CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

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Benjamin Bloom(1913 – 1999)

He looked on learning as a process – we build upon our former learning to develop more complex levels of understanding Carried out research in the development of classification of

levels of thinking behaviours in the process of learning. PhD University of Chicago in 1942.

Worked on drawing up levels of these thinking behaviours from the simple recall of facts at the lowest level up to evaluation at the highest level.

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Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is a very useful aid to

writing learning outcomes. The taxonomy consists of a hierarchy of increasingly

complex processes which we want our students to acquire.

Provides the structure for writing learning outcomes Bloom’s Taxonomy is frequently used by teachers in

writing learning outcomes as it provides a ready made structure and list of verbs.

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Bloom (1956) proposed that knowing is composed of six successive levels arranged in a hierarchy.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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This area is commonly called the cognitive (“knowing” or “thinking”) domain (involving thought processes).

Bloom suggested certain verbs that characterise the ability to demonstrate these processes.

These verbs are the key to writing learning outcomes. The list of verbs has been extended since his original publication. The “toolkit” for writing learning outcomes!

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1. Knowledge - ability to recall or remember facts without necessarily understanding them

Use action verbs like: Arrange, collect, define,

describe, duplicate, enumerate, examine, find, identify, label, list, memorise, name, order, outline, present, quote, recall, recognise, recollect, record, recount, relate, repeat, reproduce, show, state, tabulate, tell.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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2. Comprehension - ability to understand and interpret learned information

Use action verbs like:

Associate, change, clarify, classify, construct, contrast, convert, decode, defend, describe, differentiate, discriminate, discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express, extend, generalise, identify, illustrate, indicate, infer, interpret, locate, predict, recognise, report, restate, review, select, solve, translate.1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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3. Application: ability to use learned material in new situations, e.g. put ideas and concepts to work in solving problems

Use action verbs like: Apply, assess, calculate, change,

choose, complete, compute, construct, demonstrate, develop, discover, dramatise, employ, examine, experiment, find, illustrate, interpret, manipulate, modify, operate, organise, practice, predict, prepare, produce, relate, schedule, select, show, sketch, solve, transfer, use.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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4. Analysis: ability to break down information into its components, e.g. look for inter-relationships and ideas (understanding of organisational structure)

Use action verbs like:Analyse, appraise, arrange, break

down, calculate, categorise, classify, compare, connect, contrast, criticise, debate, deduce, determine, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, divide, examine, experiment, identify, illustrate, infer, inspect, investigate, order, outline, point out, question, relate, separate, sub-divide, test.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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5. Synthesis - ability to put parts together

Use action verbs like: Argue, arrange, assemble,

categorise, collect, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise, establish, explain, formulate, generalise, generate, integrate, invent, make, manage, modify, organise, originate, plan, prepare, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganise, revise, rewrite, set up, summarise.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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6. Evaluation: Ability to judge value of material for a given purpose

Use action verbs like: Appraise, ascertain, argue,

assess, attach, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, convince, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, explain, evaluate, interpret, judge, justify, measure, predict, rate, recommend, relate, resolve, revise, score, summarise, support, validate, value.

1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension

3. Application

4.Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

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Examples: Evaluation Assess the importance of key participants in bringing

about change in Irish history Evaluate marketing strategies for different electronic

business models. Appraise the role of sport and physical education in

health promotion for young people. Predict the effect of change in temperature on the

position of equilibrium… Summarise the main contributions of Michael Faraday

to the field of electromagnetic induction.

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Bloom Revisited: Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)

Bloom (1956) Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)

To remember To understand To apply To analyse To evaluate To create

Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation – Higher Order Thinking Skills

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AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (“Feeling”) concerned with value issues : involves attitudes.

Two other domains in Bloom’s TaxonomyTwo other domains in Bloom’s Taxonomy

1. Receiving

2. Responding

3. Valuing

4. Organisation

5. Characterisation

Willingness to receive information

Active participation in own learning

Commitment to a value

Comparing, relating, synthesising values

Integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes

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Active verbs for affective domain Appreciate, accept, assist,

attempt, challenge, combine, complete, defend, demonstrate (a belief in), discuss, dispute, embrace, follow, hold, integrate, order, organise, join, share, judge, praise, question, relate, share, support, synthesise, value.

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PSYCHOMOTOR (“Doing”) DOMAIN: Work never completed by Bloom. Involves co-ordination of brain and muscular activity.

Active verbs for this domain: bend, grasp, handle, operate, perform, reach, relax, shorten, stretch, differentiate (by touch), perform (skilfully).

TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING &

LEARNING

TYPES OF LECTURES

1. TRADITIONAL ORAL ESSAY The teacher is the orator and ONLY speaker Expositions done on topic – inspirational or

information

2. PARTICIPATORY LECTURE> Begins w/ brainstorming from what students read

3. LECTURE W/ UNCOMPLETED HANDOUTS Resembles traditional oral essay but w/ handouts (blank

spaces)

4. FEEDBACK LECTURE> Consists of mini-lectures interspaced w/ 10 minute small

group discussions

5. MEDIATED LECTURE – uses media such as films, slides or Web based images + traditional lecture

PURPOSES OF LECTURES

1. Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic and sets the stage of learning

2. Stimulates learner’s interest3. Helps to integrate and synthesize a large

body of knowledge4. For clarification of difficult parts

(arrythmia, acid-base balances)5. To advance knowledge when textbooks

are not available

ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING

1. It is economical. Great deal of information – shared.

2. Supplies and textbooks become true to life ‘theater’

3. Teacher serves as model students see a ‘creative mind at work’

4. Helps students develop their listening abilities

DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING

1. Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge

2. Focuses on the TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus on PS, DM, analytical thinking or transfer of learning results in SURFACE learning

3. Does not meet student’s individual learning needs

4. Student’s have little attention time span (15 minutes)

TYPES OF DISCUSSIONS

1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS Announced topic Reading, watching movie – done in advance

2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS Spontaneous

PURPOSES & ADVANTAGES

1. Learns problem solving method (groups)

2. Opportunity to apply principles, concepts & theories

3. Clarifies information & concepts4. Assists to evaluate beliefs/positions

(professional, societal or ethical issues) > change in attitudes & values

DISADVANTAGES

1. Takes a lot of time2. One person/few participants

(monopolies)3. Gathering of uninformed opinions

DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES

1. Make expectations clear. ‘Students know exactly what they have

to do for discussion’ Ex. Chapter to read, watch a video

2. Set ground rules. > Limitations (e.g. time, no. of speakers,

interruptions during speech)

3. Arrange physical space.Circle sitting arrangement

4. Plan a discussion starter.Ask participants to come up with opening

questionsStudy questions – handed out prior to meeting

5. Facilitate, do not discuss. Refrain from talking. Watch group progress.

Keep everyone engage in discussions.

6. Encourage quiet members to participate.

Make eye contact and smile.Give direct, simple questions: “Mary, what do

you think?”

7. Don’t allow monopolies. Eye contact.Be blunt when needed.. “We’ve been hearing a

lot fro Sarah. Now, let us hear of the rest of you think.”

8. Direct the discussion among group members.

> Leaders facilitate.

9. Keep the discussion on track. “We seem to have strayed a little fro our

topic. Let’s pick up on the last topic that Lot was talking about.”

10. Clarify when confusion reigns.> Recording may help the group. Let them

learn the act of clear self-expression.

11. Tolerate some silence. Silence gives everyone a chance to think.

12. Summarize when appropriate.

QUESTIONING: FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS

1. Places the learners in an active role Simple recall Helps students analyze concepts Evaluate worth of ideas Speculate “if”2. Assesses baseline knowledge

retention

3. Helps review content – enlightens gray areas

4. Motivates students Stimulates thinking & curiosity

5. Guides learner’s thought process

4. USING VISUAL AIDS

Can enhance teachingCan add interest to the classroom

ISSUES

Correct choice?Available?Effective?

FACTORS TO CONSIDER: SELECTING MEDIA

1. Learning objectives Opt for variety

2. Availability of materials / technical assistance

3. Level, ability & number of students

TYPES OF TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUALS

1. HANDOUTS Printed materials – communicate facts, figures,

concepts Saves a lot of time for information

2. CHALKBOARDS/ WHITEBOARDS Useful for mathematical problems

3. OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHP)

Saves time, helps organize and illustrates content

Costly

4. SLIDES> Used to show pictures, project diagrams,

charts and word concepts

ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Affordable Easy to store Easy to update/ recognize

DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Costly projector bulbs – don’t last long

5. VIDEO TAPESIn-house filming, video-clipsUsed during: 1) role playing; 2)

communication; 3) counseling skills

ADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES:Provides personal touchStandardized exposure – in spite of distanceUsed at learner’s own pacing

DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPESCostlyCommunication is one way – learner’s

become passive

II. ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. Cooperative learning

2. Simulations

3. Self-learning modules

STRENGTH:

Students are involved in creating and storing up knowledge for themselves

1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Small groups of learners work together toward achieving shared learning goal

Learners are aware that they are responsible not only for their own learning but also for that of the others in the group.

TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS

A. FORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP Done in traditional class / distance learning groups Individual or group accountability Most useful in group setting

B. INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP

Can be used in any settingHelps the members to understand and clarify

misconceptions as well as to share experiences

C. BASE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP surveys/focus groups Applied easily to new staff orientation or preceptor

programs

ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Promotes critical thinking – varied positions discussions --?

Enhances social skill.Helps address learning needs & learning stylesMembers learn to function as a team.

DISADVANTAGE OF COOEPRATIVE LEARNING:DISADVANTAGE OF COOEPRATIVE LEARNING:

Does not cover all content/ topics in syllabusDoes not cover all content/ topics in syllabus

2. SIMULATIONS

Controlled representations of realityExercises that learners engage in to learn in the real world

PURPOSES & USES OF SIMULATIONS

1. Enhances DM & PS skills2. Enhances interaction abilities3. Helps student learn psychomotor skills

in a safe and controlled setting4. Chance to apply theories & principles

in practice5. Achieves learning objectives –

communication skills

6. Ensures attitudinal changeHelps discover factors affecting people &

situations (exercise, game, role-playing)7. Helps in mastery of skills8. Helps evaluate learning (simulation

tests)

ROLE OF EDUCATOR IN SIMULATION LEARNING

1. Planner – read carefully, assign reading2. Facilitator – introduce activity,

moderator3. Debriefer – summarize what

happened, let learners explain what they did and why, point out principles and theories applied

TYPES OF SIMULATIONS

1. SIMULATION EXERCISE Focuses on process learningEx. Earthquake drills, fire drills

2. SIMULATION GAMES> Focuses on CONTENT / PROCESS learning

TYPES -- SIMULATION GAMES

A. CONTENT LEARNING Focuses on teaching / reinforcing factual

information (ex. Crosswords, word games, bingo gaes)

B. PROCESS LEARNING> Emphasizes problem solving & application of

information (ex. Sim City)

ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

Teaches facts & application of information

Stimulates learning – makes learning funHelps to evaluate learningIncreases interaction among learners

DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

1. Waste of time2. Unprofessional3. Teachers dislike competition which

games promote

3. ROLE PLAYINGForm of drama – spontaneous acting out of

roles (interaction)Lasts for 3 to 5 minutes (illustrates one aspect

of human relationship)Expression of non-verbal and verbal behavior,

response patterns and implementation of principles

4. CASE STUDIES> An analysis of an incident or situation on

which characteristics and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems need to resolved or solved

Steps to follow in case studies:1.Develop objectives – What do you want learners to

learn?

2.Select a situation – Choose a topic & a scenario that fits the objectives & concept you want to apply.

3. Develop the characters.

4.Develop the discussion questions.5.Lead the group discussion.

4. SELF-LEARNING MODULES

Also known asA.SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING MODULES

B.SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULESC.SELF-LEARNING PACKETS

D.INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES

DEFINITION OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

A self-contained unit or package of study materials for use by an individual

Audience where this WORKS BEST: Adult learners

Principles in handling adult learners:

1. Adults are self-motivated to learn (relevant)

2. Adult’s prior experience is a resource for further learning.

3. Adults are problem focused and readily learn material they can use to solve problems.

COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

1. Introduction and instructions2. Behavioral objectives3. Pretest4. Learning activity5. Self-evaluation6. Pretest

TIPS

1. INTRODUCTION & INSTRUCTIONS Topic for module – single topic Ex. Problem of elimination – divide this into urinary

elimination and intestinal elimination

2. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES Expected of the learner Objectives – over-all objectives / specific

3. PRETESTOptionalPretest – diagnostic test / assesses

prerequisite knowledgehelps evaluate which sections of the module to

skip and which ones need to be studied in depth

4. LEARNING ACTIVITIESMost creative portionDesigned to help meet objectivesMust appeal to people – diff. learning styles Ex. Attending short lectures, speeches, demo Watching a video or slide Using a computer program

4. SELF-EVALUATION TOOLS Assesses how the students are achieving the

objectives

5. POSTTEST A self quiz (MCQ or short answer questions) Retake is okay Determines mastery

DEVELOPING A MODULE

Takes time (weeks/months) Begin with the body (behavioral objectives,

pretest, learning activity, self-evaluation, posttest)

Last to write – introduction & instructions PILOT TESTING – have one or two people

work at the module for feedback (e.g. unclear objectives etc)

ADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

Very flexible – do it at your own pacing, done independently

Individualized approach – helps studentsSparks interest in teaching – creativityStandardized Reduces travel time

Reduces costs

DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

Miss interactions with peopleMay lead to further procastination – lack

of structures and deadlinesPromotes dishonestyTakes many hours to design and test

1. COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION

LEVELS OF Computer Aided Instruction

1. Drill and Practice Recognition and application of information Ex. Drugs names and actions

2. Tutorials Useful teaching material at the rule/concept level Forces teachers from learning some basic material

3. GamesGame mode can teach

4. SimulationProvides off real world experiencesProvides chances to learn how to solve clinical

problems

5. Multimedia presentations Also called hypermedia Older form: Interactive videodisc (IVD) program

EVALUATING SOFTWARE: CRITERIA

1. Accuracy – Up to date?2. Easy to use – computer friendly?3. Design –Interactive?4. Appearance – Graphics? Animation & sound?5. Feedback – rationale?6. Cost-effectiveness – price? Discounts?

2. COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION

Any system of record keepingUse of authoring systems – pre-developed software packages that

guide the educator t process of development of CAI

3. THE INTERNET

> A mammoth complex of computer connections across continents, connecting many millions of computers

1. EMAIL (electronic) Greater collaboration between teachers vs.

students and between students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation and for

post-discharge follow-up

EX. LIST SERVS – a group of people who have similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest in a type of discussion groups

2. NEWS GROUPS Discussions groups of people with same interest Messages appear in general mailbox

Ex. Sci.med.nursing – group discussing all kinds of nursing issues (needs a news render softward)

Also used for online support groups Ex. Groups for caregivers of Alzheimer’s disease

3. World Wide Web A collection of “documents” found on Web pages A place to find specialized knowledge and multimedia

presentations Ex. MEDLINE – for National Library of Medicine

Criteria to choose WWW site1. Purpose – audience?2. Currency3. Credibility4. Content accuracy5. Design

ADVANTAGES IN HOSPITAL USEProvides home-based care support for the

chronically illTool for patient care management – part of

hospital information systemProvides patient teachingSupports mastery learning

> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses becomes automatic)

> Provides instant feedback> Develops cognitive residues (skills in

researching skills in managing information)> Promotes interactivity, institutional

consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and cost-effectiveness (savings)

DISADVANTAGES1.High-cost initial outlay for hardware and

software2.Negative effect personal and professional

communication