called __________________________ (MI.) These include: linguistic intelligences- learning a new language, logical-mathematical- math and science, musical- playing music, bodily-kinesthetic- physical abilities, spatial- using spatial relations to solve problems, interpersonal- understanding the motives of others, intrapersonal- ability to understand one’s own emotions, and naturalistic- ability to understand the environment.

i. Gardner based his research on people with traumatic brain injures- one who suffers brain damage to a specific area of the brain can still perform other functions of areas not affected, for example those with damage to the Broca’s area may not be able to speak, but can still tie their shoes.

i. The most recent theory, proposed by Salovey and Mayer, popularized by Daniel Goleman suggested that the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of oneself and others, which is referred to as ___________________________, is believed to be the most important type of intelligence leading to success in life.

Influences on Intelligence

3. Kinship studies, or studies of family members, show that identical twins have a strong correlation to genetics and intelligences. Siblings tend to have a moderate correlation. But, adoptive children raised in the same house do also show a moderate correlation lending support to the nurture or environmental argument. One of the most frequently cited studies on

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intelligence the Seattle Longitudinal Study looked at how adult cognitive abilities change over a span of 40 years, which found little change in intelligence scores, unless Alzheimer’s or other brain injury, does support the nature theory of intelligence.

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___ 1. Who believed in a single factor or g factor responsible for overall intelligence? *RC: remember Spearman was the g man*A) Howard Gardner D) Robert SternbergB) Matt Livington E) Nancy FindowC) Charles Spearman

___ 2. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included information that you would use in a math and science course? *RC: remember Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*A) Practical B) Analytical C) Creative D) Interpersonal E) Intrapersonal

___ 3. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included information that you would use for interacting with other people in social situations? *RC: remember Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*A) Creative B) Practical C) Analytical D) Linguistic E) Spatial

___ 4. Who challenged Spearman's theory of intelligence by suggesting that people have multiple and separate types of intelligence; validated with his work with Savants *RC: A garden has multiple and separate items*A) Charles Goosman D) Howard GardnerB) L.L. Thurston E) Maxine Smith C) Robert Sternberg

___ 5. According to Daniel Coleman, which type of emotional intelligence involves being able to read one's own emotions and expressions? *RC: remember everyone gives themselves an A when reading their own emotions*A) Interpersonal B) Intrapersonal C) Spatial D) Creative E) Linguistic

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Testing Intelligence

1. Depending on the situation, an intelligence test can be administered on an individual or a group basis.

Individualized Testing

2. In 1904, Alfred Binet was the first to create a test to measure intelligence to assist the French government in identifying special needs students. He believed that intelligence could be determined by dividing mental age (MA) by chorological age (CA.) ________________ of an individual was based on the number of test questions he or she answered correctly. The problem was chronological age keeps on going up, but mental age may not also go up creating lower intelligence over time. a. In 1912, German psychologist Wilhelm Stern proposed multiplying the score derived from the MA/CA calculation by100. This new formula would be known as the ______________________________ __ (IQ)

b. Lewis Terman, at Stanford University, was responsible for translating Binet’s work into English, creating the __________________________(SBIS) the most widely used intelligence test until David Wechsler created his own.

c. David Wechsler created two intelligence tests for both children and adults known as Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS.) These tests had two separate scales __________, which tested verbal abilities and ______________________, which tested solving problems divided into 7 subtests. Instead of using the SBIS formula to calculate IQ, he compared the individual’s score to the scores of people of the same age known as deviation IQ with most scores falling between 90 and 110.

Aptitude and Achievement Testing

3. Group tests are given to assess either an individual’s readiness to perform at a certain level or an individual’s knowledge of a particular subject. Tests designed to measure a person’s performance potential are called ____________ tests, which examples include SAT, ACT, GRE.

a. Tests designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular area are called __________________________ tests, examples include AP exams.

b. Which tests allows the test taker to dictate the flow of questions, establish greater rapport with the test administrator, but the test maybe more expensive and more time consuming to give, and can only test one person at a time?

Individualized

c. Which tests are easy to administer, scoring is objective, relatively inexpensive, but less rapport with test taker, responses are often too restricted, and the subject can’t dictate the flow of questions?

Group

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Measuring Tests

4. Fill out the following chart on terminology used to measure tests:

Terminology Definition________________________ The tests ability to yield consistent results after repeated

testing/ test-retest- giving a twice and comparing resultsValidity _______________ How well a test measures what it was designed to

measure________________ Information included on the test measures what it is

designed to measure- history test has questions on history__________________ _________________

Ability of a test to predict how well a person will do in the future/ ACT predicts how well you will do in the future

_________________How well the test is designed to measure a specified theory/ the questions were a little font and so those with vision problems may have hard times

_________________________ The process of setting a common standard by comparing one’s score to those attained by a pretested group

Evaluating Intelligence Tests

5. Many factors could affect intelligence tests: cultural, socio-economic status, room temperature, person’s ability to concentrate.

Diversity in Cognition

Creativity

6. The ability to generate novel ideas or products and possibly goes hand-in-hand with intelligence is called creativity

a. To examine the relationship between creativity and intelligence psychologists use to measure a person’s ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem called _________________________ thinking. These people who score high on divergent thinking tests actually score lower on IQ tests.

b. Tests that show how a person narrows down alternatives to a single best solution or answer is called _____________________ thinking, which these people who do well on convergent intelligence tests actually score higher on IQ tests.

Unusual Cognitive Abilities

7. Who was one of the first to use a longitudinal study on giftedness and believed that having a superior IQ, above 135, meant that a person was going to be successful in life?

Lewis Terman

8. Significantly delayed or impaired learning of language or motor skills, and having an IQ below 70 indicated mentally challenged

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a. Fill out the following table:

Level IQ CharacteristicsMild 50-70 Approximately 85% fall within this category

May display few physical symptomsAcademic learning is limited to about 6th grade

Moderate 35-49 Display signs of impaired motor and physical symptomsLive with a caretaker/ Mentally compared to a child of ages 4-7

Severe 20-34 Require constant supervision/ Limited language abilities Significantly impaired motor abilitiesMentally compared to a child between 3 and 4

Profound Below 20

Struggles to feed oneself/ Language is limited to gruntsMay never walk/ Compared mentally to a 3 year old

Factors associated with Mental Retardation

9. Also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra 21st chromosome resulting is mental retardation known as down syndrome. People with this disorder are mostly mildly or moderately retarded.

a. Results in permanent physical and cognitive impairment and is the result of the mother’s consuming alcohol during pregnancy known as fetal alcohol syndrome

b. A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome known as fragile X syndrome

Autism Spectrum Disorder

10. Impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or compulsive behavior, and is one of the fast growing unusual cognitions is called autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a. What three main forms of ASD are there?

Autism, Asperger disorder, & pervasive disorder/ not otherwise specified

b. These children are usually diagnosed between ages of 2-4 and show impairment of social skills and functioning refers to autism

c. These children appear to show no delay in language and communication skills, but they typically display very narrow, yet highly attentive , preoccupations with subjects to the point of obsession describes Asperger’s disorder

d. There are numerous studies that show genetically inherited, lack of mirror neurons, result of certain vaccinations.

Savant Syndrome

2. A person who has cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities that are displayed on a genius level is referred to as savant syndrome. This syndrome has been used to give Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory validation.

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___ 1. Who developed the first type of intelligence test based on his work with French children? *RC: Think about always striving to get an A o a B on your first test*A) Howard Gardner D) Wilhem SternB) Lewis Terman E) Charles SpearmanC) Alfred Binet

___ 2. If a person is 10 years old and scored an 8 on Lewis Terman's Stanford-Binet Intelligence test then according to Wilhelm Stern what would this child's score be: *RC: remember MA divided by CA*A) 8 B) 8.8 C) 5 D) 6 E) 9

___ 3. The two parts of the WAIS test or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale are: *RC: Remember there are age divisions because it gives people a better opportunity to win competing against people their own age- they tend to perform the same*A) Verbal and emotional D) Creative and PracticalB) Verbal and performance E) Verbal and CreativeC) Performance and emotional

___ 4. A teacher decides to give a test a second time later in the school year to measure if the students would get the same scores. This teacher is measuring: *RC: remember if a friend shows up each day on time to pick you up for school then that is a reliable friend*A) Validity D) StandardizationB) Content validity E) Predictive validity C) Reliability

___ 5. Students throughout the county are taking the same test at the same time of the day under uniform conditions; these results will later be used for comparisons with other students who will take the same exam. This process is called: *RC: when a good basketball player leaves a team he or she sets the standard for future basketball players to be compared to* A) Reliability D) Predictive validityB) Split-half reliability E) Standardization C) Content validity

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1. Ava excels in her art class, but has tremendous difficulty in math and English. According to Robert Sternberg, Ava displays what type of intelligence?(A) Analytical(B) Practical(C) Creative(D) General(E) Emotional

2. The psychologist who developed the first modern intelligence test used to help the French government with the placement of special needs students was(A) Charles Spearman(B) Robert Sternberg(C) Howard Gardner(D) Lewis Terman(E) Alfred Binet

3. Anan is taking a final exam in his calculus class. All of the questions on the exam relate to material that was covered over the course of the year. Therefore, the test can be said to display high(A) criterion validity(B) standardization(C) reliability(D) content validity(E) test-retest reliability

4. Garrett scored a 28 the first time he took the college entrance exam. Six months later, he took it again and scored a 29. Because his scores were so close together, the test would be considered to have strong(A) content validity(B) normalization(C) standardization(D) reliability(E) split-half reliability

5. Together with 200 other high school students, Claude is taking a timed test that is said to predict how well a person will do in his or her first semester in college. Claude is most likely taking what type of intelligence test?(A) Individualized(B) Group(C) Motivational(D) Stamina(E) Interest

6. Which of the following best illustrates Spearman’s concept of g?(A) Lisa does well in mathematics,

but poorly in chemistry.(B) Fatima does not know the

capital of her state but can compose music successfully.

(C) Quon is an excellent baseball player who has received a scholarship to play in college.

(D) Sarah has maintained straight A’s throughout high school.

(E) Sammi who is a world class artistic roller skater.

7. Bailee recently took the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and scored one standard deviation above the mean. Bailee would most likely have an IQ of(A) 115(B) 85(C) 130(D) 95(E) 100

8. Mr. Trevor believes that students

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with high IQs are more likely to succeed in life than are those with low IQs. Which psychologist would most likely agree with Mr. Trevor?(A) Daniel Goleman(B) Lewis Terman(C) Robert Sternberg(D) Noam Chomsky(E) Leon Festinger

9. Professor Yanders recently conducted a study that examined the IQs of 1000 different families. He concluded that if parents had high IQs, their children would also have high IQs. Professor Yanders believes in which view of intelligence?(A) Standard(B) Nature(C) Nurture(D) Longitudinal(E) Factoring

10.Jason received a low score on the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) but is capable of navigating his way through a busy city without the assistance of a map. According to Robert Sternberg, Paul displays what type of intelligence?(A) Creativity(B) Analytical(C) Practical(D) Emotional(E) General

11.Which of the following best illustrates the concept of divergent thinking?(A) Mackenzie is good at listening

to other people and helping them with their problems.

(B) Gloria is an excellent softball player who receives a scholarship to play in college.

(C) Tony does extremely well in

school, but has a difficult time making friends.

(D) Richard knows the lyrics of every song he has ever heard.

(E) Ali designs workplace accommodations for the physically impaired.

12.Which of the following is not considered an advantage of individualized intelligence tests?(A) They allow good rapport

between the test taker and the person administering the test.

(B) If a person is having a bad day the test can rescheduled to accommodate extenuating circumstances.

(C) They are cheap and easy to administer to many people at once.

(D) The test taker can help dictate the pace of the test.

(E) If the test taker has a question, he or she can ask the test administrator for clarification.

13.Which of the following would score high on the emotional intelligence scale?(A) Jaelyn can complete crossword

puzzles quickly.(B) Claude is good at interpreting

the emotions of others.(C) Pauline is good at fixing

mechanical machines.(D) Marcus knows how to make

spaghetti.

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(E) Elle has invented a new device to help others learn to read.

14.Who was the first psychologist to propose that intelligence is the result of nature?(A) Robert Sternberg(B) Howard Gardner(C) Charles Spearman(D) Sir Francis Galton(E) Lewis Terman

15.Bailee takes a test on sensation and perception on Friday. She then retakes the same test one month later. The reason why Bailee is taking two administrations of this test is to establish(A) construct validity(B) criterion validity(C) achievement motivation(D) split-half reliability

1. Answer: C. According to Sternberg, a person who excels at creating new ideas and products has a high level of creative intelligence. Analytical intelligence is similar to book smarts, and a person who has a high level of this form of intelligence generally does well on standardized tests. A person who has a high level of practical intelligence displays street smarts, is aware of his or her surroundings, and is able to think quickly to process information

2. Answer: E. Alfred Binet is credited with developing the first modern intelligence test, used to help identify special needs students in France

3. Answer: D. Any test that includes questions that pertain to the subject matter studied is said to have content validity. It is valid to ask an algebra question on an algebra test

4. Answer: D. Tests that yield the same results on different occasions are considered reliable. Since the scores did not very much, could be concluded Garrett’s results would be similar in subsequent tests

5. Answer: B. Group intelligence tests can be administered to a large number of people at the same time. They are the opposite of an individualized intelligence test, which is given in a one-on-one situation

6. Answer: D. Spearman’s concept of g states that those who excel in one area excel equally in other areas. The basic concept is that intelligent people are intelligent in all areas

7. Answer: A. The average IQ for the WISC and WAIS tests are equal to 100, and one standard deviation is equal to 15 points. Therefore, one standard deviation above the mean would be 115, while one standard deviation below the norm would be 85

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8. Answer: B. Lewis Terman believed that students with above-average IQs would be more successful in life than those with average or below-average IQs. This led him to conduct a longitudinal study of 1,500 students with above-average IQs

9. Answer: B. The nature view of intelligence states that IQ is the result of genetics or heredity, and therefore if the biological parents are intelligent, their children will also be intelligent

10.Answer: C. According to Robert Sternberg, there are three types of intelligence: analytical (book/academic smarts), creative (the ability to generate new ideas), and practical (street smarts)

11.Answer: E. Divergent thinking occurs when a person is able to think of multiple solutions to a problem. Convergent thinking happens when a person is able to think of one possible answer

12.Answer: C. Individualized intelligence tests are more expensive and time consuming than group

13.Answer: B. Emotional intelligence ability to interpret emotions of others and manage own emotions

14.Answer: D. Sir Francis Galton conducted the first kinship studies in trying to determine the origins of intelligence. He believed that intelligence is the result of genetics

15. Answer: E. Test-retest reliability is used to measure the reliability of a test administered over two separate occasions. If the test is reliable, the score should remain similar

Motivation, Emotion, & Stress

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Chapter 5

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Theories of Motivation

1. What drives people to do the things they do either from internal or external factors?

2. Which theory of motivation explains motivation through instinctual behavior?

A. What is a not learned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus?

i. Give an example of an instinct:

3. What is the premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems at a constant stable level?

A. Give an example of homeostasis:

4. What is a biological requirement essential for proper bodily functioning?

A. If a need is not being met then what is produced which is a physiological state of tension or arousal that needs to be reduced?

B. According to Clark Hull, which theory of motivation suggest that a person is motivated to reduce a drive through satisfaction of a need that is detected through homeostasis?

i. Give an example:

5. What does curiosity create?

A. Which theory of motivation suggest that people try to maintain a steady or optimum level of arousal through different types of behavioral activities?

i. Give an example of this theory:

6. When do people perform at their best?

A. What does the Yerkes-Dodson law suggest about when a person performs at their best?

7. Which theory of motivation suggest that some types of external stimuli push people to positive stimuli and can also pull people away from negative stimuli

i. Give an example of the incentive theory:

8. Not all motivation can be explained through incentives or biological factors; give an example:

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Humanistic Theories of Motivation

9. Which theory of motivation suggest that people seek to make a positive self-concept and are motivated to reach their potential?

A. What did Humanist believed about potential?

B. Who developed the hierarchy of needs?

C. How is a person motivated to go through the hierarchy of needs?

D. Identify the different levels:

E. What is striving and realization of one’s talent and potential and is at the top of hierarchy of needs?

i. What plays a role in reaching self-actualization?

F. Who suggest that the needs identified in the hierarchy of needs do not need to be satisfied in a particular order?

i . Give an example:


Hunger

10. Is there more to hunger than simply “pangs?”

A. Where are the most important s signals for hunger or satiation?

B. Which hormone is released in response to food moving from the stomach to the bloodstream indicating short-term satiation?

C. Which hormone is released into the bloodstream as fat supplies start to rise indicated long-term satiation?

D. What is the purpose of glucose?

i. What happens when glucose levels drop?

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ii. Which hormone is used to convert glucose to energy?

iii. What happens when insulin levels rise and glucose levels drop?

The Brain’s Role in Hunger

11. Which area of the brain is considered the control center for the brain?

A. Which part of the hypothalamus stops hunger?

i. What happens if the ventromedial hypothalamus is destroyed?

B. Which part of the hypothalamus initiates hunger?

i. What happens if the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed?

ii. Which hormone is produced by the lateral hypothalamus that initiates hunger?

Body Weight

12. What regulates the expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vital function?

A. Identify factors that affect the BMR:

Set Point Theory

13. What is a person’s ideal weight that is maintained through homeostasis and the BMR?

A. What will eventually cause the set point to rise?

i. What happens to fat cells once they are formed?

Obesity

14. What is the measure of a person’s body weight in proportion to his or her height?

A. Define Normal BMI: Overweight: Obese:

B. What do obese people experience?

C. How do external incentives affect people’s hunger?

i. What does the BMI not consider?

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Eating Disorders

15. What is an eating disorder characterized by dramatic drop in calories consumed and an obsession with exercise?

A. What is an eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amounts of food and purging?

Achievement and Motivation

16. What type of motivation is shown by people who are driven to master a task or achieve a personal goal like self-actualization?

A. Which type of motivation occurs when people try to outdo or beat other people and who need recognition?

17. Who was the first psychologists to study people’s need for achievement?

A. How did Murray study achievement needs?

18. Who believed that a person’s level of self-efficacy or level of self-confidence before they face a task is essential to a person’s level of motivation?

A. What is collective self-efficacy?

19. Which theory, according to Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, suggest that people need to be competent- good at something, have autonomy- some control, and relatedness- need to be appreciated in order to perform good at a behavior?

Motivation and Work

20. Which area of psychology applied and studied the psychological concepts to optimize the workplace as an effective and productive environment?

A. Which division addresses worker satisfaction and productivity?

B. Which division matches the right employee to the right job placement?

C. What does theory Y suggest about worker motivation?

D. What does theory X suggest about worker motivation?

E. What refers to a worker who is completely focused on his or her task and is not affected by time or distraction?


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Introduction to Emotions

21. What are emotions based on; identify the 3 parts and give an example?

A. How are emotions different than moods?

Biological Aspects of Emotions

22. Which nervous systems play critical roles in the interpretation of emotions?

A. Which nervous system arouses or excites the body resulting in fight-or-flight response?

i. What does fight produce?

ii. What does flight produce?

iii. How is fight recorded differently than flight?

B. What are polygraphs or lie detectors designed to measure?

i. Do most people agree that polygraphs can indicate whether a person is lying or not?

C. Which hemisphere in the brain is associated with the experience and expression of emotion?

D. Which part of the brain is critical in learning emotions, recognizing emotional expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?

E. Which area of the brain plays a role in the expression of emotion?

i. Which motor system forms voluntary facial expressions?

ii. Which motor system forms natural face expressions?

Theories of Emotion

23. Which theory of emotion suggest that emotion is simply the result of changes or fluctuations in the body?

A. Give an example:

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24. Which theory of emotion suggest that thalamus receive information about emotional stimuli and relays the information simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex?

A. Give an example:

25. Which theory of emotion states that it is the result of the interaction of two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal?

A. Give an example:

26. Which theory of emotion states is the result of cognitive appraisal of a situation and how it may affect their well-being?

A. Give an example:

27. Who suggested that some emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion; we feel before we think- information goes to amygdala before the cerebral cortex?

A. What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about emotion?

28. Which theory of emotion suggests that facial expressions can affect your emotions?

A. What is a criticism of the James-Lange theory of emotion?

B. What is a criticism of the Schechter-Singer theory (Two-factor) of emotion?

C. What is the difference between the cognitive-mediational theory and Schechter-Singer theory of emotion?

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Emotional Expression

29. Who studied facial expressions and when they are displayed? Pain: Smiling: Sadness and anger: Fear:

30. Who believed that facial expressions are universal but how they differ are within their cultures?

A. What are display rules or cultural norms?

B. What is the process of letting another person’s emotional state guide your own behavior?


Introduction to Stress

31. What is characterized by an emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that exceed a person’s ability to control them?

A. Which field of psychology studied how people interpret stressful situations and how the stress affects the body?

i. What 3 factors do health psychologist believe stress affects?

Types of Stress

32. What are stressors?

A. What are minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day?

B. What are events and situations that cause a person’s lifestyle to dramatically change?

i. According to the Readjustment Scale what are the hardest life changes?

Causes of Stress/ Conflicts

33. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 appealing or favorable choices?

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A. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 unfavorable or negative choices?

B. Which type of conflict occurs when a choice has both a good and bad point and is considered the most stressful?

C. What is a multiple approach-avoidance conflict?

34. What occurs when a goal is being blocked?

35. What are extreme demands placed on person to perform or conform?

36. How can stress affect the body indirectly?

Stress and the Body

37. Stress directly affects the endocrine and the nervous system through changes in the body known as fight-flight. Walter Cannon defined this as:

1. Hypothalamus activates-

2. Sympathetic nervous system activates-

3. Adrenal medulla releases-

4. Catecholamine circulate-

38. Who described how stress affected the body through the General Adaptation Syndrome?

A. Which stage is characterized by intense arousal to a threat: fight-or-flight?

B. Which stage is characterized by the body’s fighting the effects of stress through the release of corticosteroids?

C. Which stage is characterized by the body becoming exhausted or sick due to running out of corticosteroids?

39. Describe Hans Seyle’s second endocrine pathway for periods of prolonged stress:

1. Hypothalamus triggers:

2. Pituitary gland triggers release of:

3. ACTH triggers adrenal cortex to release:

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4. Corticosteroids increase release:

The Effects of Stress on the Immune System

40. What protects the body by attacking harmful bacteria and viruses with lymphocytes?

A. What do B lymphocytes do?

B. What do T lymphocytes do?

i. What is the area of psychology that studies how stress affects the psychological, nervous, and the immune system?

Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness

41. Who was an American Psychologist who developed Positive Psychology to help promote wellness and handle stress?

A. What is a sense of control which reduces stress?

B. Who tends to explains negative event through specific explanations?

i. Who tends to explain these events with personal vindication or fault?

C. Who researched the effects of Type A an d Type behavior?

i. Who are type A people?

ii. Who are type B people?

Coping Strategies

42. Who believed in catharsis which is the releasing and displacement of emotional tension; believing it was good to release aggression?

43. What is constructive coping?

A. Problem focused coping involves addressing the problem; confronting.

B.. Emotion-focused coping involves controlling emotions when dealing with a problem.

i. Self-controlling

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ii. Distancing:

iii. Positive reappraisal:

iv. Accept responsibility

vi. Escape/avoidance:

vii: Downward comparison:

44. What do individualistic cultures, like America who are out for themselves, tend to use when confronted with a problem?

A. What do collectivistic cultures, like Amish communities and are out for the good of the group, use when confronted with a problem?


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1. Homeostasis – the maintaining of a balanced internal state in the body (like body temp) /

Drive-reduction theory - needs like water and food not being met produce internal drives

like thirst and water which motivate a person to reduce the drives and satisfy the needs-

needs are monitored through homeostasis/ Instinct theory- automatic, innate response

2. Abraham Maslow - Humanistic Psychology- perspective of psychology that emphasizes a

person’s innate growth and free will through the motivation to reach self-actualization-

reaching fullest potential or being all you can be, (Maslow thought Abraham Lincoln and

Eleanor Roosevelt achieved self-actualization but never met) through addressing and

satisfying levels in the hierarchy of needs – physiological (hunger) first to be satisfied, then

safety, then love, then cognitive, finally self-actualization (very few people ever reach this

level) Clayton Alderfer- did not believe that each level had to be addressed before moving on

as seen with Ghandi- not physiological level to reach self-actualization

3. Optimum arousal theory (Arousal theory) - people are motivated to maintain an optimum

or best level of arousal; explains boredom, boring day you search for something more

exciting at night to make up for boring day/ Yerkes Dodson law of arousal - performance

best when situation offers moderate level of arousal - too boring don’t try, too hard and you

give up

4. Incentive theory - intrinsic motivation- doing tasks for personal reasons or satisfaction /

extrinsic motivation - doing tasks for extra incentives like money, extra credit- over

justification effect- is the result of giving extrinsic motivation for a behavior that was once

intrinsically performed that now is only done if something extra is given like getting paid to

play a sport

5. Industrial-organizational psychology- apply psychological aspects to improve workplace

and employee satisfaction and productivity done through organizational psychology (division

of (I/O) and matching employees with the proper job as administered by personnel

psychology (division of I/O) Theory Y- workers need to be challenged and are best

motivated through intrinsic motivation/ Theory X- workers are lazy and need extrinsic

motivation

6. Competence motivation- need to be best one can be/ Achievement motivation need to

outperform other people measured through the TAT test measured by David McClelland.

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7. Hunger - controlled by Hypothalamus / lateral hypothalamus starts hunger through the

release of the hormone orexin / ventromedial hypothalamus stops hunger / Glucose- sugar

that circulates through body- used for energy, when glucose is low we feel hungry / Insulin

converts glucose to energy- when goes up glucose does down and you get hungry

8. BMR- basal metabolic rate- rate at which body conserves or burn off calories- obese people

that have a BMI (body mass index of greater than 30 is obese and have a higher BMR.)

CCK short term signals for satiation or fullness/ Leptin- based on amount of fat in blood

stream long-term signals for satiation or fullness- leptin resistance- obese people that have

brains that don’t respond to amount of leptin in blood/ Set point theory- body weight is

maintained through homeostasis- ideal weight affects the way the BRM works

9. Theories of Emotion that involve the right hemisphere - William James and Carl Lange-

James-Lange theory- stimulus (seeing a snake) leads to physiological arousal and from this

arousal a person then experiences emotion (like heart beating then experience emotion of

fear); can’t support spinal cord injuries or that a heart can race for a number of emotions

which explains why polygraphs that just measure changes in the body and not a good device

to determine lying for example being nervous same body response as lying / Walter

Cannon/ Philip Bard- Cannon Bard theory- physiological response and interpretation of

stimuli by the brain occur at the same time through the thalamus relaying signals to the

autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex resulting in emotion- a snake causes the body

to show change as brain interprets this as a fearful stimulus at the SAME TIME/ Two-factor

theory- Schechter and Singer- consider more cognitive components and suggest

physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal taking place

“My heart is racing because I am about to take a test” resulting in emotion- often people

mislabel arousal in body, such as loving someone in a scary situation / Richard Lazaras -

cognitive mediational theory; appraisal or the interpretation of a stimuli results in

emotion… the interpretation of leaves starting to blow leads to fear (difference between Two-

factor and cognitive mediational theory is two-factor interprets changes in body and

mediational theory interprets the situation) Robert Zajonic- emotions happen without brain

interpretation; jump which means information goes directly to amygdala- emotional control

center that recognizes face expressions and the proper emotion associated with each/ Zajonic-

information does not first go to cerebral cortex or frontal lobes that interpret information

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10. Stress: Walter Cannon- Fight-or-Flight response- hypothalamus triggers sympathetic nervous

system which causes adrenal medulla to release catecholamine which include hormones

adrenaline and noradrenaline to be released in the body or through the endocrine system and

neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine to be circulated in brain preparing for a

fight or a flight reaction

11. Reacting to Stress: General Adaptation syndrome (Hans Seyle) - Alarm reaction (fight or

flight reaction), Resistance stage (release of stress-related hormones- corticosteroids which

reduce inflammation in body and provide energy to battle stress but reduces lymphocytes or

our white blood cells of the immune system making us more prone to get sick), Exhaustion

stage (body reserves become low and get sick)

12. Types of Stress: Conflicts - approach-approach- choosing between 2 equally like choices/

avoidance-avoidance- choosing between choices don’t like / Approach-avoidance- one item

has good and bad points- most stressful / Multiple approach-avoidance- 2 items have good

and bad points/ Life changes- according to social readjustment scale- parent die for child or

a spouse for adult is considered most stressful

13. Constructive Coping- emotion focused coping- handling emotions associated with a

problem/ problem-focused coping- addressing and fixing problem associated with problem/

Individualistic cultures, such as America who stresses ourselves, use problem-focusing

coping/ and Collectivistic cultures, that stress the good of the group, use emotion-focused

coping

14. Explanatory style- optimistic- give specific reason for outcome- pessimistic- give usual

negative general, vague explanation for outcome, often attack personally for outcome

15. Type A personality- very competitive and impatient prone to coronary heart disease number

1 killer among humans/ Type B- more relaxed

16. Catharsis theory- according to Freud- people must find socially acceptable outlets for

frustration and release pent up aggression or will self-destruct

17. Acculturative stress- stress trying to assimilate to a new culture

18. Biofeedback- being able to consciously control your autonomic nervous system and calm

yourself down

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Motivation Factors that drive individuals to do the things that they do, which include internal and external factors

Motivation makes you want to do something

Instinct theory Motivation occurs through instinctual behavior

Instinct theory simply provides labels but not give any explanation for why motivation is occurring

Instinct An innate, unlearned, and automatic response to a specific stimuli

Geese fly South for the winter in response to colder weather that causes the instinct

Homeostasis The notion that the body monitors and maintains internal physiological systems at a constant and certain level

Similar to a thermostat- the thermostat monitors the air temperature when the temperature becomes too cold the thermostat alerts the furnace to turn on

Need A biological requirement that is necessary for the body to perform at an optimal and desired level

Your body NEEDS food and water to survive

Drive A psychological state of tension or arousal that is produced by a biological need not being satisfied which results in a behavior to reduce the drive

Hunger is a DRIVE that DRIVES you to get food which is a NEED that your body NEEDS

Drive-reduction theory

Motivation is based on performing behaviors that reduce drives produced from needs not being met

The NEED for water DRIVES (or motivates) you to get out of bed thus reducing the DRIVE and satisfying the NEED

Arousal The result of several heightened physiological states within the body that include heartbeat, breathing

Arousal is excitement- we are motivated to do FUN things

Optimum arousal theory

Motivation is based on people trying participating in certain activities that help to maintain a steady or optimum level of arousal within their body

Having a boring day you are MOTIVATED to go out that night and have FUN/ have an exhausting day you are MOTIVATED to do nothing that night/ thus EQUALLING out your day

Yerkes-Dodson law

People perform best in an activity when the task is moderate or fair; not too hard or not too easy

Fair is another way to describe the Yerkes- Dodson law- if the assignment or game is fair you will try your best/ too easy don’t put in your best effort/ too hard and you give up before even trying

Incentive theories Positive or favorable incentives motivate people to perform the activity; while negative incentives push people away

Incentives are extra things- extra credit PUSHES you to do it/ while detentions PUSH you away from coming to school late


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___ 1. An unlearned innate and automatic response to a specific stimulus.

A) Optimum arousal theory

___ 2. The premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems at a constant level.

B) Physical

___ 3. A motivational theory that suggests that motivation is based on the desire to reduce internal tension within the body that is caused by biological needs not being met as indicated by homeostasis.

C) Homeostasis

___ 4. A motivational theory that suggests people try to maintain a steady or optimum level of arousal or excitement through various behavioral activities.

D) Incentive theory

___ 5. The suggestion that difficult tasks cause arousal to be lower and easy tasks cause arousal to be higher maintaining that the right amount of arousal people will perform their best.

E) Humanistic perspective

___ 6. Getting a bonus for working hard would be an example of which motivational theory.

F) Drive-reduction theory

___ 7. A perspective of psychology that suggest that people seek to build a positive self-concept and are motivated to fulfill their potential.

G) Yerkes-Dodson law

___ 8. Abraham Maslow suggested that people are motivated to satisfy each level of the hierarchy of needs in order to preach their full potential which he referred to as:

H) Altruism

___ 9. Some people are motivated to be of service of others because it makes them feel good.

I) Self-actualization

___ 10. According to Abraham Maslow, ____________ needs must be satisfied before psychological needs.

J) Instinct

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CCK A hormone that is released when food moves from the stomach into the bloodstream that signals to the brain short-term satiation or fullness

CCK is a very short word just like short-term signals of satiation/ CCK is what makes you put the fork down and state you can’t eat anymore

Leptin A hormone that is released into the bloodstream as the fat content begins to increase signaling to the brain satiation

L for leptin L for long-term satiation/ eat a fatty meal you are going to be full for most of the day

Glucose Sugar that the body uses for energy

Like gasoline that makes car run- run out of gas car will stop running/ eat a snickers bar and satisfy your hunger

Insulin A hormone that is used to convert glucose to energy; when insulin rises the glucose decreases signaling hunger

Similar to a person (insulin) shoveling coal or sugar into the fire to make it burn

Ventromedial hypothalamus

Area of the hypothalamus that stops hunger

Lateral hypothalamus

Area of the hypothalamus that imitates or starts hunger

L for lateral/ L for Let’s EAT

Orexin A hormone produced by the lateral hypothalamus that initiates hunger

Oreo (orexin) cookies make you hungry

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Oversees and regulates the use or expenditure of energy used to maintain the body’s vital functions

Women have a slower BMRAs you get older BMR slows downObese people have a higher BMR

Set point theory of hunger

The maintaining of a person’s ideal weight through increases or decreases in the BMR that is monitored by homeostasis

Go above your set point your BMR will burn calories to bring you back/ go below your set point the BMR shuts down until you get back- which is why you don’t eat you will actually gain weight

BMI (body mass index)

A person’s weight in relation to their height; a score of over 30 indicates obese

The BMI does not consider bone density or muscle mass which is why may not be entirely accurate

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Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder that includes an obsession with one’s weight, vigorous exercise, and caloric intake

Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by a binge-and-purge method of maintaining an unhealthy body weight

Competence motivation (need motivation)

A desire or motivation to master or excel at a task or personal goal

“I want to be the best I CAN BE”

Achievement motivation

The desire or motivation to outperform other people

“I want to be the smartest person in the CLASS”

Self-determination theory

According to Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, the need for competence- being good at something, autonomy- a sense of control, and relatedness- need to belong and appreciate- motivate a person to perform a behavior.

What determines you are the best?Being good at something (competence)Knowing you have done it on your own (autonomy)Other people know how good you are (relatedness)

Thematic apperception test (TAT)

According to David McCelland, the TAT, which has a person tell a story of a scene he or she sees, measures a person’s level for achievement motivation

You see a picture of a person falling down before the finish line- do you say the person should get up or do you think the person should rest

Self-efficacy beliefs According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs involve a person’s confidence at completing or doing a task

Similar to the Little Engine that Could- “I think I can, I think I can”

Collectivistic self-efficacy

A person’s overall support system when performing or completing tasks

The people in the crowd cheering you during the game

Industrial-organizational psychology (I/O)

Area of psychology that applies psychological concepts and ideals to optimize or improve the work place

Personnel psychology

A division of I/O psychology that attempts to match the right job with the right employee

The person who decides whether or not you get the job- the person who hires you

Organizational psychology

A division of I/O that addresses worker satisfaction and performance at their job

The person who trains and offers support while you are on the job

Intrinsic Motivation to achieve a personal I for Intrinsic- “I want to be the best

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motivation goal or self-satisfaction for mastery

I can” (competence motivation)

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation to achieve an external or outside reward for performing a task

Ex for Extrinsic Ex for extra things “I will only work hard if I get EXTRA things”

Theory Y Workers motivated to work through intrinsic motivation

Y for “Y do I work hard because I want to be the best employee”

Theory X Workers motivated to work through extrinsic motivation

X for extra “I only work hard for Xtra things like pay raises”

Hawthorne effect

Tendency for individual to perform better when singled out or given special attention

Similar to giving a student’s stickers resulting in working harder to get more stickers

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___ 1. A hormone when released acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain signaling short-term satiation.

A) Competence (need) motivation

___ 2. A hormone that is released in response to the amount of fat be secreted into the bloodstream signaling long-term satiation.

B) Set point theory

___ 3. A hormone that converts glucose into energy causing glucose levels to drop signifying hunger.

C) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

___ 4. An area of the hypothalamus that is in charge of stopping hunger.

D) Lateral hypothalamus

___ 5. An area of the hypothalamus that initiates hunger.

E) Self-efficacy

___ 6. Regulates the expenditure and conversion of energy used to maintain our body's vital life functions.

F) Ventromedial hypothalamus

___ 7. A person's ideal weight regulated by homeostasis and maintained by the BMR.

G) CCK

___ 8. A type of motivation that is shown by people who are driven to master a task or achieve a personal goal.

H) Theory X

___ 9. According to Albert Bandura, a person's level of confidence when facing a task.

I) Leptin

___ 10. According to an Industrial-organizational psychologist, a theory that describes workers who are motivated to achieve external factors like a pay-raise.

J) Insulin


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Emotions Comprised of cognitive appraisal- interpretation and thoughts, physiological reactions- body reactions, and expressive behaviors.

Interpret a part of a movie as funny (cognitive) start to feel good (physiological) then start to laugh (expressive behavior)

Fight-or-flight response

A body’s response to a threatening stimuli through activation of the sympathetic nervous system

When you are in danger you will either fight or run away (flight)

Galvanic skin response

Measures skin temperature that could indicate certain emotions

Nervous you get COLD feet/ Angry you get HOT under collar

Polygraph (lie detectors)

Machines that measure body fluctuations within a person that could indicate whether or not a person is lying

Simply measures changes in the sympathetic nervous system not if you are lying or not

Amygdala A part of the brain that recognizes emotional facial expressions and interprets emotional stimuli

Never make Amy mad- she is very emotional

Cerebral cortex A part of the brain central for the expression of emotion

Similar to the CPU of a computer

Right hemisphere

Area of the brain associated with the expression and experience of emotion

Right hemisphere allows you to display the RIGHT emotion- funny movie you laugh

James-Lange theory of emotion

Emotion result of interpreting changes that occur in the body

James will not laugh unless Lange tells him to laugh

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Emotions are result of thalamus relaying information to the cerebral cortex, which interprets emotional stimuli, while at same moment information is sent to the automatic nervous system, which initiates changes in the body

Cannon and Bard start to laugh at the SAME TIME

Two-factor theory of emotion (Schechter-Singer theory)

Emotions are the result of two factors: a cognitive label, which labels a change in the body, and the change in the body that occurs.

Some people misinterpret the change in body/ Going to prom causes changes in body but you believe these changes are from your date

Cognitive Emotions are the result of a cognitive This is interpretation of the

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mediational theory

appraisal or interpretation of a stimuli or event

situation NOT a change in your body/ door slams shut and you interpret this as scary

Facial feedback hypothesis

Certain facial expressions will cause you to feel certain emotions

If you simply smile you feel happy

Display rules Cultural norms affect expression and intensity of emotions

You don’t laugh at funerals

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___ 1. A division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and produces the fight-or-flight syndrome.

A) Autonomic nervous system

___ 2. The hemisphere that is associated with the expression of emotions.

B) Display rules

___ 3. An area of the brain that is critical for learning emotions, recognizing emotional expression, and the interpretation of emotional stimuli.

C) Cannon-Bard theory

___ 4. Polygraphs do not necessary measure if a person is lying but overall changes in which nervous system?

D) Cognitive mediational theory

___ 5. A theory of emotion that suggests emotion is the result of the interpretation of bodily fluctuations.

E) Amygdala

___ 6. A theory of emotion that suggests emotions are the result of the thalamus receiving information about emotional stimuli and relaying the information simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and the cerebral cortex.

F) Two-factory theory/ Schechter-Singer theory

___ 7. A theory of emotion that suggests emotion is the result of the interaction of two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains this fluctuation in the body.

G) Pain

___ 8. A theory of emotion that suggests emotions are the result of the cognitive appraisal of a situation and how it affects their well-being.

H) James-Lange theory

___ 9. According to Carroll Izard what facial expression is present at birth?

I) Sympathetic nervous system

___ 10. Refers to cultural norms and how emotions should be displayed.

J) Right


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Stress An emotional response to circumstances or situations that exceed a person’s ability to cope

Stress occurs when your routine is disrupted or changed

Health psychologists Study how people interpret stressful situations and the effect stress has on the body

These are people that counsel people have a heart-attack or stroke to help them live healthier lives

Stressors Circumstances, events, or situations that cause stress

Traffic jams

Daily hassles Minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day

Life changes Events and situations that a cause a person’ life to dramatically change as shown on the Social Readjustment Scale; death of spouse/parent most stressful

Approach-approach conflict

Having to make a choice between two appealing items or choices

Choosing between 2 movies you want to rent but only have money for one

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Having to make a choice between two non-appealing items or choices

Not liking math classes but having to choose one to graduate

Approach-avoidance conflict

A choice that has both positive and negative characteristics; considered the most stressful

Most realistic- an option usually has positive and negative points

Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict

Two choices that have both positive and negative characteristics

Frustration Occurs when a goal is blocked from either losing or failure

Pressure Extreme demands place on a person to perform or conform

Flight-or-flight syndrome

Hypothalamus triggers the sympathetic nervous system to activate adrenal medulla to release catecholamine’s, which include the hormones noradrenaline and adrenaline and neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine that increase blood pressure, respiration, slows down digestion, dilates pupils

S for Sympathetic S for speeds upRemember CATS are very quick just like catecholamine’s that race through body making you excited

Occurs when you first realize bad news- your body responds before you really understand what happen

Prolonged stress Hypothalamus triggers the Pituitary gland is like a drippy

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pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to trigger the adrenal cortex to release the stress hormones corticosteroids that release stored energy

faucet- the drip is very slow but does continue to drip throughout the day like having a stressful weak

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

According to Hans Seyle, a person goes through three stages of stress: alarm stage- characterized by release of catecholamine’s in the fight-or-flight syndrome/ resistive stage- body trying to cope with the effects of stress through releasing corticosteroids/ and exhaustive stage- when body becomes burned out or exhausted resulting in sickness

ARE you stressed?

A for Alarm stageR for Resistance stageE for Exhaustive stage

Psychoneuroimmunology

A field that examines the connections between psychological, nervous systems, and the immune system in relation to stress

Lymphocytes Battle harmful bacteria and viruses

Perceived control More control over a situation the less stress a person experiences

Optimistic explanatory style

Explaining negative events through specific explanations

O for optimistic/ O for there must be a reason why the outcome occurred

Pessimistic explanatory style

Explaining negative events through personal faults

P for pessimistic/ P for personal reason

Type A behavior Characterized by aggressive, competitive, and impatient behavior; often leads to coronary heart disease

A for angry person

Type B behavior A more relaxed type of behavior B for B relaxed

Catharsis According to Sigmund Freud, the releasing or displacement of emotional aggression and tension

Going and working out after a bad day

Problem-focused coping

Coping strategies that emphasize addressing the problem

Addressing the PROBLEM- switching classes because you don’t like a fellow student

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Emotion-focused coping

Coping strategies that address negative emotions associated with a specific problem

Addressing the EMOTIONS connected with the problem- not getting mad when you see a certain individual

Individualistic cultures

Cultures, like America, that emphasize the individual and utilize problem-focused coping

Americans will usually go and tell a person their feelings for that person

Collectivistic cultures

Cultures, like tribal cultures, that focus on the group, and utilize emotion-focused coping

Collectivistic cultures consider the group before speaking their dislike for a person

Acculturative stress Stress that occurs for people trying to assimilate into a new culture

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___ 1. A type of conflict when a person has to choose between two appealing choices.

A) Catecholamine

___ 2. A type of conflict considered the most stressful as one alternative has both positive and negative characteristics.

B) Catharsis

___ 3. According to Walter Cannon, during flight-or-flight syndrome the hypothalamus causes the sympathetic nervous system to activate the:

C) General adaptation syndrome

___ 4. A group of hormones when circulating in the bloodstream increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils to dilate and digestion to slow down.

D) Alarm stage

___ 5. According to Hans Selye, refers to how stress affects the body in three stages.

E) Approach-approach conflict

___ 6. The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that is characterized by the flight-or-fight syndrome through the release of catecholamine.

F) Corticosteroids

___ 7. According to Hans Seyle, during prolonged periods of stress the body releases ________ that increases stored energy but reduce the immune system; occurs during the resistive stage of the general adaptation syndrome

G) Type A behavior

___ 8. A type of behavior described by Meyer and Friedman that is described as impatient, competitive, and prone to heart disease.

H) Approach-avoidance conflict

___ 9. According to Sigmund Freud, the releasing and displacement of emotional tension through various positive outlets.

I) Problem-focused coping

___ 10. A type of constructive coping that addresses the problem and conflicts associated with the problem.

J) Adrenal medulla

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Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”

Instinct theory Automatic Instinct Innate, fixed

Homeostasis Maintaining Need Biological

Drive Tension Arousal Curiosity

Optimum arousal theory

Boredom Yerkes-Dodson law Equal, fair competition

Altruism Generous Incentive theory Something extra

Humanistic theory Innate, potential Hierarchy of needs Stair steps

Self-actualization The best CCK hormone Short-term satiation

Leptin hormone Fat, long-term Glucose Sugar, energy

Insulin Breaks down glucose Ventromedial hypothalamus

Stops hunger

Lateral hypothalamus

Starts hunger BMR Burns conserves calories

Set point theory Ideal weight BMI Obese 30

Leptin resistance No effect on brain Competence motivation

Be good at something

Achievement motivation

Beat others Thematic apperception test

Achievement, ambiguous scene

Self-efficacy Confidence Collective self-efficacy

Support system

Industrial-organizational

Work, better worker Theory Y I want to be the best employee

Theory X Xtra things Right hemisphere Emotion expression

Amygdala Recognizing emotions Cerebral cortex Expression of emotion

James/Lange theory

Change in body Cannon-Bard theory

Simultaneously brain and body

Two-factor theory Body + cognitive label Cognitive mediational theory

Appraise situation

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Display rules Cultural norms of emotion

Health psychologists

Study stress- effects

Approach-approach

Two appealing choices Avoidance-avoidance

Two negative choices

Fight-or-flight Catecholamine Norepinephrine NT arouses brain

General adaption syndrome (Seyle)

Alarm- arouseResistive- fightExhaustive- sick

Corticosteroids Battle stress

T lymphocytes Attach viruses B lymphocytes Fight bacteria

Martin Seligman Positive psychology Optimistic Give a reason

Pessimistic Blame themselves Type A anger

Type B Relaxed Problem focused Americans, Individualistic

Emotion focused Manage emotions Catharsis Blow off some steam

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Abnormal PsychologyChapter 11

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Introduction to Psychological Disorders

1. What is the focus of psychopathology?

A. How is a psychological disorder defined?

B. What is a psychological disorder that is usually distressing but allows one to think rationally and function socially?

C. What is a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality; experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions?

Explaining Disorders

2. Who was a French physician that worked to reform the treatments of people with mental disorders?

A. What disease changed the focus to the brain for mental disorders?

B. Who worked to improve mental health facilities in America?

3. Which model believes that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed and cured?

A. Which model focuses on psychological reasons for disorders?

B. Which model addresses disorders in relation to gender, age, ethnicity, and social factors?

C. What is the diathesis-stress model?

Classifying Disorders

4. What refers to the American Psychiatrics’ Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which is the most widely used system for classifying psychological disorders through providing common language to identify, classify, and treat psychological disorders?

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Anxiety Disorders

5. What are the symptoms of an anxiety disorder?

Types of Anxiety Disorders

6. What is free-floating anxiety characterized by disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained feelings of apprehension, and tenseness?

A. What is characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic attacks- intense breathing, high heart-rate, and trembling?

B. What is a phobia?

i. What is extreme fear of social situations?

ii. What is a fear of leaving a place or open spaces?

iii. What is a specific phobia?

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

7. How is obsessive-compulsive disorder described?

A. What involves compulsively collecting of many different things without difficulty letting go of these items?

B. What is a preoccupation with flaws in one’s body; often associated with anorexia?

C. What refers to skin picking to the point of causing damage?

D. What refers to compulsively pulling out their hair?

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Related Disorders

8. How is posttraumatic disorder classified?

A. What refers people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and become emotionally withdrawn?

B. What occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life which could disrupt routines?

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C. What occurs when a person experiences distress an anxiety following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury?

i. What is the difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD?

Causes of Anxiety Disorders

9. Identify some of the causes of anxiety disorders:

A. Heredity

B. Brain function:

C. Heightened:

D. Neurotransmission:

E. Emotion center:

F. Evolution:

G. Learning:


Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

10. How would you classify a somatic disorder?

A. What involves strong, unjustified fear of having physical illness or belief they are getting sick?

i. What is the difference between illness anxiety disorder and hypochondriacs?

B. What occurs where there are numerous physical and complaints without verifiable physical illness?

C. What is a conversion disorder?

Dissociative Disorders

11. How are dissociative disorders classified?

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A. What is characterized by a loss of memory in reaction to a traumatic event?

B. What was referred to multiple personality disorder- a rare and controversial dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or more distinct and alternating personalities?

Causes of Dissociative Disorders

12. What can dissociative disorders be linked to?

Depressive Disorders

13. How are depressive disorders classified?

A. Which mood disorder is characterized when a person for no apparent reason experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods, diminished interest in activities, and feelings of worthlessness?

B. Which disorder has symptoms similar to major depression but less severe and could last for over two years?

Bipolar and Related Disorders

14. How is bipolar I disorder classified?

A. Which disorder has less severe symptoms of mania called hypomania?

B. What is a less severe case of bipolar?

C. Which type of mood disorder is characterized by depression that is triggered by a back of light especially in the winter months?

Causes of Mood Disorders

15. Identify the causes of mood disorders:

A. Heredity:

B. Brain function:

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C. Neurotransmission:

D. Social-cognitive factors:


Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

16. How is schizophrenia diagnosed?

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

17. What are neologisms and word salad?

A. What is the inability to move and to hold body limbs in rigid positions for long periods of time; referred to waxy flexibility?

B. What are false beliefs?

i. What are delusions of grandeur?

ii. What are delusions of persecution?

iii. What are delusions of sin or guilt?

iv. What are delusions of influence?

C. What are false sensory perceptions with auditory being the most common?

18. What are examples of positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

A. Which symptoms include an absence of pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no emotion at all?

Causes of Schizophrenia

19. Identify the causes of schizophrenia:

A. Genetics:

B. Brain structure:

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C. Neurotransmission:

D. Prenatal viruses:

E. Age of Father:


Personality Disorders

20. How are personality disorders classified?

Personality Disorders: Odd-Eccentric Cluster A

21. Define paranoid personality disorder:

A. Schizoid personality disorder:

B. Schizotypal personality disorder:

Personality Disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B

22. Define Borderline personality disorder:

A. Antisocial personality disorder:

B. Narcissistic personality disorder:

C. Histrionic personality disorder:

Personality Disorders: Anxious Fearful Cluster C

23. Define avoidant personality disorder:

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A. Dependent personality disorder:

B. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder:

Childhood Disorders- Externalizing or under controlled category

24. Which disorder mostly in boys shows a stable pattern of aggression, disobedience, and other problematic behaviors?

A. What is ADHD?

Internalizing or over controlled category

25. What refers to constantly worrying about being lost, kidnapped, or harm caused by a parent?

26. Which are not externalizing or internalizing disorders but show severe problems in communication an impaired social relationships?

A. Give two examples:

B. Which is a less severe type on the autistic spectrum that shows high cognitive functioning, impaired social relationships and engage in repetitive behaviors like memorizing?


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1. Philip Pinel demonstrated through syphilis that some disorders could have physical

origins/ negative criticism of labeling people with disorders can sometimes lead to self-

fulfilling prophecy- living up to expectations or label/ Deviant behavior being different

from most people within a culture/ Etiology- refers to finding possible causes that

contribute to psychological disorders

2. Anxiety disorders - feelings of nervousness and apprehension / Generalized anxiety

disorder - anxiety about generally everything / Panic disorder – unexplainable panic

attacks / Phobia - irrational fear- most common agoraphobia- fear of open places never

leaving home / Causes of anxiety disorders: high activity in Frontal lobe and Amygdala

shows a lack of GABA- neurotransmitter for slowing down brain activity and high

activity of neurotransmitter norepinephrine- in charge of arousal

3. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder – obsessions are thoughts, compulsions are

actions to relieve or distract thoughts / hoarding, body dysmorphic disorder, excoriation

4. Post-traumatic-stress and related disorder- reoccurring memory that interrupts daily

functioning / acute stress disorder, reactive disorder, adjustment disorder

5. Mood disorders - Major-depressive disorder - major depression for at least 2 weeks-

very severe often requires intervention / Persistent depressive disorder- milder form of

depression, can usually perform daily routines but can last year’s / Bipolar disorder -

extremes of altering between mania and depression / Bipolar 1 – manic phase you could

be a harm to yourself or others, requires hospitalization / Bipolar 2- depression with

hypomania (milder form of mania) / Cyclothymic disorder- similar to dysthymic for

depression, less extreme bipolar / Causes of mood disorders: for depression less activity

in Frontal lobe and neurotransmitters serotonin (too little for depression) norepinephrine

(too little for depression) and opposite for manic as well as low levels of dopamine-

pleasure

6. Dissociative disorders - self has become dissociated or separated from previous memories

and identity / Dissociative amnesia - loss of a certain memory or part of life due to a

traumatic event / Dissociative identity disorder - two or more distinct personalities not

aware of one another/ Causes could include repression of latent material or traumatic

episodes

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7. Somatic Symptom and related disorders - symptoms not due to physical reasons / /

Conversion disorder- anxiety or stress is converted in a loss of physical functioning or

sensory system- blindness due to traumatic event

8. Schizophrenia- psychotic- can’t distinguish between reality and fiction - positive

symptoms: addition of delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false sensory awareness-

auditory being most common) and disorganized thinking / Negative symptoms - loss of

cognitive abilities: (word salad language does not make sense often use neologisms-

made up words) and emotions- flat affect- no emotion/ Causes of schizophrenia: large

fluid-filled spaces (ventricles); smaller Thalamus; frontal lobe- slower thinking; more

receptor sites and over production of Dopamine / Prenatal viruses during pregnancy

9. Personality disorders - inflexible and lasting behavior / Anxiety related: Avoidant

personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected/ Dependent personality disorder-

very clingy/ Odd related: Paranoid personality disorder- distrust others/ Schizoid

personality disorder- hermits- no social relationships/ Schizotypal- other people avoid

because very odd- Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions and behavior/

Antisocial personality- lack of conscious may develop from conduct disorders in

childhood/ Narcissistic- preoccupation with importance of oneself not considering others

10. DSM-V- manual that provides classifications and techniques for treating disorders- made

by many professionals so everybody will be on the same page and allows for

understanding and proper treatment of a disorder / can stigmatize person when given a

label of a particular disorder Explaining disorders: Diathesis-stress model- suggests that

disorders are the result of genetics (diathesis) and how much stress a person encounters

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Psychopathology The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders

Mental disorder Characterized by deviant, maladaptive, or harmful behaviors that often disrupt thinking, feelings, and behavior

Deviant behavior Being different from behavior of most people in a particular culture

Deviate means to be different

Medical model (neurobiological model)

Suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses that have specific symptoms that must be medically treated

Etiology The process of investigating all possible causes and factors that may contribute to the onset of a psychological disorder

Biopsychosocial model Mental disorders are the combination of biological, psychological and social factors

Diathesis-stress approach/ model

Stress experienced in the environment may trigger genetic predispositions to develop a preexisting psychological disorder

Nature vs. nurture

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

A manual that provides psychologists with a common way to classify and organize mental disorders (DSM-V is the latest edition)

Anxiety Characterized by worrying, apprehension, and increased physical arousal within the body

Anxiety disorder Characterized by feelings of extreme apprehension that often disrupts daily routines and functioning

Phobias Type of anxiety disorder where a person has an irrational fear of an object or situation that should not cause that type of fear

Generalized anxiety disorder

Type of anxiety disorder that includes moderate anxiety that is persistent for a long period of time and not connected to any particular object or situation

Generally have fear about everything

Panic disorder Type of anxiety disorder that involves sudden bouts or occurrences of panic attacks that include rapid heart rate, heavy breathing, and sometime fainting

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Agoraphobia A fear of open spaces that may arise from a fear of having a panic attack in public resulting in staying at home

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that can lead to ritualistic types of behavior (compulsions))

Hoarding An OCD involves compulsive collecting of many different types of things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go of those objects

Body dysmorphic disorder

An OCD preoccupation with flaws in one’s body. This involves continuously observing one’s body and obsession with one’s appearance with comparisons to other people’s body. This is often associated with anorexia but can include other body issues such as feeling one is not muscular or premature blading even though others do not notice.

Exoriation An OCD, referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of causing damage to one’s body

Trichotillomania An OCD, that occurs when a person compulsively pulls their hair from their body to the point of causing bald spots often focusing on eyelashes or eyebrows

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Symptoms of anxiety in response to physical or psychological trauma often leading to avoiding similar situations or stimuli

Reactive attachment disorder

A PTSD that involves people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and as result become emotionally withdrawn from inability to form a secure attachment

Adjustment disorder A PTSD that occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life, which could disrupt routines and making progressive changes

Acute stress disorder A PTSD that occurs when a person experiences distress and anxiety following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury. The onset of the symptoms for acute stress disorder occurs two days to four weeks after the trauma whereas a difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not diagnosed until four weeks after the traumatic event has occurred.

External locus of control

People who believe they have no control over their situations that could lead to learned helplessness or giving up in various situations

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___ 1. Early 1800s Philip Pinel was able to demonstrate that mental illnesses were not the result of demonic possession which led to _________ the belief that illnesses have physical causes.

A) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

___ 2. A model that suggests the amount and type of stress play a crucial role in triggering genetic predispositions to certain psychological disorders.

B) Agoraphobia

___ 3. A manual used by psychologists, which provides common language with the identifying and diagnosing of mental disorders.

C) Medical model

___ 4. An OCD related disorder that involves collecting many different types of things with difficulty of discarding.

D) GABA

___ 5. An irrational fear of open places that could be a result of the fear of having a panic attack.

E) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-V)

___ 6. Mild anxiety that is not specifically connected to any particular object or situations and is long-lasting.

F) Generalized anxiety disorder

___ 7. Involves repetitive thoughts that often lead to ritualistic and repetitive behaviors.

G) Diathesis-stress model

___ 8. Anxiety that is in response to physical or psychological trauma that is affecting the way one presently acts or thinks.

H) Hoarding

___ 9. A neurotransmitter that is lined to arousal and tends to be overactive in people experiencing anxiety disorders.

I) Obsessive-compulsive behavior (OCD)

___ 10. A neurotransmitter that inhibits or slows down brain activity and tends to in undersupply with people who experience anxiety disorders.

J) Norepinephrine

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Somatic Symptom and Related disorders

People who experience psychological problems or disturbances associated with physical ailments that have no physical origin or cause/ Soma means body

Conversion disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder)

Type of somatic disorder where a person converts psychological problems into physical problems such as sensory and motor failure , sudden blindness or deafness, paralyzed limbs; that have no identifiable physical cause

Illness anxiety disorder Type of somatic disorder that involves perceptual fear that one has acquired a disorder. People with this disorder analyze the slightest changes in their bodies and will frequent doctors to confirm their beliefs

Somatic symptom disorder Type of somatic disorder where people report multiple physical ailments rather than an isolated problem or condition

Dissociative amnesia Sudden memory loss associated with a specific event or period of their life

Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder)

Person exhibits more than one personality that includes an unique style of thinking, speaking, and acting

Major depressive disorder- unipolar

Extreme feelings of depression that may last for weeks or months

Persistent depressive disorder

Lesser intense depression that lasts for a longer duration when compared to major depression

Bipolar disorder (formerly manic-depressive disorder)

Alternating between periods of deep depression and mania, which is characterized by an energetic, optimistic, impulsivity, and often the belief anything can be done

Bipolar II disorder Alternating major depressive period with periods of hypomania- a lesser intense or severe manic episode

Cyclothymic disorder Alternating periods of depression and mania, but of lesser severe or intensity when compared to bipolar disorder

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Depression associated with winter months, especially the absence of sunlight, may cause problems in the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Release of melatonin mellows a person

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Considered a depressive disorder in children who display continuous irritability and frequent temper tantrums

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Learned helplessness According to Marin Seligman, when someone is not successful after repeated attempts then often a giving up or quitting occurs, which may lead to symptoms associated with depression

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___ 1. Type of somatic disorder, where a person experiences sensory ad motor failure that may include blindness, deafness, or paralyzed limbs with no identifiable cause.

A) Bipolar disorder

___ 2. A person experiences sudden memory loss of present life; dissociates from their memory.

B) Dissociative amnesia

___ 3. Which defense mechanism maybe used to explain memory impairments associated with dissociative disorders.

C) Major depression

___ 4. A person experiences severe and debilitating depression that may require hospitalization and treatment.

D) Cyclothymic disorder

___ 5. A less intense type of depression in comparison to major depression, but often of a longer duration.

E) Repression

___ 6. Alternating between periods of deep depression and manic episodes, which are characterized by periods of extreme energy and optimism.

F) Conversion disorder

___ 7. A less severe alternation between depression and mania; very similar to dysthymic disorder.

G) Learned helplessness

___ 8. A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of moods, which when low could lead to major depression.

H) Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

___ 9. Type of disorder that is associated with an absence of light often experienced during the winter months and also the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

I) Serotonin

___ 10. Martin Seligman’s belief that continued attempts that result in failures cold eventually leading to giving up and possible depression issues.

J) Persistent depressive disorder

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Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder

A severe and often debilitating disorder that affect thoughts process resulting in a “split brain,” speech production, perception and behavior

Neologisms Symptom of schizophrenia that includes using words that do not make sense to other people listening

World salad A schizophrenic’s repetition and use of no meaningful statements

Delusions False and distorted beliefs that include delusion of persecution- the belief that others are out to cause harm to you/ delusions of influence- the belief that one is being controlled by an outside factor/ delusions of grandeur- the belief that you are more important or powerful than you really are

Hallucinations False reports of perceptions Auditory is most common hallucination

Flat affect Not displaying or demonstrating any emotional response to various stimuli

Catatonia (movement disorder)

The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for long periods of time causing others distress; referred to as waxy flexibility

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia

The addition of disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions

Positive means to add

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia

The lack of pleasurable feelings, motivation, speech, and emotions (flat affect)

Negative means missing

Dopamine hypothesis theory of schizophrenia

Excessive receptor sites for dopamine may lead to the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia

Induced psychosis is the result of excessive use of a stimulant- cocaine

Vulnerability of theory of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition, which then could be determined by the amount of stress the person encounters in the environment

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___ 1. Sometimes referred to as "split mind" characterized by disturbed emotions, perceptions, and thought processes.

A) Catatonic schizophrenia

___ 2. The use of words that only have meaning to the schizophrenic.

B) Delusions of persecution

___ 3. The schizophrenic's repetition of no meaningful statements.

C) Word salad

___ 4. The false belief where a person believes they are of some importance or position.

D) Flat affect

___ 5. The false belief that everyone and thing is out to harm you; often a characterizations of paranoid schizophrenia.

E) Neologisms

___ 6. The most common type of hallucination experienced by schizophrenics.

F) Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thoughts.

___ 7. Refers to positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

G) Delusions of grandeur

___ 8. A negative symptom of schizophrenia that is characterized by a lack of emotion.

H) Auditory

___ 9. A symptom of schizophrenia, characterized by a waxy flexibility or immobility of body parts and positions.

I) Dopamine

___ 10. An increase of this neurotransmitter may lead to the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia.

J) Schizophrenia

Key Term Definition

Personality disorders Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking, feelings, and acting grouped into 3 clusters: cluster A: odd-eccentric/ cluster B: dramatic-erratic, cluster C: anxious-fearful

Paranoid personality disorder Distrust of other, the belief people are out to get him or her,

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and may act in violent protective methods

Schizoid personality disorder No social relationships and often difficulty displaying feeling for other peopleSchizoids AVOID other people

Schizotypal personality disorder Problems either starting or maintaining relationships, odd perceptions and emotions, and behavior that resembles schizophrenia

Histrionic personality disorder

Obsessed with being the center of attention, very dramatic, often emotionally shallow

Narcissistic personality disorder

An exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and has achieved great success

Borderline personality disorder

Instability of emotions and impulse control, obsessive fear of being alone, and difficulty maintaining relationships

Antisocial personality disorder

Lack of feelings or regard for others and their welfare; often includes sociopath and psychopaths

Dependent personality disorder An enormous need to be taken care of, difficulty making decision, and very needy

Obsessive personality disorder Obsession with order and control of situations

Avoidant personality disorder Oversensitive to criticism and humiliation, and often does not take part in social situations

Conduct disorders Mainly exhibited by boys who demonstrate a lack of obedience and are very aggressive

Separation anxiety disorder Fear of being lost or left behind

Intellectual developmental disorder

Determined by a person’s cognitive capacity as well as their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental retardation that was used in DSM-IV.

Autistic spectrum disorder Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have problems forming attachments and communicating, and suffer severe cognitive impairments that affect concentration, learning, and social interactions with other

Asperger’s disorder A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience problems in social relationships; they also engage in repetitive behaviors

Communication disorder Includes language disorder, speech and sound disorder, and

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childhood onset fluency- formally known as stuttering

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___ 1. Type of personality disorder characterized by obsession with being center of attention, very dramatic, and emotional shallowness.

A) Schizoid personality disorder

___ 2. Type of personality disorder characterized by instability of emotions, impulse control, fear of being alone; maintaining relationships.

B) Asperger's disorder

___ 3. Type of personality disorder characterized by no feelings or welfare for other people and a lack of remorse.

C) Schizotypal personality disorder

___ 4. Type of personality disorder characterized by no social relationships, difficulty displaying feelings for others; similar to a hermit.

D) Borderline personality disorder

___ 5. Type of personality disorder characterized by problems associated with starting or maintaining relationships; very odd types of thoughts feelings, emotions, thoughts.

E) Conduct disorder

___ 6. Type of personality disorder characterized by an enormous need to be taken care of and often cannot make decision unless someone else does.

F) Histrionic

___ 7. Maybe connected to antisocial personality disorder; exhibited by boys who at an early age demonstrate a lack of obedience and are overly aggressive.

G) Dependent personality disorder

___ 8. A fear of being left alone or left behind. H) Autism

___ 9. Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have problems forming attachments and communicating.

I) Separation anxiety disorder

___ 10. A less severe form of autism and may experience problems in social relationships and the tendency to engage in repetitive behaviors.

J) Antisocial personality disorder

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Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)

Psychopathology Study Deviant behavior Harmful

Diathesis-stress model

Nature and nurture Diagnostic Statistical Manual V

Common way to classify and treat

Anxiety disorder Uncontrollable apprehension

Phobias Irrational fear

Generalized anxiety disorder

General anxiety Panic disorder Uncontrollable panic attacks

Agoraphobia Don’t leave home OCD Uncontrollable thoughts/ actions

Hoarding OCD-Can’t throw out Post-traumatic stress disorder

Realistic flashbacks

Acute stress disorder

PTSD- few days Conversion disorder Unexplainable physical problems

Dissociative identity disorder

Multiple personalities Major depressive disorder

Severe depression

Persistent depressive disorder

Long-term livable depression

Bipolar disorder Depression- mania- excitement

Cyclothymic disorder

Less severe bipolar Seasonal affective disorder

Depression tied to light in winter

Learned helplessness

Learn to give up Schizophrenia Psychotic disorder/ break from reality

Neologisms Made up words Word salad Made up thoughts

Delusions False beliefs Delusions of grandeur Think your god

Delusions of persecution

Out to get you Delusions of influence Being controlled

Hallucinations False sensory input/ auditory

Catatonia Waxy flexibility/ can’t move

Flat affect No emotions Positive symptoms Delusions, hallucinations, thought

Negative symptoms Emotions, pleasure Dopamine- schizophrenia

Too much

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Personality disorder Lifelong condition Paranoid pd Out to get me

Schizoid pd Hermit no contact Schizotypal pd No relationships; odd behavior

Histrionic pd Dramatic, shallow Narcissistic pd I only matter

Borderline pd Unstable Antisocial pd No empathy

Dependent pd Needy Obsessive pd Ritualistic

Avoidant pd Stay away Conduct disorder Boys aggressive

Separation anxiety disorder

Can’s be alone Autistic spectrum disorder

Impaired social relationships

Asperger’s disorder Highly IQ/ social problems

Communication disorder

Speech language impairment

Methods of TherapyChapter 12

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Methods of Therapy

1. What is psychotherapy based on?

A. Which approach uses a variety of approaches best suited for the patient?

B. What is the goal of insight therapy?

C. What do behavioral therapist believe?

D. What techniques are used with the biomedical approach?

i. Which type of profession has a medical degree and is able to prescribe medication?

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy

2. What inspired Sigmund Freud to develop psychoanalysis?

A. What did Freud believe unresolved conflicts from childhood could lead to?

B. What is the goal of psychoanalysis?

C. What is the usual timeline for traditional psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalytical Techniques

3. Which technique involves the client speaking openly and freely about whatever comes to their mind?

A. What refers to the therapist involving insight to the comments made during free association/?

B. What is resistance?

C. During dream interpretation which part is the analyst interested in which could lead to the unconscious?

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D. What are statements that are made that are often considered accidental but could lead to the content of the unconscious?

E. What is considered the most important technique which involves the patient unconsciously responding to the therapist as if they were a significant person in their life?

Contemporary Psychoanalysis

4. Why is traditional psychoanalysis not practiced as much today?

A. What is a shorter version of traditional psychoanalysis?

B. Which psychodynamic approach focuses on current problems instead of early childhood experiences?

Humanistic Psychotherapy

5. Which therapy focuses on humans striving and reaching their full potential with the belief that people are inherently good and are motivated to grow psychologically?

A. What is the humanists’ belief?

B. What is the goal of humanistic therapy?

i. How do humanistic therapist establish this goal?

Client (Person) Centered Therapy

6. What was Carl Rogers originally in terms of therapy?

A. What is the name of Rogers’s approach that encourages growth and self-discovery by the client through unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence?

1. What is treating the client as a valued person who can solve their own conflicts?

2. What is a technique used by the therapist which involves listening to the patient while often using reflection and repeating back what is said?

3. What involves the therapist being consistent with what is being said to the patient?


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Gestalt Therapy

7. Who developed gestalt therapy- another version of humanistic therapy?

A. What is the goal of gestalt therapy?

Positive Psychology

8. Which type of therapy is modern type of insight therapy that forces on promoting human strengths, personal growth, and developing a more favorable outlook on life?

A. What are two types of positive psychology and who supported these?

B. Which types of disorders are positive psychology approaches useful?

Behavior Therapy

9. Which type of therapy proposes that psychological problems originate from learned behaviors and can be unlearned?

A. Which type uses classical conditioning principles?

B. Which types focuses on operant conditioning principles?

C. Which type addresses thoughts and behaviors associated with the problem?

Behavior Techniques emphasizing Classical Conditioning

10. Who influenced Behavioral therapy?

A. Which principle did Mary Cover Jones uses to teach a new conditioned response that is more effective that than the maladaptive learned response?

B. Who was her subject and what was his fear?

C. What was the new response and association in response to using counterconditioning?

Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques

11. Who developed systematic desensitization to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders?

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Process of Desensitization

1. What is the patient first taught how to do?

2. In step 2, what is the patient asked to create?

i. What is the list called?

ii. What is a control scene?

3. What is the actual process of desensitization?

i. What is the new conditioned response instead of old maladaptive response?

12. What is newer version of systematic desensitization that uses computer technology?

A. What is direct exposure to the most feared image or event in the anxiety hierarchy list?

i. What are two examples of exposure techniques?

ii. Why do some people not choose this approach?

Aversive Conditioning

13. What is the name of the drug if taken with alcohol will cause immediate sickness?

A. What is the purpose of aversive conditioning?

B. What is a negative with using aversive conditioning?

Behavior Therapies that emphasize Operant Conditioning

14. Which type of therapy uses operant conditioning that are based on the idea that the consequences that follow a particular behavior could either strengthen or eliminate a behavior?

A. What is an example of using positive reinforcement through giving tokens or rewards after desired behavior is performed?

B. How is extinction used? Give an example:

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

15. Which type of therapy uses learning principles to change people’s negative thoughts or patterns?

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A. Who developed Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy that suggests that people’s irrational and negative beliefs are responsible for a persons’ feelings or consequences?

B. Give an example of the ABC approach used in Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy?


Cognitive Therapy

16. Who was originally a psychoanalyst that developed Cognitive Therapy which is based on the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, perceptions, and interpretations of events that have led to psychological disorders?

A. What type of approach is Cognitive therapy?

B. What is the goal of having the clients go out directly test their beliefs?

Group Therapy

17. Which type of therapy incorporates humanistic ideals that allows therapists to work with several people at one time?

A. What are the advantages of using group therapy?

B. What is the goal of family therapy?

C. What is the emphasis of marital therapy?

Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches

18. What is the purpose of meta-analysis?

A. Which approaches are effective for treating depression?

B. Which approaches are good for treating phobias, panic disorders, and OCD?

C. Which therapy is good for treating eating disorders?

D. What is psychoanalysis good for treating?

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Biological Therapy

19. When are disorders treated with drugs?

A. What is involved with using psychosurgery?

B. Describe Egoss Moniz’s prefrontal lobotomy?

C. When is ECT or electroconvulsive therapy used?

i. What are some of the problems associated with using ECT?

Antipsychotic Drugs

20. Which type of drugs are used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia?

A. What are two example of neuroleptics?

B. What is a considerable side effect of using neuroleptics that is characterized by symptoms similar to Parkinson ’s disease involves twitching and facial tics?

C. Which drug has been effective at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Antidepressants

21. How are antidepressant drugs designed to work?

A. What were the original antidepressants called?

B. How do Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors work?

C. What are some types of common SSRI’s?

Antianxiety Medications

22. What are the most common types of antianxiety medications used?

A. How do these drugs work?

B. What is a concern with using antianxiety medications?

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Lithium

23. What is used to treat bipolar disorder?

A. Which neurotransmitter does lithium have an effect on?

i. What is an alternative to lithium?

Evaluating Drug Treatments

24. What is an overall concern with using drug therapies?

Community Psychology

25. What refers to process of releasing patients from hospitals to fend for themselves?

A. What is a movement to decrease or prevent psychological disorders in impoverished areas?


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1. Psychotherapy - sessions between a therapist and client with the hopes of providing insight

into problems/ Eclectric approach- approach that uses techniques from various therapies to

treat disorder

2. Psychoanalysis - Freud - problems in the unconscious and noticing patients had problems

without any physical causes / Resistance- unconscious blocking of anxiety material- not

talking about/ Transference- unconsciously transferring emotion unto therapist which was

intended for others who are actually to blame/ Interpretation- meaning derived from

resistance and transference/ Free association- patient says whatever comes to mind /

Psychodynamic therapy or interpersonal therapy- shorter sessions- focus on current issues

and less expensive than traditional psychoanalysis which is long and expensive

3. Humanistic therapy - increasing self-acceptance and self-awareness of patients/ Client-

centered therapy- Carl Rogers believed that if a therapist displayed the following

characteristics the patient or client can direct and discover solutions and problems to their

life- Empathy uses active listening or reflection- repeating back what patient states- showing

you are paying attention, unconditional positive regard- showing patient that you understand

and don’t judge what they have done, genuineness- therapist is honest with patient and is

open about own life- these therapist qualities make it possible for patient to direct session

and discover solutions to own problems which leads to increased self-confidence as he or

she discovered their own problems and solutions

4. Behavioral therapy - uses classical conditioning- Systematic desensitization (Joe Wolpe)-

based on classical conditioning- type of counterconditioning that Mary Cover Jones first used

through pairing frightening stimuli with relaxed thought instead of fearful thought as anxiety

causing stimulus is presented- involves patients develop an anxiety hierarchy which has most

fearful to least fearful aspects/ patients learn progressive relaxation techniques and are asked

to develop a control scene which will be the NEW and BETTER conditioned or learned

response replacing original NEGATIVE or FEARFUL condition or learned response/

Aversive conditioning- counterconditioning that produces unwanted response (nausea) with

unwanted behavior (drinking)/ opposite of systematic desensitization/ Exposure therapy-

flooding- continuously exposing someone to a feared object or situation

5. Behavior modification –uses Operant conditioning- token economies- positive

reinforcement- giving tokens after desired behavior increases behavior being repeated and

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also Extinction- non-reinforcement- not giving expected response after a given behavior- like

throwing a temper tantrum and expecting attention

6. Cognitive -Behavioral therapy- Albert Ellis- Rational-emotive behavioral therapy- uses

ABC model- a= activating event (not getting a job), b= belief (I am never going to get job

because I am not smart (could it B because of my B-eliefs) which actually causes c=

consequence= depression- goal of therapy is to address and correct bad beliefs

7. Cognitive therapy - new thinking- Cognitive therapy-Aaron Beck- address unrealistic and

distorted thinking (cognitive biases) by actively testing false beliefs in real life situations

8. Psychiatrist have medical degrees and can prescribe medications; Biomedical therapy Drug

therapy- Thorazine- a type of neuroleptic used to treat schizophrenia- blocks activity of

Dopamine reducing the positive symptoms- can produce side effects like Tardive

dyskinesia- similar to Parkinson’s resulting from too little dopamine/ Valium used for

anxiety boosts effects of GABA/ Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil which are called SSRIs- selective

serotonin reuptake inhibitors used for depression with slowing down the process of the

reuptake of Serotonin allowing it to cross the synapse and get to the next neuron

9. Positive psychology- developed by Martin Seligman- which emphasizes positive human

characteristics and teaches people to focus on positive aspects and life experiences in order to

reduce learned helplessness- which is the tendency for people to give up when continuously

not successful

10. Group therapy- cost effective, group support and understanding

11. Community psychology- prevention of disorders through providing information to people in

poverty or disadvantaged areas due to deinstitutionalization- the shutting down of mental

hospitals

12. Meta-Analysis- gathering lots of information and resources to arrive at a conclusion

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Psychotherapy The interaction between a trained therapist who uses psychological techniques to treat a patient experiencing emotional, behavioral, or interpersonal problems

Eclectic approach The use of a variety of therapeutic techniques that are based on the symptoms of the patient

Insight therapies A dialogue between the therapist and the patient with the goal of gaining insight into the patient’s conflicts resulting in the development of a possible solution

Behavioral therapy Therapy that utilizes learning techniques to have patient’s unlearn maladaptive patterns of behavior

What is LEARNED (including negativity) can Be UNLEARNED

Biomedical therapy The use of medical procedures such as electroconvulsive therapy, medication, that are used to treat patients.

BIOLOGICAL reasons for disorder

Psychiatrist’s Therapists who have medical degrees which allow them to prescribe medications

Psychodynamic psychotherapy

Originated through Sigmund Freud’s work with patients who had certain symptoms that did not have physical causes, which led to beliefs that disorders were the result of unconscious conflicts and repressed childhood traumatic thoughts and memories

Psychoanalysis Method of therapy aimed at revealing and resolving unconscious and repressed conflicts; often involved the use of case studies and many sessions over a long period of time

Free association A psychoanalytical technique that allows the patient to say whatever comes to his or her mind in a therapeutic session

The patient talks FREELY about whatever he or she wants to talk about

Interpretation A psychoanalytical technique that occurs during free association where the therapists offers insight to and explanations of the patient’s remarks

Resistance A psychoanalytical technique that occurs when the client unconsciously blocks the process of revealing repressed memories, which allows the therapist to gain insight into possible conflicts

To resist means to block or refuse to discuss

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Dream interpretation

Identifying and separating the manifest content, the story line consciously remembered portion of the dream, from the latent content, the symbolic portion of the dream that contains impulses, wishes and fantasies associated with the unconscious

Manifest- “man I had a crazy dream” which means you remember that portion of the dream/ latent LEADS to unconscious

Freudian slips Statements that are accidentally made by the client that may lead to the content of the unconscious

Transference A psychoanalytical technique that occurs when the patient unconsciously responds to the therapist as a significant person in their life often leading to certain emotional responses being displayed

TRANSFERRING emotions ONTO another person

Psychodynamic therapy

A short-term type of therapy compared to psychoanalysis that offers quicker diagnosis, but still focuses on the role of the unconscious

Interpersonal therapy

A psychodynamic approach that focuses more on current problems and conflicts instead of childhood repressions

Humanistic psychotherapy

A type of therapy that emphasizes the patient’s striving for and reaching their human potential through the belief that people are inherently good and motivated to psychologically grow

Helping people become the BEST HUMAN BEING THEY CAN BE/ BE ALL YOU CAN BE

Self-concept The humanist’s belief that the self-concept, a person’s thoughts of themselves are central to proper psychological growth and should be addressed during therapeutic sessions

How you describe yourself

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Client-centered therapy

According to Car Rogers, therapeutic sessions should allow the patient to discover for him or herself the reasons for their disorder and then encouraged to solve their conflicts and problems. The therapists should stress unconditional positive regard- treating the patients as a valued person, empathy- placing oneself in the patient’s point of view and problems through the use of active listening, and demonstrating congruence- being consistent with thoughts and feelings directed at the patient

The client in the CENTER of attention- if client can realize why he or she feels or acts a certain then there is a good chance he or she can find a solution

Confidence comes from the clients’ ability to figure out their own problems and solutions

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___ 1. Type of therapist that possesses a medical degree and has the ability to issue medication.

A) Free association

___ 2. A type of therapeutic treatment by Sigmund Freud that emphasized the role of unresolved conflicts within the unconscious as a determinant for psychological disorders

B) Psychiatrists

___ 3. Method of psychoanalysis that involves the client speaking freely about whatever comes to her or his mind.

C) Client-centered therapy

___ 4. Occurs in psychoanalysis when the client unconsciously tries to block or refuses to discuss a particular subject.

D) Psychoanalysis

___ 5. According to Freud, the part of a dream that is comprised of unconscious symbols and conflicts.

E) Psychodynamic therapy

___ 6. Occurs in psychoanalysis when a patient unconsciously responds to the therapist in an emotional response that should be directed at another person.

F) Transference

___ 7. A type of therapy shorter in duration compared to traditional psychoanalysis.

G) Latent content

___ 8. Type of therapy where Carl Rogers focused on the patient directing the therapeutic session with the goal of revealing the problem and solution.

H) Active-listening/ empathy

___ 9. A component of client-centered therapy where the therapist sees the problem through the patient's point of view through repeating and rewording responses by the patient.

I) Unconditional positive regard

___ 10. A component of client-centered therapy where the therapist treats the client as a valued person through accepting and not judging the patient.

J) Resistance

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Gestalt therapy Developed by Fritz Perls and his wife and influenced by the principles of Gestalt psychology, the belief and goal of the therapy is to make patient’s thoughts and behavior coincide with reality

Gestalt means WHOLE- to make sure the individual parts- or parts of a person’s life fit the whole

Positive psychology A modern type of insight therapy that focuses on promoting human strengths while enhancing personal growth and self-acceptance, which includes Well-being therapy developed by Giovanni Fava and Positive psychotherapy developed by Martin Seligman

Behavioral therapy Proposes psychological problems originate from learned behaviors and that these unlearned behaviors can be unlearned;

Behavior therapy that focuses on the principles of classical conditioning Behavior modification that focuses on operant conditioningCognitive-behavior therapy that addresses how thoughts and behavior are interrelated

Counterconditioning Developed by Mary Cover Jones, the process of producing a new conditioned response through a better association between a prior stimuli and response

Counter clockwise means to go in an opposite direction

Systematic desensitization

Developed by Joseph Wolpe and used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders, a type of counterconditioning that involves learning new conditioned responses that replace established maladaptive responses. This procedure involves patients learning relaxation techniques that later are associated with items listed in their anxiety or desensitization hierarchy that cause fear and distress.

Desensitize means to make LESS sensitive- so less fearful of things or places

Virtual reality graded exposure

A recent application of systematic desensitization that allows patients to experienced their fears a controlled computerized setting without actual exposure

Exposure techniques Direct exposure to a feared image or situation in a controlled setting

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Flooding Type of exposure technique that involves complete exposure to a fearful stimuli

Similar to starting in the deep end of the swimming pool

Aversive conditioning

Involves pairing a harmful stimulus, like smoking, with an unpleasant feeling like nausea

A person will then associate smoking with nausea leading to “I get sick every time I try and smoke so I don’t.”

Positive reinforcement Type of behavioral modification procedure that presents a favorable stimulus after a desired behavior is performed increased that behavior occurring in the future

The addition of a favorable stimulus after a desired behavior will increases the changes of the behavior being repeated

Token economies The process of implementing positive reinforcement in a therapeutic setting; often used in rehabilitation programs

The tokens are like secondary reinforcers

Extinction Not reinforcing an undesired behavior Some kids cry until they get attention from a parent because that is what they want- if parents don’t give attention child won’t cry

Rational-emotive therapy

Developed by Albert Ellis and a type of Cognitive-behavioral therapy, is based on the ABC model and the belief that beliefs (B) cause (C) consequences like depression that are not actually caused by the activating event (A) itself. The goal is to then correct the beliefs that a person holds.

Most people are not upset with the outcome but their reasons or beliefs for the outcomes

Remember RATIONALIZE means to provide reasons for outcome s

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___ 1. A type of therapy that emphasizes the belief that people actively process information from the environment that results unrealistic versions of reality.

A) Systematic desensitization

___ 2. Insight therapy developed by Martin Seligman that focuses on promoting human strengths and self-acceptance.

B) Aversive conditioning

___ 3. Developed the concept of counterconditioning which believes that previous associations can be unlearned and result is new and more productive conditional response.

C) Beliefs

___ 4. Joseph Wolpe's version of counterconditioning used to treat phobias that involve the gradual learning of a new conditioned response.

D) Exposure therapy

___ 5. A chart made in the process of systematic desensitization where the patient list from most fearful to least fearful anxiety provoking stimuli.

E) Anxiety or desensitization hierarchy

___ 6. Type of therapy that involves direct exposure to the feared image.

F) Mary Cover Jones

___ 7. A type of behavioral therapy that involves pairing a harmful substance with a negative stimulus producing an unwanted conditional response.

G) Positive psychology/psychotherapy

___ 8. An example of behavior modification that uses the positive reinforcement to distribute reinforcers for desirable behaviors that are performed.

H) Token economics

___ 9. A concept of behavioral modification used to stop undesirable behaviors through the use of nonreinforcement.

I) Extinction

___ 10. Albert Ellis's idea a person's _____are responsible for people's consequences (c); not the actual (a) event itself.

J) Gestalt therapy

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Cognitive therapy Developed by Aaron Beck who believed that people have cognitive distortions, perceptions, and interpretations of events that contribute to the disorder they are experiencing. The patient is then taught to directly test these distortions with the goal that he or she will develop more realistic ideals

Cognitive the C stands for lets “C” what happens when you go out and try.

Group therapy A type of humanistic therapy to allow one or more therapists to work with several people who share similar symptoms while saving money; includes family and marital therapy

Strength in numbers- group support

Meta-analysis A type of analysis that gathers large amounts of data and sources to evaluate therapeutic approaches and methods

MANY means META

Psychosurgery The process of destroying tissues in regions of the brain responsible for psychological disorders

Prefrontal lobotomy Inserting a probe into the frontal area of the brain and severing neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain

Frontal area of the brain in charge of thinking, reasoning, and decision making

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Primarily used for depression who did not respond to other treatments, involves the use of brief electrical shocks that attempt to stimulate neural activity in the brain

Neuroleptics Antipsychotic medication that are used to treat the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia; includes Thorazine and haloperidol that affect the levels of dopamine

Tardive dyskinesia Irreversible movement disorder similar to Parkinson’s disease that could be caused by taking neuroleptics

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

A type of antidepressant medication that slows down the reuptake process through allowing serotonin to remain in the synapse longer ensuring proper delivery to other neurons; includes Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil

Reuptake is like a vacuum SSRIS turn off the vacuum

Antianxiety medications Used to treat anxiety symptoms through elevating GABA levels; includes Valium and BuSpar

Lithium/ Depakote Used to treat Bipolar disorder

Deinstitutionalization The massive releasing of patients from mental health hospitals resulting in many patients not receiving treatment

Community psychology

A movement that increases treatment for people who do not have access to mental health programs


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___ 1. Which type of therapy was developed by Aaron Beck and focused on correcting irrational and distorted thinking processes through having patients actively addressing these thoughts.

A) Group therapy

___ 2. Type of therapy that is cost effective, offers social support and empathy through the people participating.

B) Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitions (SSRIs)

___ 3. A process of gathering large amounts of information in order to produce accurate reports.

C) Meta-analysis

___ 4. A procedure rarely used anymore that involved inserting a metal instrument into the frontal area of the brain.

D) Cognitive therapy

___ 5. A procedure primarily used to treat depression that involves a brief electrical charge in the hopes of increases neural activity.

E) Lithium

___ 6. Medication used to treat schizophrenia specifically the positive symptoms; thorazine and haloperidol being examples.

F) Prefrontal lobotomy

___ 7. A side effect associated with taking thorazine for schizophrenia that resembles Parkinson's disease.

G) Deinstitutionalization

___ 8. A type of medication that is used to treat depression through slowing down the reuptake process of the sending neuron.

H) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

___ 9. A drug commonly used to treat bipolar disorder.

I) Tardive dyskinesia

___ 10. The process of shutting down mental hospitals resulting in the release and nontreatment of many mentally ill people; resulting in the rise of community psychology.

J) Neuroleptics

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Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)

Psychotherapy Interaction Eclectic approach Variety of techniques

Insight therapy Dialogue, problems Psychoanalysis Treatment, Freud

Free association Talk freely Interpretation Insight

Resistance Unconscious refusal Transference Taking out on

Latent content Symbolic, unconscious

Psychodynamic therapy

Short-term to psychoanalysis

Interpersonal therapy

Current problems Humanistic therapy Born good, self-concept

Client-centered therapy

Rogers, client directs Unconditional positive regard

Value the person

Active listening Repeat what is said Congruence Consistent

Gestalt therapy Reality matches situation

Positive psychology Promoting human strengths, Seligman

Behavior therapy Classical conditioning

Behavior modification

Operant conditioning

Cognitive-behavior therapy

Thoughts direct behavior

Mary Cover Jones Peter, counterconditioning

Systematic desensitization

Wolpe- relax instead of anxiety, chart

Exposure techniques Flooding- go right to the most fearful

Aversive conditioning

Sickness instead of pleasure

Token economics Positive reinforcement

Extinction Don’t give what want

Rational Emotive therapy

Ellis, beliefs not event = depression

Cognitive therapy Beck- go test negative thoughts

Group therapy Save money, get support

Meta-analysis Gather lots of data Prefrontal lobotomy Sever frontal lobe

ECT Depression, schizophrenia, excite

Neuroleptics Thorazine, positive symptoms schizophrenia

SSRI’s Slow down reuptake of serotonin, Prozac

Benzodiazepines, valium

Increase GABA treat anxiety

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Lithium, Depakote Bipolar, anticonvulsant

Deinstitutionalization Shut down

Community psychology

Prevent give help to people in need

Biomedical approach Overprescribe drugs

Research & MethodsChapter 1

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Critical Thinking

1. What is considered the first stop of research- making an educated guess?

2. What is the role of an operational definition?

A. Why are operational definitions required in order for it to be considered an experiment?

3. How are theories different from hypotheses?

Research Methods in Psychology

4. What are the four goals for research?

5. What are the goals of descriptive studies?

Types of Research Methods

6. When is naturalistic observations used?

A. What are disadvantages associated with using naturalistic observations?

7. When would a researcher use a case study?

A. What are the disadvantages of using a case study?

8. What is an advantage of using a survey?

A. Why may people lie when taking a survey?

B. How do researchers influence the answering of participants’ responses?

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9. What is the design of correlational studies?

A. What is the main disadvantage of correlational studies?

10. How are experiments designed?

A. Why do researchers use experimental design?

B. Identify two possible disadvantages for conducting experimental design?

Experiments: An in-depth look

11. What is the only way to prove cause/effect?

12. Identify the variable that is considered the variable of change or manipulation?

13. What is the variable that show the measurement or the effects of the independent variable?

14. When does a null hypothesis occur?

A. Identify the variables that can’t be controlled by the researcher and could affect the measurement of the dependent variable?

15. What do participants in the experimental group receive?

A. Explain the purpose of the control group and what constitutes a control group condition?

16. How can research participants contribute to confounding variables? What is this called?

17. How can experimenter or researcher cause experimenter bias?

A. What is hindsight bias?

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B. How can overconfidence lead to experimenter bias?

18. How can a double-blind research design help to eliminate confounding variables?

19. What is the purpose of a placebo group or placebo effect?

Selecting Human Participants

20. What is referred to when the selection of participants only includes the targeted population?

21. Define a population.

22. What is a stratified sample?

23. When is a cross-sectional sample applied?

A. Give an example of a cross-sectional study?

24. When is a longitudinal study used?

A. What are the disadvantages of using a longitudinal study?

25. Describe the random sampling process?

A. When does a sampling bias occur?

26. When is random assignment used?

A. How is random assignment different from random sampling?


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Statistical Analysis of Research

27. What are two methods that allow a researcher to formulate a statistical conclusion?

28. What are descriptive statistics?

Statistical Analysis of Research: Descriptive Statistics

29. What is the process of developing a frequency distribution?

30. Define the three types of central tendency?

A. Mean:

B. Median:

C. Mode:

31. Describe a normal distribution.

A. When is a percentile score used?

B. How is a standard score used?

32. What defines a range?

A. What does standard deviation indicate?

B. When does a skewed distribution occur?

33. How is the strength or value of a relationship determined in a correlational study?

A. Numerically what determines a strong relationship?

34. Define positive correlation:

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A. Give an example of a positive correlation?

35. Define negative correlation:

A. Give an example of a negative correlation:

36. When does an illusory correlation occur?

A. Give an example of an illusory correlation?

Statistical Analysis of Research: Inferential Statistics

37. When are inferential statistics used by researchers?

38. When is data or the results considered statistically significant?

Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists

39. According to APA’ Ethical Principles explain the following guidelines:

A. Informed Consent:

B. Debriefing:

C. Confidentiality

D. Parental Permission

E. Prevention of harm


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1. Theory- explanation about behavior or situation summarizing and describing findings

resulting from a hypothesis- testable prediction- first step in scientific method

2. Descriptive studies - describe behavior but don’t explain / case study- in-depth interview or

review of rare phenomenon or person- but can’t be applied to general population (Freud used

this method)/ Surveys- given to large groups for quick results- False consensus effect-

believing people taking the survey will automatically agree with the person’s thoughts and

opinions who wrote the survey- Social desirability effect- tendency for people to answer in a

favorable way to make one look good/ Wording effect- how you word questions could

influence how people answer surveys

3. Longitudinal study- long-term study over a group of people- very expensive and time

consuming/ cross-sectional study- study that examines and makes comparisons among

different groups like age, gender

4. Random sample- everybody equal chance of being picked from population- the group being

studied resulting in a representative sample- sample taken from targeted population

5. Random selection or assignment- equal chance for all participants (of the representative

sample) to be chosen for either control group- the group that is held for comparison not given

the independent variable or experimental group- the group that receives the independent

variable)

6. Correlational studies- shows relationships and makes predictions between variables or

factors- but does not provide cause-and-effect explanations / a number called the

correlational coefficient if closer to 1.00 (+1.00 or -1.00) means a strong relationship shown

on a scatter plot/ illusory correlation- relationship that appears to be there, but is not like

people act crazy during a full moon. Negative correlation variables move in opposite

directions (less you drink more you remember) Positive correlation- variables move in same

direction (more you study better grades you get)

7. Experiment - shows cause and effect relationships among variables by manipulating or

causing change with a variable called the independent variable- the variable of

experimenter interest and then showing the amount of change through measurement (the

results) of the dependent variable (If students take a vitamin (independent variable) then

their retention of material (dependent variable) will go up.

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8. Confounding variable- variables that influence the dependent variable (outcome or

measurement of experiment) by not being considered or controlled by experimenter (students

moods before they take a test)

9. Double-blind procedure- guards against researcher bias and participant bias through the

subjects or experimenters not knowing who is in the control or experimental group or what is

the purpose of the study/ Placebo group- a fake/sugar pill independent variable

10. Hindsight bias- “I knew the results all along” but only state after the results given

11. Operational definitions- precise instructions how each variable will be manipulated or

measured in an experiment- helps others to later do same or replicate the experiment

12. Overconfidence- people or researchers who believe they already know the outcome before

the experiment and don’t consider any other factors or possibilities.

13. Research guidelines- informed consent- participants know that they are part of an

experiment/ debriefing- participants are told the purpose and the results of study.

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Key term Definition Analogy

Applied research Research that can be applied to the general population

You APPLY the paint (theory) to the house changing the color of the house

Basic research Research used to build or gain knowledge

Basic research adds more pages to a book

Variable Factor or feature that is being measured or manipulated

Variables are going to VARY by either being manipulated or changed/ measured

Theory Explanation makes predictions/ observations

A theory is the title page of a book tells reader what the book is going to be about

Hypothesis A testable prediction or educated guess

A hypothesis are the pages that follow the title page that tell the story

Operational definition

Precise instructions define how variables measured or manipulated, allows replication by other researchers

Operational definitions DEFINE how the experiment is going to OPERATE or run

Meta-analysis An analysis that includes many types of research

Meta means MANY- many types of research

Descriptive research

Research that describes behavior and phenomenon

Descriptive means to DESCRIBE something

Naturalistic observation

Observing people/ species in a natural habitat

In order to be NATURALLY observed the researcher CANNOT be seen

Surveys Self-reported inventories often given to large groups

“I am going to survey or ask my friends to see what they want to do tonight”

Wording effect How words or questions can influence opinions on a survey

Harmful versus detrimental means the same but reads different to people taking

False-consensus effect

A researcher’s belief participants share the same attitudes or beliefs

You Falsely believe everyone thinks like you that is why you are surprised when people disagree with you

Social desirability bias

Participants desire to answer or perform in a favoring way

Most people have a DESIRABLE opinion don’t want to admit to negative behavior

Case study/ case history

Detailed explanation of a single individual or rare phenomenon-cannot be applied to general population

CASE means ONE- nobody would buy a yearbook if it were a case study because there are no pictures of them- can’t relate to it

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Correlational research

Research designed to look for possible relationships among variables, but does not offer cause-effect explanations

You cannot assume sports drinks will make you run faster because other factors make you also run faster- sports drinks MAY POSSIBLY make you run faster

Experiment Research manipulates or changes one variable to see effects on another variable by holding constant

Experiment means to change like you are going to change the way you study to see if it improves your grades- Cause-and-effect

Confederate Instructed by researcher to act a role to during experiment

A confederate is like an actor or actress- PLAYING a part assigned to them

Independent variable

A variable that is manipulated or changed and is the main interest of the researcher

IN-dependent variable is what the researcher is IN-trested in/ “I am Interested in the Independent variable”

Dependent variable

Variable shows measurement influenced by Independent

The dependent variable DEPENDS on how you measure it

Control group The group that is held constant and not exposed to the independent variable

Comparison to see how much change occurs in experimental group “The experimental group’s scores went up 9%”

Experimental group

Group manipulated; exposure to independent variable

The experimental group is being EXPERIMENTED WITH by change

Confounding or extraneous variable

Variables, not considered by researcher, that could affect measurement of dependent variable/ motivation, weather

People’s time in a mile (dependent variable) may be affected by weather-windy and rainy the day of the timing (confounding variable)

Experimenter bias

Researchers who work towards a predetermined goal or outcome

AP teachers are not allowed to be in AP testing room because their presence could make the students try harder on the test

Hindsight bias Belief the researcher foreseen the conclusion or knew the outcome the entire time

People often say AFTER the game they knew who was going to win, which shows that they were hoping for that team to win

Research participant bias

Participants act or perform in a to achieve desired outcomes

If you told a sports drink will make you run faster you might try harder in the race

Null hypothesis Belief independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable

Placebo Non-active or fake substance helps to eliminate research participant bias

To see if people are acting versus the actual effects of alcohol is to serve nonalcoholic drinks and observe

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Double-blind procedure

A procedure where the researcher does not know which participants are in control or experimenter group and the research participants do not know the purpose/ measurement of the experiment/Double blind nobody knows

Longitudinal design

A long-term study that examines the same people or phenomenon over an extended period of time- very expensive

If you theorize not being held as a baby will affect hugging another person as adult would have to follow that person from baby to adulthood- LONG TIME

Cross-sectional Examines and compares two diverse groups at same time- male/female

Random sampling

Providing an equal chance or opportunity for every subject to be chosen for study

Your class schedule using random sampling every class offered at your school would have an equal chance

Random assignment

Randomly assigning or giving participants an equal chance of being assigned to the experimental or control group

You randomly ASSIGN people to the experimental or control group- if you handpicked may be tempted to pick certain people to be experimental group-

Population Desired group to be study If studying high school seniors then your population would be high school seniors

Representative sample

A sample that was chosen from the desired population

Your sample REPRESENTS your population

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___ 1. Indicates how research and variables will be defined, tested, and measured allowing other researchers to replicate the study.

A) Case study

___ 2. An in-depth study of a rare phenomenon or person that often cannot be generalized or related to a population.

B) Operational definitions

___ 3. A research method that infers cause-and-effect relationships through the manipulation of a variable and the effects or measurement of another variable.

C) Experimental method

___ 4. The variable being manipulated or variable of an interest to the experimenter.

D) Random assignment.

___ 5. The variable that shows the measurable outcome or resulting effect of the independent variable.

E) Double-blind design

___ 6. Variables that were not considered by the experimenter that often will affect the measurement of the dependent variable.

F) Confounding variable

___ 7. The group in an experiment that is held constant or not administered the independent variable.

G) Independent variable

___ 8. The experimental design that does not allow the researcher or the participants to know the measurement or which group the participants are assigned guarding against participant or experimenter bias.

H) Representative sample

___ 9. The result of using random sampling that chooses participants that closely match the population or group being studied.

I) Control group

___ 10. Allowing participants within the study an equal chance of being chosen for either the experimental or control group.

J) Dependent variable

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Descriptive statistics

Numbers that summarize research data

Descriptive means to describe

Frequency distribution

Arranging information in a bar or graph to show scores

Distributing or describing the frequency or numbers

Mean Mathematical average of the data Mean means average

Median A numerical value that appears in the middle of the data

Mode A value that appears most in data Mode is same m-OLD number

Normal distribution

Data that resembles a normal curve

Normal distribution means half on one side and half on other side of MEDIAN

Range Difference between the highest and lowest score

A driving range goes from where you hit the golf ball to the end of the range

Standard deviation

The variability between scores and the mean

People DEVIATE from the way people act- making them unique and not average

Correlational research

Research designed to look for possible relationships among variables, but does not offer cause-effect explanations

You cannot assume that sports drinks will make you run faster because other factors or variables may make you run faster- rather sports drinks may make possibly make you run faster

Third variable problem

Correlational research can hint at possible cause-effect relationships but is not conclusive

There is a possible relationship between motivation and grade point but other factors play a role like intelligence

Correlational coefficient

A numerical value that shows the strength of a relationship

Closer a relationship is to 1.00 or -1.00 the stronger the relationship

Scatterplot Represents values of variables and show direction of possible relationships

A scatter plot look like kids that scatter all over the playground when recess is over

Positive correlation

A relationship where variables moves in the same direction- up or down

Positive does not just mean up because as long as it moves in the same direction it is a positive correlation

Negative or inverse correlation

A relationship that involves variable moving in an opposite directions

A relationship break up is NEGATIVE because the couple moves in OPPOSITE directions

Illusory correlation

A relationship that is believed to exist but in actuality does not

A magic trick is an illusion because you believe you saw something not there

Inferential statistics

Allows a researcher to apply or infer his or her results to the general population

Infer means to cause- the stats show that eating candy causes tooth decay/ 58% of kids that ate candy had increased cavities

Statistically significant

Results that are not influenced by chance

NUMBERS never lie- or the scale never lies

Informed consent

Participants actively agree to participate in an experiment

If your parent’s give consent for then you have permission

Debriefed Participants are allowed to view If your parents debrief you about prom


___ 1.

The numerical average of all the presented data.

A) Range

___ 2. The numerical value or number that appears the most in presented data.

B) Correlational study

___ 3. The difference of the numerical value of all given scores arranged from highest to lowest.

C) Correlation coefficient

___ 4. The numerical relationship between 2 or more variables that often will show the strength of a relationship, but does not indicate causation because of the possibility of a third variable.

D) Illusory correlation

___ 5. The numerical value demonstrating the strength or weakness of a correlational relationship through closeness to 1.00 or -1.00.

E) Mode

___ 6. Occurs when either variables or factors move in the same direction of a correlational study.

F) Debriefing

___ 7. An incorrect belief that one variable affected the outcome of another variable when it reality there is no relationship.

G) Positive correlation

___ 8. Statistics that allow a researcher to apply his or her results to the general population and infers that data can be generalized.

H) Statistically significant

___ 9. Statistical results that are not influenced by chance and are valid and reliable.

I) Mean

___ 10. After a study is completed the researcher shares with the participants what the experiment was about.

J) Inferential statistics

Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”

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Hypothesis Guess Theory Explanation

Operational definition

Directions, replication, requirement

Descriptive studies Describe

Naturalistic observation

Natural, animals Case study In-depth, atypical

Surveys Quickly, large groups Social desirability effect

Perfect, guilt feelings

False consensus effect

Assuming, agreeing Correlational study Relationships, prediction, no causation

Experiments Causation, manipulation

Independent variable

Interest, change, manipulation

Dependent variable Measurement, outcome

Confounding variables

No control

Experimental group Interest, given the change

Control group Comparison, no change

Null hypothesis No effect Participant bias Opinions, knowledge

Experimenter bias Expectations Double-blind procedure

Nobody knows

Placebo group Fake Hindsight bias “I knew it”

Overconfidence Arrogant Representative sample

Represents population

Population Targeted group Stratified sample Specific part

Cross-sectional study

Comparison Longitudinal study Long-term

Random sampling Equal chance Random assignment Assigned groups

Descriptive statistics Numerical descriptions

Frequency distribution

Graphs

Mean Average Mode Most

Median Middle Normal distribution Normal curve

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Range High-low Standard deviation Varies from average

Skew distribution Lopsided Correlation coefficient

Closest to 1.00

Positive correlation Same direction Negative correlation Opposite direction

Illusory correlation Fake relationship Scatterplot Correlation data

Inferential correlation

Understandable data Statistically significance

No chance, numbers

Informed consent Permission Debriefing After, no deception

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Quarter Midterm 2 Review

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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

1. What drives people to do the things they do, the internal and external factors that direct behavior is called motivation

Theories of Motivation

2. What explains motivation through a type of instinctual behavior?_____________________________

a. An unlearned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus is referred to as an ___________________

b. Who believed that organisms are motivated to perform certain behaviors to enhance their survival of their species (natural selection), which influenced the development of the instinct theory?

Charles Darwin

c. However, what is a criticism of the instinct theory?Just provide labels and not explanations for motivation

3. The premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems at a constant, stable level is referred to as _______________________

a. What is an example of homeostasis?Body temperature

b. A biological requirement essential to proper bodily functioning is called a _________

c. Thirst, hunger, pain is a psychological state of tension, or arousal that directs an organism to take action and reduce this tension are examples of a ____________

d. According to Clark Hull, _____________________ suggests that motivation is based on the desire to reduce internal tension within the body (drives) that is caused by biological needs not being met as indicated through ___________________.

Optimum Arousal Theory

4. What causes an increase in arousal, which is the result of several heightened physiological states?

Arousal

5. What theory suggests that people try to maintain an ideal level of arousal through various behavioral activities?

______________________________________

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a. A person who has a boring day (low arousal) may be more prone to go out at night (high arousal) to balance out one’s day maintaining a steady arousal rate.

6. Difficult or challenging tasks cause arousal to be lower (not concentrate), and easy tasks cause arousal to be higher (make stupid mistakes). People perform best when arousal is maintained or moderate described in the _______________________

Incentive Motivation

7. Which theory suggest that external stimuli “push” people (working longer hours for overtime) to positive incentives and “pull” people away from negative incentives (coming in on time so don’t get fired)?

_____________________________

Humanistic Theories of Motivation

8. Which theory suggests that people are motivated to build a positive self-concept (image and beliefs of oneself) and achieve his or her potential?

________________________

a. Abraham Maslow believed that motivation to achieve one’s potential is primarily innate (born with), but also suggested that one’s environment plays an important role in achieving this potential. He believed that people are motivated to progress through a series of levels, satisfying each level, before moving on to the next, which he referred to as the ________________________________

b. Maslow suggested people try to achieve self-actualization which is defined as?_________________________________________________________________

c. Identify the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

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5 Self-actualization4 Esteem needs3 Belongingness and love needs2 Safety needs1 Physiological needs


___ 1. What is a fixed-pattern, often unlearned and automatic response to a behavior; described in Charles Darwin's natural selection theory? *RC: you can't train animals to go against their instincts*A) Instinct; instinct theory D) Need theoryB) Drive reduction theory E) Arousal theoryC) Homeostasis

___ 2. Jeff stops his workout to get drink of water even though he only had three minutes left before he was done. Which theory of motivation best explains why he stopped his workout? *RC: What drives us to get a drink of water- we have needs*A) Arousal theory D) Self-actualizationB) Instinct theory E) Need motivation C) Drive-reduction theory

___ 3. Which of the following examples best describes the optimum arousal theory? *RC: Long day=stay home; boring day= go out*A) Jenny had a stressful day at school and later tells her friends that she is just going

to rent a movie and stay home.B) Richard gets a drink of water in the middle of the night.C) Lucy gets her homework back out because she thinks she is not ready for the test.D) A dog barks nonstop at the mailman.E) Mitch has a busy day at school and has a strong desire to go and be with his

friends.

___ 4. A football coach is concerned his players are not practicing enough so he decides to offer stickers to put on their helmets if they achieve certain goals in practice. Which theory of motivation is the coach utilizing? *RC: extra credit is extra motivation that pushes certain behaviors*A) Drive-reduction theory D) Incentive theoryB) Insulin deficiency E) Homeostasis C) Instinctual theory

___ 5. According to Abraham Maslow, what is the first level in the hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied in order to reach self-actualization or self-mastery? *RC: remember you can't concentrate if you have not had something to eat; always need to eat a good breakfast*A) Love and belonginess needs D) Safety and security needsB) Aesthetic needs E) Physiological needsC) Cognitive needs

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Hunger

1. Is there more to a person getting hungry than him or her experiencing “hunger pangs?” Yes or No/

2. Where do the most important signals for hunger come from?Blood

a. As food moves from the stomach to the bloodstream, a hormone called ___________ (cholecystokinin) is released; this hormone is detected by the brain, where it acts as a neurotransmitter signifying short-term satiation or fullness.

b. What is another hormone that also signals satiation, which is released into the bloodstream as a result of fat increasing?

___________________

a. When leptin levels remains high a person feels full or satiated.

b. Sugar that the body uses for energy is called?________________________

c. Which hormone converts sugar to energy?_______________________

d. When insulin levels are high/ glucose levels decrease causing a person to become hunger

The Brain’s Role in Hunger

3. What was the first area of the brain to be identified as a control center for hunger?________________________________

a. Researchers believe that the ______________ hypothalamus stops hunger and the _____ hypothalamus initiated or starts hunger.

b. Damage to the lateral hypothalamus would cause an animal to stop eating. The lateral hypothalamus produces a hormone called orexin that triggers hunger.

c. However, damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus did not cause a rat to eat until it exploded, but rather became more particular with what it ate. Damage to the hypothalamus showed that other drives were affected if destroyed. More sophisticated areas of the brain are also involved in hunger.

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Body Weight

4. One-third of the body’s energy is used for energy such as exercising, studying, everyday functions. The other two-thirds are used for vital life functions such as breathing, heart rate, brain-activity.

a. The regulation and expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vial functions is monitored by the basal metabolic rate.

a. As people get older their BMR slows down

b. Women have a slower BMR than men

c. If you don’t eat your BMR will slow down.

Set-Point Theory

5. Homeostasis monitors and maintains internal body weight. The ______________ theory maintains a person’s ideal weight through increasing or decreasing the BMR.

a. Also once fat cells start to increase in number weight gain will be seen and dieting will just cause fat cells to decrease in size not number.

Obesity

6. The measure of a person’s weight in proportion to their height and weight is referred to as the body mass index.

a. Normal BMI is between 18.5- 25

b. Obese people have a BMI of over 30.

a. However the BMI does not take into account muscle mass or bone density.

Eating Disorder

7. An eating disorder characterized by a dramatic drop in calories consumed and an obsession with exercise is referred to as anorexia nervosa

a. Type of eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amount of food and purging- disposing of these calories is referred to as bulimia nervosa

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Achievement and Motivation

8. People who are driven to master a task or achieve a personal goal demonstrate __________________________________________

a. People who try to outdo, or beat, other people demonstrate _________________

b. Who was one of the first psychologists to measure achievement motivation?Henry Murray

c. Which test did Murray use to measure people’s level of achievement motivation?_____________________________________

d. Albert Bandura believed that a person’s level of confidence one has when facing challenges and demands of a situation referred to as __________________ also play a role in a person’s level of success.

Motivation and Work

9. Which type of psychologists applies psychological concepts to optimize the workplace as an effective and productive environment?

_______________________________________

a. Which branch of industrial-organizational psychology tries to match the right job with the right employee through administering personality tests and questionnaires?

Personnel psychology

a. A desire to achieve internal satisfaction and personal achievement is referred to as _________________________________

b. A desire to achieve an external factor like a pay raise or a bonus is referred to as ____________________________________

b. Another field of industrial-organizational psychology that addresses worker satisfaction and productivity in the workplace is called organizational psychology

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___ 1. When insulin levels rise in the body what is the result? *RC: think of a teeter-totter; what does up the other decreases*A) Sugar is stored and a person is satiated.B) Sugar is broken down for energy and a person feels hungry.C) Leptin levels rise and a person is satiated.D) CCK levels are conserved leading to satiation.E) Sugar is broken down leading to feelings of satiation.

___ 2. Which part of the brain is involved in initiating hunger? *RC: remember L stands for "let's eat!"A) Lateral hippocampus D) Ventromedial hypothalamusB) Lateral hypothalamus E) CerebellumC) Ventromedial hippocampus

___ 3. Which of the following statements in INCORRECT concerning obesity? *RC: it takes more effort to move more weight*A) Obesity is indicated by a BMI number greater than 30.B) An obese person has a higher quantity of fat cells in their body.C) An obese person has a slower BMR than non-obese person.D) An obese person may have leptin resistance.E) An obese person stores more fat cells.

___ 4. Which type of personality test is used to measure a person's desire for achievement motivation? *RC: think about tell-a-tale; more competition in the tale the more will to win*A) MMPI B) NEO-PI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) ACT

___ 5. Which statement accurately describes the role of an Industrial-organizational psychologist? *RC: the better organize an industry the better the industry will function*A) Concerned with the well-being and development of a child.B) Ensuring that proper tests are given to preschool children.C) Conditioning and reconditioning of phobic reactions.D) Matching the proper personality with the right job.E) Analyzing and comparing test results on standardized tests.

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Introduction to Emotions

1. Emotions are related to motivation as people are motivated to experience happy emotions. Emotions are based on 3 factors:A. Cognitive appraisalB. Physiological reactions (which are innate)C. Expressive behaviors

2. The central nervous systems and the autonomic nervous system play a role in the activation of emotions. Which part of the autonomic nervous system arouses the body?

________________________________

a. As the body is confronted with a threatening stimulus through activation of the sympathetic nervous system by increasing breathing, heart-rate, muscles tightening, which is referred to as the _________________________

b. Also anger tends to raise skin temperature and fear tends to lower skin temperature.

c. Emotions also cause different areas of the brain to become active. Which part of the limbic system is critical in learning emotions, especially recognizing emotional expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?

___________________________

d. Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary forming facial expressions?Pyramedial motor system

e. Which part of the brain is responsible for natural face expressions?Extrapyramidal motor system

f. The ________ hemisphere is associated with the experience and expression of emotion.

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Theories of Emotion

3. Identify the theories of emotion.

Theory Researchers Definition

_________________________________

William JamesCarl Lange

Emotion is the result of the interpretation of bodily functions

Criticism- if emotions are the result of changes in the body, then somebody with a spinal cord injury would not experience emotion. not true

__________________________________

Walter CannonPhillip Bard

Emotions are the result of the thalamus receiving sensory information about emotional stimuli and relaying the information simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex.

__________________________________

Stanley SchechterJerome Singer

Emotion is the result of the interaction of two separate factors:

Physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is physiological arousal.

_________________ _________________

Richard Lazarus

Emotions are the result of the cognitive appraisal of a situation and how a person decides it will affect his or her well-being

Emotional Expression

4. Carroll Izard believed that certain facial expressions are present at birth- like pain. a. Smiling being around 3-4 weeksb. Anger around 2 monthsc. Fear around 6-7 months

c. Who believed that facial expressions are similar across many cultures?Paul Ekman

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___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for facial recognition and proper emotional response? *RC: remember never make Amy mad because she may become emotional*A) Hypothalamus D) Prefrontal cortexB) Hippocampus E) AmygdalaC) Cerebellum

___ 2. Which theory of emotion suggests that the brain and body simultaneously experience emotion trough relay of the thalamus due to a stimuli response? *RC: Cannon becomes scared as Bard's heart starts to race*A) James-Lange D) Cognitive mediationalB) Cannon-Bard E) Facial feedbackC) Two-factory

___ 3. Which theory of motivation is challenged as the idea of polygraphs do not necessary mean guilt of an act? *RC: remember your heart accelerates the same whether its excitement or anger; James and Lange were friends until James got a girlfriend and Lange lost his best friend- both of them had the same changes in their body*A) Cannon-Bard D) Cognitive mediational B) Facial feedback E) Two-factorC) James-Lange

___ 4. Larry's heart starts to race because he knows that the letter he is holding will read if he is going to be accepted to college? Larry's identification of why his heart is racing is described in which emotional theory? *RC: Oh no! my hear is racing I better find the label to explain to my brain why*A) James-Lange D) Facial feedbackB) Cannon-Bard E) Two-factorC) Cognitive mediational

___ 5. Which of the following statements best explains the difference between the Two-factor and Cognitive mediational theory of emotion? *RC: remember to mediate means to precede over a situation or event*A) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas

the cognitive theory the brain decides the differences in emotional response.B) Two factor looks at the situation; cognitive mediational theory looks at changes

in the body.C) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas

the cognitive mediational theory is explaining the situation one is experiencing. D) Both theories agree on the situation playing a little role and spinal cord separates

what people experience. E) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body

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Introduction to Stress

1. A negative emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that exceed a person’s ability to control them is referred to as stress

a. What type of psychologists study the effects of stress on the body?______________________________

b. Health psychologists believe that biological (genetics, family history), psychological (interpreting of stressful circumstances), and social (where one lives) play a part in a person’s health. This viewpoint is referred to as the biopsychosocial model

Types of Stress

2. Circumstances, events, and situations that contribute to stress are called stressors

a. Minor inconveniences that occur somewhat daily are called daily hassles

b. Events that cause a person’s lifestyle to change are called life changes.

c. According to the Social Readjustment Rating Scale death of a spouse/ death of a parent is considered for an adult the most stressful life change.

Causes of Stress

3. People experience a conflict when they are indecisive about the alternatives.

a. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two appealing or favorable alternatives is called an _________________________

b. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two unappealing or negative alternatives is called an ________________________

c. The most stressful conflict, which involves an alternative that has both positive and negative attributes or parts is called a ___________________________________

d. Type of conflict that involves two choices each with both positive and negative attributes is called a ______________________________________

4. When a goal is blocked this is referred to as frustration.

a. What does a person experience when extra demands are placed on a person to perform or conform?

Pressure

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Stress and the Body

5. Stress can affect the body both indirectly, causing a person to smoke, and also directly through weakening the immune system. Stress directly affects the endocrine system. Walter Cannon found that the body experiences changes at an immediate threat- referred to as the fight-or-flight syndrome:

1. They hypothalamus and lower-brain structures active the ___________________ _________

2. They sympathetic nervous system then activates the adrenal medulla

3. The adrenal medulla release hormones called ________________ (which include the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline that circulated in the body/ and the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine that circulate in the brain)

4. Catecholamine circulate in the bloodstream that cause increases in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, increased blood flow the muscles, pupils to dilate, and digestion to slow.

6. Hans Seyle studied the effects of prolonged stress. He referred to the toll stress has on the body as the ______________________________

a. Fill in Seyle’s GAS chart:

Stage Description______________ Intense body arousal as threat of a stressor is interpreted- causes the

release of catecholamine’s- fight-or-flight syndrome______________ The body trying to adjust to the intense arousal triggered in the alarm

stage- release of corticosteroids_____________ _____________

If stressor continues to arouse body- becomes exhausted which can lead to burn-out

b. Selye also discovered a second endocrine pathway that occurs during exposure to prolonged stress:

1. They hypothalamus triggers the _________________________

2. The pituitary gland then releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

3. ACTH triggers the adrenal cortex to release the stress hormones known as _______________________

4. Corticosteroids increase the release of stored energy and reduce the response of the immune system.

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The Effects of Stress on the Immune System7. Who demonstrated that the immune system could be affected by psychological thought

processes? Robert Adler and Nicholas Cohen

a. This led to the development of psychoneuroimmunology, a field of psychology that looked for connections of the psychological, nervous, and the immune system.

Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness8. Identify different types of handling stress:

Method DefinitionPerceived control

The more sense of control a person has over a situation or circumstances, the less stress that person will encounter

____________ ___________ ___________ ____________

Optimistic: explain negative events through specific explanations and consideration of external factors

Pessimistic: explain negative events with personal vindication and self-defeating attitudes

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman researched the effects of Type A behavior in contrast to Type B. Type A people are impatient and competitive and display anger and irritation frequently. As a result, they have a greater chance of developing heart disease and chronic illnesses.Type B behavior is characterized by a calm, relaxed response style.

Social support Advice and resources provided by knowledgeable and productive friends and family

Coping Strategies9. Coping refers to the adjustments and changes made to handle stressful situations or

circumstances.Strategy Definition______________________ Addressing problem by changing the factors associated with

the problem______________________ Changing certain emotions that are triggered by a stressor

(anger management)

The Role of culture on Stress10. What type of culture, like the United States, tends to keep problems to themselves, and

rely more on problem-focused coping strategies?_____________________________

a. Which type of culture relies more on emotion-focused coping through relying on people and social support?

_____________________________b. What type of stress occurs through the pressure of trying to adapt or assimilate to a new

culture? Acculturative stress

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___ 1. Jimmy wants to buy a car but he is torn because on one hand the car looks sharp, but on the other it gets bad gas millage. Which type of conflict is Jimmy experiencing? *RC: Remember most things have good and bad points; some make you approach and others avoid*A) approach-approach D) double avoidanceB) avoidance-avoidance E) multiple approachC) approach-avoidance

___ 2. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are catecholamine released in turn causing flight-or-flight syndrome in response to a stressful stimuli? *RC: think of catecholamine as fire engines racing out of the fire house at the sound of an alarm*A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Reaction

___ 3. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are corticosteroids released helping the body fight the struggles of prolonged stress? *RC: people are amazed how much energy they have during stressful times; it is because they have little helpers fighting the stress battle*A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Baseline

___ 4. Which of the following would support an optimistic explanatory style? *RC: remember "O there is a good reason why the outcome occurred that way*A) A football player thinks that he should quit because he will never be any good. B) A student who did not picked for a leading role in a play thinks the teacher does

not like him.C) Sarah understands that other students are more qualified as why she did not get

chosen for the leadership.D) Frank says that his parents will call the coach and make sure that he plays the

next game.E) June takes pride in knowing she cheated on the recent exam.

___ 5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Type A behavior? *RC: remember A for angry, agitated....*A) Competitive D) PatientB) Easily annoyed E) Consumed with timeC) Prone to heart disease

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1. Internal and external factors that direct an organism’s behavior towards a desired outcome is referred to as (A)emotion (B) homeostasis (C) motivation (D)arousal (E) behavior

2. Jimmy got up in the middle of night for a drink of water because he was thirsty. Which theory best explains why Jimmy got out of bed? (A) Instinct theory (B) Optimum arousal theory (C) James-Lange theory (D)Drive-reduction theory (E) Self-actualization

3. Jenny wants to leave a party because it is boring and go somewhere that is more exciting. Which theory of motivation would explain Jenny’s reason for leaving the party? (A) Instinct theory (B) Optimum arousal theory (C) Drive-reduction theory (D)Cannon-Bard theory (E) James-Lange theory

4. Joe was motivated to work flex-time at his job because if he worked an extra hour Monday through Thursday he could leave at noon on Friday. Which motivational theory would best explain the rationale for Joe’s wanting to work a flex-time schedule? (A)Drive-reduction theory (B) James-Lange theory (C) Instinct theory (D) Incentive theory (E) Yerkes-Dodson law

5. CCK is a signal for satiety of ___ hunger, and leptin is a signal for satiety of ___ hunger. (A) long-term; short-term (B) short-term; long-term (C) long-term; long-term (D)short-term; short-term (E) none of the above

6. As Tommy was mowing his lawn on a hot summer day, he started to sweat profusely. Tommy began to sweat to cool his body in response to his body temperature becoming too hot. What refers to maintaining a constant internal state within the body?(A)Drive (B) Parallel processing (C) Homeostasis (D)Hemoglobin (E) Activity-synthesis

7. ___ hypothalamus initiates hunger, and ___ hypothalamus stops hunger. (A)Lateral; lateral (B) Ventromedial; lateral (C) Ventromedial; ventromedial (D)Lateral; ventromedial (E) Amygdala; ventromedial

8. Suzy has started to consume less and less food. She also spends three to four hours at the gym working out each day. The mention of food upsets her, and she won’t listen to anybody who suggests that she is not eating enough. Suzy may be suffering from (A)anorexia nervosa (B) bulimia nervosa (C) the misinformation effect (D)serial processing (E) the egocentrism effect

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9. When Jimmy started to learn to play golf, he struggled with the fundamentals. Instead of quitting, Jimmy continued to practice and tried to get better. This pursuit of self-mastery or realization of his potential is referred to as (A) love and belongingness needs (B) safety needs (C) physiological needs (D)personal needs (E) self-actualization

10. The ___, a part of the limbic system, is important in perceiving emotion. (A)hippocampus (B) amygdala (C) hypothalamus (D)pons (E) cerebellum

11. When Julie heard a noise outside her window, her heart started to beat faster, and as a result she became scared. Which theory of emotion could best explain Julie’s response of fear? (A)Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (B) James-Lange theory of emotion (C) Two-factor theory of emotion (D)Cognitive-mediational theory of

emotion (E) Facial-feedback hypothesis

12. Which theory suggests that emotion is the result of applying a cognitive label to explain a physiological reaction? (A)Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (B) James-Lange theory of emotion (C) Schachter-Singer’s two-factor

theory of emotion (D)Cognitive-mediational theory of

emotion (E) Facial-feedback hypothesis

13. ___ psychology is a field of psychology that studies the effects of stress on the human body and shows how to handle stress by promoting a positive lifestyle. (A)Cognitive (B) Behavioral (C) Industrial-organizational (D)Health (E) Social

14. In the fight-or-flight response, the adrenal medulla releases ___, a hormone that alerts the body by elevating heart rate and respiration while tightening muscles. (A)catecholamine (B) corticosteroids (C) melatonin (D) insulin (E) leptin

15. Tracy doesn’t like to talk in front of large groups, so she convinces a co-worker to join her scheduled presentation. Tracy used? (A)Catharsis expression coping (B) Constructive coping (C) Denial coping (D)Perceptual inconsistency coping (E) Self-indulgence coping

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1. Answer: C. Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that affect an organism’s behavior

2. Answer: D. The drive-reduction theory of motivation says that organisms are driven to satisfy

biological needs that are not being met

3. Answer: B. The optimum arousal theory states that people are motivated to maintain a certain

amount of arousal

4. Answer: D. Incentive theory suggests that people are pushed or motivated by appealing stimuli, such

as being able to leave work early on a Friday

5. Answer: B. CCK sends signals that signify short-term satiation, as during a meal, and leptin sends

signals that signify the amount of fat in the bloodstream, which contributes to long-term satiation

6. Answer: C. Homeostasis monitors the internal states of the body, producing tension when levels

become too high or too low

7. Answer: D. The lateral hypothalamus initiates hunger and the ventromedial hypothalamus stops it

8. Answer: A. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by lack of caloric intake, vigorous

exercise, and a fear of gaining weight

9. Answer: E. Self-actualization, according to Abraham Maslow, is on top of the hierarchy of needs and

signifies mastery and working at potential

10. Answer: B. The amygdala is located in the limbic system and is responsible for expressing and

perceiving emotion

11. Answer: B. The James-Lange theory of emotion states that emotions are the result of physiological

changes in the body

12. Answer: C. The two-factory theory of emotion states that emotion is the result of providing a

cognitive label as an explanation for changes in physiological responses

13. Answer: D. Health psychology studies the effects of stress by providing information that helps

people learn what stress is and how it affects the body

14. Answer: A. Catecholamine are released into the bloodstream by the adrenal medulla, where they

work to elevate the heart and breathing rates and increase muscle tension, thus preparing the body for

fight-or-flight

15. Answer: B. Constructive coping strategies address the problem, or the cause of the problem, and seek

a more favorable solution

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Abnormal Psychology

1. The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of psychological or mental disorders is called psychopathology

a. Deviant, maladaptive or harmful behaviors, and disruptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting that cause distress and dysfunction and affect the performance of daily functions are referred to as mental disorders. These disorders can also cause distress for the people who come in contact with these people.

Defining Abnormal Behavior

2. Deviant behavior is defined as being different from the behavior of most people in a particular culture. But. what is normal in one culture maybe abnormal in another culture.

a. Statistical infrequency has been used to define abnormal behavior as a person who displays unusual behaviors are considered abnormal. But, if someone does not partake in mainstream activities, then he or she is not abnormal; just different.

b. Personal suffering alone cannot define abnormal behavior as this person maybe suffering from cognitive difficulties.

c. An approach that focuses on how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior affect, or interfere with, his or her home life, work, and social functioning has been seen as an effective way to define abnormal behavior. This approach is called the practical approach

Explaining Psychological Disorders

3. Who was the first to suggest that mental illness were not the result of demonic possession, but a sickness of the mind? Philippe Pinel

a. What illness helped to confirm Pinel’s suggestion of a sickness of the mind? Syphilis

b. What model suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses associated with specific symptoms to be treated medically? Medical model

c. What is a modern name for the medical model? Neurobiological model

d. What model states that psychological disorders are the result of psychological processes that include the interpretation of stressful events, traumatic events, self-defeating attitudes, thinking patterns, and distorted perceptions? Psychological model

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e. What model suggests that psychological disorders result from societal roles and expectations, environmental location, gender, age, ethnicity, and cultural norms? Sociocultural model

f. What overall model suggests that psychological disorders are the result of the combination and interaction or biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors? Biopsychosocial model

g. Along with the efforts of Dorthea Dix, who was an activist that tiredly lobbied the United States Congress for improved mental health care was able to produce the first generation of mental facilities that redefined the perception for treating people with mental disorders.

Diathesis-Stress Model

4. The biopsychosocial model is very good at identifying which factors could lead to a psychological disorder, but lacks at explaining how these factors lead to a disorder. What model suggests that the amount and type of stress play a crucial role in triggering genetic predispositions that could result in psychological disorders?

__________________________________________

Classifying Psychological Disorders

5. What manual, first published in 1952, provides a common language for all psychologists to identify and classify psychological disorders?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

a. What is the most recent version of this manual? DSM-V

Breaking Down the DSM-V

6. The DSM-V was not written by a single psychologist, but by a group of psychologists including many different ideas, viewpoints, and outlooks. Was released in 2013 replacing the DSM-IV-TR used since 1994. A consideration for the DSM V, was to transcend from a categorical to dimensional approach. Theorists pointed out that there is often an overlap between diagnoses and that some people actually fit several types of disorders. A dimensional maybe more inclusive to people experiencing several disorders.

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Labeling Psychological Disorders

7. Some critics believe that labeling someone with a psychological disorder will cause more harm than good. People may treat this person differently, or the person labeled may now try to live up to the label, which is often explained through the self-fulfilling prophecy of inadvertently living up to the idea or belief. Who suggested that a label is not the same as a description of a person such as unique characteristics and explanations? Thomas Szasz

Anxiety Disorders

8. A noticeable difference from the DSM IV-TR to the DSM V was the reclassification of certain types of anxiety disorders which had been a very broad category. Obsessive-compulsive disorder was removed from anxiety disorders and placed into a category with other similar compulsive tendencies. Post-traumatic stress disorder in now placed into a new category called trauma-related disorders. Worrying, apprehension, and increased physical arousal describe anxiety

a. Extreme feelings of apprehension, which disrupt functioning, and are present for a long time refers to anxiety disorders

b. Identify the following anxiety disorders:

Type Characteristics

_________________

Irrational fear of an object or situation that doesn’t warrant such fear, resulting in avoidance of the object or situationSpecific phobia- a phobia that involves a specific fear- acrophobia- fear of heightsSocial phobia- irrational fears related to social situations; criticism Agoraphobia- irrational fear of open, public places- can lead to someone staying home all the time

__________________ __________________

Mild anxiety not connected to any particular or situation; tends to last for a long time, fatigue, irritability, beliefs terrible things will happen

_________________ Involves sudden occurrence of panic attacks; rapid heart-beat, heavy breathing, dizziness, sweating, and fainting

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

9. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that often lead to ritualistic and repetitive behaviors (compulsions.)

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10. Fill out the following chart of Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders:


_________________________Involves compulsive collecting of many different types of things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go of those objects

_________________________

_________________________

_________________________

An obsessive compulsive preoccupation with flaws in one’s body. This involves continuously observing one’s body and obsession with one’s appearance with comparisons to other people’s body. This is often associated with anorexia but can include other body issues such as feeling one is not muscular or premature blading even though others do not notice.

_________________________ Referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of causing damage to one’s body

__________________________________________________

Occurs when a person compulsively pulls their hair from their body to the point of causing bald spots often focusing on eyelashes or eyebrows

11. Post-traumatic stress disorder involves symptoms of anxiety in response to extreme physical or psychological trauma, causing the person to avoid any situations that resemble the trauma. For example, some Vietnam veterans experienced flashbacks or frequent memory reoccurrences, which then caused them to avoid any situations that resembled aspects of the war.

12. Fill out the following chart of other traumatic-related disorders:

Type Characteristic__________________________________________________

Involves people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and as result become emotionally withdrawn from inability to form a secure attachment

__________________________________________________

Occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life, which could disrupt routines and making progressive changes

__________________________________________________

Occurs when a person experiences distress and anxiety following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury. The onset of the symptoms for acute stress disorder occurs two days to four weeks after the trauma whereas a difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not diagnosed until four weeks after the traumatic event has occurred.

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Causes of Anxiety Disorders

13. Biologically, most anxiety disorders run in families. If one identical twin develops an anxiety disorder, the other twin has an increased chance. Some people inherit a predisposition that causes the automatic nervous system to overreact to stressful stimuli. Research has also shown that people with anxiety disorders have predispositions that affect certain neurotransmitters:

a. A neurotransmitter linked with arousal, tends to be overactive in people experiencing anxiety disorders, which is _______________________

b. A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and mood, shoes a lack of functioning in people exhibiting anxiety disorders- especially OCD and social phobias, which is _________________________

c. Which neurotransmitter, which has inhibitory effects or slowing brain activity, has been shown to be in deficiency or lack of resulting in anxiety symptoms such as racing thoughts? _________________________

d. Psychological factors such as parents modeling anxiety behavior that children observe and model, lack of perceived control- external locus of control.

e. Anxiety disorders could also be the result of conditioning such as “Little Albert.” What Pavlovian term described Albert associating his fear a white rat with other similar stimuli? _____________________

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___ 2. An irrational fear is classified as which type of anxiety disorder? *RC: remember a person should not be fearful of this object or situation? A) Obsessive-compulsive disorder D) Borderline personality disorderB) Post-traumatic stress disorder E) Specific fearsC) Phobia

___ 3. A type of phobia that is characterized by a fear of open places often leading to becoming a shut-in for fear of having a panic attack in public? *RC: remember fear of a panic attack could lead to even more occurrences of panic attacks*A) Agoraphobia D) MisophobiaB) Hydrophobia E) PaicaphobiaC) Acrophobia

___ 4. Sam check and rechecks the lock on his apartment door; in times of despair he has been known to count his heart-beats for hours. Which type of anxiety disorder could Sam be exhibiting? *RC: a reoccurring thought could lead to a behavior that distracts the person from having these thoughts*A) PTSD B) Major depression C) Bipolar D) OCD E) Agoraphobia

___ 5. A possible explanation for anxiety disorder is that a person may have a deficient amount of which of the following neurotransmitters responsible for stabilizing moods? *RC: remember when Sarah is at a party everyone is remains calm and stable*A) Motrin B) Dopamine C) Norepinephrine D) Epinephrine E) Serotonin

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___ 1. What is the name of the manual that psychologists use to diagnose psychological disorders? *RC: remember opinions vary- this provides common language for all psychologists to be on the same page*A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) DSM-V D) RSAP E) PPI


Somatic Symptom Related Disorders

1. Occur when people experience psychological problems associated with physical symptoms that are not linked to a physical cause called somatoform disordersa. Fill out the following table outlining different somatoform disorders:


________________ ________________________________________________

Sensory and motor failure, blindness, deafness, or paralyzed limbs with identifiable physical causeUsually first appears in childhood or adolescence, and under extreme stressPerson usually does not show much concern for inoperative sensory and motor functions

________________________________

Intense feelings of having a physical illness with no justifiable causePerson believes he or she already has disease, whereas people with anxiety disorders have a fear of getting sickVery quickly seek medical treatment

________________ ________________

Occurs when a person is overly concerned and believes that there is something wrong with them resulting in a manifestation that these symptoms will get worse

Causes of Somatic Disorders

2. Some children learn to be sick which equals attention, which then carries over to adolescence and adulthood. Which model suggests that people being overly sensitive to physical sensations during long periods of stress?

Diathesis-Stress model

Dissociative Disorders

3. Rare occurrences that involve sudden and mostly temporary disruptions to a person’s memory, consciousness, and identity are called dissociative disorders

a. Identify the different types of disorders:


________________________A sudden loss of memoryPerson has no recall of previous life, but does not move to a new location as with dissociative fugue

_________________________ _________________________

Person exhibits more than one personality that is unique by style of thinking, feeling, acting, memories

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Causes of Dissociative Disorders

4. Some people who experience memory and identity loss as the result of an episodic traumatic event do not want to deal with the pain. Psychodynamic therapists suggest that dissociative disorders develop as result of a defense mechanism, repression which blocks unwanted impulses and memories from entering consciousness.

a. Who suggested that in any given situation, people act differently depending on both the circumstances and the setting of the situation- acting like another person?

Social-cognitive therapists

b. What famous person was diagnosed with DID? Sybil

Mood disorders

5. In previous edition of the DSM, depression and Bipolar shared the same category, but in the DSM V they each have their own category.

a. Can range from occasional, manageable sadness to extreme episodes of depression that require hospitalization is called depression

b. Identify the different types of depressive disorders:


_______________________ _______________________ _______________________

Person experiences extreme depression, which can last for weeks or months, during which time one or many depressive episodes are experience; minimum of 2 weeks deep depressionChanges in activity level, eating habits, and hygiene that could result in rapid weight loss or gainCognitive problems affecting focusing, remembering, thinkingPerson feels worthless, hopeless, or inadequate, resulting in an inability to function socially or at workSuicidal ideations (thoughts)

______________________Less intense depression; longer duration than major depressionPerson lacks interest in activities, generally feels sadMust have depressive symptoms for a longer period than two years to be classified as dysthymic disorder

____________________________________________

Considered a depressive disorder in children who continuously display irritability and frequent temper tantrums; occurs because children can’t take the same medication as adults for

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Bipolar disorder

____________________________________________

Depression that is frequently associated with the darker winter months called suggest that depression might be linked to body’s internal clock via the suprachiasmatic nucleus triggering to much of the hormone melatonin being released

Bipolar Disorders and Related Disorders

6. The polar opposite of depression, characterized by extreme enthusiasm, an optimistic outlook, and an energetic state of mind is called mania

a. Identify the different types of Bipolar disorders:


_____________ ____________ ____________ ___________

Alternating between periods of deep depression, characterized by major depressive symptoms, and mania, has belief he or she can do anythingBrief “normal moods” between periods of depression and maniaRare, affecting only 1% of adults

_____________Major depressive episodes alternate with periods of hypomania, less severe symptoms of mania compared to bipolar 1Rare: affects only 1% of adults

______________ ______________

Involves alternating periods of depression and mania, but less severe than characteristics associated with bipolar 1Dysthymic disorder couple with hypomania

Causes of Mood Disorders

7. Mood disorders tends to run in families, also researchers have identified a malfunction of chromosome 13, which is connected to the production serotonin as a possible cause

a. Brain abnormalities have been linked to mood disorders; lack of development in the frontal lobes, hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas of the limbic system. Low amounts of the following neurotransmitters have been linked to depression: _________________ , ______________ , and ____________/ whereas excess of these neurotransmitters have been linked to mania.

b. Researchers have also noted that people who are experiencing depression have excessive release of the hormone cortisol in response to stress

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c. Women, who internalize problems more, are at a higher risk for depression. Social-cognitive therapists suggest that learned helplessness giving up after repeating failing at a task may contribute to depression

d. The diathesis stress model indicates that the higher amounts of stress, poverty, crime, etc., the more a biological predisposition of depression could be triggered.

___ 1. Which of the following descriptions is comparable to a person experiencing conversion disorder? *RC: remember sometimes when we are nervous we might get a bad headache*A) James rechecks the locks several times for he goes to bed.B) Suzy experiences episodes of manic moments followed by severe depression.C) Rick has no welfare regard for other people.D) Mitch mentally pushes people away that try to show him affection.E) Ray has the lost ability to see even though there is no medical reasoning for this

outcome. ___ 2. Persistent depressive disorder is characterized by: *RC: remember a common cold

can you make you feel sick, but you are still able to address your daily routines*A) A type of mood disorder that often requires hospitalization.B) A type of mood disorder characterized by extreme moment of mania.C) A type of mood disorder that includes repetitive behaviors and countless

thoughts. D) A type of mood disorder that is characterized by low grade depression.E) A type of mood disorder that is lasts only a few weeks then dissipates.

___ 3. Rick has episodes that often include extreme excitability; however these moments are often followed by severe cases of major depression. Rick maybe exhibiting: *RC: remember Bi- means two like a bicycle has 2 wheels*A) OCD D) Bipolar disorderB) Hyper disorder E) Borderline personality disorderC) Major depression

___ 4. A person recently cannot remember a certain period from their life. These symptoms may be classified as: *RC: remember to dissociate means to separate*A) Dissociative identity disorder D) Dissociative amnesiaB) Dissociative fugue E) Bipolar C) Major depression

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___ 5. A possible explanation for seasonal affective disorder is: *RC: remember light therapy may alleviate symptoms*A) Higher than normal levels of dopamine.B) A deficiency of proteins in the liver.C) A lack of natural light during the winter months.D) A lack of empathy or regard for other people.E) An overwhelming sense of importance placed on one's self.

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

1. A severe and often debilitating disorder that involves patterns of disturbed thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior is called schizophrenia. Tends to affect people equally of different genders, races, SES levels, but women tend to develop it later in life than men leading to less severe symptoms

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

2. Schizophrenia means “split mind,” but should not be confused with split personality. Majority of schizophrenics experience gradual increases in symptoms with the first symptoms appearing early in childhood. About 40% tend to function with mediation. Treatment is more effective in those who had high functioning skills, referred to as premorbid functioning, before the first symptoms appeared.

a. Identify the following symptoms of schizophrenia:

Symptom Characteristic

Neologisms Using words that only have meaning to the person saying them

Clang associations Words based on double meaning or on the way the word sounds

Loose associations One thought doesn’t seem to be connected with another

Word salad Repetition of nonmeaningful statements

_____________________

False and distorted beliefs

Delusions of influence: the belief that one is being controlled by outside forces such as CIADelusions of grandeur: exaggerated beliefs about oneself; the belief that one is godlike Delusions of persecution; belief that others are out to get him or her, someone is always following him or her

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____________________False reports of perceptions

Auditory hallucinations are most common: hearing voicesHallucinations may include seeing, smelling, or feeling things that aren’t really there

Inappropriate emotions Displayed emotions that don’t coincide with the situation

____________________ The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility

Categorizing Schizophrenia

3. Schizophrenics are categorized according to the symptoms they display. Symptoms that include disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions are called ______________ ________________________

a. Symptoms that include a schizophrenics lack of pleasure and motivation, speech skills, and expression of emotion, or flat affect are called __________________________

Causes of Schizophrenia

4. Schizophrenia tends to run in families, identical twin studies have shown that roughly 40% of twins will develop schizophrenia if the other twin shows symptoms

a. Schizophrenics have shown undersized areas of the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and other cortical areas. Malfunctioning prefrontal cortex and enlarged ventricles within the brain have been associated with negative symptoms

b. Positive symptoms have been linked to the excessive amounts and receptor sites of the neurotransmitter ______________ , referred to the dopamine hypothesis. Drugs that block dopamine receptor sites have helped decrease hallucinations and delusions

c. Researchers have also noted that women who experience prenatal viruses during fetal development may have an increased chance of producing a schizophrenic child. In addition, fathers who conceive a child after 45, and a dysfunctional family style could also contribute to schizophrenia

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d. A theory that suggests that schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition and the amount of stress one encounters refers to the vulnerability theory of schizophrenia similar diathesis-stress model

___ 1. A type of symptom associated with schizophrenia that involves improper sensory stimulation and perception; auditory being the most common experience. *RC: remember psychotic implies a break in reality*A) Delusions of grandeur D) Word saladB) Delusions of persecution E) Neologisms C) Hallucinations

___ 2. A type of delusion where a person believes that he or she is more important or has great importance not consistent with reality. *RC: remember grand is greater than life*A) Delusions of illusions D) Delusions of lieB) Delusions of persecution E) Delusions of narcissism C) Delusions of grandeur

___ 3. Delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking are classified as which type of schizophrenic symptoms? *RC: remember the addition of such symptoms makes a person schizophrenic*A) Negative B) Affective C) Pessimistic D) Ritualistic E) Positive

___ 4. A symptom of schizophrenia that is characterized by waxy flexibility and stupor. *RC: remember when cats are frightened they freeze or don't move*A) Paranoid B) Catatonia C) Disorganized D) Residual E) Reflexive

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___ 5. Which of the following neurotransmitters when in excess could lead to the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia? *RC: remember too much dope causes crazy*A) Serotonin D) DopamineB) Endorphins E) Epinephrine C) Acetylcholine

Personality Disorders

a. Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting refers to personality disorders. These disorders tend to start in childhood and continue through adolescence and adulthood. Identify the following personality disorders:

Personality Disorder Characteristics

Cluster A: Odd-Eccentric

__________________ Distrust of others, believe people out to harm themCould react with violence to defend themselves

____________________ No social relationships/ The “hermit”

______________________ Problems with either starting or maintaining relationshipsOdd perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and behavior

Cluster B: Dramatic-Erratic

_______________________Obsessed with being center of attentionVery dramaticEmotionally shallow person

_______________________ Exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and has achieved much success/ Arrogant

______________________ Instability of emotions, impulse control, obsessive fear of being alone, difficulty maintaining relationships and routines

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______________________No feelings of regard for others and their welfareLack of conscience or remorseMost heavily studied personality disorderSociopath and psychopath have describe this disorder

Cluster C: Anxious-fearful

______________________ An enormous need to be taken care of/ Cannot make decisions/ Very needy

______________________ Obsession with order and control/ Perfectionist

_______________________ Oversensitive to criticism/ does not partake in social situations

Antisocial Personality Disorder

1. No single gene has been identified for the antisocial personality disorder. Some behavior in childhood could be correlated to antisocial personality disorder such as impulsivity as a child or diagnosed conduct disorder. Also people with antisocial personality disorder show a lack of functioning in the frontal lobes as well as dysfunctional family settings and attachment problems.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

2. An intellectual developmental disability is determined by a person’s cognitive capacity as well as their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental retardation that was used in DSM-IV.

3. Two categories associated with childhood are externalizing and internalizing disorders. Externalizing disorders affect people in the child’s environment and are linked to conduct issues. A category of externalizing disorders, are mostly exhibited by boys who demonstrate a lack of obedience to authority figures and act aggressively refers conduct disorders

a. Internalizing disorders can cause children to experience depression and anxiety, and to isolate themselves socially. An example of this category that is characterized by a fear of being lost, left behind, or abandoned refers to separation anxiety disorder

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b. Also known as autistic spectrum disorders, are not categorized as externalizing or internalizing; they are characterized by children who are impaired socially and show problems communicating called pervasive developmental disorder

a. Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have problems forming attachments and communicating, and suffer severe cognitive impairments that affect concentration, learning, and social interactions with other called autistic spectrum disorder

b. Research with autistic children has led to the study of mirror neurons, which are linked to the observation and perception of other people’s thoughts and behavior; autistic children show a deficit of mirror neurons

c. A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience problems in social relationships; they also engage in repetitive behaviors refers to Asperger’s disorder

___ 1. Type of personality disorder that is characterized by avoiding people and often leading a life of seclusion. * RC: remember schizoid like to avoid*A) Borderline B) Histrionic C) Dependent D) Schizoid E) Schizoid typical

___ 2. Bill has no regard for other people in terms of their well-being. He often engages in behavior that threatens the safety of others. Bill maybe exhibiting symptoms of which of the following personality disorders? *RC: remember anti means against*A) Borderline B) Antisocial C) Avoidant D) Dependent E) Typical

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___ 3. Which of the following descriptions could describe a person with borderline personality disorder? *RC: remember border means to cross back and forth*A) Rick has no regard for the well-being and safety of others.B) James lives out in the woods where he avoids most people.C) Jesse has a tendency to one day be nice but within the day become very worried,

dependent on others, and angry.D) Simon believes that no one else exists and that he is the most important person in

the roomE) Rita is very suspicious of others; in fact she does not let anyone enter her house.

___ 4. A person who believes they are more important than the reality of the situation and thinks that nobody else matters in terms of their opinion or ideals may be classified as: *RC: it is hard to argue with someone who does not know you exist*A) Dependent B) Avoidant C) Schizoid D) Histrionic E) Narcissistic

___ 5. A possible consequence of an attachment disorder may lead to one of these outcomes? *RC: remember attachment is based on touch and warmth and being with that caregiver *A) Separation anxiety disorder D) Major depressionB) Seasonal affective disorder E) Conduct disorder C) Obsessive compulsive disorder

1. Jimmy and Rich are identical twins who share a genetic predisposition for major depression. Jimmy lives a fast-paced lifestyle that involves a challenging career, travel, and not much time for rest and relaxation. Rich, on the other hand, lives a more relaxed life and enjoys a simpler lifestyle. When they turned 35, Jimmy alone showed symptoms of major depression. Which approach may explain why Jimmy, but not Rich, became depressed? (A) Medical model

(B) Diathesis-stress model (C) Biological model (D) Humanistic model (E) Psychodynamic model

2. According to the biopsychosocial model, genetic predispositions would be an example of which factor(s)? (A) Biological and social (B) Psychological and social (C) Biological

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(D) Psychological (E) Social

3. What refers to the process of investigating possible causes and developmental factors that may contribute to the onset of psychological disorders? (A) Etiology (B) Prevalence (C) Epidemiology (D) Speculation (E) Criteria spectrum

4. Hoarding, which involves collecting and holding onto many items with a difficulty of discarding these items, is related to which of the following disorders:(A) Major depression(B) Dissociative identity disorder(C) Antisocial personality disorder(D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder(E) Persistent depressive disorder

5. A phobia is defined as (A) a repetitive thought followed by a

compulsive act (B) free-floating anxiety that is displayed in

many situations (C) a delusional belief that impairs reality (D) an inaccurate perception (E) an unjustified, irrational fear

6. Sally has reported that she experiences anxiety throughout much of her day. She has no idea why she is experiencing this anxiety, and lately it has become more persistent, making it harder for her to fulfill her daily activities and routines. Sally most likely would be diagnosed with (A) a phobia (B) obsessive-compulsive disorder (C) post-traumatic stress disorder (D) generalized anxiety disorder (E) schizophrenia

7. Luke recently experienced a sudden loss of memory that resulted in his forming a new identity, traveling to a new location and beginning a new life with no memory of his previous life. Luke would most likely be diagnosed with (A) dissociative identity disorder (B) dissociative amnesia (C) dissociative fugue (D) schizophrenia (E) generalized anxiety disorder

8. Persistent depressive disorder is characterized by (A) major depression, including loss of

appetite, feelings of worthlessness, and difficulty functioning at home and at work

(B) fluctuations between periods of major depression and extreme feelings of euphoria

(C) delusions and hallucinations (D) mild depression that persists for more

than two years (E) irrational fears with no justifiable cause

9. A difference between bipolar I and bipolar II disorders is that bipolar II disorder includes (A) a longer period of mania (B) more severe periods of mania (C) less severe periods of mania (D) shorter periods of mania (E) no periods of mania

10. A problem on chromosome ___ seems to be connected with the production of serotonin, which may be linked to the development of mood disorders. (A) 13 (B) 12 (C) 14 (D) 8 (E) 7

11. “Split mind,” used to describe schizophrenia, refers to (A) anxiety-arousing thoughts

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(B) multiple personalities (C) disorganized thinking patterns (D) an inability to function properly (E) catatonic behavior

12. James believes that he is God and that he therefore has tremendous powers. This would be an example of which characteristic of schizophrenia? (A) Delusions of grandeur (B) Delusions of persecution (C) Clang associations (D) Hallucinations (E) Flat affect

13. An example of a positive symptom that involves immobility or holding of part of the body for an extreme amount of time.. (A) paranoid (B) disorganized (C) undifferentiated (D) residual (E) catatonia

14. Excessive receptors of the neurotransmitter ___have been linked to the development of schizophrenia. (A) serotonin (B) GABA (C) dopamine (D) glutamate (E) norepinephrine

15. ___ personality disorder is characterized by an excessive need to be taken care of, difficulty making decisions, and clinging behavior. (A) Histrionic (B) Antisocial (C) Narcissistic (D) Dependent (E) Obsessive-compulsive

1. Answer: B. The diathesis-stress model suggests that the type and amount of stress play a role in

the development of a psychological disorder

2. Answer: C. Genetic predispositions, which can affect neural communication, brain anatomy, and

the nervous system, are associated with the biological component of the biopsychosocial model

3. Answer: A. Etiology refers to identifying the causes and development of the disorder

4. Answer: D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves persistent obsessive thoughts accompanied

by compulsive ritualistic behaviors which includes hoarding

5. Answer: E. Phobias are irrational fears that do not warrant a reaction to such intense fear

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6. Answer: D. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by generalized anxiety that

accompanies many seemingly unrelated situations and circumstances

7. Answer: C. Dissociative fugue is characterized by loss of memory, formation of a new identity,

and relocation to a new environment

8. Answer: D. Persistent depressive disorder is a mood disorder that does not include the extreme

characteristics of major depression and tends to last more than two years

9. Answer: C. Bipolar II disorder includes less severe periods of mania, referred to as hypomania.

Both disorders are characterized by periods of deep depression (MDD)

10. Answer: A. Genes associated with chromosome 13 may be linked to the development of mood

disorders

11. Answer: C. “Split mind” refers to the splitting of thought processes that resemble the

disorganized thinking characteristic of schizophrenia

12. Answer: A. Delusions of grandeur are a characteristic of schizophrenia that include the belief

that one is more important than he or she really is

13. Answer: E. Catatonia is a condition of immobility that could last for an extended period of time.

14. Answer: C. Excessive dopamine receptors have been linked to the development of schizophrenia.

This is referred to as the “dopamine hypothesis”

15. Answer: D. Dependent personality disorder is characterized by clinging behavior, a hard time

making decisions, and an excessive need to be taken care of

Methods of Therapy

1. Psychotherapy and biomedical therapy are two major types of therapy. The interaction between a trained therapist, using psychological techniques, and a client, who is experiencing emotional, behavioral, or interpersonal problems is referred to as psychotherapy

a. The use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical procedures that directly affect the brain and nervous system of a patient experiencing symptoms associated with a psychological disorder is referred to as biomedical

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b. What psychological profession has a medical degree and extensive training in a specialty area making is possible to prescribe medication?

____________________________________

c. Involves using a variety of therapeutic techniques based on the symptoms and needs of the client refers to the eclectic approach

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy

2. Sigmund Freud established the psychodynamic approach to understand the causes of psychological disorder. He was curious why some of his patients who were experiencing blindness, paralysis, or other symptoms, but did not have any physical causes for such experiences. Freud found that many of his clients had traumatic childhood experience, for which he concluded later affected them in life. These traumatic episodes often were repressed into the person’s unconscious, but still affecting their personality and behavior. This led to Freud to the development of _____________________ a method of psychotherapy aimed at revealing and resolving conflicts that are in the unconscious.

a. A psychoanalyst relies on several techniques that help client’s gain insight and understanding into their unconscious conflicts. A technique that involves the client speaking freely about any topic or image that comes into his or her mind is called ___________________________

b. When the client unconsciously tries to block the process of revealing repressed memories this is called ___________________________

c. Dream interpretation helps the therapist and client gain insight into the unconscious through the therapist separating the portion of the dream that is consciously remembered called the manifest content from the unconscious symbolic portion that contains impulses, wishes, and fantasies called the latent content- what Freud was primarily interested in.

d. Slips of the tongue, or statements accidentally made by the client, that could reveal unconscious content are called ____________________________

e. The most important technique, ____________________, occurs when the patient unconsciously responds to the therapist as though he or she were a significant person in his or her life and responsible for some moment or conflict that has occurred.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis

3. Traditional psychoanalysis is still practiced today, but not as often because people find the sessions too long and expensive, and not relative to modern problems. In response,

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short-term psychodynamic therapy evolved- less expensive, time-consuming, but still investigating the unconscious.

a. A version of psychoanalysis therapy, that helps clients cope with present problems and situations is called interpersonal therapy

Humanistic Psychotherapy

4. What perspective emphasizes striving for and reaching human potential, the belief that people are inherently good, and are motivated through a desire to grow psychologically?

Humanistic

a. A person’s thoughts or a perception of him or herself is called the self-concept. Humanists believe disorders develop when a person’s growth process is stopped or interfered with by an unhealthy environment. Therapy is aimed at helping the individual rediscover thoughts and behavior that will further continue his or her growth. This is accomplished through the client feeling comfortable and secure in the presence of the therapist and the surroundings.

Client-Centered Therapy

5. Carl Rogers, once a psychodynamic therapist, now a humanist therapist believed that the client should take a more active role in the therapeutic process through actively sharing and directing the session. Therefore, the therapist should be passive and allow the client to discover their conflicts and resolutions that befuddle them. He referred to this approach as ___________________________________ , that required 3 guidelines provided by the therapists: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence.

a. Identify the characteristics associated with client-centered therapy:

Client-Centered therapeutic techniques

Characteristics

Treating the client as a valued person

Listening to the client without being judgmental or interrupting or expressing opinion

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__________________________ Trying to accept client through consideration of their background and setting

The client should overcome feelings of inferiority through this characteristics

__________________________

The therapist tries to see problems form the client’s perspective

Understands what the client is going through and how its affecting the client’s decision-making

Use of reflection, an example of active listening, which repeats the client’s thoughts and concern, while adding supportive comments

__________________________

The therapist tries to be consistent with how his or her thoughts and feelings are directed toward the client

If the therapist does not understand a comment by the client, he or she will inquire, instead of just continuing with the session

The therapist is open and honest with the client leading to trust and respect from the client

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___ 1. Which of the following professions has to have medical degree in order to prescribe medications? *RC: requires two degrees; medical and psychiatry* A) Community psychologists D) PsychiatristsB) Gestalt psychologist E) Cognitive psychologists C) Social worker

___ 2. A psychoanalytical technique that involves the patient talking readily about anything and everything that comes to their mind. *RC: remember when you have a long conversation on the phone you often cannot remember the next day what you talked about*A) Resistance D) HesitationB) Transference E) Dream analysis C) Free association

___ 3. A psychoanalytical technique that occurs when the patient unconsciously refuses to discuss a topic or a part of their life. *RC: most people don't want to talk about things that are bothering them*A) Resistance D) InterpretationB) Transference E) Sessional pressureC) Free association

___ 4. A patient suddenly begins to yell at the therapist comparable to the way he would yell at his father. In this dialogue he accuses the therapist of not being there for him. In psychoanalysis this is termed: *RC: to transfer means to place onto others*A) Resistance D) Latent contentB) Transference E) Manifest contentC) Interpretation

___ 5. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the purpose of Carl Roger's Client-centered therapy? *RC: if you dominate or are the center of the conversation you will often answer your own questions*A) A patient ascribes their feelings onto the therapist; meant for his mother.B) James refuses to talk about a problem from his childhood.C) Rachel's therapist remains passive insisting that she find a solution for her

problem. D) James is told to describe the components of a dream he had.E) William is told to imagine a happy situation when he gets scared of buildings.

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Gestalt Therapy1. Fritz Perls and his wife Laura developed a version of humanistic therapy, influenced by

Gestalt psychology, with the belief that people actively process information from the environment, resulting in the person’s own version of reality- that either promotes or prevents psychological growth. This therapy was called Gestalt therapy

a. The goal of Gestalt therapy is to make clients aware of their environment in actual and realistic way

Behavior Therapy2. Proposes that psychological problems originate from learned behavior and that learned

behaviors that contribute to psychological problems can be unlearned refers to behavior therapya. This type of therapy combines the principles of the behavioral and social-cognitive

approach and incorporated the ideas of John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Ellis. There are different types of behavioral therapy;

1. Behavior therapy utilizes the principles of classical conditioning2. Behavior modification focuses on the principles of operant conditioning3. Cognitive-behavior theapy addresses both thoughts and behaviors associated with the

problem

Behavior Techniques Emphasizing Classical Conditioning3. Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, behavioral therapists believe that association leaning

does not only occur between natural and unnatural stimuli, but between stimuli and emotional reactions, for example, Watson and Rayner’s work with “Little Albert.” On the other hand, who contemplated whether or not established learned fears could be reversed and replaced with productive response? _____________________________

a. Mary Cover Jones worked with her client, “Peter,” who was afraid of furry animals, especially rabbits. She developed a process that entailed the learning of a new conditioned response that is the opposite of the original learned response called ___________________________________ .

b. Her work with Peter involved Peter making a new association between the rabbit and himself.

1. She brought the rabbit into the room- visible but far enough away where Peter not to have fear (his original conditioned response)

2. Next she had Peter eat his favorite snack, milk and crackers while he viewed the rabbit

3. The goal was to have Peter establish the good feelings associated with eating his favorite food with the rabbit- (replacing fear with good feeling- counterconditioning)

4. Jones also used observational learning by having Peter watch other boys enjoy playing with rabbits and not expressing fear

5. After 2 months, Peter eventually held a rabbit as he ate his favorite snack

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Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques4. Joseph Wolpe developed another type of counterconditioning therapy that involved the

gradual learning of a new conditioned response that will replace, or inhibit, an established maladaptive response such as fear or anxiety called ______________________________

a. There are 3 steps involved in the process of systematic desensitization:

1. The patient experiences progressive relaxation techniques- learning how to relax each muscle

2. The patient is then asked to generate a list of anxiety provoking stimuli associated with the phobia or problem (anxiety hierarchy) ranging from most to least stressful. The patient is asked to imagine a relaxing moment called the control scene each time anxiety is presented or evoked.

3. The actual process of desensitization begins when patients, while relaxed, first imagine the first stressful event identified in their hierarchy; the patient progresses through the list until anxiety arises when then the patient is told to recall their control scene of relaxation

b. Once the patient reaches the top of the hierarchy he or she is presented the fearful object or situation, while the hope is that the patient has replaced the original established response of fear with a new productive response

c. A recent application of systematic desensitization allows clients to experience their fears in a controlled computerized setting with a real-world context called virtual realizty graded exposure

a. Direct exposure to the feared image or event is referred to as _________________

b. This process is referred to as _________________, which produces constant exposure to the object. The hope is that the client learns nothing bad is going to happen- this is similar to the last step of systematic desensitization

Aversion Conditioning

5. _______________________ is also based on the principles of classical conditioning and involves pairing a harmful stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus, a distasteful substance

a. A person, who drinks alcohol too much, is given disulfiram (a drug when mixed with alcohol causes nausea) that when the person drinks alcohol while on this drug will become sick- the new conditioned response

Behavioral Therapies that Emphasize Operant Conditioning

6. Operant conditioning is the belief that behavior is shaped through followed consequences. The belief that maladaptive behavior can also be modified through consequential actions is held by ________________________________________

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a. Positive reinforcement and extinction are two operant terms that have been applied to the behavioral modification processes.

b. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a desired behavior is performed- increasing the chances that the behavior will be repeated. ___________________ operate on the principles of operant conditioning, specifically using the concept of positive reinforcement. In this setting, a person is given a token for each desired behavior and then the person is allowed to use these tokens to purchases things. Token economies are used in mental hospitals and rehabilitations.

c. _____________ is another operant technique sued to extinguish or stop an undesirable behavior. People often perform actions because they are rewarded for their responses. If a person does not receive expected reinforcement (referred to as nonreinforcement) then the person will not perform the action again- extinguishing the response.

d. Punishment is also used- the presentation of an undesirable response or the removal of a pleasant stimulus in response to an undesirable action or behavior

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy7. Behavioral therapists recognize that causes of many disorders are linked to different

styles of thinking, the utilization of learning principles to change people’s negative thought patterns refers to ___________________________________

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy8. Albert Ellis developed ________________________________ (REBT) based on his

belief that distorted expectations and irrational beliefs contribute to psychological disorders. He believed that it is not the event itself, as people think, but the interpretation or beliefs about the event that actually leads to consequences or psychological disorders

a. Fill out the chart that describes Albert Ellis’ REBT model

ABC Model Example

____________________ The individual can’t find a date for the prom

___________________ “I guess nobody likes me enough to go with me to the prom”

__________________ Feelings of depression

b. Ellis, with the above example, would suggest to the client that there could be other reasons why they don’t have date for prom. Once the client was made aware of their self-defeating thinking patterns, he or she would replace these once thoughts with

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more productive interpretation of the event. This therapy has been very helpful with depression, phobias, and anxiety disorders.

___ 1. Which of the following procedures is used primarily to treat phobia involving associating a fearful stimuli with a progressive relaxation technique in hopes to eliminate a maladaptive conditioned response? *RC: remember to desensitize means to make less sensitive or to eliminate*A) Phobia training D) Systematic desensitizationB) Free association E) Toke economyC) Transference

___ 2. During systematic desensitization, the highest step in the anxiety hierarchy is often the most fearful. If a therapist chooses to bypass the previous steps in the hierarchy and expose the person to the most fearful then this is called: *RC: think of Fear Factor- being exposed or flooded with your worst fears*A) Passive training D) TransferenceB) Exposure training E) Resistance C) Flooding

___ 3. During an evening’s festivities Marcy drank too much alcohol; and as a result she got very sick throughout the night. The next Marcy stated that she was not going to drink alcohol anymore. This situation is comparable to which of the following therapeutic techniques? *RC: remember aversion means negative result or outcome*A) Flooding D) Systematic modelingB) Transference E) Aversion therapy C) Resistance

___ 4. Which of the following situations is an example of a token economy? *RC: think of extra credit delivered in a classroom; it encourages good behavior*A) Lucy gets a gold star each time she raises her hand in class.B) Larry is placed in the hallway when he acts accordingly.C) Jerry is laughed at when he makes a mistake in class.D) Homer is shocked when imagines a fearful stimuli.E) Linda is told to take a pill that when mixed with alcohol will make her sick.

___ 5. According to Albert Ellis's Rational-Emotive therapeutic approach, which of the following statements would Ellis contribute to a person's problematic approach as described in the ABC model? *RC: hard to eliminate the outcome; but easier to address the thoughts about the outcome*A) Rick did not make the team at school and knows he just have tried harder.B) Mary believes her dreams are the reasons for her outcomes.C) Jenny thinks that nobody likes her and will never ask her out.D) Richard has low levels of dopamine in relation to his feelings of self-worth.E) Mitch's parents will not let him attend the school dance.

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Cognitive Therapy

1. Aaron Beck, originally trained as a psychoanalyst, developed _____________ therapy based on the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, distorted perceptions, and interpretations of events that contribute to psychological disorders. Beck believed people would “blow things out of proportion.”

a. Cognitive therapy is a directive approach where clients actually go out and test distorted beliefs and assumptions. Clients will report back their actual experiences and the therapist will build on positive encounters. If there was a negative encounter the CT will provide a rational explanation often to the client’s irrational thought

Group Therapy2. Individualized therapy allows a personal relationship between client and therapist, but the

client is unable to interact with other people. A approach that allows one or more therapists to work with several people at the same time, observing social and interaction skills is called _____________________________

a. Group therapy offers several advantages:

1. Therapists are able to work with several people experiencing similar problems and are able to observe interaction skills

2. It is cost effect for the people participating3. Participants are able to gain an understanding from listening to others with

similar problems4. Group therapy is conducted by a trained mental health professional, while

non-health professionals tend to direct support and social groups. b. Focusing on how each member of a family contributes to the family structure

is called family therapy with the aim to make each member aware of the other members and teach togetherness or to operate as a system

c. Marital and couple therapy is similar to the structure of family therapy, especially emphasizing communication

Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches 3. Clients and psychotherapies both agree that therapy can be positive and productive, but

often evidence is needed. The gathering of large amounts of data from a variety of sources and then presenting the data in a single report is called a meta-analysisa. The hardest part to measure is clients’ motivation to attend, especially if it was

required. Data has provided evidence that cognitive, behavior, and interpersonal therapies have been effective for treating depression.

b. Cognitive, behavior, and exposure therapies have been effective for treating anxiety disorders such as phobias, panic disorder, and OCD

c. Cognitive-behavior therapy has proven beneficial for treating eating disorders and behavior modification for bed-wetting

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Biomedical Therapy4. Psychological disorders, which have physical causes, have been treated with drugs and

other medical procedures. Destroying tissue in regions of the brain for treating psychological disorders is called __________________________

a. Egos Moniz developed a procedure that involved inserting a sharp instrument into the front part of the brain and moving it from side to side, severing neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain called ___________________________

b. Used for severe depressive patients who didn’t respond to drug treatments; a brief electrical shock was thought to simulate and increase neural activity in the brain reducing depression, and sometimes schizophrenia is called _________________ _______________________

a. ECT sometimes produces memory loss, seizures, speech disorders, confusion, and patients usually relapse with symptoms

Psychoactive Drugs5. The emergence and increased use of psychoactive drugs has become the most popular

biomedical type of therapy.

Neuroleptics6. Used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia such

as hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and confusing speech are ___________

a. Chlorpromazine (thorazine in the USA) and haloperidol are two of the most widely used antipsychotic medications

b. A side effect associated with antipsychotic drugs that is an irreversible movement disorder characterized by uncontrollable repetitive actions that involve facial twitching and rapid movements of the arms and legs is called ___________________

c. The newer generation of antipsychotic drugs, called atypical neuroleptics, includes Clozapine, which causes fewer muscle movement problems. Clozpine has been helpful at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Antidepressants7. Prescribed to treat depression, increase the amount of the neurotransmitters

norepinephrine and serotonin are called antidepressants

a. People who use antidepressants often don’t notice improvements for several weeks. Tricyclics and MAO inhibitors were first generations antidepressants, but produced negative side affects

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b. Second generation antidepressants, including trazodone and bupropion produced fewer side effects, but were not as effective.

c. The third group of antidepressants has been most successful. ________________ __________________ (SSRIs), these drugs do not act on multiple neurological pathways, focusing only on serotonin. SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, allowing this NT to remain in the synapses, increasing the chances that serotonin will be more available the next time the neuron fires.

a. Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil are examples of SSRIs. Dual action depressants have recently been released that work on both serotonin and norepinephrine, but have produced more side effects than the original SSRIs.

Antianxiety Medications8. Also referred to as anxiolytics, are prescribed to help people deal with anxiety called

antianxiety medicationsa. Most popular types of antianxiety medications are the benzodiazepines, Valium and

Xanax, which reduce the symptoms of anxiety by increasing the level of the neurotransmitter GABA, which inhibits brain activity.

b. A newer antianxiety drug, BuSpar, has had fewer side effects- especially alertness as the original benzodiazepines did

Lithium9. Used to treat bipolar disorder called ___________________, which treats both the manic

and depressive episodes. Lithium has been helpful and controlling the levels of the NT glutamate, which has excitatory effects in the braina. Depakote is new drug used for Bipolar, especially those who did not respond to

lithium

Evaluating Drug Treatments10. Drug treatments have been successful, but many researchers point out some problems

associated with taking drugs:a. Drugs simply masks the problemb. Some clinicians are over prescribing medications to people who may not be at that

point when they need it c. Some drugs produce side effects worse than the psychological symptoms, and some

people become addicted to the medications

Community Psychology11. There was a growing concern that individuals were not benefiting from mental hospitals,

which led to ________________________ the process of releasing patients from hospitals, which then led to shutting down many of these hospitals.

a. This result led to ___________________________ , a movement to decrease or prevent psychological disorders through offerings in community health programs. This is especially useful for the homeless, or people that can’t get help.

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___ 1. All of the following are benefits of group therapy EXCEPT: *RC: remember their is strength in numbers*A) You can identify with others who share common problems.B) You may learn different approaches through listening to others describe their

situations.C) Typically group therapy is very expensive in relation to other types of therapy.D) You have a chance to relate to the background similar to your background.E) You have established a support team for future assistance.

___ 2. A type of psychosurgery that is primarily used to treat major depression through the administration of electrical currents; but used sparingly as side effects include memory loss and short-term positive results? *RC: action potentials are based on electrical activity*A) Lobotomy B) SSRIs C) Cognitive stimulation D) ECT E) Etiology

___ 3. What is the design of an SSRI that is used to treat depression? *RC: think of a vacuum cleaner turned off the dirt is allowed to stay in the carpet*A) It increases the reuptake process causing neurotransmitters to remain in an

excited state.B) It slows down the reuptake process allowing serotonin to bind to its appropriate

dendrite destination.C) It slows down the reuptake process allowing acetylcholine to bind to its

appropriate dendrite destination.D) It causes the synapse to increase in dimension.E) It causes the synapse to decrease in dimension.

___ 4. Which of the following medications is commonly used to treat bipolar disorder? *RC: remember salt is a stabilizer*A) Thorazine B) Prozac C) Lithium D) Zoloft E) Calcium

___ 5. A side effect associated with administering neuroleptics to treat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia; symptoms similar to Parkinson disease is called: *RC: results from lowering the levels of dopamine- responsible for hallucinations*A) Tardive relaxation D) Conversional disorderB) Tardive dyskinesia E) Delusional tracks C) Serotonin deficiency

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1. What type of therapist has a medical degree and therefore is able to prescribe medications? (A) Clinical psychologist (B) Social worker (C) Counselor (D) Psychiatrist (E) Psychiatric nurse

2. Psychoanalysis is a method of (A) treatment that helps patients gain an

understanding and possible resolution of conflicts hidden in the unconscious that may be responsible for psychological disorders

(B) reversing learned behaviors that are now associated with psychological disorders

(C) developing and promoting a healthy self-concept

(D) examining thoughts and actions connected with psychological disorders

(E) group interaction and social skill development

3. The process in psychoanalysis in which a patient reports on whatever thoughts, memories, or concerns come to mind is called (A) resistance (B) empathy (C) transference (D) latent content (E) free association

4. In a psychoanalytical session, the following dialogue demonstrates which term? Psychoanalyst: “Why don’t you tell me more about your mother?” Patient: “You were never there for me—why did you do the things that you did?” (A) Resistance (B) Transference (C) Empathy (D) Unconditional positive regard (E) Manifest content

5. Who believed that during the therapeutic session a therapist should demonstrate unconditional positive regard, empathy or active listening, and genuineness in the hopes that the client or patient could then identify personal problems and later develop possible solutions? (A) Sigmund Freud (B) Fritz Perls (C) Carl Rogers (D) B. F. Skinner (E) Albert Ellis

6. Suzy doesn’t like to make speeches. Every time she gets up in front of people she starts to shake and becomes increasingly nervous. Which therapeutic perspective would explain Suzy’s response as a result of negative associations? (A) Humanistic (B) Psychodynamic (C) Cognitive (D) Gestalt (E) Behavior

7. Who conducted the first research to use the technique of counterconditioning? (A) Joseph Wolpe (B) Mary Cover Jones (C) Carl Rogers (D) Fritz Perls (E) Margaret Floy Washburn

8. In certain rehabilitation centers, patients are given coupons for good behavior that later can be used to buy desirable merchandise or acquire certain privileges. This process is referred to as (A) systematic desensitization (B) client-centered therapy (C) Gestalt therapy (D) token economies (E) transference

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9. Larry was just hired by a company to develop a new marketing campaign for their product. Larry, however, has a childhood phobia of heights and this new job requires him to work on the top floor. Which therapeutic technique would teach Larry to associate relaxation instead of fear with heights and tall buildings? (A) Group therapy (B) Systematic desensitization (C) Psychodynamic therapy (D) Client-centered therapy (E) Gestalt

10. What factor would Albert Ellis agree could potentially contribute to a psychological disorder? (A) Learned behaviors (B) Conflicts that occur within the

unconscious (C) A defeated self-concept (D) Beliefs that surround an event. (E) Latent issues

11. Who would suggest that cognitive distortions or errors in logic that are blown out of proportion could lead to psychological disorders? (A) Sigmund Freud (B) Ivan Pavlov (C) Carl Rogers (D) Aaron Beck (E) Mary Cover Jones

12. After listening to several people’s testimonies, Jimmy was able to form a network of support through identifying with certain people who share the same concerns and problems. Which form of therapy offers this opportunity? (A) Systematic desensitization (B) Psychodynamic therapy (C) Client-centered therapy (D) Gestalt therapy (E) Group therapy

13. Which type of therapy is commonly used for depression and administers an electrical shock to help stimulate brain activity? (A) Psychosurgery (B) Electroconvulsive therapy (C) Psychodynamic therapy (D) Client-centered therapy (E) Behavior therapy

14. Which drug has been used as alternative to lithium for treating bipolar disorder? (A) Thorazine (B) Prozac (C) Paxil (D) Depakote (E) Valium

15. Tardive dyskinesia was associated with which type of psychoactive drug? (A) Antidepressants medications (B) Neuroleptics (antipsychotic

medications) (C) Antianxiety medications (D) Lithium (E) Tranquilizers

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1. Answer: D. A psychiatrist has a medical degree allow him or her to prescribe medications to patients

2. Answer A. Psychoanalysis identifies and explains possible conflicts that are present in the

unconscious and might be at the root of a psychological disorder

3. Answer: E. Free association is a psychoanalytical technique in which patients report any thoughts,

memories, or concerns that come to mind

4. Answer: B. Transference is when a patient transfers his or her feelings from earlier life experiences

onto the therapist

5. Answer C. Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy, which encouraged the client to become

more involved in the sessions. This approach helps the client gain insight into his or her problems and

their causes and believes in the importance of the client’s role in healing

6. Answer: E. Behavioral therapy believes that psychological disorders are the result of learned

associations between certain stimuli and emotional responses

7. Answer B. Through her work with Peter and the rabbit, Mary Cover Jones was able to demonstrate

that learned fears could be counterconditioned

8. Answer: D. Token economies involves giving tokens or rewards after a desired behavior has been

displayed. The tokens can later be used to buy specific merchandise or trade for special privileges

9. Answer: B. Systematic desensitization is a type of behavior therapy that is based on the principles of

classical conditioning. The client is taught relaxation techniques that will replace previously learned

maladaptive responses, like fear, that have been associated with an anxiety provoking stimuli. This is

referred to as counterconditioning

10. Answer: D. Albert Ellis believed that the negative beliefs that accompany the outcome of an event

are responsible for the consequences associated with psychological disorders

11. Answer: D. Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy based on his belief that symptoms associated

with psychological disorders, especially depression, could be traced to cognitive distortions that

misinterpret events

12. Answer: E. Group therapy involves interaction among many people assembled in a setting that

encourages sharing and revealing solutions to solve individual problems

13. Answer: B. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used to treat depression. An electrical current is

delivered to the brain to increase brain activity

14. Answer: D. Depakote has been used as alternative to lithium when lithium has been not been

effective in treating bipolar disorder

15. Answer: B. Tardive dyskinesia, a condition that resembles Parkinson’s disease and produces muscle

problems, was one possible side effect of neuroleptics, the first antipsychotic medications to be

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released

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Research MethodsCritical thinking

1. Researching with factual information in order to arrive at a valid conclusion refers to critical thinking

a. An educated guess of a specific or testable prediction, is considered the first step in research and refers to a hypothesis

b. The definition of how the research will be tested, including the precise definitions of how each variable will be used refers to __________________________

c. Operational definitions clarify how the researcher plans to test his or hypothesis through identifying variables. Any factor that may influence the outcome is called a variable

2. A theory is an explanation of the recorded data used to explain what is being studied or a phenomenon. What is the main difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

Theories not created as a hypothesis is; rather an explanation of the results of hypothesis

Research Methods in Psychology

3. Psychologists aim to meet four goals when conducting research: describe a phenomenon, predict future or past behavior, control current or past behavior, and explain how and why a phenomenon occurred. As a result, researchers rely on different methods to accomplish these goals. Discuss the following methods in terms of their advantages and disadvantages.

Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages

______________________________

Involves watching participants in their natural environment

Can observe the subject in natural environment

May have to infer information based on observationsCan’t control environment

______________An in-depth examination of a rare phenomenon that occurred with an individual, small group, or a situation

Can examine, in depth, rare occurrences

Can’t generalize findings to entire populationSituation may never occur again- hard to theorize

_______________

Administration of questionnaires or interviews used to identify attitudes,

Can obtain information from large number of

Subjects may lie Subjects may not represent entire population

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beliefs, opinions subjects

Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages

______________________________

Examines the relationships between two or more variables

Researcher can see whether variables are related

Just because related does not mean causation or one variable caused another variable/ there could always be a third variable

_____________

Attempt to prove causation by allowing the researcher to manipulate one or more variables and measure their outcome

Can prove whether one variable causes the outcome

Can’t always account for confounding variablesLaboratory setting is different than real world experiences

4. Which of the above methods are considered descriptive methods that describe phenomenon, behavior, or attitudes?

Naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys

Experiments: An In-depth Look

5. What is the only accurate method to prove cause-and-effect phenomenon?______________________

a. In an experiment, what is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter?_______________________

b. Which is the measurable outcome or resulting effect of the manipulated variable?____________________________

a. Variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher but may influence the results are called __________________________

C. Which group in an experiment receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent variable?

_________________________

a. Which group in an experiment does not receive any treatment or exposure to the independent variable and is used for comparison to conditions and effects of the experimental group?

__________________________

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6. Confounding variables are variables that could affect the outcome or dependent variable of an experiment. Subjects who act as they believe the experimenter wants them to act refers to participant bias. The experimenter’s actions that could influence the outcome of the experiment is called experimenter bias/ expectancy.

7. An experiment design in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know who is in the experimental group or control group refers to a ____________________and could reduce participant/ experimenter bias.

Selecting Human Participants

8. Selecting participants from the population that closely match the population being studied is called the _________________________

9. Categorizing the desired target population and selecting participants that best represent a particular category of interest is referred to as a stratified sample,

b. Selecting participants from a population that the experimenter wishes to study refers to ____________ . Selecting participants in a manner that ensures each member of the population has the same possibility of being selected is called ____________________

b. Selecting participants in a manner that does not allow for all potential subjects to have an equal chance of being selected refers to sampling bias.

10. After participants are chosen through random sampling, researches use the method of _____ _________________allowing all participants the same opportunity of being placed in a participation- control or experiment group.

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___ 1. A procedure that describes how research will be conducted that also allows other researchers to be able to replicated the same research. *RC: How research operates depends on how you define the procedure*A) Case study D) Random assignmentB) Correlational data E) Random samplingC) Operational definitions

___ 2. Dr. Hue is considering studying the effects of Vitamin on students' ability to answer questions correctly on a test. In this particular hypothesis, what type of variable is Vitamin B considered? *RC: Think of what the researcher is IN-terested in testing.*A) Dependent variable D) RandomizationB) Independent variable E) Correlational coefficientC) Confounding variable

___ 3. Forty-five students took part in a four-month study that looked at how imagery could help people retain numbers displayed on a screen for a brief amount of time. The study revealed that imagery did help people remember more numbers from the list thus validating the hypothesis. In this particular study what was identified as the dependent variable? *RC: Remember The outcome DEPENDS on how you measure it*A) Time allowed to answer a question D) People in the studyB) The imagery E) The person's intellectual abilityC) Numbers remembered

___ 4. What is potentially one flaw when utilizing a correlational study? *RC: Remember there can always be other factors responsible for a relationship*A) Correlational studies require a lot of time to see an actual relationship.B) Correlational studies require manipulating more than one variable.C) Correlational studies do not make predictions.D) Correlational studies require multiple researchers simultaneously working

together.E) Correlational studies may hint but do not provide causational evidence.

___ 5. Which of the following procedures would ensure that each member in a research design is given the same opportunity to be part of the experiment or control condition? RC: Remember you have to randomly ASSIGN people to different experimental conditions*A) Random sampling D) Hindsight biasB) Random assignment E) Operational definitionC) Correlational design

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Statistical Analysis of ResearchDescriptive studies

1. Data that are used to numerically summarize or describe the results for the targeted population refers to descriptive studies

2. The gathering of data and arranging the information to indicate how often a score occurs refers to frequency distribution

3. Define the 3 measures of central tendency.

a. Mean- average numerical value of all presented data

b. Median- numerical value of all presented data

c. Mode- numerical value that appears most often in presented data

4. Data that is arranged in a manner that resembles a normal curve refers to normal distribution

a. What is referred to a bell-shape curve or inverted U, which graphically represents the occurrence of all the scores in a given set of data?

Normal curve

5. The difference of the numerical value of all given scores arranged from highest to lowest values within a distribution is called the range

6. The variability between scores and how far each diverges from the average/ mean is referred to as the standard deviation

7. The numerical relationship between two or more variables or factors, is often used to see how two or more variable or factors relate to each other describes a ____________________

a. Correlational studies are represented by a histogram or scatterplot

b. A numerical value demonstrating the strength or weakness of the relationship between 2 or more variables or factors is referred to as the ____________________________

c. The closer the numerical value is to ______ or ________ the stronger the relationship.

d. Even though two variables are related this does not mean that:________________________________________________

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e. What type of correlation occurs when either variables or factors move in the same direction? _________________ . For example, the more classes a student attends the higher his or her final grade will be.

f. Negative correlation occurs when: ___________________________________________ __________

g. An incorrect belief that supposes one variable affected the outcome is referred to as an ____________________________

Inferential Statistics

8. What do inferential statistics allow a researcher to do?

To apply results to the general population and infer whether data can be generalized to population at large

9. The resulting correlation is not influenced by chance refers to the conclusion being ________________________

Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists

10. Who sets the guidelines for all research in terms of it being conducted?American Psychological Association (APA)

11. Define the following guidelines that must be utilized when conducting research.

a. Informed consent- participants have agreed to be part of the experiment

b. Debriefing: participants are allowed to view the results after the experiment is completed

c. Confidentiality: results are not released to the general public indicating names or personal information

d. Harmful treatment: no harm should be done to the participant during study

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___ 1. Which of the following correlational coefficients would indicate the strongest relationship between two variables? *RC: Remember 1 is a powerful number* A) -.096 B) +.096 C) -0.98 D) +0.098 E) -0.77

___ 2. Jimmy thinks that there is a relationship between a full moon and people acting out of the ordinary. This belief is described as a: *RC: Remember an illusion is something that does not exist"A) Positive correlation D) Half correlationB) Negative correlation E) Inverse correlation C) Illusory correlation

___ 3. Which of the following defines describes standard deviation? *RC: To deviate means to vary from the norm or average*A) How scores vary from the average or the mean.B) The middle score in a frequency distribution.C) The number that occurs the most in a frequency distributionD) The top number in a range.E) The bottom number in a range.

___ 4. Which of the following terms states that the results are not due to chance- but rather empirical evidence:? *RC: Remember the scale does not lie- numbers or stats never lie*A) Inferential statistics D) Standard deviationB) Mean E) Statistical significance C) Frequency distribution

___ 5. A requirement of the APA Ethical Guidelines for research that instructs researchers to discuss the purpose and results of the study to participants after they have participated in a research design to ensure that deception was not used during the process. *RC: To brief someone is to give them DEtails about the situation*A) Informed consent D) Fair practiceB) Debriefing E) Unequal assistanceC) Liability

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1. Professor Marianos is conducting an experiment on the effects of chalk dust on memory retention. Two groups are given the same memory test. Participants in group A are exposed to chalk dust for 30 minutes a day, while those in group B are not exposed to chalk dust at all. Identify the dependent variable in Professor Marianos’ study. (A) Exposure to chalk dust (B) Memory retention (C) Ability to form mnemonics (D) The length of time subjects were

exposed to chalk dust (E) The amount of time between exposures

2. If a study is considered statistically significant, we can assume that (A) the study has both independent and

dependent variables (B) the study is conducted in a controlled

environment (C) all participants were debriefed after the

experiment was completed (D) neither the experimenter nor the

participants knew which groups participants were assigned to

(E) there is a relatively small chance the results were caused by chance

3. Researchers concluded that subjects given a sugar pill experienced the same results as those who took actual medication. This is known as the (A) confirmation bias (B) placebo effect (C) double-blind effect (D) hindsight bias (E) participation bias

4. Recent research found a correlation between the time one spends listening to heavy metal music and the number of books one reads. The correlation coefficient between these two variables was –0.83. What does this correlation mean? (A) The more a person listens to heavy metal,

the more books he or she reads. (B) The number of hours spent listening to

heavy metal has no effect on the number of books a person reads.

(C) The less a person listens to heavy metal, the more books he or she reads.

(D) As the age of the subject increases, the number of books he or she reads decreases.

(E) As the age of the subject decreases, the number of books he or she reads decreases.

5. Professor Gladhand is interested in studying the effects of caffeine on the aggression levels of rats. Which of the following research methods would be most useful in reaching a cause-and-effect conclusion?(A) Case study method (B) Experimental method (C) Naturalistic observation method (D) Survey method (E) Selective breeding method

6. Dr. Sanborn is interested in studying people who have sustained brain damage after ingesting banana peels. Over the past five years, he has studied only one such patient. Which of the following research methods is Dr. Sanborn most likely using? (A) Naturalistic observation (B) Experimental (C) Survey (D) Case study (E) Twin studies

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7. Which of the following is an example of a positive correlation?(A) As the number of hours a person sleeps

increases, her violent behavior decreases.

(B) As the number of dogs a person owns decreases, her violent behavior increases.

(C) The less sleep a person gets, the lower her grade-point average.

(D) The more a person watches television, the less she reads.

(E) The number of reptiles a person owns has no effect on the number of emails she sends.

8. Dr. Cho is concerned that his body language might influence the outcome of his experiment. Which of the following methods should Dr. Cho use to ensure that he will not impact the results of the study?(A) Sampling size (B) Double-blind study (C) Single-blind study (D) Case study method (E) Survey method

9. Dr. J. Belaen conducted research that required 50 participants. The first 25 people that arrived on the day of the experiment were assigned to the experimental group, and the remaining 25 were assigned to the control group. Such a method of assignment may influence the results of his experiment. Instead, Dr. J. Belaen should have used which method of assignment?(A) Random sampling(B) Random placement(C) Random assignment(D) Random selection(E) Random blindness

10. In an experiment studying the effects of alcohol on memory, subjects’ tolerance levels relating to alcohol consumption would be considered (A) the dependent variable (B) the independent variable (C) a confounding variable (D) random assignment (E) participant bias

11. Which of the following correlation coefficients would be considered to have the greatest relationship strength? (A) +0.78(B) +0.33(C) –0.56(D) –0.84(E) –0.14

12. Descriptive statistics (A) allow the researcher to make

generalizations to the wider population (B) are a numerical set of data used to

describe the data in a study (C) are used only in rare instances (D) allow the researcher to control for

confounding variables (E) ensure that neither the subject nor the

researcher influences the outcome

13. In an experiment, the operational definition serves what function? (A) To randomly assign subjects to their

appropriate group (B) To identify the standard deviation

within a given experiment (C) To identify how the dependent variable

will be measured (D) To identify a possible illusory

correlation (E) To identify any experimenter bias that

may occur during the experiment

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14. The three measures of central tendency are (A) mean, medium, majority (B) majority, median, mode (C) mean, variability, reliability (D) mean, median, mode (E) validity, predictability, reliability

15. Professor T. Manley noticed that her class’s scores on their first test were between 89 and 14. Professor T. Manley is describing her class’s (A) range (B) reliability (C) sample size (D) standard deviation (E) correlation coefficient

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1. Answer: B. The dependent variable is the measurable outcome of the study. The experiment is

testing whether chalk dust increases memory retention; therefore, memory retention is the

dependent variable, whereas exposure to chalk dust is the independent variable

2. Answer: E. When a study is considered statistically significant, it means that the influence of

outside variables on the study is minimal, and has not impacted the findings

3. Answer: B. The placebo effect occurs when participants administered a fake pill (placebo) show

the same results as those given the actual medication. This is the result of the person believing that

the medication is working, even though it has no medicinal value

4. Answer: C. A negative correlation means that one variable increases while the other variable

decreases. As the number of hours spent listening to heavy metal increases, the number of books

read decreases.

5. Answer: B. The experimental method allows the researcher to manipulate variables to determine

cause and effect

6. Answer: D. A case study is used when a rare event or situation has occurred. Because this

research is considering a rare event, its results cannot be applied to the population at large

7. Answer: C. A positive correlation indicates that both variables move in the same direction. Even

though both variables (sleep and GPA) decrease, they are still moving in the same direction

8. Answer: B. In a double-blind study neither the researcher nor the participants know who has been

assigned to the control and experimental group

9. Answer: C. Random assignment (randomizing) allows all subjects the same opportunity of being

placed in either research group and helps control for assignment that may skew the results

10. Answer: C. A confounding variable is any factor that cannot be controlled by the researcher. In

this study, a subject’s tolerance level for alcohol may influence the outcome of the study

11. Answer: D. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship

between the variable

12. Answer: B. Descriptive statistics numerically describe the data. This allows researchers to

quantify their research and does not involve generalizing to the population at large

13. Answer: C. The operational definition is the definition of how the research outcomes will be

measured.

14. Answer: D. The three measures of central tendency are mean, median, and mode

15. Answer: A. Range refers to the numerical difference between scores arranged from highest to

lowest

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Appendix

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OutlinesHistory of Psychology

A. Psychology’s Roots1. Plato and Socrates

a. Ideas are inborn/ mind distinct from body- mind continues after body dies2. Aristotle

a. Mind and body are the same/ knowledge comes from experience3. Descartes

a. Believed in interactive dualism- soul (consciousness) different than brain/ but can interact

a. Materialism- mind and body are the same4. John Locke

a. Mind but a “white paper”a. Tabula rasa- a blank slate to write life experiences

b. Mind acts on what comes through sensesc. Gave rise to empiricism- knowledge comes from experience/ relies on

observation/experimentation5. Wilhelm Wundt

a. Father of Psychologyb. German philosopher/ physiologistc. Opened first psychology laboratory 1879d. Used the technique of introspection- to look inward to basic elements that make

up conscious experience (very unreliable)i. Set up experimental design to study sensory reactions to stimuli-

helped to separate from philosophy from psychology6. E.B. Titchener (Wundt’s Student)

a. Introduced Structuralism (first system for organizing psychological beliefs) based on studying structures of consciousness

7. Gestalt Psychologya. Max Werthheimer- study of organization of mental processes b. Opposed analyzing elements of consciousness (Structuralism)c. Believed that the, “Whole is greater than sum of parts”

8. William Jamesa. Wrote “Principles of Psychology"b. Disagreed with Structuralismc. First American Psychologist- started first American Psychology lab at Harvard

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d. Developed Functionalism- function of consciousness- how we adapt and adjust in the environment/ based off of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution

9. Sigmund Freud a. Austrian physicianb. Psychoanalytical approach

1. Focused on abnormal behavior- unconscious conflicts from childhood2. Relied on personal observation (case studies)

10. Ivan Pavlova. Russian physiologistb. Studies of animal learning gave rise to observable studyc. Classical Conditioning

11. John B. Watsona. Founded Behaviorismb. Focus on learning through rewards/consequences and observable behavior

1. B.F. Skinner- Operant Conditioning2. Albert Bandura- Observational Learning

12. Humanistic Psychologya. “Third Force of Psychology”b. Emphasized conscious experience through free will and human potentialc. Abraham Maslow/ Carl Rogersd. Rejected principles of behaviorism-rewards/punishment

13. Jean Piageta. Worked with assessing a child’s thinking ability

14. G. Stanley Halla. First person to receive Ph.D. in psychology

15. Mary Whiton Calkinsa. Elected President of the APAb. First woman to finish requirement of Ph.D. but did not receive

16. Margaret Flow Washburna. Titchener’s first graduate/ and first to receive Ph.D.

17. Francis Cecil Sumnera. First African-American to receive Ph.D.

A. Psychological Perspectives- Schools of thought and psychological approaches- opinions and viewpoints on behavior and mental processes

1. Cognitive Perspective- Viewing behavior based on how brain takes in information, creates perceptions, forms retrieves memories, processes information and generates actions

2. Biological Perspective- Biological structures, such as brain, nervous system, neural communication that underlie behavior

3. Social-Cultural Perspective- How thinking and behavior change in situations4. Evolutionary Perspective- How natural selection of traits affects behavior to promote

adaptation and survival

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5. Behavior Genetics Perspective- Genes and our environment influence individual differences

6. Psychodynamic Perspective- Freud’s view of wow behavior, thoughts, and feelings from the unconscious

7. Behavioral Perspective- Human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned- for example- rewards and punishments

8. Humanistic Perspective- Views behavior as controlled by the decisions that people make about their lives based on perceptions of the world through free will and conscious choice

B. Careers in Psychology1. Basic research- goal to increase knowledge of psychology

a. Biological psychologists- explore physiological roots and results of behaviorb. Social psychologists- study influence of others and situations on our behaviorc. Developmental psychologists- growth and development over a lifetimed. Cognitive psychologists- study thought processes and how it affects behaviore. Quantitative psychologists- develop and use statistical tools to analyze research

data2. Applied research- aim to solve practical problems

a. Educational psychologists- apply psychology to classroomb. Clinical psychologists- treat troubled peoplec. Psychiatry- physicians use medial and psychotherapy- prescribe medicationsd. Community psychologists- who work to obtain psychological services for

people in need of help and prevent psychological disorderse. Engineering psychology- study human factors in the use of equipment and help

designers create better versions of equipmentf. Sports psychologists- explore the relationships between athletic performance

and such psychological variables as motivation and emotiong. Forensic psychologists- who assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants’

mental competence to stand trialh. Environmental psychologists- study the effects of physical environment on

behavior and mental processesa. Industry/ Organizational psychologists- use psychology to help

businesses and hire people

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A. Body Rhythms1. Conscious level- awareness of yourself and your environment

a. Nonconscious level- level of mental activity that is inaccessible to conscious awareness- biological process

b. Preconscious level- level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but of which we can easily become conscious

c. Unconscious level- level of mental activity that influences consciousness but is not conscious

2. State of consciousness- the characteristics of consciousness at any particular moment

a. Altered state of consciousness- a condition in which changes in mental processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant differences in psychological and behavioral functioning- hallucinations

b. William James- described consciousness as a “stream”- although always changing, consciousness is perceived as unified and unbroken

3. Biological rhythms- periodic physiological rhythmsa. Circadian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur every 24 hours- like

temperaturei. Jet lag- syndrome of fatigue, irritability, inattention and

sleeping caused by air travel across several time zonesb. Ultradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur more than once each dayc. Infradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a

season B. Stages of Sleep

1. Sleep cycle is a circadian rhythm but it also includes 90-minute ultradian rhythmsa. REM sleep- type of sleep during which rapid eye movement and dreaming

usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed- also called active sleep or paradoxical sleep

b. NREM sleep- quiet, typically dreamless sleep- divided into four stages- also called quiet sleep

2. Sleep is measured through an electroencephalograph that uses electrodes to measure brain wave activity

a. Beta waves- brain waves associated with alert wakefulness

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b. Alpha waves- brain wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness and drowsiness

c. Theta waves- follow alpha waves- slower wavesd. Delta waves- deep sleep- slowest waves

3. Onset of Sleepi. Hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid sensory phenomena that

occur during the onset of sleepii. Myoclonic jerk- an involuntary muscle spasm of the whole

body that person awakes4. N-REM sleep- non-rapid eye movement- period of sleep in which sleep stages 1-3

occur/ not characterized by eye movement or vivid dreamsa. Stage 1 of NREM Sleep- slowed breathing, alpha to theta brain waves/ first

five minutes of sleep/ easy to awake/ last only a few minutesb. Stage 2 of NREM Sleep- brain waves slow down/ experience little brain wave

bursts called sleep spindles/ lasts about 20 minutes then longer as night goes on/ spend half your sleep in stage 2

c. Stage 3 NREM sleep- slow wave sleep- after about 30 minutes of sleep you enter 3/ have increasing delta waves- about 20% delta waves

i. After reaching NREM stage 3 then go to Stage 3, then Stage 2, and then REM sleep

5. REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep/ a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur- also known as paradoxical sleep- because muscles are relaxed but other body systems active

a. When you reach stage 4 of NREM your brain waves will start to pick up and you will go back to stage 3, then 2, and then enter REM sleep- this cycle is about 90 minutes long

b. Last 4 hours of sleep (if you get 8 hours) are spent mostly in Stage 2 NREM and REM

c. When you wake someone up during REM sleep they report a dream- REM consumes 25% of sleep/ 100 minutes is thus spent dreaming

C. Why we Sleep1. Control center for the 24-hour rhythm of sleep appears to be the brain’s

hypothalamus- the sensor (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in the hypothalamus monitors changes in light and dark through information sent from the retina- the hypothalamus then sends messages to other parts of the brain and body preparing for sleep

a. This is done through hormones such as melatonin- when you wake up melatonin levels begin to drop and continue to drop throughout the day until you go to bed and turn out the lights

2. Restorative theory of sleep- sleep allows us to recuperate from the wear and tear that affects our body throughout the day

a. NREM sleep restores the bodyb. REM sleep restores the mind- improving the function of the neurotransmitter-

norepinephrine3. Adaptive theory of sleep- view that the unique sleep patterns of different animals

evolved over time to promote survival and environmental adaptation- also referred

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to as the evolutionary theory of sleep4. Behavioral theory of sleep- we sleep because there is no stimulation5. REM rebound- a phenomenon in which a person who is deprived REM sleep

greatly increases the amount of time spent in REM sleep at the first opportunity to sleep uninterrupted

D. Why we Dream1. Sleep thinking- takes places during NREM sleep and consists of vague, uncreative,

bland, and thought like ruminations about real-life events2. Dream- a sequence if images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping

person’s mind- story like episode of unfolding mental imagery during REM sleepa. Lucid dreaming- awareness that a dream is a dream while it is happening

3. Freud believed in his book, Interpretation of Dreams, that dreams were the key to understanding inner conflicts

a. Manifest content- according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream b. Latent content- according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream-

disguised as wish fulfillment4. Information processing theory- dreams sort through the information throughout the

day’s experiences and tries to makes sense of the experiences. a. Research shows that REM sleep facilitates memory and the amount of REM

sleep increases with stressful daysb. REM rebound- tendency after sleep deprivation to dive right into REM sleep

5. Physiological Function theory- neural activity during REM sleep stimulates the brain- especially true with the infant’s brain rapidly developing

a. During delta sleep the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone that supports this theory

6. Activation-synthesis theory- this theory suggests that dreams are simply the mind’s attempt to make sense of the random firing in the various regions of the brain- this interpretation of the neural firing leads to dreams

E. Sleep Disorders1. Insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep- stress plays a role2. Narcolepsy- characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks- goes directly into REM

sleep3. Sleep apnea- temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent

momentary reawakening4. Night terrors- characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified-

unlike nightmares- night terrors occur during Stage 3 sleep within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered

5. Nightmares- frightening dream that takes place during REM sleep6. Sleep Bruxism- grinding of the teeth7. Enuresis- bed wetting8. Myoclonus- sudden jerking of a body part occurring in Stage 1 or 2 9. Sleep walking- somnambulism- occurs in NREM sleep stage 3 and affects mostly

children- usually have no occurrence of events10. REM behavior disorder- a person does not lose muscle tone during REM sleep-

allowing the person to act out dreams

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a. Sudden infant death syndrome- sleeping baby stops breathing and suffocate.

A. Hypnosis- a social interaction in which one person- hypnotist- makes suggestions about perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, and another person- the subject- follows those suggestions

1. Social influence theory- Role theory- the theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis- peer pressure to act in accordance with the expectations and demands of hypnotic session

a. State theory- theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness2. Divided consciousness theory- dissociation theory- theory that during hypnosis- our

consciousness- our awareness of ourselves and others splits- so that one aspect of consciousness is not aware of the role other parts are playing

a. Ernest Hilgard- pioneering research on hypnosis and believer of the divided consciousness theory based on social agreement of the participant and divided consciousness

b. Hidden observer- Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, because of an altered state of consciousness/ when participant awakes they report no feeling of pain as the “hidden observer noted”

B. Hypnotic Techniques1. Hypnotic induction- process in which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a

subject, generally by voicing a series of suggestions2. Posthypnotic suggestion- a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session to be carried

out after the subject is no longer hypnotized- helps control addiction and behaviors3. Hypomnesia- supposed enhancement of a person’s memory for past events through

a hypnotic session4. Posthypnotic amnesia- supposed inability to recall what one experienced during

hypnosis- induced by hypnotist’s suggestionC. Meditation- An one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention

and heighten awarenessD. Drugs

1. Psychopharmacology- study of psychoactive drugs and their effects2. Psychoactive drug- a chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, or behavior3. Blood-brain barrier- feature of blood vessels supplying the brain that allows only

certain substances to leave the blood and interact with brain tissue- once past barrier psychoactive drugs can have effects on the brain

4. Learned expectations- what user expects or hopes to feel with taking drug affects how drug performs

5. Dependence- a state of physiological and or psychological need to take more of a substance after continued use- withdrawal follows if discontinued

a. Physical dependence- physiological need for drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms

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b. Psychological dependence- psychological need to use a drug- to relieve negative emotions

6. Withdrawal- discomfort and distress that follow when a person who is dependent on a drug discontinues the use of that drug

7. Tolerance- reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting the user to increase dosage to achieve effects previously obtained by lower doses.

E. Drugs and Neurotransmissiona. Drugs affect binding with receptors- mimicking a neurotransmitters effects-

causes a neuron to fire in the absence of normal stimulationb. Drugs block receptor sites preventing neurotransmitters from binding and

thereby not allowing neurotransmission to occurc. Drugs block neurotransmitter reabsorption thereby intensifying the

neurotransmitter’s effects in the synapsed. Drugs tend to bind better than neurotransmitters so the intensity and effects on

the body tend to be moreF. Drug classifications

1. Depressants- drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function and inhibits central nervous system/ and increases the availability of GABA- inhibitory neurotransmitter

a. Alcohol b. Barbiturates- drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system-

reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment- also included tranquilizers and sedatives

c. Benzodiazepines which include Valium and Xanax depress the activity of the central nervous system without the side effects included in barbiturates

d. GHB- naturally occurring substance similar to neurotransmitter GABA- inhibitor of the brain

2. Opiates- opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin that depress neural activity and temporary lessen pain and anxiety

a. Morphine- strong sedative and pain-relieving drug deprived from opiumb. Endorphins- “morphine within”- neural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked

to pain control and to pleasurea. Opiates are agonist for endorphins

3. Stimulates- drugs such as caffeine and nicotine and the more powerful amphetamines and cocaine that excite neural activity- especially dopamine- neurotransmitter linked to pleasure- and also reduce the effects of the GABA neurotransmitter- and speeds up body functions- in the central nervous system

a. Caffeine- stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and soft drinksb. Nicotine- stimulant found in tobaccoc. Cocaine- stimulant derived from leaves of the coca plant

a. Cocaine psychosis- features very similar to schizophreniad. Amphetamines- drugs that stimulate neural activity speeding up body

functions and associated energy and mood changese. Ecstasy- MDMA- increases dopamine activity

4. Hallucinogens- psychedelic “mind manifesting” drugs- LSD- that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input by affecting

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dopamine receptorsa. LSD- powerful hallucinogenic drugb. Marijuana- leaves, stems, resin and flowers from hemp plants that when

smoked, lower inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria- THC is the active ingredient

5. Prevention- education

Personality

A. Personality- an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and actingB. Psychodynamic Perspective- importance of unconscious thought and unresolved childhood

conflicts as a source of personality development1. Sigmund Freud2. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality- also therapeutic technique attempts

to provide insight in one’s thoughts and action by exposing the unconscious and conflicts associated with childhood

3. Free association- method of exploring the unconscious in which people says whatever comes to mind

4. States of consciousnessa. Preconscious- information that is not conscious but is easy to retrieve into

conscious awareness- ate for dinner last nightb. Unconscious- a portion of the mind that holds unacceptable thoughts, wishes,

feelings, and memories5. Personality structure

a. Id- part of personality that is unconscious and strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives1. Operates according to pleasure principle- demanding immediate

gratification2. Libido- psychic energy contained in the id3. Thanatos- death instincts-responsible for aggression and destructiveness4. Eros- life instincts- responsible for constructive energy and a source of

energyb. Superego- part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides

standards for judgments and future goalsc. Ego- largely conscious- part of personality mediates demands of the Id and

Superego and reality1. Operates according to reality principle- satisfying the Id’s desires in ways

that will bring pleasure not pain6. Defense Mechanisms- Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by

unconsciously distorting reality

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a. Repression- banishes thoughts, anxiety, feelings and memories from the consciousness1. Found in all defense mechanisms

b. Regression- allows an anxious person to retreat to more comfortable, infantile stage of life

c. Denial- refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happeningd. Reaction formation- switching unacceptable thought to the opposite- “I hate

her” to “I love her”e. Projection- disguising threatening feelings of guilt to another personf. Rationalization- displaces real, anxiety provoking feelings with more

comforting explanations or justificationsg. Displacement- shifts unacceptable impulse toward a less threatening object or

personh. Compensation- striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears- being

extremely competitive for inferioritiesi. Undoing- neutralizing an unacceptable action by a more favorable second

action- cheating on one test- helping someone else out on another test7. Psychosexual Stages- each stage marked by the id’s pleasure-seeking focus on

different parts of the body called erogenous zonesa. Fixation- failure to resolve the problems and conflicts that appear in a given

stage 1. Oral stage- 1-18 months- pleasure centers on mouth, biting, chewing 2. Anal stage- 18 months – 3 years- pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder functions- coping with demands of control 3. Phallic stage- 3-6 years- pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous feelings

1. Oedipus complex- boy has rival for Dad- feelings for Mom- boy experiences castration anxiety from father for punishing his feelings

2. Electra complex- girl develops feelings for father- resistance towards mother- penis envy- feels a sense of loss and deprivation

3. Identification- ego defense mechanism- reducing anxiety by modeling the behavior and characteristics of another person/ superego development

4. Latency stage- 6 – puberty- dormant sexual feelings- gender identity forms towards same sex people 5. Genital stage- puberty on- maturation of sexual interests

A. Neo-Freudians1. Alfred Adlera. Agreed with Freud of importance of childhood experiences but thought social not sexual

tensions were crucial for personality developmentc. Adler had his own childhood inferiorities that led to development of his theoryd. Believed that the most human fundamental motive is striving for superiority

1. Inferiority complex- childhood inferiorities lead to superiority

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2. People tend to overcompensate for weaknesses developing a superiority complex- characterized by exaggerating one’s accomplishments

2. Carl Junga. Not agree with social tensions or Freud’s role of the unconsciousb. Stated we don’t have an individual unconscious but a collective unconscious that are

memories from our ancestors- not aware of these memories- but influence behavior1. Archetypes- shared symbols in stories, art- mother

a symbol for nurturingc. People don’t go through personality stages but develop either introversion or extraversion

1. Introversion- tendency to reflect on one’s own abilities

2. Extraversion- tendency to focus on the social world3. Karen Horney

a. Pointed out that Freud’s theory was male dominated and female development was inaccurate1. Stated that male develop womb envy- inferiority from not being able to carry a child2. Stated social factors, not biological, responsible for personality development

a. Moving toward relationship- excessive need for approvalb. Moving against relationship- excessive need for powerc. Moving away relationship- excessive need for independence

i. Caused by dependent child’s sense of helplessness triggers desire for love and security

B. Assessing Psychodynamic perspective1. Projective personality tests- personality tests that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger

projection of inner thoughts TAT- ambiguous pictures/ Rorschach- 11 inkblotsb. Advantage: can access unconscious/ subjects do not really know what tester is

asking- may lead to be more honest with answersC. Trait approach- perspective in which personality is seen as a combination of characteristics

that people display over time and across situations 1. Trait- characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act- quantitative

measure- number of traits a person has2. Type- qualitative measure- whether or not someone is or is not a certain type-

feeling type made up caring, sympathetic, dependable traitsD. Gordon Allport- one of the first trait theorist who researched the idea that individual

personalities are unique1. Surface traits (secondary traits)- personality characteristics or attributes that can

easily be inferred from observable behavior2. Source traits (central traits)- most fundamental dimensions of personality- basic

traits- few in number3. Cardinal trait- an overwhelming dominant trait- very few possess

E. Raymond Cattell’s Factor Analysis 1. Used factor analysis- technique to identify traits that are closely related to one

another- one trait predicts another trait- if caring then dependable2. Proposed 16 key personality dimensions or factors to describe personality3. To identify the 16 traits used- Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

F. Hans Eysenck’s Biological Dimensions- Identified three dimensions of personality1. Extraversion-introversion dimension

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a. Extroverts- outgoing/ Introverts- shy1. Neuroticism- emotional stability dimension

b. Neuroticism- disposition to become extremely upsetc. Emotionally stable- disposition to remain emotionally stable

1. Psychoticism dimension- high on this dimension is antisocial, cold hostile/ low on this dimension- caring towards others

G. Five-factor model of personality1. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa’s Trait theory of personality that identifies five

basic source traits as the fundamental building blocks of personalitya. Openness-imaginative or practicalb. Extraversion- affectionate or reservedc. Emotional stability (neuroticism)- calm or anxiousd. Agreeableness- trusting or suspicious e. Conscientiousness- organized or disorganized

H. Gray’s Approach-Inhibition Theory1. Differences among people in introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability

(neuroticism) come from two related systems in the brain:a. Behavioral approach system- (BAS)- made up of brain regions that affect

people’s sensitivity to rewards and motivation to seek those awards- called a “go” system- responsible for impulsive behavior

b. Behavioral inhibition system- (BIS)- involves brain regions that affect sensitivity to potential punishment and the motivation to avoid being punished- called a “stop” system- responsible for fearful behavior

A. Evaluating Trait Perspective2. Does not consider situation in how affects person3. Does not explain why somebody acts a certain way

B. Social- Cognitive- this perspective is an interactive theory that combine research on social behavior, cognition, and learning, and self-efficacy beliefsC. Albert Bandura- believed to understand personality have to consider situation, person’s thoughts, and thoughts surrounding an event

1. Reciprocal determinism- Albert Bandura’s theory that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of:

a. Cognition- or thoughtsb. Behavioral factorsc. Environment factors

2. Self-efficacy beliefs- beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation, feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt

D. Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theorya. Learning creates cognitions called expectancies- that guide behavior

determined by what the person expects to happen following the behavior/ and the value the person places on the outcome

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b. Also determine by personal control1. External locus of control (externals)- perception that chance or forces

beyond personal control controls your fate2. Internal locus of control (internals)- you control your own fate

E. Walter Mischel’s Cognitive/Affective theory1. Mischel believed that cognitive person variables- beliefs, feelings, expectancies are

responsible for why individuals differ and personality/2. Also called “if/then” theory- if people encounter a particular situation then they will

engage in certain characteristic behaviors- called behavioral signatures3. Most important cognitive variables:

a. Encodings- beliefs person has about the environmentb. Expectancies- what person expects to follow each behaviorc. Affects- feelings, emotion responsesd. Goals and Values- things person believes in and wants to doe. Competences/ self-regulatory plans- thoughts and actions person is capable of

F. Evaluating Social-Cognitive1. Does not consider emotion or enduring traits- biological factors/ unconscious

G. Humanistic Perspective- Goal is to reach human potential- flourished in the 1960s- emphasizes the inherent goodness of people, self-actualization, self-concept, and healthy personality development

1. Emphasized conscious experience2. Focused on free will and creative abilities3. Studied all factors- not just observable behaviorsa. Abraham Maslow- Self-Actualization

a. Hierarchy of Needs- must satisfy one set of needs before meeting other needs- motivation to reach self-actualization

b. Deficiency orientation- a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a person does not have

c. Growth orientation- tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life- rather than what is missing

1. Physiological needs- air, water2. Safety needs- security3. Belongingness and love- love and to be loved4. Esteem needs- need for achievement, competence5. Self-actualization- need to live up to and realization of one’s

potential. Abraham Lincoln, Elenor Rooseveltb. Carl Rogers- Person-Centered Approach

a. Actualizing tendency- Rogers’s theory, the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism

b. Self-concept- set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about yourself- people are motivated to act in accordance with their self-concept- don’t act in accordance- personality is altered

1. Conditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and loved only if behave in a certain way- conditional love

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2. Unconditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and loved even if you don’t conform to the standards and expectations of others- unconditional love

a. Congruence- what you do and self-concept matchb. Incongruence- what you do and self-concept does not

match3. Agreed with Maslow, but thought could also flourish with having

empathy, acceptance and genuinenessa. Genuine- freely express themselves- don’t disclose

anythingb. Empathic- reflecting the other person’s feelingsc. Acceptance- accepting someone no matter what done

c. Evaluating Humanistic Perspectivea. Unconditional positive regard can be interrupted as not disciplining

childrenb. Theory is vague and hard to test

H. Personality Testing1. Objective personality tests- a test containing direct, unambiguous items relating to

the individual being assessed2. Personality inventories- questionnaires (true or false) which people respond used to

assess personality traitsa. Validity- extent to which test measures what it is supposed to b. Reliability- extent to which test yields consistent results when or where given

3. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventorya. MMPI most widely used of all personality tests- originally designed to test

personality traits for abnormal behavior4. NEO-PI-R- Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory-designed to

measure “big five traits5. Advantages of objective tests- easy to administer/ compared to others/ Inexpensive6. Disadvantage/ Only one correct answer

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Testing and Individual Differences

A. Intelligence- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

1. Fluid intelligence- basic power of reasoning and problem solving2. Crystallized intelligence- specific knowledge gained as a result of applying

fluid intelligence3. Emotional intelligence- ability to perceive, express, understand regulate

emotionsB. Intelligence test- method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing

them with those of others, using numerical scores1. IQ test- designed to measure intelligence on objective, standardized scale

C. Factor analysis- a statistical procedure identifies clusters of related items called factors on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score

D. Theories of Intelligence1. Psychometric approach- a way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of

the products of intelligence- especially scores on a IQ test2. Information- processing approach- focuses on mental operations, such as attention

and memory, that underlie intelligent behavior3. Charles Spearman- g factor- a general intelligence factor that underlies specific

mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test1. s factor- a group of special abilities that Spearman saw as accompanying

general intelligence g1. L.L. Thurstone- used factor analysis- found “7 primary independent mental

abilities”a. Numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualization,

perceptual ability, memory, verbal comprehensionb. Thought that Spearman’s g factor was average of these 7 abilities

2. Howard Gardner- believed intelligence consists of eight separate kinds of intelligence

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a.Verbal-linguistic- reading/ Logical-Mathematical- solving math problems/ Bodily-Kinesthetic- balance, endurance/ Visual-spatial- map reading/ Musical-Rhythmic- creating music/ Interpersonal- sensitivity to others/ Intrapersonal- knowledge of self/ Naturalistic- ability to work with plants and animals

b. Savant syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill,

3. Robert Sternberg- wrote Triarchic theory of intelligence- identifying three distinct forms of intelligence:

a. Analytic intelligence- analyzing, comparing, evaluating, solving problems (most stressed in schools)

b. Practical intelligence- applying, adapting to the environment- street smarts

c. Creative intelligence- using existing information in new situations

A. Intelligence Testing1. Alfred Binet- developer of first test to classify children’s abilities using the concept of

mental agea. He did not test what students were taught in school- but mental abilities- memory,

attention / brighter children performed like older childrena. Mental age- chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of

performance/ average 8 year old has mental age of 82. Lewis Terman- adapted Alfred Binet’s tests for use in the United States as the

Stanford-Binet intelligence testa. William Stern revised the scoring of the Stanford-Binet test and developed the

intelligence quotient- IQ- mental age divided by chronological age (actual age) multiplied by 100

b. The mean score is 100 with a standard deviation of 153. David Wechsler- developed the Wechsler adult intelligence scales- most widely used

individual intelligence tests in the United Statesa. Wechsler intelligence scales- series of intelligence tests tailored to three

different age groups- children- WISC, adults- WAIS, preschoolers- separate scores for verbal and nonverbal abilities/ verbal- vocab, math/ nonverbal- nonverbal or performance- ability on task- assembling an object

i. Verbal scale- subtests that measure verbal skills as a part of a measure of overall intelligence

ii. Performance scale- subtests that measure spatial ability and the ability to manipulate materials as part of a measure of overall intelligence

4. Aptitude tests- designed to predict a person’s future performance/ capacity to learn (ACT or SAT)

5. Achievement tests- designed to assess what a person has learned, or mastered6. Creativity- the capacity to produce new, high quality ideas or products

a. Divergent thinking- ability to think along many alternative paths to generate many different solutions to a problem

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b. Convergent thinking- ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem or perform some other complex cognitive task

B. Principles of Test Construction1. Test- systematic procedure for observing behavior in a standard situation and describing it

with help of a numerical scale or category system2. Norm- description of the frequency at which particular scores occur, allowing scores to

be compared statistically3. Percentile scores- indicate percentage who score at or below specific scores4. Standardization- defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a

pretested group- representative sample5. Normal Curve- the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describe the distribution of

many physical and psychological attributes- most fall near the average- few far from6. Reliability- extent to which a test yields consistent results of scores i. Testing reliability

a. Alternate form- giving an alternate test and comparing resultsb. Split-half- calculating a person’s score based on halves of the testc. Test-retest- giving the same test twice over different times

7. Validity- extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed toa. Content validity- extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest- psychology=

psychology test of the content coveredb. Construct validity- refers to the extent to which there is evidence measures a

hypothetical construct- a theory that is being testedc. Predictive validity- success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to

predict- relationship between some criterion and test score/ test score and college success1. Criterion- a behavior that a test is designed to predict- test score and college

gradesC. Mental Retardation- test scores that fall below 70

1. Down syndrome- an extra 21st chromosome/ IQ of 40-552. Fragile X syndrome- defect on chromosome 23

1. Williams syndrome- defect on chromosome 7/ or by inheriting a gene of phenylketonuria (PKU) which causes the body to create toxins out of milk and other foods

2. Familial Retardation- mild cases- no genetic or environmental causesa. Mild retardation- 50-70 score- 85% have- may learn up to 6th grade level- adults need

some assistanceb. Moderate- 35-49- 10% have- 2nd grade level- adult may need support groupsc. Severe- 20-34- 3-4% have- simple tasks under supervisiond. Profound- below 20- 1-2% have- constant aid and supervision

D. Gifted children- IQ scores of higher than 130a. Drudge theory- proposes that extraordinary achievement depends on intensive training and monumental effort- innate talent is also important/ Flynn affect- intelligence scores have risen

E. Group Tests1. Heredity and environment seem to interact of intelligence scores- differences accounting

for different environments

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a. Heritability- percentage of variation within population that is due to heredityb. Twin studies show more similar IQ scores than siblings or others raised apartc. Reaction range model- heredity sets limits on one’s intelligence and that environmental

factors determine where people fall within these limits2. There are differences in the average IQ scores for different racial groups- there is more

variation within a particular group than between groups3. Cross-cultural studies have demonstrated that the average age IQ scores of groups subject

to social discrimination are frequently lower than the average IQ scores of the dominant social group

4. Intelligence tests can be culturally biased- an intelligence tests reflects the culture in which they are developed

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

A. Motivation- a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviora. Motive- reason or purpose for behavior

B. Historic Explanations 1. Instinct theory- a view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic,

involuntary, and unlearned responsesa. Instinct- complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout species unlearnedb. Evolution- Charles Darwin- natural selection- nature selects organisms best

suited for survivalC. Biological Explanations

1. Optimum Arousal theories- each brain has activated different levels of alertness expressed through curiosity and explains boredom- motivation is to maintain a stable level of arousal

a. Arousal- general level of activation reflected in physiological systemsb. Yerkes-Dodson law- degree of psychological arousal helps performance but

only up to a certain point- too much or too little can affect performance2. Drive-reduction theory- the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension

state (drive) that motivates the organism to satisfy the needa. Need- biological requirement for well-being that is created by an imbalance

in homeostasisb. Drive- psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in

homeostasis prompts organism to take action restore balance reduce drivec. Homeostasis- a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state-

regulation of any aspect of body chemistry- such as blood glucosea. Drive-reduction theory focuses on removing deficits and homeostasis

regulation focuses on avoiding both deficits and surplusesD. Cognitive Explanation

1. Incentive theory- behavior is directed towards, or “pushing” us to attaining desirable stimuli and, or “pulling” us- avoiding unwanted stimuli

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a. Incentive- a positive or negative environmental stimulus motivates behavior2. Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or

threats of punishment3. Intrinsic motivation- desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

E. Clinical Explanations1. Abraham Maslow- Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs2. Motivation based on satisfying needs and progressing to self-actualization

a. Hierarchy of Needs- pyramid of human needs beginning with:a. Physiological needs- food water, b. Safety needs- feeling secure, c. Belongingness and love needs- need to love/ beloved, d. Esteem needs- need for self-esteem/ achievement, e. Cognitive needs- pursuit of knowledgef. Aesthetic needs- expressiong. Self-actualization- the need to live up to one’s fullest and unique

potential

A. Physiology of HungerB. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat

1. Hypothalamusa. Lateral hypothalamus- brings on hungerb. Ventromedial hypothalamus- depresses hunger

a. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat2. Glucose- form of sugar that circulates throughout your body- run low on glucose and feel

hungry- glucose a major source of energy in your bodya. Orexin- hunger-triggering hormone produced by lateral hypothalamus- when glucose

levels drop- orexin levels rise and you feel hungryb. Insulin- hormone that allows cells to use glucose for energy or convert it into fat-

when insulin goes up- glucose goes down3. CCK- short-term signals to stop eating/ monitors hormones in the gut- sends signals to

brain to stop eating4. Leptin- produced by bloated fat cells, which send long-term messages to stop eating- when

leptin levels high- hunger decreases5. Set point- the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is set- when body falls

below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

a. Basal metabolic rate- the body’s resting rate of energy expenditurea. Women slow than menb. Don’t eat- slower BMRc. Exercise- speeds up BMR

C. Psychology of Hunger1. External incentives- sight, sound, and smell of food seem to affect some people more than

others/ for example increased insulin levels2. Culture- shape our attitudes toward eating

b. Culture also affects tasteD. Obesity

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1. Body Mass Index- (BMI)- greater than 30- severely overweight E. Eating Disorders

1. Anorexia nervosa- normal weight people (usually adolescent females) suffer delusions about being overweight- put themselves on rigorous exercise and starvation diets that allow them to 15% or more underweight

2. Bulimia nervosa- characterized by episodes of overeating- usually high calorie foods followed by vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise

F. Achievement Motivation1. Achievement- desire for significant accomplishment for mastery things, people, or

ideas for attaining a high standarda. Henry Murray- Neo-Freudian who first established the concept of

achievement2. David McClelland- pioneered the use of the TAT to measure individual differences in

need for achievementa. People who score high in need for achievement tend to work harder and more

persistently than others- can delay gratificationb. Need achievement (Competent motivation)- motive influenced by the degree

to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting goals, and experiences feelings of satisfaction with completion of goals

c. Achievement motivation- motivation and satisfaction based on outperforming others

d. Subjective wellbeing- combination of cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life, frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions

G. Motivating and Worka. Industrial-organizational psychology- the application of psychological concepts

and methods to optimize human behavior in workplacesb. Personnel psychology- subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee

recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal and developmentc. Organizational psychology- a subfield of I/O psychology that examines

organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates change

d. Flow- a completely involved, focused state of consciousness with diminished awareness of self and timea. Task leadership- goal-orientated leadership that sets standards, organizes

work, and focuses attentionb. Social leadership- group orientated leadership that builds teamwork, mediates

conflicts, and offers supportc. Theory X- assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone and

extrinsically motivated by money and thus should be directedd. Theory Y- assumes that given challenge and freedom, workers are

intrinsically motivated to achieve self-esteem and demonstrate their competence and creativity

1. Emotions- transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self- generated in part by cognitive appraisal of situation, accompanied by both learned and innate physical responses- involving:

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1. Physiological arousal- increased heart rate2. Expressive behaviors- smiling, laughing3. Conscious experience- interpretation of situation or event

2. Theories of Emotions- Historical 1. William James and Carl Lange- James-Lange theory- theory that our

experience of emotion is awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion arousing stimulus

a. Car accident- heart pounding (physiological arousal) then fear (emotion)

2. Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- Cannon-Bard theory- theory that emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and subjective (brain)experience of emotion

a. Car accident- heart pounding (physical arousal) and fear (emotion) at same time

3. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer- Two-factor theory of emotion- theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and a cognitive label that explains the physiological arousal:

a. Attribution- process of explaining the causes of an eventb. Excitation transfer- process of carrying over arousal from one

experience to an independent situationa. Car accident- pounding heart (physical arousal) and “I am

afraid” cognitive label equals fear (emotion)4. Robert Zajonic- concluded that some emotional reactions involve no

deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion- cognition and emotion are separate- before we know what we think about a situation we know how we feel- hear some rustling of leaves and our heart starts beating and we jump back and then our brain takes over and examines the situation

a. Certain pathways skip the cortical thinking parts of the brain and take a more direct path to the amygdala- emotion control center of the brain- these short-cuts explain why our feelings are more likely to control our thoughts than our thoughts control our feelings- jumping at a noise before knowing what the noise is

5. Cognitive mediational theory of emotion- Richard Lazaras- concluded that some emotional responses do not require conscious thought- he however does think that some sort of cognitive appraisal (if it is harmful or pleasant to us) is necessary or how would we know what we are reacting to- this maybe unconscious and we may not be aware of the label- example- rustling of leaves behind us cause us to be scared then we appraise the situation and notice that it is just the wind, which is not a threat to us

6. Facial feedback hypothesis- expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion

7. Evolutionary theories of emotion- assert that emotions are innate reaction that do not depend on cognitive processes

a. Charles Darwin- face expressions tell people how one feels leads to survival

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3. Physiological Changes due to Emotion1. Limbic system- activity in the amygdala- central to emotion

a. Pyramidal motor system- voluntary facial movement- fakeb. Extrapyramidal motor system- involuntary facial movement-

automaticc. Right hemisphere- identification of emotions

2. Autonomic nervous system- part of the nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs- such as the heart

a. Sympathetic nervous system- arousing the body- pupils dilate, salivation decreases, skin perspires, respiration increases, heart accelerates, digestion inhibits, stress hormones secrete

a. SNS- releases norepinephrine- helping to prepare body for vigorous activity

b. Parasympathetic nervous system- calms the body down- opposite responses of sympathetic nervous system

a. PNS releases acetylcholine- neurotransmitter that helps protection, nourishment, and growth of body

b. Lie detection- polygraph- detects emotional arousal- not lying 4. Expression of Emotion

1. Nonverbal communication- body language and facial expressions- women tend to show more of face expressions

2. Culture and gender- North American women smile more, use more gestures, and have more expressive face expressions/ North American men seem to express one emotion more- anger

a. Display rules- cultural rules governing how and when a person may express emotion

b. Cultures also disagree about the meaning behind gestures/ “ok” sign not a good idea in Italy

c. Social referencing- process of letting another person’s emotional state guide our own behavior

A. Stress- process of adjusting to circumstances disrupt a person’s equilibriuma. Stressor- an event or situation to which people must adjustb. Stress reaction- physical, psychological, and behavioral response c. Appraisal- how people interpret stress

1. Health Psychology- a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affects our well-being and our health

2. Behavioral medicine- an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

B. Responding to Stress1. Walter Cannon- American psychologist who concluded that physiological and

emotional experiences occur simultaneouslya. Fight-of-Flight- physical reaction initiated by the sympathetic nervous system

that prepare the body for- anger (fight) or flee from it- fear (flight)b. Acute stress:

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i. Hypothalamus causesii. Sympathetic nervous system causes

iii. Adrenal medulla (inner surface) causesiv. Release of catecholamine’s- increased respiration, heart rate,

blood pressure, blood to muscles, digestion slows, pupils dilatec. Prolonged Stress

i. Hypothalamus causesii. Pituitary gland causes

iii. ACTH (hormone) causesiv. Adrenal cortex (outer surface) causesv. Release of corticosteroids- increased stored energy, reduces

inflammation, reduces immune systemvi. Release of endorphins- dull pain

2. Hans Selye- Psychologists who researched a recurring response to stress that he called the general adaptation syndrome

a. General adaptation syndrome (GAS)- Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages, alarm, resistance, exhaustion

1. Alarm reaction- Nervous system is activated following an emotional or physical trauma- your body gets ready for the event (same as Walter Cannon’s description of fight-or-flight)

2. Resistance- outpouring of stress-related hormones keep your respiration, temperature, and blood pressure high

3. Exhaustion- with extended exposure your body’s reserves become depleted and exhaustion happens in illness and eventually death- flood of stress hormones appears to shrink the hippocampus which may explain why recall is hard after a stressful event

a. Diseases of adaptation- illnesses that are caused or worsened by stressors

b. Burnout- gradually intensifying pattern of physical, psychological, and behavioral dysfunction in response to continuous flow of stressors

C. Sources of Stress1. Daily hassles- reoccurring sources of aggravation2. Acute stressors- short bouts of stress3. Chronic stressors- long term bouts of stress4. Life-changes- noticeable change that requires readjustment- death of a loved one,

marriage, having a childa. Determined by life change units- death of a spouse/ death of a parent highest

on Social Readjustment Rating Scale5. Catastrophes- earthquakes, floods, wars6. Pressure- expectations to perform or conform7. Frustration- goal is blocked- failures and losses8. Conflicts- decision between two choices

a. Approach-approach- choice must be made between two appealing goalsb. Avoidance-avoidance- choice must be made between two unattractive goalsc. Approach-avoidance- most stressful- choice must be made about a goal that

has good and bad aspects or points

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d. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict (double)- two alternatives- each with positive and negative characteristics.

D. Stress and the Immune system1. Psychoneuroimmunology- research the interaction of psychological, social,

behavioral, neural, hormonal, and immune system processes that affect the body’s defenses against disease

2. Psychophysiological illness- “mind-body” illnesses- any stress related physical illness such as hypertension and some headaches

3. Lymphocytes- two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system

a. B lymphocytes- in bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

b. T lymphocytes- in the thymus- attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

i. Stress hormones reduce lymphocytesE. Coronary heart disease- number 1 killer among AmericansF. Martin Seligman- American psychologist and proponent of positive psychology

1. Wellness- common result of a healthy lifestyle and healthy attitudea. Family and Friends- support home and friends leads to wellnessb. Faith factor- faith leads to wellness

2. Positive Psychology- subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of optimal human functioning and the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive

a. Flow- state of optimal experience- for flow to occur- the experience must be a challenge requiring skill have clear goals and provide feedback

b. Happiness- leads to high self-esteem, optimistic outlooks, outgoing, close friendships, good work skills/ not connected to age, gender, parenthood, physical attractiveness

3. Explanatory style- habits we have for thinking about the good or bad causes or events

a. Optimism- positive- things will work- other causes besides oneselfb. Pessimism- negative- find fault within oneself for outcomes- things will never

get better4. Quit smoking leads to wellness

a. Smoking affects dopamine receptors5. Weight control and losing weight6. More aerobic exercise7. Social support network- friends and social contacts

G. Effects of Perceived Control1. Type A personality vs. Type B personality- Friedman and Rosenman’s

a. Type A personality- term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger-prone people/ risk for heart disease

b. Type B personality- easygoing and relaxed people2. Predictability- tend to have less impact3. Perception of control- people with more control have less impact from stressors

H. Coping strategies1. Problem focused coping- addressing the problem

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a. Confrontingb. Seeking social support

2. Emotion-focused copinga. Self-controllingb. Distancing- try to not think aboutc. Positive reappraisal – minimize negative/ emphasize positived. Accepting responsibilitye. Escape/avoidance- wishful thinkingf. Downward comparison—compare self to those less fortunate

3. Culturesa. Individualistic cultures- favor problem-focused coping- not social supportb. Collectivistic cultures- favor emotion-focused coping- seek social support

Abnormal Psychology

A. Introduction to Psychological DisordersA. Defining Disorder

1. Psychopathology- the study of the patterns of thinking, feeling, behaving that are maladaptive, disruptive, or uncomfortable for those who are affected or for those with whom they come in contact.

a. Impaired functioning- difficulty in fulfilling appropriate and expected family, social, and work-related roles

2. Psychological disorder- a “harmful dysfunction” in which behaviors are maladaptive, unjustifiable, disturbing, and atypical

a. Neurotic disorder- a psychological disorder that is usually distressing but that allows one to think rationally and function socially

b. Psychotic disorder- a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions

B. Explaining Disorders1. Philippe Pinel- French physician who worked to reform the treatment of

people with mental disordersa. Syphilis- infects the brain and distorts the mind- made people

focus on physical causes for mental disorders and treatments that would cure them- led to medical model:

b. Dorthea Dix- worked to improve mental health facilities in America

2. Medical model- the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured- when applied to psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these “mental” illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital

a. Neurobiological model- modern name for medical model3. Psychological model- view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from

psychological processes- thoughts, learned behaviors

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4. Sociocultural model- looking at mental disorders in relation to gender, age, ethnicity, and other social/ cultural factors

5. Diathesis-stress model- viewing psychological disorders as arising when a predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to trigger symptoms

6. Bio-psycho-social perspective- a contemporary perspective which assumes that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorder

C. Classifying Disorders1. DSM-V- the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders V a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders and providing common language to identify, classify, and treat psychological disorders

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D. Anxiety Disorder1. Anxiety Disorders- a condition in which intense feelings of apprehension are long-

standing and disruptivea. Anxiety- vague feeling of apprehension or nervousness- the basis of the

anxiety disorders2. Types of Anxiety disorders

a. Generalized anxiety disorder- free-floating anxiety- characterized by disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained feelings of apprehension and tenseness

b. Panic disorder- characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic attacks- intense breathing, high heart rate, trembling

c. Phobia- characterized by disruptive, irrational fears of objects or situations/a. Social phobia- extreme fear in social situationsb. Agoraphobia- fear of leaving a place or being alonec. Specific phobia- involving fear and avoidance of heights,

animals, and other specific stimuli and situationsE. Obsessive-compulsive disorder- characterized by unwanted, repetitive thoughts

(obsessions) and actions (compulsions)a. Obsessions- repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or

mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distressb. Compulsions- repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to

prevent or reduce anxietyi. Hoarding- involves compulsively collecting of many different

types of things with the difficulty of discarding or letting goii. Body dysmorphic disorder- obsessive preoccupation with flaws

in one’s body. Involves continuously observing one’s body and obsession with comparison to other peoples’ bodies- often associated with anorexia

iii. Exoriation- referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of causing damage

iv. Trichotillomania- when a person compulsively pull their hair to the point of causing baldness

F. Posttraumatic stress disorder- characterized by reliving a severely upsetting event in unwanted recurring memories and dreams

a. Reactive attachment disorder- involves people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and become emotional withdrawn

b. Adjustment disorder- occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life- which could disrupt routines

c. Acute stress disorder- when a person experiences distress and anxiety following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury- onset of symptoms occurs 2 days after the event whereas PTSD is not diagnosed until 4 weeks after the event

1. Causes of anxiety disordersa. Heredity- some inherit a predisposition or likelihood for developing

anxiety disorders.b. Brain function- higher degree of activity in the frontal lobes of people

with obsessive-compulsive disorder

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c. Heightened autonomic nervous systemd. Neurotransmission- deficiency in serotonin and GABA contributes to

obsessive-compulsive disorderA. Excessive activity in norepinephrine contributes to panic disorders

e. Emotion center- amygdala also shows different functioning for people with phobia

f. Evolution- we are likely to fear situations that posed danger to the earlier generations

g. Learning: Conditioning- associating fear with certain places or situations/ Observational learning- children learn fears from their parents or siblings/ Reinforcement- associate emotions with actions depending on the results that follows those actions- obsessive-compulsive- hand washing reducing anxiety

A. Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders1. Somatic disorders- psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical

disorder without a physical cause1. Illness anxiety disorder - involving strong, unjustified fear of having

physical illness (anxiety disorders have anxiety about getting sick/ hypochondriac already believes is sick)

2. Somatic symptom disorder- there are numerous physical complaints without verifiable physical illness

3. Conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)- a person displays blindness, deafness, or other symptoms of sensory or motor failure without a physical cause

B. Dissociative Disorders1. Dissociative disorders- disorders in which the sense of self has become separated

(dissociated) from pervious memories, thoughts or feelings1. Dissociative amnesia- a dissociative disorder characterized by loss of

memory in reaction to a traumatic event2. Dissociative identity disorder- multiple personality theory- a rare and

controversial dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or more distinct and alternating personalities

2. Causes1. Very controversial- maybe linked to child abuse, or other traumatic

childhood eventsa. Repression- defense mechanism that unconsciously banishes traumatic

memories

C. Depressive Disorders- conditions in which a person experiences extreme moods, such as depression or mania

a. Major depressive disorder- a mood disorder in which a person for no apparent reason experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods, diminished interest in activities, and other symptoms such as feelings of worthlessness

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h. Persistent depressive disorder- symptoms similar to major depressive disorder but less severe and lasts for over 2 years

D. Bipolar and Related Disordersi. Bipolar I disorder- a mood disorder (formerly called manic-depressive) in

which the person alternates between the hopelessness of depression and a manic episode- the overexcited and unreasonably optimistic viewpoint

a. Mania- an elated, very active emotional stateii. Bipolar II disorder- major depressive episodes alternate with episodes of

hypomaniaa. Hypomania- less severe than the manic phases in bipolar I

iii. Cyclothymic disorder- less severe case of bipolar- equivalent to dysthymic disorder for depression

E. Causes of Mood Disordersa. Heredity- mood disorders run in familiesb. Brain function- brain is less active during periods of depression especially in

frontal lobec. Neurotransmitters are important for depression- serotonin and

norepinephrine, and dopamine/ too little possibly depression/ too much possibly mania

a. Social-Cognitive factors: learned helplessness- feel like they have little control because of what they have learned in the past/ Attributions- depressed people feel that the bad situation will last for a long time/ internal- events happen because of my actions

A. Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder 1. Schizophrenia- a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and

delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions2. Symptoms

1. Neologisms- words that have meaning only to the person stating them2. Word salad- chaotic thoughts that don’t have any rhyme or reason3. Catatonia (movement disorder)- inability to move and to hold body limbs in

rigid positions for long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility 4. Delusions- false beliefs that are symptoms of schizophrenia and other

serious psychological disordersa. Delusions of grandeur- false beliefs that you are more important than

you really areb. Delusions of persecution- false beliefs that people are out to get youc. Delusions of sin or guilt- false beliefs that you are responsible for

some misfortuned. Delusions of influence- you are controlled by some outside force

5. Hallucinations- false perception that are symptoms of schizophrenia and other serious psychological disorders

a. Auditory hallucination most common6. Positive vs. Negative symptoms

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a. Positive symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions

i. Positive- “In addition, this is what makes them schizophrenic”

b. Negative symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as absence of pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no emotion at all

i. Negative- “what missing to be normal”3. Causes of schizophrenia

a. Genetics- produces a predisposition to get this disorder/ runs in families- twin studies reveal highest chance if one identical twin has it

b. Brain structure- smaller amounts of brain tissue and large fluid-filled spaces around the tissue called ventricles/ thalamus is also smaller

c. Brain function- frontal lobe (thinking) shows slower activityd. Neurotransmission- increased number of receptor sites for dopamine

which may explain delusions and hallucinationse. Prenatal viruses- viral infection in the middle of pregnancy- like the

fluf. Psychological factors: stress may set off schizophrenia/ disturbed

family relationships may make symptoms worseg. Age of Father- older father’s conceiving children higher chance

A. Personality disorders are psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and lasting behavior patterns that disrupt social functioning

1. Personality disorders: Odd- Eccentric Cluster A:a. Paranoid personality disorder- show deep distrust of other peopleb. Schizoid personality disorder- detached from social relationships/ limited range of

emotions- true hermitsc. Schizotypal personality disorder- detachment from, and great discomfort in social

relationships/ odd perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors2. Personality disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B:

a. Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions, self-image- behavior and relationships

b. Antisocial personality disorder- a person- usually male- shows a lack of conscience for wrongdoing and a lack of respect for the rights of others

c. Narcissistic personality disorder- exaggerated ideas of self-importance and achievements, preoccupations with fantasies of success

d. Histrionic personality disorder- excessive emotionality and preoccupation with being the center of attention/ dramatic behavior/ emotional shallowness

3. Personality disorders related to anxiety: Anxious Fearful Cluster C:a. Avoidant personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected that personal

relationships become difficultb. Dependent personality disorder- behave in clingy, submissive ways and display a

strong need to have others take care of them

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c. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder- preoccupation with orderliness, perfection, and control

B. Childhood Disorders1. Externalizing or under controlled category

1. Conduct disorder- mostly boys- relatively stable pattern of aggression, disobedience, destructiveness, and other problematic behaviors

a. May signal antisocial personality disorder2. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder- (ADHD)- impulsive and unable to

concentrate on an activity2. Internalizing or over controlled category

1. Separation anxiety disorder- constantly worry about being lost, kidnapped, or harm caused to a parent

a. School phobia- fear of going to school3. Pervasive developmental disorders- also known as autistic spectrum disorders-

neither externalizing or internalizing- show severe problems in communication and impaired social relationships

1. Autistic disorder- most severe of this group- show early no attachments to caregivers/ language development impaired/ trouble focusing and sharing attention with others/ focus on nonsocial aspects of human interaction

2. Asperger’s disorder- less severe on autistic spectrum- high- functioning autism/ have impaired social relationships/ engage in repetitive behaviors and may memorize meaningless facts- like phone numbers

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Methods of Therapy

A. Psychotherapy- an emotionally charged, confiding, interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

a. Eclecticism approach- an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

b. Psychiatrists- medical doctors who have completed special training in the treatment of psychological disorders

B. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality that therapeutic techniques attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

a. Psychoanalytical Methods1. Free association- talking discussing whatever comes to the patient’s mind2. Resistance- in psychoanalysis the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-

laden material- sensitive areas- client does not want to talk about3. Interpretation- psychoanalysis- analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings,

resistance, and other significant behaviors in order to promote insight4. Transference- in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of

emotions such as love or hate that are linked with other relationships- transferring past relationship feelings onto the therapist

5. Freudian slips- slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives and conflicts6. Dream interpretation

a. Manifest content- remembered storyline of the dreamb. Latent content- symbolized portion of the dream- therapist interest-

unconscious contentb. Types of Therapy

7. Psychoanalysis- long sessions and many visits focusing on dreams, resistance and transference and events from childhood

8. Psychodynamic therapy- fewer sessions/ focus on current issues/ less money9. Interpersonal therapy- (Interpersonal psychotherapy) would seek insight into

problems but focus on the patient finding solutions and dealing with conflicts that are going on currently or after childhood

C. Humanistic therapies- aims to promote self-fulfillment by increasing self-acceptance and self-awareness of the client’s feeling, actions, and thoughts.

a. Client-centered therapy- person centered therapy- a humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic, environment to facilitate the client’s growth

1. Reflection- active listening- therapist’s listening by echoing, restating, and clarifying in an understanding way

2. Unconditioned positive regard- acceptance- a therapist attitude that conveys a caring for, and acceptance of, the client as a valued person

3. Empathy- therapist’s attempt to appreciate and understand how the world looks from the client’s point of view

4. Congruence- a consistency between the way therapists feel and they act toward clients- not beating around the bush

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A. Gestalt therapy- developed by Fritz Perls and his wife- people create their own versions of reality and people’s natural psychological growth continues only as long as what they perceive is consistent with the actual environment

a. An active treatment deigned to help clients get in touch with genuine feelings and disregard false ones- line up thoughts with factors in the environment

B. Behavior therapies- applies learning principles to elimination of unwanted behaviors1. Behavior therapy- treatments use classical conditioning principles to change

behaviorb. Mary Cover Jones- was interested in reversing “Little Albert’s” fear of a

white rate, which Watson establisheda. Jones treated “Peter” who was fearful of furry objects- like a rabbitb. Jones focused on counterconditioning- a technique that is based on

classical conditioning involves modifying behavior by conditioning a new response that is incompatible with a previously learned response

i. Rabbit was brought into room- far away from Peter/ Peter sat in a high chair and ate favorite snack, which made him feel good/ as days passed Peter observed others (observational learning) playing with rabbits and rabbit was brought closer as he continued to eat his favorite snack- Peter began to associate site of rabbit with positive feelings of eating his favorite snack- replaced original conditioned response- fear/ with a new conditioned response- positive

c. Systematic desensitization- Joe Wolpe- a behavioral treatment for anxiety in which clients visualize a graduated series of anxiety provoking stimuli while remaining relaxed

a. Progressive relaxation- clients are taught relaxation exercisesb. Clients make a desensitization hierarchy-a sequence of

increasingly fear-provoking situationsc. Wolpe would have clients progress through the hierarchy- least

stressful to more using progressive relaxation techniques if anxiety develops- then clients would face fear in reality

d. Exposure techniques- methods in which clients remain in the presence of strong anxiety provoking stimuli until the intensity of their emotional reactions decrease– making someone ride a roller coaster

a. Flooding- an exposure technique for reducing anxiety that involves keeping a person in a feared, but harmless, situation

e. Aversive conditioning- type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior such as drinking (CS) alcohol + (UCS) drug (that automatically causes nausea) = (UCR) nausea/ (CS) alcohol= (CR) nausea

f. Bell and Pad treatment- used to treat nighttime bedwetting by conditioning arousal from sleep in response to bodily signals of a full bladder- child learns to associate sound of bell with pea hitting bed- (CS) bell triggers CR- getting out of bed

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2. Behavior modification- treatments that use operant conditioning principlesg. Token economy- an operant conditioning procedure that attempts to

modify behavior by giving rewards for desired behaviors- these tokens can be exchanged for various privileges or treats

a. Positive reinforcement- a therapy method that uses rewards to strengthen desirable behaviors

h. Modeling- demonstrating desirable behaviors as a way of teaching them to clients

a. Assertive training and social skills training- methods for teaching clients how to interact with others more comfortably and effectively

i. Extinction- gradual disappearance of a conditioned response through nonreinforcement- not reinforcing a child with attention- the expected response- the child expects for doing something bad

j. Punishment- a therapy method that weakens undesirable behavior by following it with an unpleasant stimulus

a. Positive punishment- applying punishment- like a hand, or being grounded

b. Negative punishment- taking something away- like freedom3. Cognitive-Behavior therapy- learning based treatment methods that help

clients change the way they think, as well as the way they behavek. Rational-Emotive therapy- Albert Ellis- a treatment designed to identify

and change self-defeating thoughts that lead to anxiety and other symptoms of disorder

a. ABC model- A-Activating event- can’t find a date/ B-belief- “No one will ever ask me”/ C Consequence- depression

i. Ellis would teach client that it is the belief- not the activating event- which causes depression- the consequence1. Client would learn to change the beliefs to alleviate the

consequences, or characteristics of the disorder

A. Cognitive therapy- therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumptions that thoughts intervene between events an our emotional reactions/ failed test- thought- I’m worthless- feelings of depression1. Cognitive Therapy (CT)- developed by Aaron Beck- sought to actively reverse

negative thoughts and irrational beliefs that surrounded events to improve feelings and emotions through positive explanatory styles

a. Clients developed negative cognitive bias- consistently distorting experiences in a negative way

1. Beck would have clients not only change beliefs but actually go out and test them in situations reporting back outcomes- which Beck would then analyze

B. Group Therapy- a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working simultaneously with a small group of clients

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1. Family therapy- therapy that treats the family as a system- views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other members of the family- attempts to guide the family toward positive relationships and improved communication

2. Couples therapy- couples learn better communication skills, solve problems, identify weaknesses and strengths about relationship

3. Advantages:a. Help more people in less timeb. Sessions cost lessc. Other people have similar problemsd. Group meetings foster a sense of community

C. Careers in Psychotherapy1. Clinical psychologist- has a Ph.D./ expertise in research, assessment, and therapy/

supplemented by a supervised internship/ most have private practices2. Clinical or psychiatric social worker- two-year Master of Social work graduate

program/ most deal with personal and family problems3. Counselor- marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from

family situations/ abuse counselors work with people and addictions4. Psychiatrist- physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders/

can prescribe medication/ deal with the more serious problemsD. Evaluating Psychotherapies

1. Meta-analysis- reading and analyzing a variety of sources, patients, doctors, family members, research data- to come up with a conclusion

a. 75% of clients say they are satisfied with therapyb. Cognitive, interpersonal, and behavior therapy work best for depressionc. Cognitive-behavior therapy works well for the eating disorders- bulimiad. Behavior modification- works best for enuresis- bed wetting

E. Alternative therapies1. Therapeutic touch therapy- therapists move hands above the person’s body to “push

energy fields into balance”- don’t actually touch the body- does not seem to work2. Light exposure therapy- deals with Seasonal affective disorder- disorder characterized

by feelings of depression that coincide with winter months/ by exposing clients to more light- does seem to work

F. Biomedical therapy- treatment of psychological disorders that involves changing the brain’s functioning by using prescribed drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, or surgery1. Types of Drugs

a. Antipsychotic drugs- Neuroleptics- a category of medications used primarily to treat severe disorders like schizophrenia

1. Thorazine was one of the first drugs used- negative side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation

2. Could also cause tardive dyskinesia- muscle tremors like Parkinson’s disease, associated with low levels of dopamine

a. Haloperidol- like thorazine- but less sedation or feelings of tiredness3. Newer generation neuroleptics

a. Clozaril- new drug with few side effects is the most effective/ treats positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia- but is expensive

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because patients must get blood tested regularly for the chance of damage to white blood cells

i. Could cause agranulocytosis- fatal blood disease2. Antianxiety drugs- Anxiolytics- category of medication used to treat anxiety

a. These drugs boost the neurotransmitter GABA that helps our brain to reduce the anxiety associated with stress

1. Valium, Librium, Xanax- all of which should not be taken with alcohol3. Antidepressant drugs- a category of medications used to treat major depression

a. MAOIs- these drugs affect the levels of serotonin by boosting the effect and activityb. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors-(SSRIs)- Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil - blocks the

reuptake of serotonin, which causes serotonin to remain active in the synapse longer and therefore having more effect than it otherwise would

c. Depression is usually cyclical- which means that depression has its ups and downs so in order to see if a drug works it must be taken for at least a month

4. Lithium and Anticonvulsantsa. Lithium is used to treat bipolar

1. Depakote- used to treat bipolar when lithium does not work/ has fewer side effects and does not require a high dosage

5. Electroconvulsive therapy- a therapy for major depression in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

a. Used to treat depression/ works faster than drugs and is often used with suicidal patients/ side effects include memory loss and therapists are not quite sure how ECT works, which leads to controversy

6. Psychosurgery- surgical procedures that destroy tissue in small regions of the braina. Lobotomy- a now-rare form of psychosurgery once used to try to calm

uncontrollably emotional or violent patients- the procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes of the brain to the deeper emotional centers

7. Community psychology- a movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs

a. Deinstitutionalization- release of patients from mental hospitals to community at large- development of drug treatments led to an 80 percent decline in the number of hospitalized mental patients in the second half the 20th century- led community psychology

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Research Methods

A. Research Strategiesa. Scientific Method a set of assumption, attitudes, procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, generating evidence, drawing conclusions

1. Theory- an integrated explanation that makes predictions and observations2. Hypothesis- a testable prediction taken from a theory3. Operational definitions- precise procedures used to define variables that others can

replicate- or repeat4. Variable- factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured

B. Critical Thinking- Thinking that takes all factors into account1. Researcher bias- researchers that avoid thinking that does not support their conclusion2. Participant bias- participants respond in certain ways because they know they are being

observed3. Hindsight bias- “I knew it all along” you foresee the answer4. Overconfidence- over confident towards results/ less likely to list to others

C. Descriptive Studies- describing the way others act through observation1. Case study- one person studied in-depth

a. Sigmund Freudb. Tends to be atypical- not good representation of general public

2. Naturalistic observation- observing someone in their natural environmenta. Researcher can’t be seen or participant knows being observed

3. Surveys- self-reported attitudes or behaviors through random samples/ good for large groups of people

a. False-consensus effect- overestimating how others share our beliefs and behaviorsb. Wording effect- how you word questions influence answersc. Social desirability bias- participants feel obligated to answer questions with

socially favorable opinionsd. Population- all the cases in a group from which samples drawn

D. Sampling- process of selecting participants who are members of the population1. Representative sample- group of research participants whose characteristics accurately

represent populatione. Random sample- research participants from population who had an equal chance

of being selectedf. Biased sample- research participants from population who did not have an equal

chance of being selectedE. Longitudinal Study

1. Follows the same group over a period of many years2. Very expensive and time consuming

F. Cross-Sectional Study- compares diverse groups- gender, age, background at one timeG. Experiments

1. Researcher manipulates one or more factors to observe effect on another variable by holding it constant

2. Independent variable- researcher actively manipulates/ researchers main interesta. Variable whose effect is being studied

3. Dependent variable- variable that is influenced by the independent variable a. Variable that shows the measurement

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a. Does smoking (independent variable) cause a runner to go slower (dependent variable)

4. Null hypothesis- assertion independent variable manipulated by the experimenter will have no effect on the dependent variable measured by the experimenter

5. Experimental group- those exposed to the independent variable- smoking6. Control group- those not exposed to the independent variable/ held for comparison7. Confounding variables- a variable other than independent variable that could affect the

dependent variable- variables the researcher does not count on- previous time in mile1. Controlling confounding variables

a. Double-blind procedure- researcher and participants don’t know whose getting the independent variable

b. Placebo- non-active substance or condition administered instead of independent variable

A. Correlational Studies- does not provide explanation1. Research project designed to see how two variables are related to each other2. Correlation coefficient- statistical measurement of relationship that shows prediction; closer

to 1.00 the stronger the relationship3. Scatter plot- represents values of variables and shows direction of relationship

a. Positive correlation- move in same directionb. Inverse correlation- move in opposite direction

4. Illusory correlation- we believe there is a relationship because we are more likely to notice things that confirm our beliefs

B. Reporting Data1. Descriptive statistics- numbers that summarize a set of research data

a. Inferential statistics- mathematical procedures that help psychologists make inferences about what data means

A. Measures of Central Tendencya. Mode- most frequently occurring scoreb. Mean- the average of total scoresc. Median- middle scored. Skewed distribution- atypical scores that could distort central tendency scores

B. Measures of Variationa. Range- difference between highest and lowest scoresb. Standard deviation- how much scores vary from the meanc. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely result occurred by chanced. Percentile score- a value that indicates the percentage of people or observations that

fall below a given point in a normal distributione. Standard score- a value that indicates the distance in standard deviations between a

given score and the mean of all the scores in a data setC. Ethics

a. Informed consent- knowing what the experiment involvesb. Right to be protected from harm or discomfort- participants know ahead of timec. Right to confidentiality- never release informationd. Right to debriefing- full explanation of what has been done/ given after the

experiment.

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