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MeasuringthePoliticalandSocialConsequencesofGovernment-InitiatedCyberShutdowns
RyanShandler,UniversityofHaifaAbstract
Inthemodernage,digitalcommunicationtoolsplayacentralroleintheconductofprotestsand
assembliesduringperiodsofsocialunrest.TheforemostillustrationofthiswasduringtheArabspring,
wheredigitalplatformswereleveragedtopromoteandsustainpublicprotests.Inresponse,countries
attemptedtodispelgatheringsandlimitpublicprotestby‘shuttingdown’theInternetorblockingonline
accesstosocialforums.Sincethen,dozensofstateshavebeguntoemploycyber-shutdowns.Duringaone
yearperiod,astudytracked81differentinstancesofInternetshutdownsin19countries.Thistrendisonly
escalating.Whilesignificantresourceshavebeeninvestedintrackingthetechnicalcontestbetween
governmentsandactivists,noresearchhassucceededinacquiringindividualleveldataregardingthe
politicalandsocialeffectsofInternetdeprivation.Thisresearchpaperreflectsontwonovelexperimental
designsthatquantitativelymeasurehowcitizensrespondtocyberblackouts.Thefirstexperimentconsists
ofacontrolledexperimentthatteststheabilityofparticipantstocompletetasksrelatedtopolitical
participationundersimulatedtreatmentsofInternetaccessordeprivation.Theempiricalfindingssupport
ourhypothesesthattheabsenceofInternetaccesssignificantlyrestrictstheabilitytoengageinpolitical
activity.Asecondexperimentextendsthisresearchbeyondalaboratorysettingbytrackingtheactivityof
Internetusersinmultiplecountriesduringperiodofgovernment-initiatedInternetshutdowns.Thisallows
ustodeterminewhethermodernformsofdigitalpoliticalparticipationhavesupplantedtraditionaloffline
avenuesofpoliticalactivity,andwhethercitizensareabletocircumventcyberblackouts.
1.Introduction
Inthemodernage,digitalcommunicationtoolsplayacentralroleintheconductofprotestsand
assembliesduringperiodsofsocialunrest.TheforemostillustrationofthiswasduringtheArabspring,
wheredigitalplatformswereleveragedtopromoteandsustainpublicprotests.Theimportanceofthis
mediuminrelationtoprotestactivitywasshownascountriesattemptedtodispelgatheringsandlimit
publicprotestbyblockingonlineaccesstosocialforums(Morozov,2011).Itiswidelyheldthatthe
disparateforcesengagedinprotestactivitiesthroughouttheArabworldwouldnothavebeenableto
convergewithoutmoderncommunicationtechnologiesandsocialmedia(Arafa,2016).Sincegovernments
beganemployingcyber-shutdownsduringtheArabSpring,wehavewitnessedadrasticescalationinthe
useofthistool.Duringaoneyearperiodbetween2015and2016,astudytracked81differentinstances
ofInternetshutdownsin19countries(West,2016).NotableexamplesincludeTurkeyin2015where
TwitterandFacebookwereblockedinresponsetofearsoverthespreadofimagesofaterroristbombing
(Dearden,2015);IndiashutdownmobileservicesduringFebruary2016inresponsetostreetprotests
(Dash,2016);BrazilorderedtelecommunicationcompaniestoblockaccesstoWhatsAppinMay2016due
toprotests(Reuters,2016).Evenmorerecently,IranshutdownInternetinfrastructureinDecember2017
incitieswhereproteststookplaceagainstthegovernment’seconomicpolicies(Frenkel,2018).
Significantresourceshavebeeninvestedintrackingthetechnicalcontestbetweengovernmentsand
activists,andsubstantialdataexistsregardingthetypeandscopeoftheshutdowns.Howeverthereisfar
lessunderstandingofthesocialandpoliticaleffects.Ononehand,scholarssuchasMorozov(2011)argue
thatthecontributionofsocialmediatopopulardemonstrationsanddemocracymovementshasbeen
overhyped.Bycontrast,Chander(2011)arguesthattheveryfactthatgovernmentsimmediatelyadopt
InternetshutdownsinresponsetosocialunrestisveryproofofthepowerofunrestrainedInternetaccess.
AreportbyresearchersattheUniversityofWashingtonidentified606instancesintheyearsbetween
1995and2011where99differentgovernmentsintentionallyimpededtheoperationsoftheirnational
Internetinfrastructure(Howard,2011).
Inthecontextofpublicprotestsorpoliticaltension,authoritiesthreatenedwithsocialdissentare
increasinglyutilizingthetoolofInternetblackouts“asamethodofcontrollingboththeinformation
landscapeandcitizens’abilitytomobilize”(Searcey,2017).Shutdownscanrangefromacompleteclosure
oftheunderlyingInternetinfrastructure,totheclosureofmobileInternetservicesorevenparticular
subnationalappsorservicessuchasViOPorWhatsApp.Inrecentyears,wehaveseenadramaticincrease
intheuseofInternetshutdownswithmorethan19countriesadoptingsomeformcyberblackout.
Thereasonwhythistoolofcyber-blackoutsisbeingadoptedbygovernmentsisbecausethewidespread
diffusionofInternetaccesshasupendedtraditionalmethodsofpoliticalparticipationandcivic
engagement.Whereastraditionalpoliticalactswereconductedofflineandcenteredaroundelectoral
activity,todaythescopeofpoliticalparticipationhasbroadened.Politicaldiscourseanddebatehave
largelymovedtosocialmedia,socialprotestshaveadopteddigitalequivalents,andtheInternethas
becometheprimaryintermediaryforgovernment-citizeninteractionsandaccesstoinformation.These
newdigitalavenuesforcivicengagementhavedonemorethanoffertechnologicalshortcutsforan
Internetsavvygeneration–theyhavesignificantlyreshapedourdemocraticprocessesandstructuressuch
thatInternetaccessisnowaprerequisitetoparticipateinciviclife.Butthiscentralizationofdemocratic
participationthroughacyberfunnelalsooffersunparalleledopportunitiesforgovernmentstolimit
access,eithertoindividualsorentirepopulations.Combinedwithheightenedlevelsofsusceptibilityto
cyberdisconnectedness,wecanobserveadichotomyofdependenceandvulnerability,wherecitizens’
relianceonInternetaccesstorealizetheirbasiccivilrightsarematchedonlybytheirvulnerabilityto
Internetdisconnection.
Thisresearchpaperemploystwoexperimentsthatquantitativelymeasurehowcitizensrespondtothese
shutdowns,howitaffectstheirpoliticalattitudes,andhowtheysucceed(ordon’tsucceed)inaccessing
anddisseminatingpoliticalinformationduringperiodsofblackouts.Thefirstexperimentinvolvesisolating
participantsunderlaboratoryconditionsandmeasuringtheextenttowhichtheycanperformcivictasks
underconditionsofInternetaccessanddeprivation.TheresultsprovidestrongevidencethatInternet
accessistheprimarydeterminantoftheabilitytoengageinpoliticalexpressionandassociation.Following
thiscontrolledexperiment,wearesettinginplaceafieldexperimentthatwilltrackInternetusersin
multiplecountriesduringperiodofgovernment-initiatedInternetshutdowns.
Thefindingsoftheseexperimentsrelatetothefieldsofpublicpolicy,lawandhumanrights.Ifwefindthat
politicalparticipationhasbecomesointertwinedwithInternetaccessthatcitizensareunabletorealize
theirbasiccivicrightswhiledisconnected,thenthiswouldaltersthenature,andintime,perhaps,the
legalstatusofcyberconnectivity.Thiscouldimposenegativedutiesongovernmentstorefrainfrom
restrictingInternetaccess–fromeithertheentirepopulation,orfromspecificpersonssuchasprisoners.
Suchafindingwouldsupportthere-characterizationofInternetaccessasaprotectedpublicasset,and
imposepositivedutiesongovernmentstoensureaffordable,secureandhigh-speedInternetaccessforits
citizens.ThiswouldmakeInternetaccessakintopublicutilitiessuchaswaterorelectricity.Takentoits
mostextremeconclusion,thisresearchcouldlendsupporttotheargumentthatInternetaccessis
becomingahumanright,requiringanevenhigherlevelofprotection.
2.PoliticalParticipationandInternetDeprivation
2.1 InternetAccessandCivicEngagement
IntheshorttimethattheInternethasexisted,ithasbecomeacentralmediumofpoliticaldialogueand
hastransformedthenatureofpoliticalparticipation.Thegrowthindigitalpenetrationhasdemocratized
publiccommunicationbyallowinganypersontobroadcastatawhimtheirthoughtsandopinionstoa
globalaudiencewiththepushofabutton.Essentially,digitaltechnologiesandinfrastructurehave
transformedthesocialconditionsthroughwhichpeoplespeak”(Balkin,2014).Byloweringthecostof
participation,citizenswithfewresources,whowereotherwiseexcludedfromthecentralizedcorridorsof
politicaldiscourse,canparticipateinpublicdialogue(Balkin,2004).Butmorethanjustfacilitatingmass
participation,Internetgeneratedcivicparticipationinthetwenty-firstcenturydiffersinsignificantways
frommovementsofthepastandoftenoperateswithadifferentlogic(Tufekci,2017).Onthestructural
level,cyberparticipationovercomestheobstacleofgeographicaldispersionandisentirelyasynchronous
comparedtotraditionalformsofmediaandparticipation(i.e.youcan’tattendaphysicalprotestonceits
endsorquestionapoliticianinapublicforumafterquestiontimeends)(Coleman,2009).Byfacilitating
lateralpeer-to-peerdiscourse,theInternetpivotsthetraditionalmany-to-fewformsofcommunicationto
awideraudience.Digitalactivitiessuchaswebforumsandinteractivemediaenablemoreactive
engagementcomparedtothetraditionaloutletsthatallowedonlyforpassiveparticipation(Coleman,
2009).
“Therehasbeenconsiderableoptimismfrommanyobserversthatdigitalmediatoolscanstimulatevoting
andotherformsoftraditionalparticipation”bymakingpoliticalinformationmoreaccessibleand
encouragingengagement(Bimber,2015).Researchontheroleplayedbydigitalconnectivityhasfocused
onanumberofpromisinglinesoffocus.Onedirectionhasbeentomeasuretheextenttowhichcyber
connectivityandusageincreasesthelikelihoodthatpeoplewillengageinofflinepoliticalactivities,and
numerousstudieshavefoundsmallbutpositiveeffects(Bimber,2015;Bimber,2013;Bakker&deVreese,
2011).Anotherlineofresearchhasconcentratedontheriseofdigitalformsofpoliticalparticipationsuch
as‘clicktivism’,‘hacktivism’(Skoric,2012;Halupka,2014;Neumayer,2016)socialmediaprotests(George,
2018)andcitizenjournalism(Cram,2015).
Acentralelementofpoliticalparticipationispoliticalexpression.Inthisarea,thedigitalrevolutionhasnot
affectedthecontentoffreespeech,buthashadatransformativeimpactonitsmedium,inotherwords,
theprocessofspeakingfreely.IntheshorttimethattheInternethasexisted,ithasbecomeacentral
mediumofpoliticaldialogue.InanAmericanstudy,66%ofsocialmediausers,constituting39%of
Americanadults,engagedincivicorpoliticalactivitiesthroughsocialmedia.Likewise,73%ofadult
Internetusers(representing54%ofallUSadults)wentonlinetogetnewsorinformationduringthe2010
congressionalelectionsortogetinvolvedinpoliticalcampaigns(PewResearchCenter,2016).This
migrationofdiscourseistakingplaceinallmattersofsubstantivediscourseandnotjustinmedia.The
increasingpredominanceofdigitaljournalism(Conaghan,2015;Cram,2015),thetransitionofacademic
journalstoInternetbasedformats(King,etal.,2003;Luther,2002),theroleofdigitalinterfacesin
promotingpublicopinionandtheevolutionofonlinereceiptofletterstotheeditor,asymbolofpopular
participationinpoliticaldiscourse,allofferstarkinsightintothevitalroleplayedbytheInternetin
enablingmodernspeech.
Likewiseforpoliticalassociationandinteraction,anotherfundamentalpillarofpoliticaldemocracy,the
Internetplaysakeyroleineasingandfacilitatingtraditionalformsofassemblybymakingpossible
instantaneousglobalcommunicationandenablingtheefficientandtargetedrecruitingofmembers.The
Internetadditionallyenablestheconductofassembliesandforumsinwaysneverbeforeseenor
imagined.“InaworldwherecitizensareincreasinglyconnectedtotheInternet,assembliesarenotonly
plannedandorganisedonline,assembliescanoccurentirelyonline”(AlmstromandLiddicoat,2012).
Physicalproximityisnolongernecessaryforagrouptoconductmeetings.Facetofacehumaninteraction
hasbecomeculturallyarchaicinlightofefficientonlineforumsthatamplifyattendanceandensure
anonymity.ThecriticalinfluenceofInternetusageontheconductofpopularassembliescametothefore
duringtheArabspringwheredigitalplatformsinspiredpublicprotests.Theimportanceofthismediumin
relationtoprotestactivitywasprovedtimeandtimeagainascountriesattemptedtodispelgatherings
andlimitpublicprotestbyblockingonlineaccesstosocialforums(Morozov,2010).Itiswidelyheldthat
thedisparateforcesengagedinprotestactivitiesthroughouttheArabworldwouldnothavebeenableto
convergewithoutmoderncommunicationtechnologiesandsocialmedia(Arafa,2016).
Despitetheenthusiasmforthestimulatingeffectofdigitalconnectivity,researchhasidentifiedsignificant
negativeside-effects.Foremostamongthesearethesecurityvulnerabilitiesofdigitalplatformsthatcan
bemanipulatedmoreeasilythantraditionalofflinecommunicationmechanisms.Recentelectionsin
EuropeandtheUnitedStateshaveshowcaseshowtechnologycanbemanipulatedtoundermine
democraticpractice,sowdiscordandentrenchfalsenarrativeswithinmainstreamdiscourse(Coleman,
2009).Othervulnerabilitiesincludethecensorialpowerofthemoderatorandthefearthatnewcentersof
digitalpowermerelyrecalibratesthepoliticalelitesratherthandistributingpowertothemasses
(Coleman,2009).AongoinglineofresearcharguesthattheInternetwillnotnecessarilyencourage
politicallyapatheticcitizenstobecomemoreengaged,andwillonlyservetogalvanizeadditionalactivity
amongpoliticallyactivecitizens(Boulianne,2011).
2.2 ModesofInternetDeprivation
InvoluntaryInternetdeprivationisnotatheoreticalphenomenon.Whilethispaperwillfocus
primarilyonthephenomenonofgovernment-initiatedInternetshutdowns,therearecommon
methodsthatservetodisconnectmillionsofpeoplefromtheInternet.Themostvisibledanger
relatedtoInternetdeprivationistheriskofcyberattack.Akeycharacteristicofcyberoffensivetools
isthatthisisanasymmetricresource.Sophisticatedcyber-toolsthatwereoncethedomainof
governmentagenciesarenowcommonlyutilizedbydomesticandinternationalcyber-criminalsthat
targetbusinessesandindividuals.Governmentsponsoredcyber-warfarehasallowedevencountries
withrelativelyweakmilitarystrengthtoemployandutilizeasymmetricalmilitarytools,theresultsof
whicharespillingoverintocivilianlife.Theanonymityofcyber-attacks,oratleastthedifficultyin
ascribingattribution,meansthatcontrarytoclassicalmilitaryconflicts,governmentsappearmore
willingtoemployoffensivecybertools.Inadditiontothemyriadtargetedcyber-attacksthatfocus
onintelligencegatheringorsabotageandarelimitedtoisolatedinstitutions,thereisevidenceof
cyberattackstargetingciviliannetworkssuchastheallegedRussianattackontheUkraineinMarch
2014thatshutdownmobilephonenetworksandhamperedInternetconnectionsformillionsof
Ukrainians(Lee,2014).Highprofileransomwareattackshaveinfectedmorethanhalfamillion
computersinover150countriesandexpandedthegroundsforInternetdeprivationtocriminally
motivatedacts(Yellepeddi,2017).Commercialespionagehasalsoadaptedtothecyberagewith
approximately47%ofUScompaniesexperiencingaransomwareattackorotheronlineintrusion
duringarecorded12monthperiod(OstermanSurvey,2016).
AnotherfactorthatleadstoInternetdeprivationisthedigitaldivide.Thedigitaldividerefers
generallytodisparitiesinconnectivityamongsegmentsofpopulationgroups,bothinternationally
andwithincountries.Theprimaryelementofthisphenomenonthatisofinteresttousisthe
divergenceinconnectivitywithinindustrializedcountries.Age,forexample,isonekeydiverging
factorthatisstronglyrelatedtogreaterInternetconnectivity.InaDutchstudy,acountryrenowned
foritshighrateofconnectivity,19percentofthoseaged65andolderwerefoundtolackregular
Internetaccessathome,comparedtoratesof5%,1%and0%amongyoungeragebrackets(Van
Deursen,2015).InBritain,51percentoftheelderlypopulationwerefoundtolackInternetaccessat
homein2013(Dutton,2015).Povertyforobviousreasonscansignificantlyimpactconnectionrates
owingtothecostofcomputerequipment,Internetconnectionfees,mobilephonesandmore.
AthirdcommonavenueleadingtoInternetdeprivationiscriminalpunishment.Stateshavelong
restrictedInternetaccesstoprisoners–mostcommonlyforsexoffendersandaccusedterrorists
(Wagner,2012).Therationaleforthisdeprivationispublicsafety–inthatsexoffenderscould
ostensiblycontinuetooffendovertheInternet,evenbehindbars,andmembersofterroristgroups
andorganizedcrimecouldcontinuetodirectoperations.Thispracticeofdeprivationhasledtolegal
battlesinstateandfederalcourtsoftheUnitedStates,andincountriesasdiverseasIndiaandthe
UnitedKingdom.ThecourtshaveconsistentlystruckdownInternetdeprivationlawsonthebasis
thatitdisproportionatelyharmstherealizationoffreeexpressionandotherrights.Themost
significantlegalrulingwashandeddownin2017bytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtinthecaseof
Packinghamv.NorthCarolina.Inthiscase,thecourtunanimouslystruckdownastatelawthat
barredregisteredsexoffendersfromaccessingsocialmedia(Packingham,2016).Representingthe
majorityposition,JusticeKennedymadeclearhowtheInternethastransformedciviclifeand
assumedtheroleofthemodern‘publicsquare’.
‘Byprohibitingsexoffendersfromusingthosewebsites,NorthCarolinawithonebroadstrokebarsaccess
towhatformanyaretheprincipalsourcesforknowingcurrentevents,checkingadsforemployment,
speakingandlisteninginthemodernpublicsquare,andotherwiseexploringthevastrealmsofhuman
thoughtandknowledge.Thesewebsitescanprovideperhapsthemostpowerfulmechanismsavailabletoa
privatecitizentomakehisorhervoiceheard.TheyallowapersonwithanInternetconnectionto“become
atowncrierwithavoicethatresonatesfartherthanitcouldfromanysoapbox”’.
Thesemodesofdeprivationarenotexhaustive.Amongotherpossibilities,citizenscanalsochooseto
disconnectfromtheInternetinresponsetoprivacyconcernsrelatingtosurveillanceorcensorship;
andreligiousgroupscanencouragememberstoavoidInternetconnectionsformoralorcommunal
reasons.
2.3 Government-InitiatedInternetShutdowns
Atthesametimethatthejudicialsystemischampioningtherightsofprisonerstomaintainaccesstothe
Internet,governmentsacrosstheworldareimplementingpartialorcomprehensiveInternetdisruptions
thataffectthewiderpopulation.Thesestates,typicallybutnotalwayscharacterizedbyautocratic
governancefeatures,haveattimesinitiatedsomeformofInternetblackout,relyingonaseriesof
justificationsthatincludesafeguardinggovernmentauthority,reducingpublicdissidence,fighting
terrorism,maintainingnationalsecurity,orprotectinglocalbusinesses.Authoritiesareincreasingly
utilizingthistool‘asamethodofcontrollingboththeinformationlandscapeandcitizens’abilityto
mobilize,inrecognitionofthefactthattheInternethasbecomeafundamentaltoolforpeopletorealize
theirrightsandparticipatemeaningfullyinsociety’(Searcey,2017).
Intermsofpurenumbers,thenumberoftemporarygovernmentinitiatedInternetshutdownshas
risenexponentiallyinrecentyears.OnestudyconductedbyUniversityofWashingtonresearchers
identified606instanceswhere99differentgovernmentsdeliberatelyinterferedwithInternet
operationsbetween1995and2011(Howard,2011).Comparedtoasingledisruptionin1995,and
fourdisruptionsin1996,thenumberroseto111in2010.Duringaoneyearperiodbetween2015
and2016,aBrookingsInstituteresearchprojectledbyDarrellWesttracked81differentinstancesof
Internetshutdownsin19countries(West,2016).Hisresearchobservedacumulativetotalof753
daysofaffectedInternetservicescausingsomeUSD$2.4Billionineconomicdamagetothe
respectivecountries.ADeloittestudyestimatedthattheperdayfinancialcostofatemporary
Internetshutdowninacountrywithhighratesofconnectivitywouldreach$23.6millionper10
millionpopulation(Deloitte,2016).Thisdoesnotincludethenon-numericalvalueofthedamage
causedtotheinabilityofcitizenstofulfillparticulardemocraticandsocialfunctionsthatrelyon
Internetaccess.
ThemostcitedmodernillustrationofanInternetshutdownwasbyEgyptduringtheArabSpring
protestsduring2011.Inresponsetoincreasinglyviolentstreetproteststhatthreatenedthestability
oftheMubarakregime,authoritiesadoptedharshstepstodispelprotestersandendthepopular
uprising.Ashistoryshows,theclumsyresponsetothenetwork-drivenprotestsbackfired,but
governmentshavelearnedfromthislessonanddevelopedmoresophisticatedmethodstoneutralize
thosewhowouldusedigitaltoolsagainstthem(Tufekci,2017).Today,itisnotablethatoneofthe
primarystepstakentodisperseproteststhatarebeingpublicizedonlineistoorderISPstoshut
downallinternationalconnectionstotheInternetbeforetheyleadtophysicaldemonstrations
(Subramanian,2011).InlightoftherelativelyfewISPsinthecountryatthetimewithinternational
digitalconnections,thishadtheeffectofseveringInternetservicesforcivilians.Othernotablerecent
exampleofgovernmentshutdownsincludeTurkeyin2015followingaterroristbombingatapublic
rally(Dearden,2015),Indiathroughout2016and2017inresponsetofrequentstreetprotests(Dash,
2016),andBrazilfollowingcorruptionprotestsin2016(Reuters,2016).Whilethejustificationof
mostoftheseoccurrencesrelyonmaintaininglawandorderandprotectingpublicsafety,multiple
countriesincludingUganda,Algeria,IndiaandIraqhavedisruptedInternetservicesowingto
concernsaboutstudentcheatingonnationalexams(West,2016).
AsthenumbersofInternetusershasgrown,stateshavedevelopedincreasinglysophisticatedtechniques
tocensorcontentsuchascontrollingcentralintermediariesandsearchportals,controllingthefinancial
intermediaries,controllingtheconduitsandISPsandsearchresultfiltering.Recently,theriseinprocessing
powerhasallowedcertainstatestoerectgatekeepersystemsthatostensiblyactasabufferbetweenthe
externalInternetandallcitizens.InSaudiArabiaforinstance,“thegovernmentisquiteopenaboutits
filteringpractices,andtheroleoftheproxyserverispublishedonitswebsite”(Subramanian,2011).The
mostdrasticstepisatotalcyberblockade.Thisstepentailscompletelyblockingallaccessfromanyentity
insidetoanyentityoutside,andviceversa.Thisisthestepthathasgainedthepopularparlance‘Internet
KillSwitch’–evenifnosuchswitchreallyexists.CountrieslikeMyanmarin2007andEgyptin2011
initiatedthe‘killswitch’byorderingallISPsoperatinginthecountrytoshutdownallinternational
connectionstotheInternet.Forthistoworkeffectively,itrequiresthatthecountrypossessarelatively
smallnumberofISPsandthatthecountrypossessweakjudicialindependence.Eventhen,theprocessof
turningofftheInternetcantakedaysastheISPsslowlywinddownoperations.
3.ExperimentalMethodology–MeasuringtheEffectofInternetShutdowns
WhileexhaustivedebatehasfocusedonthenationalimpactofpervasiveInternetaccess,andnewstudies
haveconsideredthetechnicalabilitytocircumventcensorshipandothercyberdisruption,noresearchhas
managedtoacquirequantitativedataonhowInternetdeprivationaffectspoliticalparticipationorthe
realizationofcivilrightsonanindividuallevel.Tocounterthisabsenceofdata,weemploytwo
complementaryexperimentalresearchdesigns.ThefirstexperimentisolatestheeffectofInternet
deprivationincontrolledlaboratorysettingsinordertoexplorethepreciseeffectofdeprivationon
individualelementsofpoliticalactivities.Toovercometheabsenceofanempiricaltesttomeasurethe
effectofInternetdeprivationonanindividuallevel,theauthordevelopedanewexperimentalprocedure
thatwastestedonapredominantlystudentpopulation.Thesecondexperiment,stillintheplanning
phase,movestoareallifesettingofInternetshutdownstoexplorehowcitizensindifferentcountries
respondtothisphenomenon.
Experiment1–InternetDeprivationExperimentUnderControlledConditions
Theaimofthisexperimentwastodevelopacontrolled,randomizedmethodologytogaugetheabilityof
participantstocompletepoliticalactivitiesundertheconditionsofInternetaccessanddeprivation.Three
particularareaswerechosenthatreflectthreecentralmanifestationsofpoliticalparticipation–political
expression,politicalassociationandaccesstopoliticalinformation.
Methodology
Sixtyparticipantswererecruitedtoparticipateinanactivitythatwasmarketedasa‘scavengerhunt’.The
experimentwasconductedonauniversitysettingandsoincludedapopulationsamplethatlargely
includedstudents,aswellasanumberofparticipantsdrawnfromthewidercommunity.Participantswere
given60minutestocompletethreetasksthatsimulatedtherealizationofthepoliticalactivitiesthatwere
beinginvestigated–politicalexpression,politicalassociationandaccesstopoliticalinformation.
ParticipantsrandomlyassignedtothetreatmentconditionwereforbiddenaccesstotheInternet,but
coulduseallothertoolsavailabletotheminauniversitylibraryenvironment.Participantsrandomly
assignedtothecontrolconditionhadfulluseofallpersonalandenvironmentaltools,includingInternet
services.Toincentivizeparticipationandgood-faithattemptstocompletetasks,theexperimentwas
marketedasascavengerhuntwithfinancialremunerationbasedonthenumberoftaskscompleted.
Followingthe60-minuteinterval,participantsabilitytocompletethetasksweremeasuredaccordingtoa
fourpointscalewherebyfourpointsindicatedthatparticipantswerefullyabletocompletethetask,and
onepointindicatedthatparticipantswereunabletocompletethetaskandunabletoconceiveofhowto
completethetask.Theprimarydependentvariableinthisexperimentwaspoliticalparticipation,and
additionaldemographicvariablessuchasage;gender;educationlevel;politicalself-identification;family
income;andaveragedailyInternetusagewereallcollected.
PoliticalParticipationMeasure-Theprimarydependentvariablethattheexperimentmeasuresisthe
abilitytorealizecivictasks/engageinpoliticalparticipation.Wedistinguishbetweenthreeelementsof
politicalparticipation–politicalexpression,groupcongregationorassociationandacquiringpolitical
information.Tooperationalizetheseactivities,weselectedtasksthatsimulatetypicalmanifestationsof
expression,associationandinformationindailylife.Whilethesetasksdonotreflectthefullscopeofeach
elementofpoliticalparticipation,achallengethatisdiscussedfurtherbelow,theywerechosentoreflect
rudimentaryfeaturesoftheseelementsindailylife.Thetasksgiventoparticipantswere:1)Publicly
critiqueasocialorpoliticalissuesuchthatitreachesawideaudience(expression).2)Identifythetopic
andcontentofalocalNGOscampaignsloganthatisactiveinrecentdemonstrations(association)3)
IdentifythenamesoftheMembersofParliamentwhoinitiatedarecentbillofparliament(information).
Thecompletionofthesetaskswerecodedonafour-pointscalefrom4–fullyabletocompletethetask,to
1–Entirelyunabletocompletethetaskorconceiveofhowtocompletethetask.Fullcompletionoftasks
requiredparticipantstosuccessfullyacquirethecorrectinformationbeingsought(fortaskstwoand
three)ortoeffectivelycommunicatetheirpoliticalpositiontoasufficientlylargeaudience(taskone).
Results
OurstatisticalanalysisstrategyforthisexperimentinvolvedacombinationofT-tests,chi-squaredanalyses
andlogisticregressionanalyses.Asaninitialstep(a),weconductedaseriesofindependentsamplest-
teststomeasurethedifferencebetweencontrol(Internetaccess)andtreatment(Internetdeprived)
groupsintherealizationofeachofthethreecomponentsofpoliticalparticipation.Buildingonthis(b),we
ranaseriesofchi-squaredanalysestodeterminewhethertheproportionofparticipantswhocompleted
thetasksundertreatmentandcontrolconditionsdifferedfromtheexpectedoutcome.Wewere
particularlyinterestedinasuccessversusfailureoutcome,andsorecodedthetaskcompletionvariable
intocategoriesandusedachi-squareanalysistotestfordifferencesbetweentheconditions.Finally(c),
weelectedtorunalogisticregressionanalysistofurthersupportourhypothesestoshowthattheeffect
remainssignificantwhencontrollingforadditionalvariables.Thesetestsallowustoconfirmour
hypothesesbyquantifyingtheextenttowhichtheInternetaccessvariableaffectstheabilitytocomplete
thedifferenttasks.
Ourinitialstepofconductingindependentsamplet-testsrevealedthatthetreatmentvariable(Internet
deprivation)hadsignificantnegativeeffectsontheabilityofparticipantstorealizethethreetasks(see
Table1).Inparticular,thetreatmenteffectontasksoneandtwo(p<.007andp<.002)werehighly
significant,whiletheeffectfortask3wasnotsignificant.Thissupportsoursuspicionthataccessto
politicalinformationwasassociatedwithbutnotyetcompletelyreliantonInternetaccess.Theeffectsizes
forallthreetasksweremediumtolarge,offeringfurthersupportforourhypotheses.
Forthesubsequentchi-squaredanalysestests,weconvertedthe4pointtaskoutcomescaleintoa
dichotomousvariablewherebytheoriginal4points(fullcompletion)=1;and1,2or3points(partial
completionorlower)=0.ThisconversionallowsustopinpointtheinfluenceofInternetaccessonfulltask
completionandreflectsastricterviewthattherealizationofcivicrightshasonlyabinaryoutcomeand
doesnotfallonagradientscale.Thisconversionhastheaddedbenefitofenablingachi-squaredanalysis
forasmallNexperimentwhereindividualcelloutcomeswouldotherwisebelow.Bycomparingthe
observedresultstotheexpecteddistribution(seeTable2),wefindthatInternetaccesssubstantially
affectedthedistributionofsuccessintherealizationofpoliticalexpression(χ2(df=1)=6.46,p=.011)and
politicalassociation(χ2(df=1)=14.59,p<.001),andhasaslightlylesssignificanteffectonaccessto
politicalinformation(χ2(df=1)=4.66,p=.031).Specifically,intheInternetaccess(control)condition,
61%ofparticipantswereabletofullyengageinpoliticalexpression,comparedtoonly29%intheno
Internetaccess(treatment)condition.Similarly,93%ofparticipantswereabletorealizetheirrightto
politicalassociationintheInternetaccesscondition,comparedtoonly47%inthenoInternetaccess
condition.Andonthetaskreflectingaccesstoinformation,71%ofparticipantswereabletocompletethe
taskintheInternetaccesscondition,comparedtoonly44%inthenoInternetaccesscondition.Ofthose
whoscoredacombinedtaskaverageof3.00orhigher–indicatingcompleteorpartialcompletionoftasks
–thedifferencewasevenstarkerwith89%ofcontrolsubjectssucceedingcomparedto50%oftreatment
subjects(seeTable4).
Tofurthertestourhypotheses,weconductedlogisticregressionanalysestotesttheeffectoftheInternet
accessconditionwhilecontrollingforthefollowingdemographicvariables–age,gender,levelof
education,politicalidentification,familyincomeandaveragedailyInternetusage(SeeTable3forresults).
Theanalysiswasconductedintwostages,withtheprimarycontrol/treatmentconditionusedastheonly
variableinstage1,andwithdemographicvariablesenteredassimultaneouspredictorsinstage2.During
eachstage,thelogisticregressionanalyseswereconductedthreetimes–predictingtaskcompletionfor
eachofthethreetasksindependently.TheseanalysesindicatedthattheInternetaccesscondition
significantlypredictedsuccessfultaskcompletionforeachofthethreetasksevenafterdemographicand
othervariableswereaddedtothemodel,indicatingthatInternetaccesshasaneffectaboveandbeyond
theeffectofthesevariables.
Experiment2–PoliticalParticipationDuringGovernment-InitiatedInternetShutdowns
Acomplementarysecondstudythatiscurrentlybeingconductedwillextendthisresearchbeyonda
controlledenvironmenttoreal-lifesituationsofInternetdeprivation.TheexperimentutilizeslargeN
surveythataredistributedimmediatelybeforeandafteraninstanceofprolongedInternetshutdown,
withtheaimofgaininginsightintoifandhowciviliansareabletocircumventInternetblackoutsduring
periodsofsocialprotests.Acentralchallengetothisresearch,andareasonfortheabsenceofaccurate
dataonhowcitizensrespondtoInternetshutdowns,isthatbytheverynatureofInternetshutdowns,
governmentsdonotbroadcastinadvancewhentheyintendto“switchoff”theInternet.Thissecond
experimentisstillintheplanningstage,andweexpecttopublishresultsduringthesecondhalfof2018.
Forthepurposesofthisexperiment,pre-andpost-outcomeswillbeobtainedusingclosedended
structuredquestionnairesthatincludemeasurespertainingtopoliticalefficacy,trustingovernment,
politicalparticipation,dailyfunctioningintheabsenceofInternetaccessandtheabilitytocircumvent
cybercontrols.Acentralchallengetoourresearchistoselectlocationstoconducttheexperimentwithout
knowinginadvancewhereandwhenancyber-blackouteventwilltakeplace.Toovercomethis,werelyon
trendsthroughwhichwecanforecastlikelylocationsofimpendingshutdowns.In2016and2017for
example,thecountriesthatexperiencesthelargestnumberofunexpectedInternetshutdownswereIndia,
Iraq,Syria,Pakistan,TurkeyandBrazil.Theseshutdownstookplaceinthecontextofcivildissent,protests
andpublicviolence.Extrapolatingforward,wecanrelyontwopredictivevariablestoforecastlocationsof
likelyInternetshutdownsduringthesubsequenttwelvemonths.Thesevariablesarea)acountrythathas
ahistoryofusingInternetshutdowns;andb)simmeringdissentandsocialtensionthatisliableto
generateprotestsduringthesubsequentperiod.Thoughthesevariablescannotguaranteethelikelihood
ofanyshutdown,researchindicatesthatthesearetheminimumconditionsrequiredforashutdownto
takeplace.Weaddtothisathirdvariablewhichisthatduringperiodsofstability,Internetaccessand
socialmediausagemustbesufficientlypervasivesuchthatitformsanaturalavenueofpolitical
expression.Thisisnecessarysothatanyinterruptionwillhaveameasurableeffect,whichcanthenbe
extrapolatedtoothercountrieswithhighlevelsofInternetpenetration.
4.Discussion
Ourresearchfindingsupuntilthispointindicatethatcitizensaregenerallyunabletoengageinpolitical
participationintheabsenceofInternetconnectivity.Thequestionforusiswhatthisfindingmeansforthe
phenomenonofInternetshutdowns.OneperspectiveisthatInternetdisconnectionsarethecyber
equivalenttoemployingcrowddispersaldevicessuchassmokegrenades,sonicweapons,cavalry,etc.
Internetdisconnectionscouldbeconsideredacybersmokegrenadeifyouwill.Yetunliketraditional
crowddispersaltools,Internetdisconnectionsarenotsubjecttothesamelimitations.Indemocratic
countries,freedomofexpressionisaprizedright,andpoliceonlydisperseprotestsinparticular
circumstanceswheretheprotestreachesthelevelofincitement,orthecrowdposesadangertothelives
ofothers.Internetdisconnectionsbycontrast,arenottypicallyassociatedwiththeviolationof
constitutionallyprotectedrightssuchasfreedomofexpression,andsoitsuseisviewedlessthreateningly.
YetInternetdisconnectionsaffectmorethantheabilitytocongregateandprotest.Ourresearchshows
howcyberdeprivationsubstantiallydecreasestheabilitytoengageinpoliticalexpressionorattain
politicalinformation.ItisforthisreasonthatanInternetshutdownessentiallypreventspoliticalactivity,
allowingforstatestopreventpoliticaldiscourseduringcontentiousperiods.Bylookingattheinstancesof
disconnectionsreviewedabove,wecanseehowstates,usuallybutnotnecessarilycharacterizedbyan
absenceofdemocraticnorms,usethistoolduringperiodsofpoliticalinstability–duringanti-regime
protestsforexample.ThislendscredencetoChander’s(2011)argumentthatthewidespreaduseof
Internetshutdownsbygovernmentsinresponsetosocialunrestisprimafacieevidenceofthe
contributionofInternetaccesstopoliticalparticipation.
Internetaccesshasbecomeinextricablyintertwinedwiththeabilitytoengageinpoliticalparticipation.As
aresult,cyberdisconnectionscanmeanthatgovernmentsaredisconnectingcitizensfromtheabilityto
politicallyengage.Thereasonthisstatementisimportant,isthatthisisnotthewaythatdisconnections
arecommonlyperceived.Insofarascyberdisconnectionsaretantamounttopoliticaldisconnections,
statesshouldbearanegativedutytoavoidanyinstanceofInternetdisconnections,apartfromthemost
extremecircumstancesthatwouldwarranttraditionalsecurityactionsthatcanblocktraditional
expressionandcongregation.
Totheextentthatwearetalkingaboutmoderatingstateactivityandimposingnegativedutiestorefrain
fromextremeacts,thisconclusionisnotparticularlycontroversial,andmainlydemandsaslightchangein
framing.Yettakentothenextlevel,ourresearchrevealshowpeoplearehighlydependentonInternet
accesstorealizebasiccivilandhumanrightsthatareconnectedwithpoliticalparticipation.Ataminimum,
thisrelatestofreedomofexpression,freedomofassociationandfreedomofinformation,butthiscould
conceivablyextendtootherrightssuchastherighttoeducation,therighttoemployment,therightto
personalandnationaldevelopment,etc.Underthisinterpretation,whereInternetaccessfacilitatesthe
abilitytorealizebasiccivilrights,theninadditiontoanegativedutytoavoidconductingInternet
disconnections,governmentscouldevenpossessapositivedutytoactivelyprovideInternetaccessto
disenfranchisedmembersofthepopulation.
Thisnewdichotomyofcyberdependencetorealizebasiccivilrightsweighedagainstvulnerabilityto
cyber-disconnectionmayrequireamorecomprehensivehumanrightsframework.Ademandtoaddress
moderncyberchallengesthroughahumanrightslenshasbeenechoedbyinternationalinstitutions,
nationallegislativebodiesandcourtsaroundtheworld.Themostprominentcallshavecomefromthe
UnitedNations(UnitedNations,2016)andEuropeanUnion(CouncilofEurope,2011;CouncilofEurope,
2015).Inhislandmark2011report,FrankLaRue,theSpecialRapporteuronthePromotionandProtection
oftheRighttoFreedomofOpinionandExpressionproclaimedthat‘theInternethasbecomean
indispensabletoolforrealizingarangeofhumanrights’inlightofwhich‘statesshoulddevelopaconcrete
andeffectivepolicy[…]tomaketheInternetwidelyavailable,accessibleandaffordabletoallsegmentsof
population’(UnitedNations,2011).AfindingthatInternetaccessisahumanrightwouldimposeeven
strongerpositivedutiesongovernmentstoensuretheresilienceofInternetaccess.
Inbuildingthishumanrightsapproach,fourdifferentstreamshaveemergedbywhichInternetaccess
couldattainthestatusofahumanright.ThefirstapproachreliesonArticle19(2)oftheICCPRthat
declares:‘[e]veryoneshallhavetherighttofreedomofexpression;thisrightshallincludefreedomtoseek,
receiveandimpartinformationandideasofallkinds,regardlessoffrontiers,eitherorally,inwritingorin
print,intheformofart,orthroughanyothermediaofhischoice’.Theargumenthereisthatthelanguage
usedinthisclauseissufficientlybroadtoapplytonewtechnologiesthatfacilitatetheprotectedactivities.
ThesecondapproachtoahumanrightsframeworkforInternetaccessisbasedonarticle19ofthe
UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,whichguaranteessimilarprotections.Athirdandmorerecent
approachclaimsthatnationalpracticeandrisinglevelsofinstitutionalsupportontheinternationallevelis
sufficienttocomprisecustomaryinternationallawandsograntInternetaccessthestatusofahuman
right.Finally,afourthargumentclaimsthatInternetaccesshasbecomean‘auxiliaryhumanright’in
supportofaseriesofprimaryrights.Anauxiliaryrightisasecondaryhumanrightthatissoinextricably
intertwinedwithapre-existingprimaryright,thatitattainsthestatusofahumanrightuntoitself.This
claimassertsthatavarietyofcivil,politicalandhumanrightshavebecomeentirelyintertwinedwith
Internetaccess,andthatintheabsenceofInternetaccesstherightwouldlosesubstanceandvalue.Inthis
case,theprimaryrightsthatitcouldconnecttoincludefreedomofexpression,freedomofinformation,
freedomofassociation,therighttonationaldevelopment,therighttoeducation,therighttoemployment
andmore.Oftheargumentsreviewedhere,ourresearchmostcloselyattuneswiththeauxiliaryrighthood
argument,sincewehavemeasuredastatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenInternetaccessandthe
abilitytorealizetheseprimaryhumanrights.
WidespreadInternetaccesshastransformedthenatureofpoliticalparticipationandenfranchisedmillions
ofcitizenswhohavegainedaplatformtomaketheirvoicesheard.Whilethisprocessofsocial
transformationbearssignificantpositives,theprocessoffunnelingalargeportionofpoliticalactivity
throughavulnerableplatformcanformamajorweakness.Muchofthiswilldependonwhetherthenew
cybermodesofpoliticalparticipationhaveaddedtotherepertoireofpoliticalactivity,orwhetherthey
havesupplantedtraditionalofflinemodesofparticipationthatmaynolongerbeavailable.Forinstance,
manymajornewspapersnolongeraccepthandwrittenorpostedletterstotheeditor,andyounger
generationsarelessawareofofflinechannelsofpoliticalexpression.Thefindingsfromourresearchshow
exactlywhygovernmentsaretakingadvantageofthischokepointtocutoffInternetaccessduring
politicallysensitiveperiods.
5.LimitationsandContributionsofthisResearch
Thereareanumberoffactorsthatlimittheutilityofthisresearch.Aprimarylimitationinthecontrolled
laboratoryexperimentsisthatthetasksthatsimulatetherealizationofpoliticalparticipationareonly
partiallyreflectiveofitsfullscope.Politicalparticipationisacomplexconcept,andisolatingitssub-
categories(politicalexpression,association,information)asdependentvariablesrequirepinpointing
particularoperationalizations.Politicalassociation,forexample,includesabroadarrayofactivities
includingparticipationinstreetdemonstrations,signingpetitions,joininglaborunionsandpolitical
parties,andmuchmore.Politicalexpressionconstitutesanevenbroaderarrayofconnectedactions.In
theUnitedStates,thescopeofprotectedpoliticalexpressionhasbeenextendedbythecourtstoinclude
bakingcakesandmakingpoliticaldonations.Undercontrolledconditions,ourresearchasksparticipantsto
completeparticulartasksthatreflecttheessenceofeachcategory,theresultsofwhichcanbe
extrapolatedtothefullscopeofthatright.Futureresearchshouldexpandthismethodologytoadditional
activities.
Asecondandconnectedlimitationisthemannerinwhichacontrolledcampusexperimentwithastudent
populationcanbegeneralizedtothewiderpopulation.Toconfidentlygeneralizethisresearchtoawider
population,thisexperimentwillneedtobereplicatedwithalargerandmorerepresentativepopulation
sample,observingalongerperiodofdeprivation,andtakeplaceoutsideoftheconfinesofacampus
setting.Ideallythisexperimentalmethodologywouldtakeplaceinmultiplecountriestotakeintoaccount
thevaryingdegreesofInternetsaturationindifferentcountries,thedifferentdatesofwidespread
Internetpenetration,andthesubsequentvariationinrelianceonInternetaccesstocompletedifferent
tasks.
Despitetheselimitations,thisexperimentalmethodstillcontributeshighlyvaluabledata.Thisisthefirst
researchtoexperimentallytestandquantifiablymeasuretheeffectofInternetdeprivationuponthe
realizationofparticularcivilrights.Theresultsofthefirstphaseofthisdual-experimentmethodology
succeededinbuildinganeffectivemethodologytoempiricallyanalyzetheconsequencesofInternet
deprivation–measuredseparatelyforindividualelementsofpoliticalparticipation.Acampussetting
possessesmanybenefitsaswell,sinceitpossessesmanyoftheresourcesthatwouldbeavailableina
widersetting,suchaslargenumbersofpeople,authoritativesources,newspapers,librariesandmore.
Thereisalsospecialinterestinconductingthisexperimentamongastudentpopulationsincethisisa
segmentofthepopulationknownas‘digitalnatives’–peoplewhohaveneverknownatimewithout
Internetaccess,andforwhomwehypothesizethatInternetdeprivationwillhaveagreatereffectthanfor
oldergenerations.Finally,thisinitialcontrolledexperimentlaysthegroundworkforthesubsequentcyber-
blackoutresearchthattakesplaceinthefield.Ourfindingsinthefirstexperimenttestedthecreativityof
participantstoseewhethertheywereabletorealizebasicrightsunderconditionsofInternetdeprivation.
Themotivationinthiscasewasfinancial,withrewardsofferedforparticipantswhocouldovercomethe
lackofInternetaccess.Whilethisassistedinpinpointingtheeffectofdeprivationonindividualrights,we
recognizethatthemotivation
6.EthicalandResearchChallenges
Ourresearchispremisedonliteraturethatatteststothenegativepsychologicalemotionsstemmingfrom
prolongedInternetdeprivation.Evenourfirst‘scavengerhunt’experiment,whichreliedonabriefperiod
ofdeprivationofonehour,recordedasmallbutstatisticallysignificantincreaseinself-reportedfeelingsof
frustration,angerandirritation.Asweprogressonwardtofurtherexperimentsthatentaillongerperiods
ofdeprivation(measuredinthehours,daysandweeks),wewillneedtobeawareofconductingthe
researchinsuchawaytolimittheextentofthepsychologicalharmcausedbythemanipulationof
Internetdeprivation.
Thesecondfieldexperimentalsoraisesanumberofethicaldilemmasconsideringthatcyberblackoutsare
likelytooccurincontextsofcivildissent(sincethisisthetimeduringwhichgovernmenttypicallyapply
someformofInternetshutdown).Researchinaconflictzoneposesbothmethodologicalandethical
challenges.Theguidingethicalprincipleof‘donoharm’iscomplicatedinthesesituationsdueto
heightenedpoliticalpolarization,theoftentimespresenceofsecurityandintelligenceforces,thegeneral
unpredictabilityofeventsandtheprecarioussecuritysituationformanyresidents(Wood,2006).Forour
particularresearch,whereprotestersareoftentryingtocircumventgovernmentcontrolsoninformation
distribution,wearekeenlyawarethattheresearchfindingscouldposeadangertoindividualrespondents
totheextentthattheycanbeidentified.Thisleadstoanumberofethicaldictatesanddilemmasthatwe
willneedtoremainintheforefrontofourmindswhenplanningandexecutingtheexperiment.Firstly,the
namesofparticipantswillnotbestored.Atnotimewillparticipantsbeaskedtorecordtheirnames,and
identifyinginformationsuchasIPaddresseswillbeerased.Secondly,researchsubjectswillneedto
providefullconsenttotheirparticipationinfullunderstandingofthepotentialrisksandbenefits.Thisis
necessaryduetoethicalconstraints,anditwillalsobeimportanttoverifytheidentityoftheresearch
teamsothatparticipantsfeelcomfortablesharingpotentiallysensitiveinformation.Weareawarethat
duringaperiodofgovernment-initiatedInternetshutdowns,aresearchteamaskinginformationabout
howcitizenscircumventgovernmentrestrictionsmayraiseredflags.Thirdly,securingthecollecteddata
willbeofparamountimportance,particularlysensitivedatathatmighthavepoliticalimplicationsinthe
handsofcertaininterestedparties.Securingthedataincludesconstructingsecuredatacollection
methodologyandstorageprocesses,aswellasprocessesforsendingthedataoutsideofthecountry.
Fourthly,alaterethicaldilemmawillrevolvearoundthepublicationofconclusions.Ifwediscoverthat
largesegmentsofthepopulationisutilizingaparticularmethodtoavoidInternetshutdowns,weface
ethicalconcernsinpublishingthisdata,andbringingittotheattentionoftheauthorities.Thisisnot
somethingthatwecanresolveinadvance,sincenotallcircumventionmethodswillsusceptibleto
heightenedenforcement,butwenotethispossibilityasapotentialethicalscenario.
AmoreappliedresearchchallengeforthissecondInternetshutdownexperimentwillbetoefficiently
identifyandtakeadvantageofbriefperiodsofcyberblackouts.Duetotheverynatureofgovernment-
initiatedInternetshutdowns,wecannotknowinadvancewhereandwhensuchashutdownwilltake
place.Ourexpectationisthatfollowingthedistributionofthepre-questionnaires,ashutdownwilltake
placeinatleastoneofthelocationswithinaperiodof6-12monthsinordertoensurethatthedataisstill
viable.ThoughthisdoesentailariskthattherewillbenoInternetshutdown,webelievethata)itisarisk
worthtakingduetothevaluableanduniquenatureofthedata;andb)thestepswehavetakento
mitigatetherisksbyselectingmultiplelocationstoconducttheresearchbasedonvariablesthatwill
increasethelikelihoodofapositiveresultwilldiminishthepossibilityofachievingnoresult.
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Table 1: T-Test Results for the Effect of Internet Deprivation on the Completion of Tasks
M SD t df p d Task 1: Expression
Treatment 2.81 1.00 2.773 58 .007 .72
Control 3.46 .79 Task 2: Association
Treatment 2.88 1.26 3.294 58 .002 .87
Control 3.79 .79 Task 3: Information
Treatment 2.50 1.41 2.416 58 0.19 .63
Control 3.32 1.19 Note: The control condition reflects full Internet access; the treatment condition reflects no Internet access.
Table 2: Chi-Square Tests; treatment effect on task completion
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.13.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
Task 1: Expression Task 2: Association Task 3: Information Value df Asymp.
Sig. (2-sided)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
6.459 a 1 .011 14.592 a
1 .000 4.659 a
1 .031
Continuity Correction b
5.200 1 .023 12.544 1 .000 3.600 1 .058
Likelihood Ratio
6.563 3 .010 16.274 1 .000 4.745 1 .029
Linear-by-Linear Association
6.351 1 .012 14.348 1 .000 4.581 1 .032
N of Valid Cases
60 60 60
Table 3: Results of Logistic Regression on Task Success
Task 1: Expression Task 2: Association Task 3: Information
Step 1 Model: χ2 (df = 1) = 6.56, p = .01 χ2 (df = 1) = 16.27, p < .001 χ2 (df = 1) = 4.75, p = .03
b SE p Odds Ratio b SE p Odds
Ratio b SE p Odds Ratio
Condition (Control =0, Treatment = 1)
-1.37** .55 .01 .25 -2.69** .82 .001 .07 -1.17* .55 .03 .31
Step 2 Model: χ2 (df = 7) = 14.89, p < .001 χ2 (df = 7) = 24.41, p < .001 χ2 (df = 7) = 9.23, p < .24
b SE p Odds Ratio b SE p Odds
Ratio b SE p Odds Ratio
Condition -1.61** .64 .011 .20 -3.24** 1.00 .001 .04 -1.91* .60 .04 .30
Age -0.39 .50 .43 .68 .30 .54 .58 1.35 .60 .51 .24 1.82
Gender 1.31* .68 .05 3.72 1.33 .79 .09 3.78 .94 .61 .12 2.55
Education Level 0.32 .45 .48 .73 -1.42* .69 .04 .24 -.11 .42 .79 .90
Political Identification -0.15 .20 .45 .86 -.19 .23 .42 .83 .02 .18 .91 1.02
Family Income -.05 .14 .75 .96 .02 .17 .88 1.03 .05 .13 .72 1.05
Average Daily Internet Usage .41 .48 .39 1.51 -.05 .51 .01 .95 .26 .42 .53 1.30
*p < .05, **p < .01
Table 4: Breakdown of Participant Scoring Per Task
Task 1 Control
Task 1 Treatment
Task 1 Total
Task 2 Control
Task 2 Treatment
Task 2 Total
Task 3 Control
Task 3 Treatment
Task 3 Total
1 point – Unable to complete task and unable to conceive of how to complete task
4% 13% 8% 7% 25% 17% 18% 41% 30%
2 points – Unable to complete task, but able to conceive of how to complete task if not restricted to the controlled experimental environment
7% 22% 15% 0% 9% 5% 4% 13% 8%
3 points – Partially able to complete task
29% 38% 33% 0% 19% 10% 7% 3% 5%
4 points – Fully able to complete task
61% 28% 43% 93% 47% 68% 71% 44% 57%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Note: The control condition reflects full Internet access; the treatment condition reflects no Internet access.