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Response to Intervention

www.interventioncentral.org

RTI for Academics: A Quality Audit

Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org

Quality Audit



Intervention Centralwww.interventioncentral.org



Workshop PPTs and handout available at:

http://www.interventioncentral.org/rtiaudit



Workshop Agenda1. RTI: Introduction. What is the ‘state mandate’ for

RTI? And what are basic decision rules for deciding whether an RTI student is a ‘non-responder’?

2. Tiers of Intervention. What are the 3 levels of intervention in RTI—and how should those levels be organized?

3. Schoolwide Screening. How do schools using screening tools to proactively find and address student problems?

4. RTI Audit: Next Steps. What are the next steps that your school or district can take to strengthen and expand RTI implementation?


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RTI: Why? What is the reason that schools are adopting an RTI model?



School Instructional Time: The Irreplaceable Resource“In the average school system, there are 330 minutes in the instructional day, 1,650 minutes in the instructional week, and 56,700 minutes in the instructional year. Except in unusual circumstances, these are the only minutes we have to provide effective services for students. The number of years we have to apply these minutes is fixed. Therefore, each minute counts and schools cannot afford to support inefficient models of service delivery.” p. 177

Source: Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon, D. N., & Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 177-193).


www.interventioncentral.orgSource: Grosche, M., & Volpe, R. J. (2013). Response-to-intervention (RTI) as a model to facilitate inclusion for students with learning and behaviour problems. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28, 254-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013.768452



Essential Elements of RTI (Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, & Lathrop, 2007)

1. A “continuum of evidence-based services available to all students" that range from universal to highly individualized & intensive

2. “Decision points to determine if students are performing significantly below the level of their peers in academic and social behavior domains"

3. “Ongoing monitoring of student progress"4. “Employment of more intensive or different

interventions when students do not improve in response" to lesser interventions

5. “Evaluation for special education services if students do not respond to intervention instruction"

Source: Fairbanks, S., Sugai, G., Guardino, S., & Lathrop, M. (2007). Response to intervention: Examining classroom behavior support in second grade. Exceptional Children, 73, p. 289.



What does RTI look like when applied to an individual student?

A widely accepted method for determining whether a student should be referred to Special Education under RTI is the ‘dual discrepancy model’ (Fuchs, 2003). – Discrepancy 1: The student is found to be performing

academically at a level significantly below that of his or her typical peers (discrepancy in initial skills or performance).

– Discrepancy 2: Despite the implementation of one or more well-designed, well-implemented interventions tailored specifically for the student, he or she fails to ‘close the gap’ with classmates (discrepancy in rate of learning relative to peers).



Target Student

Discrepancy 1: Skill Gap (Current Performance Level)

Avg Classroom Academic Performance Level

‘Dual-Discrepancy’: RTI Model of Learning Disability (Fuchs 2003)

Discrepancy 2:Gap in Rate of Learning (‘Slope of Improvement’)



Common Core State Standards Initiativehttp://www.corestandards.org/

View the set of Common Core Standards for English Language Arts (including writing) and mathematics being adopted by states across America.

Source: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects.. Retrieved on September 23, 2012, from http://www.corestandards.org/; p. 6.



Common Core State Standards: Supporting Different Learners in ELA

“The Standards set grade-specific standards but do not define the intervention methods or materials necessary to support students who are well below or well above grade-level expectations. No set of grade-specific standards can fully reflect the great variety in abilities, needs, learning rates, and achievement levels of students in any given classroom.”

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Source: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects.. Retrievedon September 23, 2012, from http://www.corestandards.org/; p. 6.



“…It is also beyond the scope of the Standards to define the full range of supports appropriate for English language learners and for students with special needs. At the same time, all students must have the opportunity to learn and meet the same high standards if they are to access the knowledge and skills necessary in their post–high school lives.”

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Source: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects.. Retrievedon September 23, 2012, from http://www.corestandards.org/; p. 6.

Common Core State Standards: Supporting Different Learners in ELA



Response to Intervention (RTI)Response to Intervention (RTI) is a blue-print that schools can implement to proactively identify students who struggle with academic and/or behavioral deficits and provide them with academic and behavioral intervention support. RTI divides school support resources into 3 progressively more intensive levels--or 'tiers'--of intervention. RTI first gained national recognition when written into congressional legislation, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004. Because the focus of RTI is on the underperforming learner, schools can use this approach as the 'toolkit' for helping struggling learners to attain the ambitious standards of the Common Core.

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Activity: RTI Questions…

• Identify the most important question about Response to Intervention that you would like to have answered during this workshop.



RTI Tiers. What do the 3 levels, or ‘tiers’, of RTI look like and what students do they serve?



RTI: Tier 1: Core Instruction

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RTI: Tier 1: Core Instruction• Strong core instruction is the foundation of RTI.

When teachers are able successfully to teach across the full range of classroom ability levels, individualized academic interventions are not needed.

Strong instruction includes making optimal use of instructional time, integrating direct-instruction elements into lessons, and providing accommodations &supports as appropriate.

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RTI: Tier 1: Core Instruction: Direct InstructionTeachers can strengthen

their lessons by incorporating into them elements of direct instruction.(Online)

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How to: Implement Strong Core Instruction1. Access to Instruction 2. ‘Scaffolding’ Support (Cont.)Instructional Match Group Responding

Content Review at Lesson Start High Rate of Student Success

Preview of Lesson Goal(s) Brisk Rate of Instruction

Chunking of New Material Fix-Up Strategies

2. ‘Scaffolding’ Support 3. Timely Performance Feedback

Detailed Explanations & Instructions Regular Feedback

Talk Alouds/Think Alouds Step-by-Step Checklists

Work Models 4. Opportunities for Review/ Practice

Active Engagement Spacing of Practice Throughout Lesson

Collaborative Assignments Guided Practice

Checks for Understanding Support for Independent PracticeDistributed Practice



How To Implement Strong Core InstructionIncrease Access to Instruction1. Instructional Match. Lesson content is appropriately

matched to students' abilities (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008).

2. Content Review at Lesson Start. The lesson opens with a brief review of concepts or material that have previously been presented. (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008, Rosenshine, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionIncrease Access to Instruction3. Preview of Lesson Goal(s). At the start of instruction, the

goals of the current day's lesson are shared (Rosenshine, 2008).

4. Chunking of New Material. The teacher breaks new material into small, manageable increments, 'chunks', or steps (Rosenshine, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide ‘Scaffolding’ Support1. Detailed Explanations & Instructions. Throughout the

lesson, the teacher provides adequate explanations and detailed instructions for all concepts and materials being taught (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008).

2. Talk-Alouds/Think-Alouds. Verbal explanations are given to explain cognitive strategies: ‘talk-alouds’ (e.g., the teacher describes and explains each step of a cognitive strategy) and ‘think-alouds’ (e.g., the teacher applies a cognitive strategy to a particular problem or task and verbalizes the steps in applying the strategy) (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008, Rosenshine, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide ‘Scaffolding’ Support3. Work Models. The teacher makes exemplars of academic

work (e.g., essays, completed math word problems) available to students for use as models (Rosenshine, 2008).

4. Active Engagement. The teacher ensures that the lesson engages the student in ‘active accurate responding’ (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005) often enough to capture student attention and to optimize learning.

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide ‘Scaffolding’ Support5. Collaborative Assignments. Students have frequent

opportunities to work collaboratively--in pairs or groups. (Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002; Gettinger & Seibert, 2002).

6. Checks for Understanding. The instructor regularly checks for student understanding by posing frequent questions to the group (Rosenshine, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide ‘Scaffolding’ Support7. Group Responding. The teacher ensures full class

participation and boosts levels of student attention by having all students respond in various ways (e.g., choral responding, response cards, white boards) to instructor questions (Rosenshine, 2008).

8. High Rate of Student Success. The teacher verifies that students are experiencing at least 80% success in the lesson content to shape their learning in the desired direction and to maintain student motivation and engagement (Gettinger & Seibert, 2002).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide ‘Scaffolding’ Support9. Brisk Rate of Instruction. The lesson moves at a brisk

rate--sufficient to hold student attention (Carnine,1976; Gettinger & Seibert, 2002).

10. Fix-Up Strategies. Students are taught fix-up strategies (Rosenshine, 2008) for use during independent work (e.g., for defining unknown words in reading assignments, for solving challenging math word problems).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionGive Timely Performance Feedback1. Regular Feedback. The teacher provides timely and

regular performance feedback and corrections throughout the lesson as needed to guide student learning (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice).

2. Step-by-Step Checklists. For multi-step cognitive strategies, the teacher creates checklists for students to use to self-monitor performance (Rosenshine, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide Opportunities for Review & Practice1. Spacing of Practice Throughout Lesson. The lesson

includes practice activities spaced throughout the lesson. (e.g., through teacher demonstration; then group practice with teacher supervision and feedback; then independent, individual student practice) (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide Opportunities for Review & Practice2. Guided Practice. When teaching challenging material, the

teacher provides immediate corrective feedback to each student response. When the instructor anticipates the possibility of an incorrect response, that teacher forestalls student error through use of cues, prompts, or hints. The teacher also tracks student responding and ensures sufficient success during supervised lessons before having students practice the new skills or knowledge independently (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008).

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How To Implement Strong Core InstructionProvide Opportunities for Review & Practice3. Support for Independent Practice. The teacher ensures

that students have adequate support (e.g., clear and explicit instructions; teacher monitoring) to be successful during independent seatwork practice activities (Rosenshine, 2008).

4. Distributed Practice. The teacher reviews previously taught content one or more times over a period of several weeks or months (Pashler et al., 2007; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1995).

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How to: Implement Strong Core Instruction1. Access to Instruction 2. ‘Scaffolding’ Support (Cont.)Instructional Match Group Responding

Content Review at Lesson Start High Rate of Student Success

Preview of Lesson Goal(s) Brisk Rate of Instruction

Chunking of New Material Fix-Up Strategies

2. ‘Scaffolding’ Support 3. Timely Performance Feedback

Detailed Explanations & Instructions Regular Feedback

Talk Alouds/Think Alouds Step-by-Step Checklists

Work Models 4. Opportunities for Review/ Practice

Active Engagement Spacing of Practice Throughout Lesson

Collaborative Assignments Guided Practice

Checks for Understanding Support for Independent PracticeDistributed Practice

Activity: Strong Direct Instruction1. Review this list of elements of

direct instruction.2. Discuss how you might use

this or a similar checklist to help teachers to deliver consistent, strong core instruction to benefit struggling learners.



RTI: Tier 1: Classroom Intervention

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RTI: Tier 1: Classroom Intervention• Teachers sometimes need to put academic interventions

in place for 'red flag' students. These are students whose academic delays or difficulties require a sustained remediation plan that will last at least several weeks.

Tier 1 interventions take place in the classroom, typically during core instruction.

Tier 1 interventions are often modest in scope but can still have strong positive outcomes. They follow the full RTI problem-solving approach--adapted to the realities of a busy classroom environment.

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At Tier 1, problem-solving occurs when the teacher meets briefly with a team (e.g., grade-level team, instructional team, department) or a consultant.The teacher defines the student problem(s), selects intervention(s), decides how to monitor the intervention, and documents the intervention plan—with the guidance of the team or consultantThe teacher meets again with team or consultant several weeks later to check on the status of the intervention.The classroom teacher is the person primarily responsible for the integrity of the Tier 1 intervention plan.The numbers of students requiring Tier 1 interventions depends on district decision-rules defining classroom ‘at-risk’ status.

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Tier 1 Intervention Plans: Essentials…



Classroom Intervention

Planning Sheet



How To: Create a Written Record of Classroom

Interventions(Online)

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Creating a Written Record of Classroom Interventions: Form • Case information. The opening section of the form includes

general information about the case, including:– Target student– Teacher/interventionist– Date of the intervention plan– Start and end dates for the intervention– Description of the student problem to be addressed

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Creating a Written Record of Classroom Interventions: Form • Intervention. The teacher describes the evidence-based

intervention(s) that will be used to address the identified student concern(s). As a shortcut, the instructor can simply write the intervention name in this section and attach a more detailed intervention script/description to the intervention plan.

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Creating a Written Record of Classroom Interventions: Form • Materials. The teacher lists any materials (e.g.,

flashcards, wordlists, worksheets) or other resources (e.g., Internet-connected computer) necessary for the intervention.

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Creating a Written Record of Classroom Interventions: Form • Training. If adults and/or the target student require any

training prior to the intervention, the teacher records those training needs in this section of the form.

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Creating a Written Record of Classroom Interventions: Form • Progress-Monitoring. The teacher selects a method to

monitor student progress during the intervention, to include:– what type of data is to be used– collects and enters student baseline (starting-point) information– calculates an intervention outcome goal– The frequency that data will be collected.

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How To: Create a Written Record of Classroom

Interventions

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RTI: Tier 1: Classroom InterventionIn your teams, discuss ideas for accomplishing each of

these RTI building or district objectives: Create one or more options for teachers to team with others to

create Tier 1 intervention plans (e.g., grade-level teams; instructional teams; meetings with consultants).

Adopt an easy-to-use form or online Content Management System (e.g., RTIm Direct) for teachers to use in documenting classroom intervention plans.

Develop an agenda for structuring Tier 1 intervention planning meetings so that they are productive and result in student intervention plans.

Develop a bank of ideas for academic and behavioral interventions that teachers can easily access.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental Intervention

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental Intervention• When students have moderate academic delays that

cannot be addressed by classroom support alone, they are placed in Tier 2 (supplemental) intervention. About 10-15% of students may qualify for Tier 2 services.

Tier 2 academic interventions are typically delivered in small-group format. Students are recruited for Tier 2 services based upon data. Enrollment in these intervention groups is dynamic. At several points during the school year, students' progress is evaluated. Those who have made progress sufficient to no longer need supplemental help are exited from Tier 2 services, while new students at-risk for academic failure are recruited.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: How are students identified for Tier 2 intervention

services?• Grades K-8: The school administers a building-wide set

of academic screeners (e.g., AIMSweb reading fluency; STAR Math Assessment) three times per year.

Students who fall in the medium- to high-risk range are picked up for Tier 2 services.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: How are students identified for Tier 2 intervention

services?• Grades 9-12: The school uses local data (grades,

attendance, behavior)—and perhaps a global academic skills screener (e.g., Measures of Academic Progress)--to identify struggling students for Tier 2 support.

The school then conducts more in-depth diagnostic testing as needed with identified students to match them to appropriate services.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: Who handles the entrance or exit of students in Tier 2

services in grades K-6?• The Data Analysis Team (DAT) convenes after each of

the 3 school-wide screenings (Fall, Winter, Spring).

The DAT reviews screening data, determines which students qualify for Tier 2 services, and places students in appropriate Tier 2 programs.

The DAT also exits any students currently in Tier 2 who fall within the ‘low risk’ range on the latest screener.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: When are Tier 2 services delivered?• Elementary (and some secondary) schools set aside a

daily ‘intervention block’ of at least 30 minutes when Tier 2 services can be delivered.

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Scheduling Elementary Tier 2 Interventions

Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools: Procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge.

Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3Grade K

Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3Grade 1





Anyplace Elementary School: RTI Daily Schedule

Option 3: ‘Floating RTI’:Gradewide Shared Schedule. Each grade has a scheduled RTI time across classrooms. No two grades share the same RTI time. Advantages are that outside providers can move from grade to grade providing push-in or pull-out services and that students can be grouped by need across different teachers within the grade.

9:00-9:30

9:45-10:15

10:30-11:00

12:30-1:00

1:15-1:45

2:00-2:30



RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: When are Tier 2 services delivered in secondary grades?• Secondary schools have explored these scheduling ideas:

– Schoolwide RTI period. The school sets aside a period per day (e.g., 35-45 minutes) for RTI support.

– ‘Zero’ period. Students attend electives before the official start (or after the end) of the school day—freeing up time for RTI help.

– Core course with extended time. Students attend a double period of English or math, allowing additional time for RTI support.

– Study hall coordinated with RTI services. 4-6-week RTI mini-courses run opposite a study hall. Students can be recruited for a mini-course based on need.

– Credit recovery. Students can take a core course online (via credit recovery) to allow time for RTI support during the school day.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: How can you verify that a Tier 2 intervention is of high

quality?A quality Tier 2 intervention plan shows evidence that:• instructional programs or practices are ‘evidence-based’.• an intervention is selected that logically addresses the

area(s) of academic deficit for the target student.• the student-teacher ratio in the group provides adequate

student support: Tier 2 up to 7 students.• the intervention provides contact time adequate to the

student academic deficit. Tier 2 interventions occur a minimum of 3-5 times per week in sessions of 30 minutes or more (Burns & Gibbons, 2008).

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: What are examples of activities NOT suitable for Tier

2 interventions? (Avoid the ‘Homework Help’ trap.)• As the purpose of Tier 2 interventions is to remediate

serious academic deficits, the Tier 2 interventionist typically would not use that time for:– routine homework or class assignment help.– test preparation.

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RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionQ: Where can schools find good Tier 2 programs to

match different areas of academic need?• The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) is the best source

of impartial information about effective Tier 2/3 programs:http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

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Best Evidence Encyclopediahttp://www.bestevidence.org/

This site provides reviews of evidence-based reading and math programs.

The website is sponsored by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (CDDRE) .



National Center on Intensive Intervention Academic Intervention Tools Charthttp://www.intensiveintervention.org/chart/instructional-intervention-tools

Sponsored by the National Center on Intensive Intervention, this page provides ratings to intervention programs in reading, math, and writing.

Users can streamline their search by subject and grade level (elementary or middle school).



RTI: Tier 2: Supplemental InterventionIn your teams, discuss ideas for accomplishing each of

these RTI building or district objectives: Review your school-wide screener(s) to verify that they are

identifying the right students and the right skills that need supplemental interventions.

Review your process for using screening data and a Data Analysis Team to enter/exit Tier 2 students.

Inventory your existing Tier 2 programs to verify that they are supported through research.

Identify current gaps in programming (e.g., a lack of Tier 2 programs for math-fact fluency) and visit the What Works Clearinghouse and other sites to find appropriate candidates.

Discuss when your school can schedule Tier 2 services.

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RTI: Tier 3: Intensive Intervention

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Problem-Solving Team: Video Clip• Watch this brief clip of an RTI Team (‘School-

Based Intervention Team’) initial meeting.• Note the:

– clearly defined team roles– use of a multi-step meeting agenda– advance work done to guarantee an efficient

meeting

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RTI: Tier 3: Intensive Intervention• Students with substantial academic (and/or behavioral)

deficits who do not respond to lesser interventions may receive a Tier 3 intervention. In a typical school, 1-5% of students may need a Tier 3 intervention in a given year.

The group that designs and implements the Tier 3 intervention plan is the RTI Problem-Solving Team.

The RTI Team develops customized intervention plans. The Team identifies the most important blockers to student success and develops a unique intervention plan to address those concerns.

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RTI: A Proactive & Preventative Approach to Student ProblemsRTI adopts a proactive multi-Tier public-health approach to reduce the number and severity of student academic and behavioral problems.

Tier 1 PRIMARY Intervention: Students receive classroom supports as needed to 'prevent harm' (prevent student problems from developing in the first place).

Tier 2 SECONDARY Intervention: Students found to be at risk are given supplemental intervention support to 'reverse harm' (return the student to normal levels of academic or behavioral functioning).

Tier 3 TERTIARY Intervention: Students receive intensive intervention to 'reverse harm'. This level may also include students who may require intervention support for an extended period ('maintenance support').

Source: Saeki, E., Jimmerson, S. R., Earhart, J., Hart, S. R., Renshaw, T., Singh, R. D., & Stewart, K. (2011). Response to intervention (RtI) in the social, emotional, and behavioral domains: Current challenges and emerging possibilities. Contemporary School Psychology, 15, 43-52.



RTI Problem-Solving Team Roles

• Facilitator• Recorder• Time Keeper• Case Manager• Coordinator



RTI Team Role

Responsibilities Tips for RTI Teams

Facilitator Opens the meeting by welcoming the referring teacher(s), parents, and student; describing what is to be accomplished at the meeting, and how long the meeting will last.Guides the Team through the stages of the problem-solving process.Checks for agreement between Team members at important discussion points during the meeting.Maintains control of the meeting (e.g., requesting that participants not engage in side-bar conversations, reminding the team to focus its problem-solving discussion on those factors over which it has control--e.g., classroom instruction).

Write a short introductory ‘script’ to ensure that important points are always reviewed at the start of the meeting.

Create a poster listing the steps of the meeting problem-solving process as a visual guide to keep Team members on task and to transition from one step to another.



RTI Team Role Responsibilities Tips for RTI Teams

Recorder Creates a record of the intervention meeting, including a detailed plan for intervention and progress-monitoring.Asks the Team for clarification as needed about key discussion points, including phrasing of teacher ‘problem-identification’ statements and intervention descriptions.

Sit next to the facilitator for ease of communication during the meeting.

When the Team is engaged in exploratory discussion, use ‘scratch paper’ to capture the main points. When the Team reaches agreement, recopy only the essential information onto the formal meeting forms.




Time-Keeper Monitors the time allocated to each stage of the meeting and informs members when that time has expired.

Give the Team a ‘two-minute warning’ whenever time is running low during a stage of the meeting.

If time runs out during a meeting stage, announce the fact clearly. However, let the facilitator be responsible for transitioning the team to the next meeting stage.




Case Manager

Meets with the referring teacher(s) briefly prior to the initial RTI Team meeting to review the teacher referral form, clarify teacher concerns, decide what additional data should be collected on the student.Touches base briefly with the referring teacher(s) after the RTI Team meeting to check that the intervention plan is running smoothly.

If you discover, in meeting with a referring teacher prior to the RTI Team meeting, that aconcern is vaguely worded, help the teacher to clarify the concern with the question “What does [teacher concern] look like in the classroom?”

After the RTI Team meeting, consider sending periodic emails to the referring teacher(s) asking them how the intervention is going and inviting them to inform you if they require assistance.




Coordinator Handles the logistics of RTI Team meetings, including scheduling meetings, reserving a meeting location, arranging coverage when necessary to allow teachers to attend meetings, and notifying Team members and referring teachers of scheduled meetings.

During the time set aside for weekly RTI Team meetings, reserve time for the Tam to review new student referrals and to schedule them in the meeting calendar.

Define those coordinator duties that are clerical in nature (e.g., scheduling meeting rooms, emailing meeting invitations, etc.) and assign them to clerical staff.



RTI Teams: The Role of the Case

Manager

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Available Online



Case Manager: Role• Meets with the referring teacher(s) briefly prior to

the initial RTI Team meeting to review the teacher referral form, clarify teacher concerns, decide what additional data should be collected on the student.

• Touches base briefly with the referring teacher(s) after the RTI Team meeting to check that the intervention plan is running smoothly.

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Case Manager: Pre-Meeting• Prior to an initial RTI Problem-Solving Team

meeting, it is recommended that a case manager from the RTI Team schedule a brief (15-20 minute) ‘pre-meeting’ with the referring teacher. The purpose of this pre-meeting is for the case manager to share with the teacher the purpose of the upcoming full RTI Team meeting, to clarify student referral concerns, and to decide what data should be collected and brought to the RTI Team meeting.

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Case Manager: Pre-Meeting StepsHere is a recommended agenda for the case

manager-teacher pre-meeting:1. Explain the purpose of the upcoming RTI Problem-

Solving Team meeting: The case manager explains that the RTI Team meeting goals are to (a) fully understand the nature of the student’s academic and/or behavioral problems; (b) develop an evidence-based intervention plan for the student; and (c) set a goal for student improvement and select means to monitor the student’s response to the intervention plan.

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Case Manager: Pre-Meeting Steps2. Define the student referral concern(s) in clear,

specific terms. The case manager reviews with the teacher the most important student referral concern(s), helping the teacher to define those concern(s) in clear, specific, observable terms. The teacher is also prompted to prioritize his or her top 1-2 student concerns.

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Case Manager: Pre-Meeting Steps3. Decide what data should be brought to the RTI

Team meeting. The case manager and teacher decide what student data should be collected and brought to the RTI Team meeting to provide insight into the nature of the student’s presenting concern(s).

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Case Manager: Pre-Meeting Steps

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Case Manager: Tips• If you discover, when you meet with a referring

teacher prior to the RTI Team meeting, that his or her concern is vaguely worded, help the teacher to clarify the concern with the question “What does [teacher concern] look like in the classroom?”

• After the RTI Team meeting, consider sending periodic emails to the referring teacher(s) asking them how the intervention is going and inviting them to inform you if they require assistance.

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Team Activity: Defining the RTI Team ‘Pre-Meeting’At your table:

• Discuss how your school can structure the ‘pre-meeting’ in which the case manager and teacher meet to clarify the teacher’s referral concern(s) and to decide what data to bring to the actual RTI Team meeting.

• Brainstorm ideas for finding the time for such ‘pre-meetings’.



RTI Problem-Solving Team: Facilitator’s

Guide Available Online

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RTI Problem-Solving Team: Initial Meeting

Minutes Form Available Online

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Introductions/Talking Points Step 1: Select Intervention Target(s)Step 2: Inventory Student's Strengths, Talents, Interests, IncentivesStep 3: Review Background/Baseline DataStep 4: Set Academic and/or Behavioral Outcome Goals and Methods for Progress-Monitoring.Step 5: Design an Intervention PlanStep 6: Share RTI Intervention Plan With Parent(s)Step 7: Review the Intervention and Progress-Monitoring Plans

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Tier 3: RTI Team: Meeting Format



• Introductions/Talking Points. As facilitator, an effective way to open the meeting is briefly to review key 'talking points' that (1) state the purpose of the meeting, (2) introduce team members and assigned roles, (3) remind participants of time constraints, (4) review the agenda, and (5) present expectations for active participation.

• Beginning the meeting with consistent talking points is a good means of reminding participants that the RTI meeting follows a structured format, that time is precious, and that all attending have a voice in the discussion.

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RTI Problem-Solving Team: Initial Meeting: Introductory

Talking Points Available Online

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Minutes Form

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STEP 1: Select Intervention Targets



STEP 1: Select Intervention Target(s).

GOAL: The goal during this meeting segment is to verify that 'intervention targets' (problem description) are described in sufficient detail and that each intervention target has been matched to at least one 'probable cause' or 'function' that helps to explain why the academic or behavioral problem is happening.

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Facilitator’s Guide




Meeting Minutes Form


The student fails to comply with adult requests in large group.

Peer attention-seeking

The student is chronically tardy in math class.

Escape / avoidance



STEP 1: Select Intervention Target(s).SAMPLE QUESTIONS::• What does this student's problem behavior look like in

the classroom? What are specific examples of it?• What 'pay-off' do you believe might explain this

student's behavior? • Does the student have the skills necessary to do the

expected academic work?

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Minutes Form

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STEP 2: Inventory Student's Strengths,

Talents, Interests, Incentives



STEP 2: Inventory Student's Strengths, Talents, Interests, Incentives.

GOAL: The RTI Team follows a strength-based approach to intervention-planning, one that incorporates the student's own interests and abilities. The goal for this step, then, is to list the student's strengths, talents, interests, and abilities. During the intervention-planning process, some of these assets may then be incorporated to engage and motivate the student.

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Strong interpersonal skills

Organized

Athletic: participates in sports



STEP 2: Inventory Student's Strengths, Talents, Interests, Incentives.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:• What are some of the student’s strengths, talents, or positive

qualities that might be useful in designing interventions?• What rewards or incentives have you noted in school that this

student seems to look forward to?• What are classroom activities that the student does well or

seems to enjoy?• What are hobbies or topics that interest this student?

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Minutes Form

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STEP 3: Review Background/Baseline

Data



STEP 3: Review Background/Baseline Data.

GOAL: In this step, the Team reviews any data collected prior to the meeting that will help it to better understand the nature and magnitude of the student's presenting problem(s). Some of the data might come from the school's student-information database (e.g., attendance, number of office disciplinary referrals) while other baseline data may have been collected expressly for the meeting (e.g., student's reading fluency data collected with Curriculum-Based Measures, or behavioral data measured using Daily Behavior Report Cards).

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Behavior Report Card In 1 week, the student followed adult requests in math with no non-compliance incidents 1 out of 5 days.

Direct Observation: On-Task

During 3 20-minute obsvs s in large-group instruction, the student was on-task 45%, 70 %, and 40 %.



Common Methods for Monitoring Student

Progress Toward Behavioral and Academic

Goals

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STEP 3: Review Background/Baseline Data. SAMPLE QUESTIONS: Questions that can help to clarify

questions about student data include:• What information do we have about this student's current rate

of letter identification/reading/math computation/writing fluency?

• What data do we have on this student's current attendance/office referrals/grades?

• Since homework is an issue for this student, what is her average percentage of homework turned in?

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Minutes Form

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STEP 4: Set Academic and/or

Behavioral Outcome Goals and Methods

for Progress-Monitoring.



STEP 4: Set Academic and/or Behavioral Outcome Goals and Methods for Progress-Monitoring.

GOAL: Interventions require ongoing progress-monitoring. First, the RTI Team decides how many instructional weeks the intervention will be in place. Then, for each identified problem ('intervention target'), the RTI Team (1) chooses two or more methods of data collection to track student progress, (2) sets outcome/intervention goals for each method, and (3) lists who will be responsible for that progress-monitoring.

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www.interventioncentral.org 105Meeting Minutes Form


The student fails to comply with adult requests in large group.

M 8 Feb 2016 F 1 Apr 2016 8

Beh Report Card Yes Compliance Rtng 4 of 5 Days During Last Wk

Smith, Yardley, O’Hannon



STEP 4: Set Academic and/or Behavioral Outcome Goals and Methods for Progress-Monitoring

SAMPLE QUESTIONS: Questions that can help to clarify questions about outcome goals and progress-monitoring include:

• [To determine the length of the intervention] For how many instructional weeks will the intervention run before we meet to review the progress-monitoring data?

• [To set an outcome goal] While it's not realistic to expect to catch this student up to grade level in 8 weeks, what is an 'ambitious but realistic' intermediate goal that will show that the student is making meaningful progress?

• [To determine baseline skills or behavior levels] What is this student's pre-intervention performance on the measure that we are going to use for progress-monitoring?

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STEP 4: Set Academic and/or Behavioral Outcome Goals and Methods for Progress-Monitoring

TIP: For a listing data-collection options and sample wording to describe progress-monitoring goals, refer to the guide Common Methods for Monitoring Student Progress Toward Behavioral & Academic Goals that appears later in this document.

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Common Methods for Monitoring Student

Progress Toward Behavioral and Academic

Goals

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Minutes Form

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STEP 5: Design an Intervention Plan.



STEP 5: Design an Intervention Plan. • GOAL: The intervention plan logically addresses the 1-2

identified intervention targets. The Team can be flexible in documenting interventions. For shorter intervention ideas, the space the Minutes form will be sufficient to record brief strategies.

For interventions that require more documentation, check 'Y[es]' in the 'Additional Information?' column, and then attach full documentation for this element to the meeting minutes or include in an accompanying folder.

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www.interventioncentral.org 111Meeting Minutes Form


M 8 Feb 2016

Daily Check In/Check Out for Homework Completion

Mrs.Werbeck

x Classroom Plan: Protocol for Managing Non-Compliance

All Tchrs:Core & Specials



STEP 5: Design an Intervention Plan. SAMPLE QUESTIONS: Questions that can help to build

an intervention plan include• What intervention strategies can address the student's

academic deficit/challenging behaviors?• Are there additional documents describing this

particular intervention that we may want to attach to the student's intervention plan?

• This intervention idea seems like a useful one. Who would be responsible for carrying it out?

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Minutes Form

113

STEP 6: Share RTI Intervention Plan With Parent(s).



STEP 6: Share RTI Intervention Plan With Parent(s).

GOAL: The RTI Team selects someone to contact the parent(s) (if they could not attend the RTI Team meeting) and to send them a copy of the intervention plan developed for their child.

114




STEP 6: Share RTI Intervention Plan With Parent(s).SAMPLE QUESTION:• Who will ensure that the parent(s) receive a copy of the

completed 'Intervention Plan: At-a-Glance' developed at this meeting, as well as any related intervention documents?

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Minutes Form

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STEP 7: Review the Intervention and

Progress-Monitoring Plans.



STEP 7: Review the Intervention and Progress-Monitoring Plans. GOAL: The Team takes a moment at the end of the meeting to review the student's intervention and progress-monitoring plans to check that all are in agreement about them and that those with an active part in either plan fully understand their roles and responsibilities. The Team also schedules a follow-up RTI Team meeting at a date 6-8 instructional weeks in the future.

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STEP 7: Review the Intervention and Progress-Monitoring Plans.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:• Now that we have reviewed the intervention and

progress-monitoring plans that we put together today, does anyone have questions about the plan or their responsibilities?

• Please look at your calendars. What is a good date for us to meet again for a follow-up meeting on this student?

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RTI: Tier 3: Intensive InterventionIn your teams, discuss ideas for accomplishing each of

these RTI building objectives: Train your RTI Team to follow a structured meeting agenda that

moves reliably through the steps of the problem-solving process. Create the capacity for case managers to pre-meet with referring

teachers to clarify referral concern(s) and decide what assessment data to bring to the initial RTI Team meeting.

Develop a Tier 3: RTI Team referral process that is timely—and also capable of screening out students whose needs can better be met at the Tier 1 or Tier 2 level.

Create decision rules in coordination with the Special Education Department to determine when a student with serious academic deficits should be considered a 'non-responder' and referred for a Special Education evaluation.

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School-Wide Screenings: What is the purpose of school-wide screenings in RTI and how should they be conducted?



Building-Wide Screening: Assessing All Students (Stewart & Silberglit, 2008)

Screening data in basic academic skills are collected at least 3 times per year (fall, winter, spring) from all students.Screening data can be used to:– evaluate and improve the current core instructional

program.– allocate resources to classrooms, grades, and buildings

where student academic needs are greatest.– guide the creation of targeted Tier 2/3 (supplemental

intervention) groups.– set academic goals for improvement for students on Tier

2 and Tier 3 interventions.Source: Stewart, L. H. & Silberglit, B. (2008). Best practices in developing academic local norms. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.



Schoolwide Screening Tools: 2 TypesSchoolwide screening tools tend to fall into 2 broad

categories:1. Basic Skills. These screeners sample basic

academic skills such as oral reading fluency and math computation fluency. An example is DIBELS Next.

The assumption built into basic-skills screeners is that students who lack proficiency in these foundation skills will struggle to attain the Common Core Standards.

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Basic-Skills Screener Example: DIBELS Next

124

“DIBELS ORF [Oral Reading Fluency] is a standardized, individually administered test of accuracy and reading fluency with connected text for students in grades 1 through 5 and above. It is a standardized set of passages and administration procedures designed to identify children who may need additional instructional support, and monitor progress toward instructional goals.”

SOURCE: National Center on Response to Intervention. Screening Tools Chart. Retrieved on 1 December 2012 from http://www.rti4success.org/screeningTools



Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs)CBM Skill Area Activity

Letter Sound Fluency/Letter Name Fluency

Alphabetics/Phonics

1 Minute: Student reads letter names or sounds from a randomly generated list.

Oral Reading Fluency Reading Fluency 1 Minute: Student reads aloud from a text passage.

ReadingComprehension Fluency (Maze)

Reading Comprehension

3 Minutes: Student reads silently from a Maze passage and selects correct word in each choice item that restores meaning to the passage.

Early Math Fluency Number Sense1 Minute: Student completes an Early Math Fluency probe: (1) Quantity Discrimination; (2) Missing Number; or (3) Number Identification

Computation Fluency Math Fact Fluency

2 Minutes: Student completes math facts and receives credit for each correct digit.

Written Expression Mechanics/Conventions of Writing

4 Minutes: Student reads a story-starter (sentence stem), then produces a writing sample that can be scored for Total Words Written, Correctly Spelled Words, Correct Writing Sequences.



Schoolwide Screening Tools: 2 Types (Cont.)Schoolwide screening tools tend to fall into 2 broad

categories:2. Curriculum Skills. These screeners sample

student skills and knowledge that correspond to grade-level curriculum expectations. An example is Measures of Academic Progress.

The assumption built into curriculum-skills screeners is that when teachers can map the ‘holes’ in a student’s academic skills, they can adjust instruction to address those gaps.

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Curriculum Skills Screener Example: Measures of Academic Progress

128

“MAP is a system of computerized adaptive assessments, meaning that each student taking a MAP test receives a set of items that is optimal for the student's ability level. The MAP Mathematics, Reading, and Language Usage tests are available for students in Grades 2-10.”

SOURCE: National Center on Response to Intervention. Screening Tools Chart. Retrieved on 1 December 2012 from http://www.rti4success.org/screeningTools



Schoolwide Screening Tools: Selecting Tools that Match Current Student Group Performance

Schools should select screening tools that will provide valuable added information about current schoolwide academic performance.

• In schools where a substantial number of general-education students struggle with basic academic skills, that school should select “basic-skills” tools for schoolwide screening.

• Schools in which the great majority of general-education students (e.g., 90% or more) fall at or above proficiency on basic-skills screenings may want to adopt a “curriculum-skills screener” that provides more complete information about each student’s skill set.

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Clearinghouse for RTI Screening and Progress-Monitoring Tools

• The National Center on Intensive Intervention (http://www.intensiveintervention.org/chart/progress-monitoring) maintains pages rating the technical adequacy of RTI progress-monitoring tools that can also be used for screening. Schools should strongly consider selecting screening tools that have national norms or benchmarks to help them to assess the academic-risk level of their students.

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RTI: Schoolwide ScreenersIn your teams, discuss ideas for accomplishing each of

these RTI building or district objectives: K-8: Analyze your student demographics and academic performance

and select academic screeners matched to those demographics: (1) basic-skill screeners (e.g., DIBELS, AIMSweb) or (2) a curriculum-skills screener (e.g., Measures of Academic Progress).

9-12: Adopt a proactive system for monitoring existing data--grades, attendance, behavior (office referrals)--every 5 weeks or so to identify students with emerging difficulties. Link identification of at-risk students to specific RTI responses (e.g., classroom intervention plan; parent-student conference, etc.).

All grades: If possible, pilot new screening tools (e.g., at single grade levels or in selected classrooms) before rolling out across multiple grade levels.

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Activity: RTI Self-Check• Look over the RTI for Academics:

Critical Elements Checklist (pp. 2-5).

• Evaluate your current implementation of each element.

• Identify the top 2-3 elements to be your priority in strengthening RTI at your school/district.

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Intervention Integrity. What are efficient ways that educators can measure the integrity with which interventions are carried out?

133



Tutorial: Interventions: Why Assess Integrity?When a struggling student fails to respond adequately to a series of evidence-based interventions, that student is likely to face significant and potentially negative consequences, such as failing grades, long-term suspension from school, or even placement in special education.

It is crucial, then, that the school monitor the integrity with which educators implement each intervention plan so that it can confidently rule out poor or limited intervention implementation of the intervention as a possible explanation for any student’s ‘non-response’.

Source: Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (2007). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 244-251).



Intervention Integrity Check: Direct Observation

Intervention integrity is best assessed through direct observation (Roach & Elliott, 2008). – The key steps of the intervention are defined and

formatted as an observational checklist. – An observer watches as the intervention is

conducted and checks off on the checklist those steps that were correctly carried out. The observer then computes the percentage of steps correctly carried out.



Intervention Script Builder

‘Yes/No’ Step-by-Step

Intervention Check

Each Step Marked

‘Negotiableor ‘Non-

Negotiable’



Limitations of Direct Observation as anIntervention Integrity Check

• Direct observations are time-consuming to conduct. • Teachers who serve as interventionists may at least initially

regard observations of their intervention implementation as evaluations of their job performance, rather than as a child-focused RTI “quality check”.

• An intervention-implementation checklist typically does not distinguish between--or differentially weight--those intervention steps that are more important from those that are less so. If two teachers implement the same 10-step intervention plan, for example, with one instructor omitting a critical step and the other omitting a fairly trivial step, both can still attain the same implementation score of steps correctly completed.

Source: Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (2007). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 244-251).



Supplemental Methods to Collect Data About Intervention Integrity

Teacher Self-Ratings: As a form of self-monitoring, directing interventionists to rate the integrity of their own interventions may prompt higher rates of compliance (e.g., Kazdin, 1989). However, because teacher self-ratings tend to be ‘upwardly biased (Gansle & Noell, 2007, p. 247), they should not be relied upon as the sole rating of intervention integrity. One suggestion for collecting regular teacher reports on intervention implementation in a convenient manner is to use Daily Behavior Reports (DBRs; Chafouleas, Riley-Tillman,, & Sugai, 2007).

Sources: Chafouleas, S., Riley-Tillman, T.C., & Sugai, G. (2007). School-based behavioral assessment: Informing intervention and instruction. New York: Guilford Press.Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (2007). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 244-251).Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole..



Intervention Contact Log

Teacher Intervention

Integrity Self-Rating



Supplemental Methods to Collect Data About Intervention Integrity

Intervention Permanent Products: If an intervention plan naturally yields permanent products (e.g., completed scoring sheets, lists of spelling words mastered, behavioral sticker charts), these products can be periodically collected and evaluated as another indicator of intervention integrity (Gansle & Noell, 2007).

Source:Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (2007). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 244-251).



Intervention Integrity: Verify Through a Mix of Information Sources

Schools should consider monitoring intervention integrity through a mix of direct and indirect means, including direct observation and permanent products (Gansle & Noell, 2007), as well as interventionist self-ratings (Roach & Elliott, 2008).

Source: Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (2007). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 244-251).Roach, A. T., & Elliott, S. N. (2008). Best practices in facilitating and evaluating intervention integrity. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.195-208).



RTI &Teacher Reluctance: What are reasons why teachers may be reluctant to support RTI in the classroom?

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RTI: Systems-Level Change



‘Teacher Tolerance’ as an Indicator of RTI Intervention Capacity

“I call the range of students whom [teachers] come to view as adequately responsive – i.e., teachable – as the tolerance; those who are perceived to be outside the tolerance are those for whom teachers seek additional resources. The term “tolerance” is used to indicate that teachers form a permissible boundary on their measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a confidence interval. In this case, the teacher actively measures the distribution of responsiveness in her class by processing information from a series of teaching trials and perceives some range of students as within the tolerance.” (Gerber, 2002)

Source: Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with learning disabilities. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas City, MO.



RTI & ‘Teacher Reluctance’The willingness of teachers to implement interventions is essential in any school to the success of the RTI model. Yet general-education teachers may not always see themselves as ‘interventionists’ and indeed may even resist the expectation that they will provide individualized interventions as a routine part of their classroom practice (Walker, 2004).

It should be remembered, however, that teachers’ reluctance to accept elements of RTI may be based on very good reasons. Here are some common reasons that teachers might be reluctant to accept their role as RTI intervention ‘first responders’…

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Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: 7 Reasons Why Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI

Interventions• Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills necessary to

successfully implement academic or behavioral interventions in their content-area classrooms (Fisher, 2007; Kamil et al., 2008).

• Not My Job. Teachers define their job as providing content-area instruction. They do not believe that providing classwide or individual academic and behavioral interventions falls within their job description (Kamil et al., 2008).




Interventions(Cont.)

• No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have sufficient time available in classroom instruction to implement academic or behavioral interventions (Kamil et al., 2008; Walker, 2004).

• No Payoff. Teachers lack confidence that there will be an adequate instructional pay-off if they put classwide or individual academic or behavioral interventions into place in their content-area classroom (Kamil et al., 2008).




Interventions (Cont.)

• Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if they depart from their standard instructional practices to adopt new classwide or individual academic or behavior intervention strategies, they may lose behavioral control of the classroom (Kamil et al., 2008).

• ‘Undeserving Students’. Teachers are unwilling to invest the required effort to provide academic or behavioral interventions for unmotivated students (Walker, 2004) because they would rather put that time into providing additional attention to well-behaved, motivated students who are ‘more deserving’.




Interventions (Cont.)

• The Magic of Special Education. Content-area teachers regard special education services as ‘magic’ (Martens, 1993). According to this view, interventions provided to struggling students in the general-education classroom alone will be inadequate, and only special education services have the power to truly benefit those students.



Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: Seven Reasons Why Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI Literacy Interventions

Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills necessary to successfully implement academic or behavioral interventions in their content-area classrooms.

Not My Job. Teachers define their job as providing content-area instruction. They do not believe that providing classwide or individual academic and behavioral interventions falls within their job description.

No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have sufficient time available in classroom instruction to implement academic or behavioral interventions.

Insufficient Payoff. Teachers lack confidence that there will be an adequate instructional pay-off if they put classwide or individual academic or behavioral interventions into place in their content-area classroom.

Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if they depart from their standard instructional practices to adopt new classwide or individual academic or behavior intervention strategies, they may lose behavioral control of the classroom.

‘Undeserving Students’. Teachers are unwilling to invest the required effort to provide academic or behavioral interventions for unmotivated students because they would rather put that time into providing additional attention to well-behaved, motivated students who are ‘more deserving’.

The Magic of Special Education. Content-area teachers regard special education services as ‘magic’. According to this view, interventions provided to struggling students in the general-education classroom alone will be inadequate, and only special education services have the power to truly benefit those students.

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