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Running head: BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 1

Exposing the Broken Promises of Higher Education:

Methods to Better Help Students Succeed After High School

A Research Paper

Presented to

The Faculty of Adler Graduate School

___________________

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of Master of Arts in

Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy

___________________

By:

Lexy Spangrud

___________________

Chair: Amy Foell

Reader: Doug Pelcak

___________________

November 2016

BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 2

Abstract

Although American culture places immense significance on students attending college, a high

percentage of students drop out of college after or during their first year. An increasing number

of students are finding themselves unsatisfied with their post-secondary college/career choices,

which leads to failure, discouragement, and lowered self-esteem. This rippling effect is a result

of society’s mistaken beliefs about college and the process by which students make their post-

high school decisions in their senior year. This paper intends to explore the reality of higher

education as well as multiple post high school readiness options to more effectively guide

students in setting their post-secondary goals and making post-secondary decisions that best

align with these goals. This will be accomplished through the examination of current high

school transition procedures and techniques and how they can be restructured to equally serve all

students as well as how to develop student support so they can be more successful after

graduating. As a result of these evolved transition techniques, the goal will be that students will

have a higher chance of success after high school by choosing a life path more suited to their

strengths and individuality.


Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Choosing Higher Education ............................................................................................................ 5

The Expectation to Choose Higher Education ............................................................................ 6

The Benefits of a College Education .......................................................................................... 8

The Reality of Choosing Higher Education .................................................................................. 10

The Downfalls of Higher Education ......................................................................................... 11

Financial implications ........................................................................................................... 11

Student debt .......................................................................................................................... 13

Job placement........................................................................................................................ 14

Barriers to Student Success ....................................................................................................... 15

Underrepresented/Multicultural Students ................................................................................. 16

Post-secondary preparation ................................................................................................... 17

College attendance/completion ............................................................................................. 19

Hypothesis: Students Need to Be Better Prepared to Choose................................................... 21

The Postsecondary Choice Model ................................................................................................ 22

The Current Model in Schools: A School Counseling Perspective .......................................... 22

Significance of school counselors in postsecondary counseling .......................................... 23

The barriers for school counselors in postsecondary counseling.......................................... 24

Problems with the Current Model ............................................................................................. 27

Misconceptions about college ............................................................................................... 27

Failing to fully prepare students ........................................................................................... 29

Neglecting underrepresented minority students .................................................................... 31

Proposed Solutions for the Postsecondary Choice Model ............................................................ 33

Increased Preparation ................................................................................................................ 34

In-Depth Education of Postsecondary Options ......................................................................... 36

Assisting Underrepresented Students ....................................................................................... 39

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 43

References ..................................................................................................................................... 45


Exposing the Broken Promises of Higher Education:

Methods to Better Help Students Succeed After High School

Introduction

In almost every corner of America, the most valued, respected, and prominent life-path

for almost all high school seniors to pursue after they graduate is attaining a college degree. With

the American system of higher education comprising of the most prestigious universities, the

most intelligent and cultured professors, and the most ambitious students in the world, attaining a

college degree is synonymous with success and is therefore the automatic expectation for high

school seniors. Because of the widely known benefits, successes, and status that come with

higher education, it has turned higher education into the post-high school default activity for

students, a mistaken belief that is consistent throughout American society. This mentality has

created immense pressure for high school students to choose college as a life path. When looking

at the reality of what happens to students while they are in college, the validity of America’s

“college is for all” mindset comes into question. The problem with college becoming a the

default choice for most students is that it doesn’t take into account the negatives of attending

college and the substantial student failure that has significantly affected the lives of millions of

Americans. Trends and evidence of student dropout, debt, negative return on investment (ROI),

and unused potential demonstrates that there is something significantly wrong with the current

post-secondary process and the college choice model that is used in high schools to facilitate

students’ post-secondary decisions. This paper will look at the reasons behind student failure and

the broken promises of higher education, examine the current college choice model used in high

schools, and propose restructured transition planning techniques that will allow students to be

better informed about higher education and allow them to make a more informed decision

regarding their post-secondary options.


Choosing Higher Education

For many, going to college means higher-paying jobs, greater opportunities, respect from

family and friends, and a highly esteemed status in society. For those who go on to attend elite

universities, these outcomes are even more amplified. With the potential for these rewarding

outcomes and the widespread expectation to receive a college degree, it is no surprise that

millions of students in America decide to choose higher education after high school.

The high percentages of college attendance are not new to our country, as the rates of

college attendance and the establishment of new colleges has been booming ever since the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the 1600s through the 1800s, Colonial America birthed

nine colleges that remain some of the most prestigious universities in the world, including

Harvard University, the College of William & Mary, Yale University, Princeton University,

Colombia University, Dartmouth College, Rutgers University, and the University of

Pennsylvania (Thelin, 2004, p. 1). Since that time, the number of colleges in the U.S. has

increased ten-fold. According to the Department of Education, America went from having 241

accredited colleges and universities in 1860, to having 1,851 colleges and universities in 1950,

and as of 2013, there are more than 6,900 colleges and universities here in the U.S (Tomar,

2016). In 1949, only 2.7 million students were enrolled in a college or university, but by 2015,

over 20 million students were enrolled in higher education (ProcCon.org, 2016). As the number

of students enrolled in colleges have continued to increase, so have the number of bachelor’s

degrees attained: “The percentage of adults in the U.S. between the ages of 25 and 34 with a

four-year college degree grew from 6% in 1950 to 24% in 1980 and 1990.” This number then

grew to 34% by 2012 (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013, p. 6).


The Expectation to Choose Higher Education

As a result of the many advantages that come from going to college, the prestige of being

college educated, and the financial benefits that are involved in having a college degree, our

society has come to hold high school students up to a high standard and expects that they choose

higher education as a life path immediately following high school. In the words of Peter Thiel,

billionaire venture capitalist and educational trailblazer, college has become the “default

activity” for many students and their parents and students go to college because “their parents are

paying for it and college it what children of the social class are supposed to after they finish high

school” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 11). Studies conducted on the forces that drive students to

choose higher education have revealed that there are a percentage of students that decide to

attend college even though they know before they begin college that there is a strong likelihood

that they will not finish their degrees (Stinebrickner & Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 7). All of the

parties involved in shaping students over the course of their lives, including parents/guardians,

the school system, and school counselors have immense potential to influence that student’s

decision to attend college.

Dolinsky (2010) found that parents and other relatives were most frequently identified as

influencing the college choice decision. Parents can be an integral part of the post-secondary

choice process for their children when they get involved by working with their students’ school

counselors, learn more about the admission process and about specific schools, and help their

students do they research they need to make an informed college decision (Caribbean Business

Staff, 2011, p. S31). The pronounced influence of parents/guardians combined with a long-

standing expectation for their kids to attend college after graduation will ultimately lead to

immense pressure on students to choose higher education.


School systems, including administration, teachers, and school counselors, also have high

expectations for their high school seniors to choose higher education as a life path. Schools have

begun to educate younger students on college by exposing elementary and middle school

students to higher education. Robinson School, a private school, begins the post-secondary

readiness process early on. “Our students begin preparing for the college-application process in

seventh grade. By the time they are in 11th grade, they have done most of the work to prepare for

their senior year,” states Beatriz Guzman, Robinson School’s college counselor (Caribbean

Business Staff, 2011, p. S30). School districts are continuing to increase their educational

standards for students to be more college ready, including developing and implementing

competitive educational opportunities within the school system. Opportunities such as Post-

Secondary Enrollment Options (PSEO), Advanced Placement (AP) Programs, College in the

Schools (CIS) Programs, early-decision plans, and early action plans all convey the message of

the importance of higher education and the priority students should be putting on higher-

education readiness.

Even the highest authority has put great importance on higher education. In President

Barack Obama’s first State of the Union address in 2010, he asked every American to commit to

at least one year of higher education or career training. “This can be community college or a

four-year school; vocational training or an apprenticeship. But whatever the training may be,

every American will need to get more than a high school diploma” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p.

75). President Obama challenged the nation by setting an ambitious goal: The United States will

be the country with the highest proportion of adults with college degrees in the world by 2020,

making degree attainment “essential to American competitiveness” (Schneider & Yin, 2011).

The U.S. currently sits ninth in the world in percentage of the population with a postsecondary

education, and the President’s goal seeks to increase the United States’ rank by attempting to


increase the college degree attainment rate from 40% to 60% (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 75).

The government as a whole supports President Obama’s challenge to the country, as the U.S.

spends more on higher education than any other nation in the world. According to the

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the U.S. spends about twice as much

per student than the United Kingdom, Germany, or Japan (Schneider, 2010, p. 2). It is clear that

American society has put immense pressure on students to choose higher education, but what is

the reasoning behind it? Assessing the benefits of college education can shed light on the drive

behind the United States’ expectation for students to go to college.

The Benefits of a College Education

As previously mentioned, there are many benefits to obtaining a college degree. Leaving

high school behind and having the opportunity to receive a fresh start and become independent

from parents and guardians are major reasons why high school grads decide to attend college.

College provides an “environment for young adults to explore interests and develop relationships

with like-minded individuals, largely free from the domestic and parental constraints that

previously governed their behavior” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 74). In June 2013, Franklyn

Casale, President of St. Thomas University, described to the Miami Herald why college is an

investment worth making:

In the years a student spends working to obtain a degree, he or she develops as a person

in ways that cannot be measured by the 'investment' of going to college…It is during

one’s college years that one develops a sense of self, a worldview, an appreciation for the

dignity of people, and an enthusiasm for the arts. Also, because of various internship and

volunteer opportunities during college, the college graduate has gained a deeper

understanding of the importance of civic engagement. (ProCon.org, 2016, Pro 2, para 3)


College exposes its students to differing opinions, ideas, and cultures, allowing them to broaden

their knowledge and redefine their perspective of the world. The culturally permissive

atmosphere of college has been a major attraction for students for as long as college has been the

most common path chosen after high school.

Students are also choosing to go to college because of the employment opportunities that

are linked with having a college degree. An increasing number of jobs are requiring college

degrees, therefore increasing the number of students wanting to attend college. Between

December of 2007 and January of 2010, (during the time of the recession) jobs that required a

college degree grew by 187,000, while jobs that required an associate’s fell by 1.75 million and

jobs only requiring a high school diploma or less fell by 5.6 million (Finio, Sabadish, &

Shierholz, 2013). In an economical study on job projections calculated by Georgetown

University, approximately 63% of jobs in the year 2018 will require some college education or

degree (ProCon.org, 2016). College grads also are less likely to be unemployed, as the

unemployment rate in 2011 for those with a college degree was 4.9%, compared to 9.4% for

those with no higher education (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 75). In addition to having access to

more qualified jobs and increasing the likelihood of getting a job, college grads are more likely

to have access to health insurance and retirement plans. According to the College Board, “In

2011, employers provided health insurance to 55% of full-time workers with high school

diplomas, 69% to bachelor’s degree, and 73% of those with advanced degrees” (Baum, Ma, &

Payea, 2013, p. 5).

College also allows students to refine their talents and abilities and discover what life

paths to take into adulthood. Through internships, career services offered, shadowing and

volunteer opportunities, and job fairs, students can more easily discover what career paths

interest them and will give them the opportunity to thrive. In a survey of 11,000 students


conducted by the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, participants ranked interpersonal

skills as the most important skill that they use in their daily lives and have learned from attending

college (ProCon.org, 2016). Interacting with peers and faculty, joining organizations and clubs of

interest, partaking in discussion and debates, and networking with others within a specific field

of study are all unique parts of the college experience that will be invaluable in the working

world.

Of all of these incredibly significant and valuable benefits of deciding to attend college,

possibly the biggest reason why students go is the potential to make more money than someone

who does not have a college degree. Evidence shows that individuals with higher levels of

education earn more than those with little or no higher education (Finio, Sabadish, & Shierholz,

2013). In 2011, the median salary of those with a bachelor’s degree was $56,500, while the

median salary of those with a high school diploma was about $35,400 (Baum, Ma, & Payea,

2013, p. 5). When it has been frequently estimated that the total lifetime difference in earning

between college grads and those with a high school diploma is about $1 million, it is no surprise

that money is one of the biggest reasons why people decided to attend college.

The Reality of Choosing Higher Education

Despite the high expectation for high school students to attend college and the evidence

to prove the value of a college education, there continues to be a debate about the value of a

college degree, especially since the labor market recovery from the Great Recession. In the film

Good Will Hunting, Will Hunting characterizes a major point of this debate through the

statement he made to a Harvard student: “In fifty years…you’re going to come up with the fact

that…you dropped one hundred and fifty grand on [an] education that you could have got for a

dollar fifty in late charges at the public library!” (Van Sant, Armstrong, & Gordon, 1997).

Although the movie was released in 1997, the concept of Will’s statement is still relevant today


and still brings up the same questions about higher education. Bennett and Wilezol, a former

United States secretary of Education and a liberal arts graduate, summarize these questions in

their book Is College Worth It? “Is college worth the high cost? Does it provide a degree of

economic security and personal happiness that cannot be found elsewhere? Taking into account

the high risk of debt and unemployment or underemployment, does the end justify the means?

Should everyone go to college?” (2013, p. 71).

While the evidence of the value of a college degree is widespread and well known

throughout American society, there are other trends and data that suggest that higher education is

not everything that it promises to be (Schneider &Yin, 2011). While there are those that do go on

to graduate college and reap all of the benefits that higher education offers, the previous research

does not take into account the students that drop-out of college, students that do not receive a

positive return on their post-secondary investment, the multicultural gap in higher education

attendance and completion, and the incredible student debt that has been accrued throughout the

nation (ProCon.org, 2016). Evaluating the current data on the economic return students receive

on investing in higher education and the effects that attending college has on students will shed

light on the dispute on whether or not college is worth the risks involved.

The Downfalls of Higher Education

Financial implications. While many jobs do require a college education and evidence

shows those that are college educated generally make more money than those that are non-

college educated, there are other factors that the aforementioned evidence doesn’t take into

account. One of the most observable disadvantages of choosing higher education is tuition costs

that have continued to rise every year. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the

annual prices for public university tuition, room, and board were estimated to be $13,297 and

$31,395 at private universities in 2010-11, a 42% increase for public and a 19% increase for


private institutions from the prior decade (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 13). In the 2010-11

academic year alone, tuition at public four-year universities increased by 8.3%, and public two-

year colleges tuition increased by 8.7% (Smith, 2014, p. 43). Since 1990, tuition prices of four-

year schools has exceeded 300%, and if trends continue, the average cost of attending a public

university will have more than doubled within a 15-year time period. In a specific example,

Alabama University, a well-known and renowned institution, charged students an in-state tuition

price of $3,014 in 2000. In 2012, however, tuition was $9,200, which translates into a 205.2%

increase (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 15). It is evident that tuition costs are rising rapidly, and

that trend will continue to do so. There was a time when public institutions were still considered

prestigious yet affordable, but as this trend continues tuition costs for public universities will

mirror the costs of private institutions, making it extremely difficult for students to afford higher

education.

In addition to the rising costs of tuition, students should take into account the wages lost

when attending college. When a student decides to attend college right after high school, they are

delaying their entry into the labor market and therefore forgoing wages they would make in the

years immediately following graduation (Schneider & Yin, 2011). Abel and Deitz (2014)

estimated that while a student would have paid about $26,000 in tuition and fees over the course

of four years to earn a bachelor’s degree, he or she would have forgone nearly $96,000 in wages

(p. 6). Furthermore, while students are paying more to go to school, they are continuing to earn

less after graduating. Current research has shown that average wages of workers has steadily

decreased over the past decade (Smith, 2014, p. 42). Between 2001 and 2013, the average wage

of high school graduates has dropped 7.6%, however; the average wage of workers with a

bachelor’s degree has dropped 10.3% and the average wage of those with an associate’s degree

has dropped 11.1% (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 4). In American society it is a widely circulated fact


that having a college degree instantly earns you more money, however; students need to be

educated on the wages that they might lose while in college and be prepared to not earn as much

money as expected to with a college degree.

Student debt. A natural consequence that arises from the rising costs of tuition is the

increase in loans students take out to pay for tuition, followed by an inconceivable amount of

debt that many students have a difficult time repaying. Most 17 and 18-year-olds fresh out of

high school have almost no means to pay for the ever increasing tuition costs of higher

education, which is why 53% of all full-time students took out student loans in 2007-8. Fewer

students are able to pay for college on their own, and some students do not make the effort to

even try to save money before starting college, which is why only 11% of all college costs are

being paid for by students’ own income and savings and federal loans have increased by 300%

since 1990 (Bennett &Wilezol, 2013, p. 3; 31).

What makes the problem even more significant is the amount of loans that are being

taken out, and how much of those loans are translating into debt. According to America’s Debt

Help Organization, the average student debt for a 2014 grad averages at $33,000, and $3,000

worth of student debt is accrued every second (Barr, 2016). Investigating further, “about one-

quarter of borrowers owe more than $28,000; about 10 percent of borrowers owe more than

$54,000. The proportion of borrowers who owe more than $100,000 is 3.1 percent, and

0.45 percent of borrowers, or 167,000 people, owe more than $200,000” (Brown, Haughwout,

Lee, & Mabutas, 2012, para. 7). A legitimate fear of many citizens of the U.S. is the bursting of

the student-loan economic bubble, which would crush middle-class and low-income students.

With the total student-loan debt in the U.S. surpassing $1 trillion and continuing to increase at a

rate of $2,853.88 per second, it is inevitable that this country’s issue of student debt will begin to

negatively affect the U.S.’s economy in a devastating way (Smith, 2014, p. 42).


Job placement. Receiving a college degree is usually synonymous with receiving a high-

paying job, which is why so many students decide to attend college. Unfortunately, research

shows that is not always the case. According to One Associated Press’ analysis of data, 54% of

students that graduated college in 2011 were unemployed (Bennett &Wilezol, 2013, p. 8). While

half of the students that graduated in 2011 did fulfill society’s expectation to get a job out of

college, the other half did not get jobs at all. When looking at the specific jobs that college grads

do land, even more can be observed about the broken promises of higher education. When those

who obtain a college degree are working in an occupation that does not typically require a

bachelor’s degree, they are considered underemployed (Finio, Sabadish, & Shierholz, 2013).

Researchers have found that about one-third of college grads spend much of their careers being

underemployed in jobs that do not even require a bachelor’s degree, such as service jobs

including bartending, waiting tables, or retail positions (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 8).

The downfalls of higher education can be perceived as a ripple effect. An incredible

amount of students are attending college, and while many of them graduate, they cannot find a

job because of the excess of grads and lack of qualified jobs. As a result of these occurrences, the

unemployment and underemployment phenomenon has swept the country, making it even more

difficult for students to pay off loans, purchase a house, get married, or start a family (Carnevale,

Smith, & Strohl, 2010, p. 16). Mark Cuban, entrepreneur and owner of the NBA’s Dallas

Mavericks, compared American society’s drive to become college educated with flipping houses:

Right now there is a never-ending supply of buyers. Students who can’t get jobs or who

think that by going to college they enhance their chances to get a job. It’s the collegiate

equivalent to flipping houses. You borrow as much money as you can for the best school

you can get into and afford then you “flip” that education for the great job you are going

to get when you graduate. Except those jobs aren’t always there. (Cuban, 2012, para. 10)


Barriers to Student Success

Another aspect of higher education that tends to be neglected by society is what happens

to the majority of students once they make it to college. High schools have a common goal of

high graduation rates and getting the greatest amount of students into the most prestigious or

affordable colleges possible, but once students are admitted and make it past graduation, the

reality of if they are succeeding and fulfilling their potential is rarely observed.

Across America, an average of about 80% of high school students aspire to earn

bachelor’s degrees, which aligns with society’s expectations for them to go to college. In 2010,

however, only 38% of 25- to 34-year olds possessed college degrees, which demonstrates a

“substantial gap between postsecondary aspirations and actual degree attainment” (Cox, 2016, p.

2). Of those who do end up being accepted into college and beginning their freshman year, a

significant amount do not remain in school or complete their degrees. The United States

currently has the highest rate of attrition in the industrialized world, with about 30-50% of

students dropping out of college within their freshman year, and over 50% for students who go to

school part time (O’Keeffe, 2013, pp. 605-606). In addition, about an average total of 58% of

undergraduate students in the U.S. complete their college degrees within a six-year timeframe

(Turner & Thompson, 2014, p. 94). These completion rates are alarming and ask the question as

to why students are failing to accomplish their aspirations, failing to stay in school, and/or not

being able to complete their degrees. If this trend continues, the United States will graduate only

8 million more college-degree and certificate holders between 2012 and 2025, which is an

estimated 12 million short (Smith, 2014, p. 45).

In addition to an astronomical number of students that are dropping out of college and/or

not completing their degrees, research shows that there is a high amount of students that are

unprepared for higher education (Armario, 2010). It is commonly thought that the main


reasoning for student dropout is an inability to commit financially, as the costs of higher

education, as previously mentioned, are continually rising. In actuality, however, studies have

shown that poor grade performance is most consistently related to student dropout (Stinebrickner

& Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 3). According to an ACT retention survey, the lack of academic

preparation and commitment to earning a degree were some of the top reasons for attrition.

“Leaving high school unprepared for college-level work (40 percent of college students need

remediation) puts students at a disadvantage,” states Steve Schneider, a school counselor at

Sheboygan South High School in Wisconsin. “It makes them more apt to leave campus before

they get a degree” (Adams, 2011, p. 16). After interviewing first-year alumni from University

Park Campus School, a small college preparatory school in Worcester, Massachusetts,

researchers Donna Rodrigues and Cecilia Le found that even students who have been poised to

enter college still struggle during their freshman years and beyond. Things like the structure and

freedoms of college, different grading systems, harsher professors, and the impersonal nature of

college shocked and challenged many of the alumni. Students would come back from college

and say, “College doesn’t love you” (2011, p. 80). All of these barriers make it more difficult for

students to finish their degree, or even choose higher education in the first place.

Underrepresented/Multicultural Students

An even larger area of concern that needs to be addressed in the reality of higher

education is how underrepresented students are affected in the post-secondary process. The

populations where the biggest gaps occur in both college enrollment and degree attainment are

between Caucasian students and underrepresented minority students, between those in high-

income families and those in low-income families, and between students whose parents have

completed college education and those whose parents did not (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 99). These

three groups of students all have similar challenges that make the post-secondary process even


more challenging than their counterparts, most of which become evident in the decision-making

process, in the process of getting into colleges, and students staying enrolled in college and

finishing their degrees (Cox, 2016, p. 2).

Post-secondary preparation. The difficulties that underrepresented minority students

face in the post-secondary process begin early on, before they even decide what they will do

after graduating high school (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 222). The method of students deciding

what they will do after high school graduation should begin with instruction for students on

higher education so they can accurately make a decision. Research has shown, however, that

underrepresented minority students are not being given enough or accurate education on college

and their post-secondary options, making it even more challenging for those students to decide

what they will do after high school (Cox, 2016, p. 2). According to a study conducted in 2013, a

large number of low socioeconomic status (SES) students have received insufficient and/or

inaccurate information about higher education, specifically college admissions and financial aid.

It was also found that “low-SES students are more likely to overestimate college costs,

underestimate the availability of financial aid, and exhibit poor knowledge about the academic

prerequisites to college attendance” (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Savitz-Romer (2012) states that

there are serious inequities in today’s educational systems college readiness counseling that “too

often result in some students having differential access to academically rigorous courses, high

educational aspirations and expectations, and possession of what is commonly referred to as

‘college knowledge’” (p. 99).

Belasco also found that the availability of information about college is closely tied to

socioeconomic environment, and low-SES students have a limited amount of individuals in their

communities and where they live that can educate them on college and support students to make

the right post-secondary decision:


More often than not, [underrepresented minority students] live in homes, reside in

communities, and attend schools where college-going is not the norm and where few

adults, let alone adult educators, understand the prerequisites to, and benefits of, a post-

secondary education. Consequently, many academically capable, yet disadvantages

students continue to bypass college… (2013, p. 797)

The lack of individuals and communities that can help underrepresented minority students in

their post-secondary journey is largely due to the fact that many students’ parents or guardians

are not college educated themselves. Cates and Schaefle (2011) found that 32.4% of Latina/o

students reported their parents having less than a high school diploma, compared to 4% of white

students. This data is directly affects underrepresented students and their post-secondary choices

and success. Belasco (2013) found that students with at least one college-educated parent enroll

in college are two times more likely to enroll in college than those whose parents have not

completed a college degree (p. 781).

Because of the lack of accurate information about their post-secondary options and the

shortage of support underrepresented minority students are receiving, they are becoming more

apathetic about the post-secondary planning process, less likely to make an informed decision,

and less likely to even consider attending an institution of higher education. According to data

retrieved by the College Board, many students are enrolling in less selective and less challenging

colleges than those to which they would probably have been admitted based on their academic

qualifications, which in turn significantly decreases their probability of graduating (Baum, Ma,

& Payea, 2013, p. 9). Underrepresented students also have the challenge of teachers and their

peers having lower expectations of them despite academic ability. Many students often report

feeling as though their teachers and peers don’t expect them to get into college or even apply in

the first place (Cerezo & McWhirter, 2012, p. 867). The information given to students in high


school about their post-secondary options and how they are supported and advised makes an

incredible difference in how probable an underrepresented minority student will be successful in

a higher education institution (Complete College America, 2012, p. 3).

College attendance/completion. Because college attendance rates are rising, it is easy to

assume that underrepresented students are also being accepted and attend college at a higher rate

than in the past. Unfortunately, there are still discrepancies in college attendance for low-income

students, students of different ethnic backgrounds, and students whose parents did not attend

college (Cox, 2016, p. 2). Cates and Schaefle (2011) conducted a study to examine the trends of

post-secondary decisions for underrepresented groups and found that the group suffering the

most in relation to higher education attendance is Latina/o students. Latina/o students are less

likely to enroll in college than both Caucasian and African American students, as only 24% of

Latinas/os aged 18-24 were enrolled in college compared to 41% of Caucasians and 33% of

African Americans. Latina/o students are even more likely to come from families with lower

incomes, making attending college even more difficult (p. 321).

Lack of financial resources and academic preparation are among the biggest reasons as to

why underrepresented minority students have difficulty gaining college access. Low-income

students attend college at lower rates than their more well off counterparts, and those students

continue to have financial difficulty throughout college. Chen and DesJardins (2010) found

“over 56% of African American and 58% of Hispanic dependent students had unmet need after

all aid was considered” compared to their White counterparts who had only 40% of unmet need

(p. 180). The post-secondary data involving underrepresented students includes even the most

qualified and intelligent students that would likely thrive in college under different

circumstances. For instance, high-income students with the lowest standardized test scores still

enroll in college more frequently than low-income students with the highest standardized test


scores (Belasco, 2013, p. 781). Students with low-SES backgrounds that were academically

qualified to attend college still applied to 4-year colleges at a 17% lower rate than the national

average for similarly qualified students (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 321). This gap is significant

because these students should have just as much access to higher education, yet their

circumstances prevent them from gaining access to college.

If underrepresented minority students decide to attend college and are accepted, the

struggle to succeed in college remains for many of those students. Racial and ethnic differences

in the total percentage of students who complete a bachelor’s degree have widened over time.

Although there has been an increase in the total number of underrepresented students that hold

bachelor’s degrees, researchers have found that minority students continue to fall behind their

White peers in degree completion (Complete College America, 2012, p. 6). Referring back to the

study conducted on Latino/a students, Cates and Schaefle (2011) found that the Latino/a

population continues to have the most difficulty in degree-attainment out of any other minority

group within the United States, as only 11% of Latinos have a bachelor’s degree (p. 867). The

disparity in degree completion also persists for low SES students. While 63% of high school

graduates coming from the lowest socioeconomic category enroll in college, only 27% earn a

college degree within six years (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p. 80). When comparing this percentage

to the overall degree completion rate of 58%, it is clear that low-income students are at a

significantly higher disadvantage than their more well off counterparts. All of these factors make

college acceptance and degree attainment all the more difficult for underrepresented students,

making it evident that “significant inequity of opportunity across racial/ethnic groups continues

to plague the American higher education system” (Chen & DesJardins, p. 180).


Hypothesis: Students Need to Be Better Prepared to Choose

Evaluating the research of student failure, the lack of representation for underrepresented

students, and the barriers to student success sheds light on the inconsistent and broken system of

how students are choosing their post-secondary path. While the problem might not always be

higher education itself, the current data and statistics leads to the natural question of whether

college is the correct choice for everyone. Former United States Secretary of Education, William

J. Bennett, firmly believes that higher education should not be the collective choice for high

school seniors:

College, as currently appraised, should not be a universal commodity. As the K-12

experience concludes, each young man or woman should do a serious self-evaluation

with the help of others and then chart an appropriate post-secondary course. Doing this is

wiser than blindly presupposing that college is a necessary good. (Bennett & Wilezol,

2013, p.xiii)

Other educationalists such as Peter Thiel agree, stating that there are too any Americans

that are enrolling in college without exploring their reasons behind why they are deciding to do

so (Schaefer Riley, 2011). School counselors around the nation, some of the main guiding voices

behind students’ postsecondary decisions, also recognize the faults in the current model. Randy

McPherson, a school counselor at the Trezevant Career and Technical School in Memphis,

Tennessee, states, “We’ve done an injustice in this country with selling college as the answer to

success” (Zehr, 2011, Reasons Are Hazy, para. 1). When asking high school seniors about their

plans for after high school, McPherson says most students respond by saying that they’ll be

attending college. But when they are asked why, a great deal of them do not have an answer for

why they are choosing higher education (Zehr, 2011). If there is a possibility then that not

everyone should go to college and our nation is altogether wrongly pressuring students to choose


higher education, our K-12 system, especially high schools, may be playing a large part in the

broken system of higher education by neglecting to fully educate students on higher education

and misguiding students in their post-secondary decisions (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Evaluating the

current college choice model used in high schools as well as exploring the current universal role

of the school counselor in the post-secondary search process will display the inconsistencies that

have plagued the decisions of our high school seniors.

The Postsecondary Choice Model

The Current Model in Schools: A School Counseling Perspective

Before analyzing the current postsecondary choice model and the common methods and

that are used in schools throughout the U.S., it is important to note the definition of post-

secondary counseling and all that it is meant to entail for students. According to the American

Counseling Association, post-secondary readiness counseling is a “developmental process that

engages young people in developing postsecondary aspirations and expectations, gaining

awareness to one’s interest and abilities, and receiving support and information for college

access and success” (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 98). This process has been referred to in many

different terms, including college counseling, college readiness counseling, and college

admissions counseling. In most high schools, school counselors, student support specialists, and

academic deans fulfill the role of postsecondary counselor (Chata & Loesch, 2007).

Although high schools throughout the U.S. have their own methods for post-secondary

counseling, the foundation of all counseling methods remain consistent (Belasco, 2013, p. 782).

One of the most widely cited models of the post-secondary search process is composed of three

stages: the predisposition stage, the search stage, and the choice stage. In the predisposition

stage, students first decide if higher education is right for them and if they want to pursue a

college education. They then go on to explore their options in the search stage, followed by the


decision stage, where students decide on a postsecondary path best suited for them individually

(Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 323). This model used throughout schools all over the U.S. would

not be effective if not for the school-counseling professionals that carry it out successfully,

which is why it’s important to focus on the role of school counselors in the postsecondary

counseling process.

Significance of school counselors in postsecondary counseling. Research has

demonstrated the significance of certain aspects of high school that considerably affect college

attendance, including a college preparation curriculum, a college-going culture, and resources

allocated for college counseling. The most influential piece of postsecondary counseling,

however, is the professionals who deliver the counseling and educate students on their options

(Lautz, Hawkins, & Pérez, 2012, p. 108). School counselors have many roles, such as educators,

academic advisors, and social/emotional counselors, but helping students discover what they will

do after high school is one of the biggest portions of the job. According to Belasco, they are

“uniquely situated to guide students though an increasingly complex college application” and

“must be able to effectively and sufficiently engage in postsecondary planning” (2013, p. 798).

They assist in multiple areas of postsecondary counseling, including educating students on the

multiple options beyond a high school education, reinforcing the steps that are necessary in order

to prepare students for life after high school, and having access to and providing resources that

assist students with various topics such as financial aid, scholarships, and test preparation

(American School Counselor Association, 2016b).

Research shows that the more involved and effective school counselors are within a

school, not only will those students perform better in school, but there will also be a greater

percentage of students will attend some sort of higher education institution. According to

Belasco (2013) students who attend high schools with fully implemented guidance programs


earn higher grades and receive more information about college (p. 785). In addition, Engberg and

Gilbert (2014) found that schools that devoted more time on postsecondary counseling are

associated with higher college going rates, which “emphasizes the importance of having a

dedicated college counseling staff” (p. 237). When school counselors utilize the other

professionals within a school building, such as teachers, they prove to have an even greater effect

on students’ postsecondary decisions (Lautz, Hawkins, & Pérez, 2012, p. 109). Despite the

impact that school counselors have on students’ postsecondary decisions within schools,

counselors face many barriers that make it difficult for them to successfully give postsecondary

counsel to all of their students.

The barriers for school counselors in postsecondary counseling. Unfortunately, many

groups of people involved in the school setting have incorrect or negative perceptions of school

counselor roles and consider school counselors to have a more ambiguous purpose than almost

all other school professionals (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Engberg and Gilbert (2014) state that

many students mainly view high school counselors as schedulers rather than postsecondary

advocates, and “counselor’s goals and student perceptions of counselor’s usefulness are

incongruent” (p. 223). The less accurate students’ views are of school counselors, the less likely

they will approach a counselor for postsecondary help.

Teacher and administrative support of school counselors is vital to the success of a

counseling program within a school. In a study conducted to examine teacher perceptions of

school counselors, Reiner, Colbert, and Pérusse (2009) found that teachers appreciate the role of

school counselors, but believed services delivered needed to be improved. In addition, the study

found that teachers lack an awareness of what tasks counselors are actually engaged in, and

fewer than half of teachers believed individual and/or group counseling conducted by school

counselors to be unimportant (Reiner, Colbert, & Pérusse, 2009). Principals also have a unique


and important relationship with counselors, as they determine the roles the counselors will

perform within a school. Unfortunately, school counselors are often given tasks that are outside

of the American School Counselor Associations’ (ASCA) advisement. For example, 80% of

principals identified test administration (cognitive, aptitude, and achievement tests) as a main

role for school counselors, a task that ASCA deems inappropriate and impedes upon the school

counselor’s ability to manage direct and indirect services of the counseling program (Chata &

Loesch, 2007; American School Counselor Association, 2016a). Further research has

demonstrated that most school principals do not understand appropriate school counselor

functioning, making it difficult for school counselors to be fully effective in their postsecondary

counseling role (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Because of these misconceptions students, parents,

teachers, and administrators neglect to fully utilize and support school counselors and

underestimate their ability to positively assist students in their postsecondary search process.

Another barrier that has proved problematic for many counselors is the generally high

number of students on school counselors’ caseloads across the country. According to the ASCA,

the average caseload for school counselors should be about 250 students to every one counselor.

In reality, the national average is almost twice the amount that ASCA recommends: 460 students

to every one counselor (American School Counselor Association, 2016a). Minnesota specifically

is in an even worse state, as MN currently holds the 3rd worst/highest ratio in the country: 792

students to every school counselor (Hinrichs, 2016). Governor Mark Dayton has recognized the

negative affects MN’s counselor-student ratio has had on its students, and in 2014 he called to

lower the ratio. “Our schools need more guidance counselors, who are specially trained in career

guidance, to help junior high and high school students better understand what their opportunities

are and how to prepare for them” (Stellar, 2014, para. 5). Research has shown that the higher

counselor-student ratio that exists, the less number of students that go on to college,


demonstrating the great need for more counselors and lower caseloads throughout the U.S.

(Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 221).

Because of the inappropriate or unrelated tasks often given to school counselors and the

overwhelming number of students on each counselor’s case load, not having enough time to

adequately counsel students on their postsecondary options is another barrier that many school

counselors face. Not only do students receive minimal postsecondary counseling, but the little

time counselors are able to spend with each student also results in “less trusting and effective

relationships” (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 220). Belasco (2013) found that public school

counselors only devote 23% of their time on postsecondary counseling, which is “far less than

the amount of time required to provide sufficient and adequate college guidance” (p. 782). In a

study conducted by Engberg and Gilbert (2014), school counselors who spend 20% or less of

their time on postsecondary counseling were associated with lower college-going rates (around

eight percentage points) when compared with counselors who spend over 50% of their time

postsecondary counseling (p. 232). Lautz, Hawkins, and Pérez (2012) proved that time spent on

unrelated duties negatively affects college-going rates, as each additional 10% of counselor time

that is spent on test proctoring, a common task given to counselors, is associated with a six

percent decrease of students choosing higher education (p. 112).

These barriers have proven to be in existence in high schools throughout the United

States, making it difficult for an innumerable amount of school counselors able to do their job

efficiently and effectively (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Because of this, students are suffering and

ultimately making postsecondary decisions that may not be best suited for them (Bennett &

Wilezol, 2013, p. 11). This ripple effect often results in counselors defaulting to the “college for

all” mentality and utilizing a flawed postsecondary choice model, which is a traditional strategy

“characterized by limited resource capacity and a limited organizational commitment to


facilitating access to available resources among students and their families” (Engberg & Gilbert,

2014, p. 220). In order to discuss how the current model used in ineffectively schools, it is

important to note the major discrepancies that occur within the model and why it needs to be

adjusted to better serve students.

Problems with the Current Model

Misconceptions about college. One of the main downfalls of postsecondary counseling

today is that the foundation of the widely used postsecondary choice model has shifted to

automatically expect students to choose higher education. Although there are obvious downfalls

of higher education (especially those mentioned previously, such as increased tuition, large

amounts of student debt and many students not completing their degrees) students and their

parents and/or guardians continue to believe that higher education is the best option (Dolinsky,

2010). What many do not know, however, is that some of the main ideas believed about college

and why many believe higher education is worth the risk need to be given a closer look.

While the aforementioned data is clear that student debt is no insignificant matter, there

are those that would argue that higher education is worth the risk of taking out student loans and

the inevitable debt, because those with a college education will eventually earn that money back

through a position that requires a college diploma and therefore pays more (Abel & Deitz, 2014,

p. 1). The return on investment of a college, or ROI, compares how much is spent on tuition

and/or loans with the money that is made over a certain span of time with that college degree

(Baum, Ma, Payea, 2013, p. 7). Analyzing the ROI amounts for specific institutions allows for

greater insight on the value of choosing higher education. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) turned to

PayScale.com, an online resource for salary and benefits information for specific higher

education institutions, to examine specific colleges and their ROIs to decide if college is worth

the investment. After analyzing a list of 1,248 schools in the U.S. and calculating their 30-year


net ROIs, they found that over 200 schools have a negative thirty-year net ROI, meaning

students who attend these colleges are losing money in the long run (pp. 103-105).

Researchers have also found that the average wages of college graduates are steadily

declining rather than increasing, as many have thought (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 2). Not only are

the higher educated making less than previous years, but a percentage are even struggling to

make ends meet. In 2010, out of the 22 million Americans with master’s degrees, over 360,000

of them were receiving a form of public assistance, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (Patton,

2012). Before automatically assuming that going to college will guarantee you more money in

the long run, students should do more research on the specific schools they are looking at

attending to see if there is a probability that that will actually be the case.

Another factor that students choosing higher education need to consider is what they

major in, as there is consistent evidence that shows that some degrees are much more valuable

than others. Students that have majored in engineering, math, and computer sciences have earned

the highest return, while liberal arts, agriculture and natural resources, leisure and hospitality,

and education majors all have below-average returns (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 7). According to

data compiled by PayScale.com and Georgetown University’s Center on Education and the

Workforce, the top worst majors for a successful career include culinary arts, fine arts, radio and

television, and child and family studies. For instance, the median income for all graduates with a

bachelor’s degree is about $55,000, while the median income for a recent child and family

studies major is about $31,000. For those looking to major in radio and television, there is only a

projected 10-year growth of -.02%, with only about 1,651 job postings every year, nationwide

(Rapacon, 2015, p. 9). On the other side of the spectrum, PayScale found that six out of the top

ten majors with the highest earnings were engineering degrees, with all top ten majors being

STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) disciplines (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 98).


Before deciding a major, it is important to conduct the proper research behind each major, as not

all majors and/or degrees automatically lead to job security or a decent salary.

Failing to fully prepare students. Another downfall of the current postsecondary choice

model within schools is that an increasing amount of students are not being prepared enough for

higher education. This may be attributed to high counselor caseloads, a shortage of school

counselors within schools, or the “college for all” mentality. Regardless of the cause, there is

evidence that shows students are not fully prepared for life after high school (Stinebrickner &

Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 28). Students are unprepared for the makeup of college itself, as many

students have found the structure and the freedoms of college to be overwhelming and

challenging (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p. 80).

In addition, studies show that many students do not fully comprehend the relevance of

academic preparation while still in high school, and because of a faulty K-12 system, many

students are academically behind at the beginning of college (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 236).

Bennett and Wilezol explain this phenomenon and its effects:

Too often today college freshman and sophomores spend valuable time in remediation for

subjects that they should have learned and mastered in high school. We need to do more

to boost student achievement, especially in the fields of math, science, and writing, where

standards have slipped tremendously in the last few decades. By doing so, we can remove

the stigma holding back workers without a college degree and help obviate the need for

superfluous college education as a minimum requirement for a job interview in a

competitive field. (2013, p. 92)

Professors around the U.S. are beginning to seriously question the K-12 system. At Broward

College in Florida, over 67% of its students needed remedial classes in 2008. Derron Bowen, a

math professor at Broward, often wonders how students are even allowed to get to high school


graduation let alone into college, and attributes the failures in his classes to the current K-12

system (Armario, 2010). Ken O’Donnell, senior director of student engagement and academic

initiatives for the California State University System, where only half of the students graduate

within six years, stated that, “More than half our students aren’t ready for college” (Gearon,

2014, para. 6). Data has demonstrated the academic unpreparedness of students, as researchers

found that in 2009, 52% of all students enrolled in a 2-year college and 20% of freshmen at four-

year colleges needed to take and were enrolled in at least one remedial education course

(Complete College America, 2012, p. 6). According to the ACT National Curriculum of college

professors, 65% stated that their students were poorly prepared by their states for college-level

coursework (Armario, 2010).

Professors are not the only ones who have begun to notice the severe repercussions of the

faulty K-12 system and underprepared students. Data indicates that employers are discovering

that their graduate hires have accomplished little academically that would signify they are fully

prepared for the workplace. In 2011, the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and

Schools surveyed one thousand hiring managers and found that many employers were

dissatisfied with the lack of quality applicants within today’s generation. Only 16% of hiring

managers found applicants were “very prepared” for the tasks given to them in their new jobs. In

addition, over half of employers (54%) reported it difficult to find applicants that are fully

prepared with the necessary skill and knowledge set to be successful in the workplace (Bennett

& Wilezol, 2013, p. 146). Microsoft founder Bill Gates has also commented on the subject,

stating that there are many unemployed workers, yet employers have a difficult time finding

qualified workers. Gates attributes the high unemployment rate to the deficiencies in the

education system rather than the absence of jobs. “Many people want jobs, and there are a lot of


open jobs,” states Gates. “It is up to the education system to equilibrate that” (Tonyan, 2012,

para. 8).

Gates is not the only successful and established professional that has noticed the trend of

unprepared applicants. Mark Cuban also described how badly employers were looking for

qualified applicants, including himself: “I could care less if the source of their education was

accredited by a bunch of old men and women who think they know what is best for the world. I

want people who can do the job. I want the best and the brightest. Not a piece of paper” (Cuban,

2012, para. 14). Tom Carroll, president of the National Commission on Teaching and America’s

Future, also described to US Weekly in November of 2011 how the K-12 system fails to prepare

high school students for their postsecondary options:

The current reality is that a high school education leaves many young Americans

unemployable and unprepared to meet future challenges. Students graduate without the

communication, collaboration, and analysis skills that will help them be successful…All

too often, college is the first time that students have the opportunity to learn in this way.

(ProCon.org, 2016, Pro 6, para. 3)

All of these deficiencies in the K-12 system and the many misconceptions about higher

education are in congruence with the flawed postsecondary choice structure and will

dramatically affect the level to which students succeed after high school (Bennett & Wilezol,

2013, p. 141). Perhaps one of the biggest problems with the current postsecondary counseling

model, however, are the students that fall through the cracks and hardly receive any

postsecondary counseling at all.

Neglecting underrepresented minority students. As a result of the gap in education

preparation among students of different ethnic backgrounds, there are many minority students

that are poorly prepared for higher education (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 136). As previously


discussed, there are many barriers for underrepresented minority students in postsecondary

planning. According to Savitz-Romer (2012), some of the main difficulties for these students

include the lack of college knowledge, low aspirations due to perceived academic or financial

barriers, and a lack of support to assist with their planning (p. 98). In an article in the Journal of

Higher Education, Professor Rebecca Cox researched the obstacles for underrepresented

students. “Although a major focus of current research and policy-making efforts involved

understanding and minimizing the barriers to postsecondary access (and completion),” stated

Cox, “conventional reform strategies do not appear to be effecting substantial change in the

college-going opportunities for students from low-income and underrepresented racial/ethnic

groups” (2016, p. 2)

Although schools have put increased efforts into assisting underrepresented students, the

process of helping those students with their postsecondary planning is still flawed. Studies have

found that students with higher socioeconomic statuses are more likely to be guided towards

four-year colleges than students from middle or low socioeconomic statuses, and students from

lower-income families are more likely to be recommended to community colleges (Engberg &

Gilbert, 2014, p. 222; Zehr, 2011, p. 17). In addition, underrepresented students are less likely to

be enrolled in advanced science and math courses and more likely to be enrolled in “less than

standard” education curriculum (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 322). Schools within lower-income

settings also suffer as a whole in the area of postsecondary counseling. Research has shown that

lower income schools spend less time on college counseling activities than higher income

schools (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 221). Lautz, Hawkins, and Perez (2012) found that “there

is a well-documented need for college counseling staff and resources, particularly in lower-

income settings” (p. 109).


There are many barriers that exist for minority students, and postsecondary planning is no

exception. Without efficient and extensive postsecondary counseling and preparation for life

after high school, underrepresented students easily fall through the cracks. Many of those that do

make it into some form of higher education continue to struggle. According to Complete College

America, 39% of African-American students and 21% of Hispanic students in 4-year colleges in

2012 needed remediation, compared to the 13% of their white counterparts (Complete College

America, 2012, p. 6). This data demonstrates the need for more support for underrepresented

students, especially in the area of postsecondary counseling. It is clear that all students, both

underrepresented and privileged students alike, need more informative, thorough, and efficient

postsecondary counseling. Although there seem to be many flaws in the current postsecondary

search process in schools, there are a few solutions that could help solve the gap that is evident in

postsecondary counseling (Belasco, 2013, p. 782).

Proposed Solutions for the Postsecondary Choice Model

Despite the conflicting opinions of American society, parents, students, administrators,

and teachers on the value of higher education, it is clear that the postsecondary counseling and

search process is invaluable and needs to be carried out carefully and consistently by school

counselors. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) propose an initial general solution of having students be

more self-reflective before they decide higher education is automatically the right decision:

Each young man or woman should so a serious elf-evaluation with the help of others and

then chart an appropriate postsecondary course. Doing this is wiser than blindly

presupposing that college is a necessary good…Rather than simply swallowing the

conventional wisdom and following the conventional path, more students need to make

realistic assessments of their abilities and finances and then decide the best path for their

lives. (p. xiii)


While some increased self-reflection would most likely benefit an innumerable amount of

students, there are many that would highly benefit from restructured postsecondary planning

techniques, such as increased preparation for postsecondary decisions and life after high school,

in-depth education on postsecondary options, and giving specialized assistance to

underrepresented students (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p.80-81).

Increased Preparation

Students are being required to begin postsecondary planning even earlier than high

school, a strategy that allows school counselors to begin to expose, educate, and guide students at

younger ages. Most states now encourage or require middle school students to prepare for long-

term career or education plans and prepare them for future careers by guiding them to take

specific classes (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 137). In Utah, state law requires every 8th grader to

create a four-year “student education/occupational plan” with the help of their parents and

guidance counselors (Zehr, 2011, Making A Plan, para. 2). Some schools have their students

begin the college application process as early as seventh grade, so by their junior year, most of

the work is done to prepare for their senior year (Caribbean Business Staff, 2011, p. 30). Some

specific strategies within the framework of early postsecondary planning that have proven to be

successful include goal setting, increased college knowledge, and improving academic behaviors

(Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 137). Allowing students to start thinking about their postsecondary

decisions earlier would allow students to be better prepared to make those decisions when they

get to their senior year.

Another new initiative to assist students to be prepared for higher education includes

courses implemented into schools that model the essence of a college course. University Park

Campus School in Massachusetts tested this theory by creating a college-success course that

meets twice a week in the second half of senior year to help hone students’ skills needed to


succeed. The course incorporates syllabi, pedagogy, and assessments that all mimic the reality of

a college course, including online discussions and late-work policies (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p.

79). As a result of the course implementation, University Park saw significant improvement in its

alumni’s college graduation rates. In 2003, before the implementation of the new course, only

50% of the school’s graduates were on track to graduate within six years. After the course

implementation, 93% of the 2007 graduating class were on track, reporting that the newly

designed senior year at University Park had better prepared them for college (p. 83). Studies

show that first generation students, students with disabilities, and underrepresented students

benefit even more from learning about higher education before they graduate and better ensures

that they “are able to remain in their program beyond their first year” (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 611).

Another technique that has proven to help students more equipped to make their

postsecondary decisions is vocational exposure and training in high school. As discussed

previously, there are many students going to college without knowing what they want to do or

even if they know if higher education is the best track for them. Steve Schneider, a school

counselor at Sheboygan South High School in Wisconsin, stated, “This is really about preparing

kids for careers,” states Schneider, “A highly intelligent kid who goes off to college just because

they think that’s what they are supposed to do…if they don’t have a sense of what they are

preparing for, then they don’t stay” (Adams, 2011, p. 16). By allowing students to learn trades

alongside traditional academic subjects, they can better decide what postsecondary track would

be best suited for them (Zehr, 2011). Apprenticeships, shadowing opportunities, and vocational

classes within high schools are all strategies that have proven to be successful to expose students

to different occupations (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 330). Economist Alex Tabarrok of George

Mason University has strongly supported apprenticeships programs in high schools, stating,

“Apprenticeship programs introduce teenagers to the adult world and the skills, attitudes, and


practices that make for a successful career” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 89). In 2011 Harvard

University published a report called “Pathways to Prosperity”, a report that focuses on the Unites

States’ essential need to develop significant career training as part of a comprehensive school

reform. Within the report, the authors discussed Mayor Michael Bloomberg of NYC’s dedication

to implementing vocational education within schools. “College isn’t for everyone, but education

is...” stated Bloomberg, “A narrowly defined ‘college for all’ mentality does not include a much

stronger focus on career-oriented programs that lead to occupational credentials – seems doomed

to fail” (Symonds, Schwartz & Ferguson, 2011, p. 7).

When students have a more concrete idea of what they want to do after high school, the

more likely they are to complete the training needed for that career. The Community College

Research center at Columbia University found that when students go into a specific academic or

vocational program, they are more likely to complete their degree or credentials than those who

enter college without choosing a specific path (Adams, 2011, p. 16). It is the school counselor’s

job to help students discover their strengths and where they would best succeed, and exposure is

one way to do that. The more students are exposed to different vocations, the more likely

students will discover their best postsecondary options, which is turn will give them a greater

chance of finishing their training and making it to that specific career.

In-Depth Education of Postsecondary Options

One of the most important things school counselors can do to better help their students

succeed after high school is to give students more information about all of their postsecondary

options in general. Unfortunately, previous research has found that few school counselors urge

students to examine alternative routes to higher education, which is a disservice to the students

(Zehr, 2011). Rather than directing students only to higher education, school counselors should

be giving students all the options they have available to them. “The K-12 education system


should focus on guiding high school seniors into the postsecondary educational choices best

suited for their individual talents and inclinations…” argues Bennett and Wilezol (2013), “we

must equip them to make the right decisions in regard to the level and type of education

appropriate for them” (p. 88). Many states and school districts have been paying more attention

to students that prefer to take an alternative postsecondary route. As a result, there have been

increased efforts to educate school counselors about a wider range of postsecondary options so

students can be educated on options in addition to higher education (Zehr, 2011). One specific

area that needs to be redefined to students is trade and vocational jobs.

While the “college for all” mentality that exists in American society has been recognized

throughout the country, there is another faulty social stigma that exists on the other end of the

spectrum, one that students need to be educated about. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) described this

phenomenon in their argument against the “college for all” mentality:

A popular perception has taken root that jobs not requiring a college degree (skilled,

hands-on professions like plumber, welder, auto mechanic, and so on) are somehow

inferior to more academic, white-collar vocations. Society has wrongly swallowed the

notion that these hands-on jobs lack the perceived intellectual or creative cachet of a

profession like being a professor, journalist, lawyer, or photographer, and so should be

shunned. (p. 73)

Current research shows, however, that the reality is actually the opposite of society’s mistaken

belief. Students need to be educated on the incredible amount of job opportunities available that

often have better than average pay and doesn’t require a four-year degree (p. 80). First, there is a

great need for skilled workers, and that need will only continue to increase. By 2018, nearly

fourteen millions jobs will require more than a high school diploma, but less than a bachelors’

degree, a prediction calculated by Georgetown University (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010, p.


32). Not only are these jobs available, but employers are in desperate need of skilled workers.

The Deloitte and the Manufacturing Institute found that 67% of US manufacturing employers are

facing a moderate to severe shortage of workers, nearly 600,000 (Manufacturing Institute, 2016).

A survey conducted in 2012 predicted that by 2020, there would be a minimum of eighty-five

million unfilled skilled labor jobs worldwide (Woellert, 2012). Second, trade jobs, vocational

training, joining the military, or starting your own business can bring the same or greater ROI

than higher education (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 165). In 2012, the Bureau of Labor Statistics

found twenty jobs that required less than a bachelor’s degree that had a median annual wage of

$50,000 or more (far above the median wage of all professions: $34,000). Among these jobs

included air traffic controllers, dental hygienists, and petroleum technicians (Torpey, 2012, p.

28).

Another method that school counselors can use to better help students succeed is to make

them aware of the resources they have available to them. Currently, most schools do not have a

systematic means of distributing information related to college, and even fewer students

understand the importance of being academically prepared for college (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014,

p. 236). Consistently providing those resources to students could make all the difference in their

future success. School counselors could help students discover is the assets available on their

choice of college campus that can support them while they are there. For instance, helping

students get familiar with the counseling services on campus could be extremely beneficial to

their health and well-being (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 609). Many college campuses also have first-year

experience groups or living-learning communities that foster relationships between likeminded

students. The University of Maryland, for example, offers multiple residential options that have

different themes, ranging from women in the technology industry to globalization to social

change; about 50% of the incoming freshmen each year join one (Gearon, 2014). Increasing


students’ awareness of postsecondary resources has great potential to heighten a students’

success after high school.

Researchers have begun to see the negative trends of the college-for-all mentality and the

effect is has had on society (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 239). Not only should students be

educated on all postsecondary options equally and postsecondary resources, but in addition,

students should be informed on all that choosing higher education entails, such as debt, job

placement outcomes, validity of certain schools, and other factors that were aforementioned.

Only then will students be able to make completely informed postsecondary decisions. If all high

school students were given all of this information, perhaps more would make the decision to

pursue a career that would cost way less, take less time to pursue, and be better suited to their

individual strengths.

Assisting Underrepresented Students

As previously stated, one major discrepancy of the current postsecondary counseling

model is the lack of comprehensive support for underrepresented students, making it clear that

the gap relating to higher education for those students needs to be addressed (Cerezo &

McWhirter, 2012, p. 867). Belasco (2013) found that disadvantaged populations learn most about

their postsecondary options from their school counselors (p. 782). Because urban students have

limited access to postsecondary knowledge, they rely heavily on their school counselors for

support, making school counselors an integral part of those students’ future goals and

postsecondary decisions (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 98). The problem is that current strategies seem

to be making little progress, which is why this issue needs to be further researched and addressed

(Cox, 2016, p. 2).

Another issue that has been deemed a barrier for students is the hesitancy students feel

about going to their school counselors for help. Engberg and Gilbert (2014) found that many


underrepresented students are restrained about reaching out to their school counselors for fear of

being misunderstood. “Additionally,” reports Engberg and Gilbert, “undocumented students

rarely turn to counselors as the primary source of college information due to experiences of

discrimination and prejudice” (p. 223). Because of this, one of the first things that school

counselors can do to better assist underrepresented students is promoting equity among all

students and making every student feel as though their future matters. According to a study

conducted by Savitz-Romer (2012), counselor education programs that promote equity and

opportunity of college readiness, enrollment, and degree attainment have proven to be effective,

especially with underrepresented students. Unfortunately, many academically capable students

are steered away from higher education by high school counselors, a gross disservice to those

students (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 223). Promoting equity also means exposing all students to

every postsecondary options available, not just the options that the school counselor, parent,

teachers, or even the student believes he or she is minimally capable of. The first and perhaps the

most important step is to believe in students and help them develop higher expectations for

themselves, despite the low expectations others have for them (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 323).

Another way underrepresented students can be better assisted is through counselors

taking the extra step to help students get continued support after high school. Mentoring and

peer-support have both been found to be extremely beneficial to underrepresented students after

graduation (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 139). Some proven benefits of these methods include

increased knowledge of higher education resources, enhanced adjustment, emotional support,

and increased self-esteem (Cerezo & McWhirter, 2012, p. 868). Encouraging students to get

involved in activities on their college campuses also produce greater chances of success.

According to Turner and Thompson (2014), the more students are involved in campus activities,


such as learning communities, freshmen orientations, community engagements projects, etc., the

greater the chances of persistence (p. 100).

There are also many intervention programs and/or support staff that are offered to

underrepresented students to help with the transition into higher education. Admission officers

and college counselors can assist students with specific details about college campuses and

processes to aid in their postsecondary decisions and their transitions into higher education

(Lautz, Hawkins, & Perez, 2012, p. 114). The LUCERO program, an intervention program

specifically geared towards Latinos, has improved Latino retention through focusing on building

Latino communities on college campuses, enhancing students’ technological abilities, and

increasing academic success through tutoring, advising, and mentoring (Cerezo & McWhirter,

2012, p. 868). The GEAR UP program (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for

Undergraduate Programs), a nation-wide, federally funded initiative currently being

implemented in the Minneapolis Public Schools district, follows sixth graders through their

senior year (Minneapolis Public Schools, n.d.). The program encourages college attendance,

increases academic preparedness, and provides social and cultural capital to help minimize

barriers to college attendance. GEAR UP has been proven to increase the percentage of

underrepresented-student higher education attendance (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 324).

Not only are school counselors a key source of postsecondary information for

underrepresented students, but also counselors have the ability to influence students’ academic

achievement, college aspirations, and postsecondary readiness (Belasco, 2013, p. 784).

Unfortunately, the reality is that the goals of the school counselors and the student perceptions of

the counselor’s usefulness are often incongruent, which often translates into students feeling like

counselors have low expectations of them (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 224). The first step in


changing these perceptions is making school counselors aware of these facts and promoting more

equal and consistent postsecondary counseling.

Adlerian Application

Alfred Adler, a well-known psychotherapist from the early 1900s, established

revolutionary theories surrounding ideas such as inferiority, insecurity, self-enhancement, and

community (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964, p. xv). He also worked with several adolescents and

children and was an expert on the behaviors of children. Many of his theories still contribute to

what is known about how to approach the upbringing and teaching of adolescents and children

(Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990, p. ix). Adler had a few thoughts on postsecondary counseling, most of

which included supporting adolescents in any way possible (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964, p.

431). Other Adlerian concepts, such as encouragement, sense of belonging, and striving for

superiority also shed light on the effects of postsecondary decision-making.

According to Turner and Thompson (2014), one of the biggest problems that millennial

students face is their lack of confidence, which ultimately leads to failure in multiple areas of

their lives. “[They] possess an impractical confidence about their academic skills that often make

students unaware of their true academic capabilities” (p.94). One of Adler’s biggest contributions

was his idea that encouragement is the most important aspect of child raising (Dreikurs & Soltz,

1990, p. 36). Adlerian encouragement can be defined as “both a condition and a process, and it

applies to both the child who becomes courageous and to the process that facilitates the

outcome” (Carns & Carns, 1998, p. 72). Making the decision about what you want to do with

your life as a young and inexperienced high school senior comes with an incredible amount of

stress and pressure. Unfortunately, our society has become one that doubts the capabilities of our

students. “Instead of allowing our children to test their strengths…” states Dreikurs, “we

confront them constantly with our prejudice – our doubt in their ability” (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990,


p. 37). School counselors have the unique opportunity to evaluate students’ strengths and

encourage them to pursue postsecondary avenues in which they will strive. Because students’

lack of confidence, it is more important than ever that school counselors incorporate

encouragement into postsecondary counseling.

Another key concept of Adler’s’ was his focus on the importance of having a sense of

belonging. Dreikurs stated that, “Since the child is a social being, his strongest motivation is the

desire to belong. His security or lack of it depends upon his feeling of belonging” (Dreikurs &

Soltz, 1990, p. 14). When helping a high school student decide on what postsecondary decision

to make, it is important to help him/her find somewhere where they can truly belong and

contribute. “Developing a sense of belonging is critical to the success of college students,” states

researcher O’Keeffe (2013), “particularly for the retention of students who are considered to be

at risk of non-completion” (p. 607). Alexander McCormick, education professor and director of

the National Survey of Student Engagement at Indiana University, has found that creating bonds

in college, both academically and socially, is key to success in college (Gearon, 2014). This

sense of connection can emerge through just one positive student-faculty and/or staff

relationship, and that relationship “can significantly impact upon a students’ decision to remain

in college” (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 607). Applying these Adlerian concepts could greatly benefit

school counselors as they assist students in their post-secondary choice journey.

Conclusion

Although higher education currently remains highly thought of as the golden ticket to

success in American society and the obvious first choice for most high school seniors, it is clear

that post-secondary education may not be the best option for every individual. The college-for-all

mentality that currently sweeps the nation overlooks the immediate vocational needs of many

students and does a disservice to an abundance of students by not allowing full access to


postsecondary counseling options (Engberg and Gilbert, 2014, p. 239). Unfortunately, a

significant amount of the population believes that the end goal of high school counseling is to

facilitate students’ transition into college (Lautz, Hawkins, & Perez, 2012, p. 114). School

counselors have the potential, however, to have an incredible impact on students’ postsecondary

decisions rather than simply filtering the masses straight to college. It is imperative that school

counselors examine all available options, increase student preparation, and assist students to find

what life-path would help them be most successful. Because the college-for-all mentality that

extends throughout the nation could be hindering many students from truly succeeding, school

counselors have the indispensable duty to transform the current system of postsecondary

counseling so that all students are given equal postsecondary options and the chance to find a

life-path most suited to their individual strengths and talents.


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