IntroductionI (Chris Lyons) began writing the document “The Origins of Christianity”

intending to incorporate it into a book which briefly discussed how Plato had a

philosophical impact upon Christianity. I discovered three things in the process of trying

to write this section:

1. Christianity was more historically complex than I ever imagined it to be.

2. There weren’t too many comprehensive public domain sources of

information about the origins of Christianity.

3. Many of the sites that do talk about the origins of Christianity don’t cite their

sources, contain misinformation, or insert dialogue that isn’t objective.

Due to the aforementioned shortcomings, I felt a good project would be to create

a public domain work which used primary source information, scholarly opinion, and

short summaries of the relevant historical person, literary work, artifact, event, or

religious group that may have influenced Christianity’s development. This would enable

others to get into discussions about the origins of Christianity using the relevant

information rather than getting into discussions which either ignore it or include

misinformation.

Because I have declared this document to be in the public domain, this means the

reader can use the work it its entirety if he or she agrees with my representation of the

information. Or, if the reader doesn’t agree with my representation, he or she is free to

use the relevant passages in their refutation. I would appreciate a short statement of

acknowledgement though (such as ‘Taken from Chris Lyons’s Origins of Christianity’).

The people I cite also deserve their contributions to be acknowledged if you are

incorporating their work or wishing to refute a claim that they make. Their contributions

are annotated by footnotes found on the bottom of the page and these footnotes refer to

the bibliography where the full description of the work can be found.

One might notice that in the bibliography I have used more than a few Wikipedia

articles. Mostly I have cited Wikipedia articles in regards to things I would normally just

state without citations such as a description of the Allegory of the Cave (the allegory of

the cave description is common knowledge among philosophers and therefore doesn’t

require citations). Other times I cited Wikipedia because it provided a good overview of a

topic and I didn’t want to get into specific citations for every single claim. For instance,

when stating how Origen, Clement of Alexandria, the Cappadocian Fathers, and St.

Augustine were influenced by Platonism, I simply cited the Wikipedia article for

Platonism rather than acquiring citations for each church leader. If you disagree with my

use of Wikipedia, feel free to do the research yourself to verify or refute.

If you are seeking to refute me, I would appreciate it if you would try and use

primary source information rather than quoting a Christian apologist whom seeks to

assert their point of view without first seeking to prove it. For the origins of Christianity,

a primary source is essentially anything first written or made before 400 CE. If you are

going to use an historian’s analysis of a primary source, be certain to clearly state the

argument and historian being used.

Part of my desire to have “Origins of Christianity” in the public domain is that it

can be expanded upon and adapted. Feel free to do so. The resulting elaboration and/or

adaptation should remain in the public domain as well so that others can continue to add

contributions and/or critiques. Be certain to specify your contributions/adaptations.

THE ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY

The Canaanite / Pre-exile Jewish period The pre-exile Jews were influenced by the surrounding cultures and historical

events. The following is a synopsis of several of these influences.

Enûma Eliš

The Enûma Eliš is a Babylonian document that depicts how the Babylonians

believed the universe was originally devoid of matter/energy and Gods caused the objects

in the universe to form. The beginning of Genesis is similar.

Tablet 1 of the Enûma Eliš Genesis 1: 1-3

When there was no heaven, no earth, no

height, no depth, no name… then from

Apsu and Tiamat in the waters gods were

created, in the waters silt precipitated…

the lines of sky and earth stretched where

horizons meet to separate cloud from silt.1

In the beginning God created the heavens

and the earth. The earth was formless and

void, and darkness was over the surface of

the deep, and the Spirit of God was moving

over the surface of the waters. Then God

said, “Let there be light”; and there was light.

The Enûma Eliš goes on to describe how light, firmament (sky), dry land, the sun,

the moon, and people were created in order. 2 Genesis follows this same order. Genesis

1.3 describes the creation of light, 1.6 describes the creation of the firmament, 1.9

describes the creation of dry land, 1.16 describes the creation of the sun and moon, and

1.26 describes the creation of mankind.

Enki and Ninhurshag

The Sumerian myth of Enki and Ninhursag depicts a paradise called Dilmun.

Within this paradise are two Gods. One of them is Enki, the lord of Ab, which is a

Sumerian word for fresh water or semen. The other is Ninhursag, who is sometimes

1 N. K Sandars, Eunma Elish,2 B.A. Robinson, Comparing Two Creation Stories

referred to as Ki or earth. This myth describes how Enki seduced Ninhursag to produce

Ninsar, seduced Ninsar to produce Ninkurra, seduced Ninkurra to produce Uttu, and

seduced Uttu. In the case of his great-granddaughter Uttu, the semen Enki left in Uttu’s

womb was used to create eight sacred plants and Enki ate the sacred plants despite being

warned. Enki then became sick because the semen used to make the plants impregnated

his jaw, his teeth, his mouth, his hip, his throat, his limbs, his side and his rib. A god was

made out of each of his body parts in order to cure him and the last body part made into a

God was his rib. 3,4

This account of a biblical paradise, the eating of forbidden fruit, and the removal

of a rib is similar to the Adam and Eve story found in Genesis.

“The Instruction Addressed of Kehty to Merikare”

“The Instruction Addressed of Kehty to Merikare” is an Egyptian document that

describes the Pharaoh Kehty III’s instructions to his son Merikare. Within this document

is a section called “The Hymn to the Creator God.” The following text is taken from that

section:

“Well tended is mankind - the cattle of the god: he made sky and earth for their

sake, he subdued the water monster, he made breath for their noses to live.

They are his images, who came from his body. He shines in the sky for their sake.

He made for them plants and cattle, fowl and fish to feed them.

He slew his foes, reduced his children, when they thought of making rebellion.

He makes daylight for their sake, he sails by to see them.

He has built his shrine around them, when they weep he hears.

He made for them rulers in the egg, leaders to raise the back of the weak.

He made for them magic as weapons, to ward off the blow of events, watching

over them by day and by night.

He has slain the traitors among them, as a man beats his son for the sake of his

brother. For the god knows every name.”5

3 Lishtar, Enki and Ninhursag 4 Enki, Wikipedia5 Wim van den Dungen, The Royal Instruction of Khety to Merikare

The creation of mankind in his own image, the creation of plants and animals to

feed them, the slaying of foes and traitors, and the building of shrines to hear the prayers

of his people are similar to passages found throughout the Old Testament.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

The flood story found within Genesis probably derives its origin from the Epic of

Gilgamesh or other flood stories generated from a historical flood that occurred in

Mesopotamia when the Sumerians were in power. The earliest known account of the Epic

of Gilgamesh dates to 2150-2000 BC.6

The following is from Tablet 11 of this epic:

You know the city Shuruppak, which lies upon the River Euphrates. That city was of great

antiquity. And ancient were the gods who still lived within it. In their hearts they resolved

to bring on the Great Flood…

And Enki repeats what they say to Ziusudra,

Speaking through the wall of Ziusudra's reed hut:

'Reed hut, reed hut! Wall of the hut, wall of the hut!

Listen o reed hut! Consider, o wall of the hut!

O man of Shuruppak, o you son of Ubara-Tutu,

Tear down your hut of reeds,

Build of them a reed boat

Abandon things

Seek life

Give up possessions

Keep your soul alive!

And into the boat take the seed of all living creatures.7

Enki is a Sumerian God, and, as demonstrated, he instructs Ziusurdra to abandon

Shuruppak, turn his reed hut into a reed boat, and go collect the seed of animals. This is

similar to the biblical account of the flood. An excavation of Shuruppak revealed that a

historical flood did occur in this city. The flood deposits date to 2950 to 2850 BCE.8

6 Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia, (cited in Wikipedia)7 Robert Temple, He Who Saw Everything, Tablet 118David MacDonald, The Flood: Mesopotamian Archaeological Evidence

King Sargon

King Sargon of Akkad was an ancient Akkadian king who reigned from 2334 to

2279 BCE and conquered the Sumerian city states.9 Moses’s placement among the reeds

of the river Nile found in Exodus 2:3 is similar to the older Akkadian story of King

Sargon’s birth.

King Sargon’s birth Exodus 2:3

She laid me in a vessel made of

reeds, closed my door with pitch,

and dropped me down into the river,

which did not drown me.10

And when she could not longer hide him, she took

for him an ark of bulrushes, and daubed it with

slime and with pitch, and put the child therein;

and she laid it in the flags by the river's brink.

Nestor and Ereuthalion

Nestor and Ereuthalion is a story about how a giant named Ereuthalion challenges

an opposing army, and a young Nestor accepts the challenge. The following is from the

Iliad:

On their side stood forth Ereuthalion as champion, a godlike man, bearing upon

his shoulders the armour of king Areithous… And wearing this armour did Ereuthalion

challenge all the bravest; but they trembled sore and were afraid, nor had any man

courage to abide him. But me did my enduring heart set on to battle with him in my

hardihood, though in years I was youngest of all. So fought I with him, and Athene gave

me glory. The tallest was he and the strongest man that ever I slew.11

The plot of a young Nestor fighting a giant is very similar to the Jewish story

David and Goliath. Other similarities include how David and Nestor were the youngest in

their family, the rest of their army’s warriors were too scared to fight, they took a weapon

of the fallen giant (chariot vs sword), the opposing army flees, and they were declared to

be a hero by their people.12

9 Joshua J. Mark, Sargon of Akkad10 Dr. Otto Rank, The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, page 2211 Homer, Illiad, 7: 135-15412 M.L. West, The East Face of Helicon, (Cited in Wikipedia)

The Jewish use of this story against the Philistines had a certain twisted logic to

it as the Greeks and Philistines are believed to share a common ancestor (the

Mycenaeans).13 It must be noted that the armor described in 1 Samuel 17 is Greek armor

of the six century BCE and not Philistine armor of the tenth century BCE.14

Laws of Eshnunna

The Laws of Eshnunna are one of the oldest law codes known to mankind. They

consist of two cuneiform tablets found in Tell Abū Harmal (near the present-day city of

Baghdad, Iraq) and they date back to no later than the reign of Dadusha (1808 - 1780

BCE).15 Article 39 represents one example of how this law code may have influenced the

laws of the Jews.

Article 39 of the Laws of Eshnunna Leviticus 25:29

“If a man become impoverished and sold

his house— the day the buyer will sell, the

owner of the house may redeem.”16

“And if a man sells a dwelling house in a

walled city, then he may redeem it within a

whole year after it is sold.”

The Code of Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian law code that dates to about 1780

BCE.17 Articles 196 and 200 of this law code are combined in Exodus 21:23-24 to create

the famous eye for an eye passage.

Articles 196 and 200 of the Code of

Hammurabi

Exodus 21:23-24

“If a man put out the eye of another man, “And if any mischief follow, then thou

13 Lawrence Stager, When Canaanites and Philistines Ruled Ashkelon14 Azzan Yadin, Goliath’s Armor, (Cited in Wikipedia)15 Reuvan Yaron, Laws of Eshnunna, page 2016 Reuvan Yaron, Laws of Eshnunna, page 67, Article 3917 L. W. King, The Code of Hammurabi

his eye shall be put out.”

“If a man knock out the teeth of his equal,

his teeth shall be knocked out.” 18

shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth

for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.”

The Code of the Nesilim

Nesilim is the term the Hittites used to call themselves and the Code of the

Nesilim is their legal code. It dates to about c. 1650-1500 BCE.19 Article 195 is an

example Hittite’s influence on the laws of the Jews.

Article 195 of the Code of the Nesilim Leviticus 20:14

“If he have taken her daughter, then have

intercourse with her mother or her sister, it

is a capital crime, he shall die.” 20

“And if a man take a wife and her mother, it

is wickedness: they shall be burnt with fire,

both he and they; that there be no

wickedness among you.”

There are several other examples of how the aforementioned legal codes

influenced the laws of the Jews. The book “The Origins of Christianity and the Bible” is

one source for this information.21

Hittite Suzerainty Treaties

A suzerainty treaty is a treaty imposed by a stronger power onto their vassal

states. Michael Coogan asserts the Ten Commandments are modeled after these

suzerainty treaties. These treaties have a preamble, a prologue / historical section,

stipulations, a requirement to communicate the treaty to the public, divine witnesses, and

curses and blessings that will occur depending on how well the treaties stipulations are

followed.22 The Ten Commandments have a preamble, a historical section, and

stipulations.23 The final three sections can be argued to be in the Torah itself. God

18 L. W. King, The Code of Hammurabi, Articles 196 and 20019 Paul Halsall, Ancient History Sourcebook: The Code of the Nesilim, Article 195 20 Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources21 Andrew D. Benson, The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, pages 35-3922 Michael D. Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament, (Cited in Wikipedia)23 Austin Cline, Ten Commandments as Treaty

punishes those who don’t follow his commandments (curses), the laws of the Torah were

supposed to be communicated to the Jews, and Moses was a divine witness to Yahweh’s

commands.

One good example of a suzerainty treaty is the “Treaty Between Mursilis II And

Duppi-Tessub Of Amurru” which dates to 13th century BCE. Ammuru was a kingdom

that defected to the Hittites after originally being a part of the Egyptian Empire.24

The following two passages are from this treaty. The first passage is part of the

preamble which describes the divine nature of the Hittite king Mursalis II. The second

passage is part of Mursalis II stipulations on the vassal state of Ammuru. 25

“These are the words of the Sun Mursilis, the great king, the king of the Hatti

land, the valiant, the favorite of the Storm- god, the son of Suppiluliumas, the great king,

the king of the Hatti land, the valiant…

But you, Duppi-Tessub, remain loyal toward the king of the Hatti land, the Hatti

land, my sons (and) my grandsons forever! The tribute which was imposed upon your

grandfather and your father they presented 300 shekels of good, refined first-class gold

weighed with standard weights you shall present them likewise. Do not turn your eyes to

anyone else! Your fathers presented tribute to Egypt; you [shall not do that!].”

The idea of a divine power conveying stipulations to his people is thematically

similar to the Ten Commandments.

The Egyptian Book of the Dead

The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a name anthropologists give to a group of

spells used to help the dead attain an afterlife in the Field of Reeds, the Egyptian

equivalent of heaven.26 The Negative Confession is part of the Book of the Dead and it is

similar to many of the commandments the Jews are expected to follow.

The following are some comparisons.

24 Amurru Kingdom, Wikipedia 25 Sun Mursilis, Ancient Near Eastern Treaties and Contracts: Akkadian-Hittite Treaty26 Marie Parsons, The Book of the Dead: An Introduction

The Negative Confession of the Book of the Dead27 Exodus 20:7-17:

Hail, Kenemti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I

have not blasphemed.

Hail, Uatch-rekhit, who comest forth from Sau, I

have not cursed God.

Hail, Am-khaibit, who comest forth from Qernet, I

have not slain men and women.

Hail, Qerrti, who comest forth from Amentet, I have

not committed adultery, I have not lain with men.

Hail, Fenti, who comest forth from Khemenu, I have

not stolen.

Hail, Tenemiu, who comest forth from Bast, I have

not slandered [no man].

Hail, Tutu, who comest forth from Ati (the Busirite

Nome), I have not debauched the wife of any man.

7 Thou shalt not take the name of

the Lord thy God in vain; for the

Lord will not hold him guiltless

that taketh his name in vain…

13 Thou shalt not kill.

14 Thou shalt not commit adultery.

15 Thou shalt not steal.

16 Thou shalt not bear false

witness against thy neighbour.

17 Thou shalt not covet thy

neighbor’s house, thou shalt not

covet thy neighbor’s wife, nor his

manservant, nor his maidservant,

nor his ox, nor his ass…

Sources E, J, D, and P

The religious books of the Jews are believed to be composed by four different

kinds of authors called E, J, D, and P source. The following is a brief synopsis of these

sources.

E Source -

27 E.A. Wallis Budge, The Book of the Dead

E source favors the Northern Kingdom of Israel over the kingdom of Judea, and

uses the god El as its primary god.28 El is the Canaanite high God.29 God is called El 200

plus times in the Old Testament such as Genesis 33:20: “He (Jacob) erected there an

altar and called it EleloheIsrael (translated as El, God of Israel).”30

J Source –

J source favors Judea over the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and uses Yahweh as

the primary God.31 A tribe the Egyptians refer to as the Shasu of Yhw could have been

the originators of the god Yahweh.32 The Kenites could have been associated with this

tribe and brought Yahweh into the Palestinian region.33

There is reason to believe Yahweh was originally a war god who coexisted with

El. Yahweh is an abbreviation of Yahweh Sabaoth which means “he musters armies.”

Exodus 15:3 defines Yahweh as a war god. “Yahweh is a warrior. Yahweh is his name.”

The song of Deborah also portrays him in this way. “Yahweh, when you set out from

Seir. As you trod the land of Edom, Earth shook, the heavens quaked, The clouds

dissolved into water. The mountains melted before Yahweh.” 34

D Source -

The Northern Kingdom of Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE, and the refugees that

went to Judea may have brought with them the idea that Yahweh was the only god

worthy of being worshiped. Possibly due to the influence of these Yahweh-only refugees,

King Josiah of Judea mandated Yahweh-only worship and the destruction of the temples

28 Elohist, Wikipedia29 Victor H. Matthews, Judges and Ruth, page 79, (cited in Wikipedia)30 Andrew D. Benson, The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, page 6631 Yahwist, Wikipedia 32 Donald B Redford, Egypt, Canaan and Israel, pages 272-3, 275 (cited in Wikipedia)33 Karel Van der Toorn, Dictionary of Deities, pages 911-915, (Cited in Wikipedia)34 Dr. L. M. Barré, El, god of Israel --Yahweh, god of Judah

and idols of other gods such as Baal. Most of this Deuteronomistic history was written

when the Jews were exiled in Babylon.35

P source –

The Persians conquered the Babylonians. P source was written by the Jewish

Zadokite priesthood while under the administration of the Persian Empire.36

The Persian / Zoroastrian period

Zoroastrianism37 and Ahura Mazda

Zoroastrianism was a popular religion throughout the Persian Empire when the

Jewish people were under their rule. The Zoroastrians believed (and still do believe) in a

monotheistic god called Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda was omnipotent, omniscient,

omnipresent, unknowable, unchanging, the creator of life, and the source of good. Ahura

Mazda had an adversary called Angra Manyu who was the cause of death and evil.38

The following are a few potential examples of the Zoroastrian influence upon

Christianity.

Before exile - Many Gods - Exodus 15:11 After exile – One God - Isaiah 43:10.

“Who is like unto thee, O LORD, among

the Gods?”

“Before me there was no God formed,

neither shall there be after me.”

Before Exile - One Location -

Genesis 11:5

After Exile - Omnipresence –

Jeremiah 23:24

35Deuteronomist, Wikipedia36 Priestly source, Wikipedia37 For a comprehensive discussion of Zoroastrian influences, see The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, pages 96-126, 156-16038 God, Zoroaster and Immortals, BBC

“And the LORD came down (from

Heaven) to see the city and the tower,

which the children of men had built.”

“Can any hide himself in secret places that I

will not see him? saith the LORD. ‘Do I not

fill heaven and earth?’ saith the LORD.”

Before Exile - God causes evil –

Amos 3:6

After Exile - Evil caused by a stn –

1 Chronicles 21:1

“Will there be evil in a city, and the

LORD hath not done it?”

“And Satan stood up against Israel, and

provoked David to number Israel.”

Zoroaster

The Zoroastrians believed in a prophet named Zoroaster who was said to be 30

when he had a vision while undergoing a pagan purification rite in a river.39 The gospel of

Luke asserts that Jesus was about 30 when he was baptized and heard a voice.

“Now when all the people were baptized, it came to pass, that Jesus also being

baptized, and praying, the heaven was opened, And the Holy Ghost descended in a bodily

shape like a dove upon him, and a voice came from heaven, which said, Thou art my

beloved Son; in thee I am well pleased. And Jesus himself began to be about thirty years

of age…” (Luke 3:21-23)

Zoroastrianism and the Concept of the Messiah

The early conception of the Jewish messiah was an ideal king that was anointed

by god. One example of such a man was David, the second king of Israel. Another

messiah was Cyrus the Great. The following quote from the Jewish Encyclopedia shows

why Cyrus was believed to be a messiah.

“In Isa. xlv. 1 Cyrus is called "God's anointed one," because God has called him

and given him victory after victory for the distinct purpose of putting an end to the

Babylonian kingdom and the worship of idols, of setting free exiled Israel, and thus

introducing the new era of God's universal dominion.” 40

39 God, Zoroaster and Immortals, BBC40 Messiah, 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia

The same divination of a great conqueror / leader of men occurred when

Alexander the Great conquered the Persians.

“The Jewish contemporaries of Alexander the Great, dazzled by his glorious

achievements, hailed him as the divinely appointed deliverer, the inaugurator of the

period of universal peace promised by the Prophets.” 41

This concept of a strictly human messiah anointed by God began to change due to

Zoroastrian influence. The Zoroastrians believed in the coming of three saviors, and the

last savior, Saoshyant, was supposed to bring about the final renovation of the world by

battling falsehood and resurrecting the righteous. Soashyant means “one who brings

benefit” in Avestian. The Saohsyant was also to be born from a virgin who had bathed in

Lake Kansava were Zoroaster’s sperm had been deposited.42 Lake Hāmun may be the

modern name for Lake Kansava.43

This concept of a less human and more heavenly messiah entered the Jewish

tradition with the Book of Enoch.

“The oldest apocalypse in which the conception of a preexistent heavenly

Messiah is met with is the Messiological section of the Book of Enoch (xxxvii.-lxxi.) of the

first century B.C. The Messiah is called "the Son of Man," and is described as an angelic

being, his countenance resembling a man's, and as occupying a seat in heaven beside the

Ancient of Days (xlvi. 1), or, as it is expressed in ch. xxxix. 7, "under the wings of the

Lord of spirits…He is represented as the embodiment of justice and wisdom and as the

medium of all God's revelations to men (xlvi. 3; xlix. 1, 2a, 3). At the end of time the Lord

will reveal him to the world and will place him on the throne of His glory in order that he

may judge all creatures in accordance with the end to which God had chosen him from

the beginning.” 44

Zoroastrianism and the Afterlife

41 Messiah, 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia.42 Saoshyant, Wikipedia 43 Gherardo Gnoli, Hamun, Daryaca-Ye ii. In Literature and Mythology44 Messiah, 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia

The Zoroastrians believed in resurrection. The Jews had believed that Sheol was

the place where the dead would exist. The following is a description of Sheol from the

Jewish Encyclopedia:

“David abides there in peace (I Kings ii. 6); the warriors have their weapons with

them (Ezek. xxxii. 27), yet they are mere shadows…The dead merely exist without

knowledge or feeling (Job xiv. 13; Eccl. ix. 5)… Return from Sheol is not expected (II

Sam. xii. 23; Job vii. 9, 10; x. 21; xiv. 7 et seq.; xvi. 22; Ecclus. [Sirach] xxxviii. 21); it is

described as man's eternal house (Eccl. xii. 5). It is "dust" (Ps. xxx. 10; hence in the

Shemoneh 'Esreh, in benediction No. ii., the dead are described as "sleepers in the

dust")”45

After the Zoroastrian influence, the Jews began to believe in heaven.46

Before Exile - Death = Sheol –

Isaiah 14:11

After Exile – Death = Resurrection –

Daniel 12:2

“Thy pomp is brought down to (Sheol)

… the worms is spread underneath thee,

and the worms cover thee.”

“And many of them who sleep in the dust of

the earth will awake, some to everlasting life,

and some to shame and everlasting contempt.”

The Persian and/or Greek PeriodIntertestimental Books (in general)

Many of the influences which affected Judaism span the different historical

periods that have been posited. This holds true for the sources of the bible referred to as J,

E, D, and P. (J and E are believed to be composed in either the Canaanite period or

during Babylonian exile. D is believed to be composed in the Babylonian exile and P is

believed to be composed during Persian rule). This spanning also occurs with the

Septuagint, which was begun in the Greek period when the Ptolemies were in power, but

didn’t achieve its final form until the Romans were in control. And the spanning also

holds true for at least some of the intertestimental works as these were largely composed

45 Sheol, 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia 46 Shahriar Shahriari, Influence of Zoroastrianism on Other Religions

while under either Persian or Greek rule. Some of these books are Bel and the Dragon,

Enoch, Jubilees, Maccabees, Sirach, Tobit, and the Wisdom of Solomon.

Many of these books have ideas that would later be found in the New Testament.

In other words, the intertestamental books would be used as resource material for later

writers. The following demonstrates some of their influence.

Intertestamental Book New Testament

“For in his name they are saved, and

according to his good pleasure hath it been

in regard to their life.” (1 Enoch 48:7)47

“For there is none other name under heaven

given among men, whereby we must be

saved.” (Acts 4:12)

“And against the angels whom He had sent

upon the earth, He was exceedingly wroth,

and He gave commandment to root them out

of all their dominion, and He bade us to

bind them to the depths of the earth.

(Jubilees 5:6)48

“For if God spared not the angels that

sinned, but cast them down to hell, and

delivered them into chains of darkness, to be

reserved in Judgment. (2 Peter 2:4)

“Say not thou, It is through the Lord that I

fell away: for thou oughtest not to do the

things that he hateth. Say not thou, He hath

caused me to err: for he hath no need of the

sinful man.” (Sirach 15:11-12)49

“Let no man say when he is tempted, I am

tempted of God: for God cannot be tempted

with evil, neither tempteth he any man.

(James 1:13)

“And when he was at the last gasp, he said,

Thou like a fury takest us out of this present

life, but the King of the world shall raise us

up, who have died for his laws, unto

everlasting life.” (2 Maccabees 7:9)50

“And when he gone forth into the way, there

came one running, and kneeled to him, and

asked him, Good Master, what shall I do

that I may inherit internal life? And Jesus

said to him… Thou knowest the

commandments.” (Mark 10 17-19)

47 R.H. Charles, “The Book of Enoch.” 48 R. H. Charles, “The Book of Jubilees.” 49 Apocrypha: Sirach, SacredTexts.com50 Apocrypha: 2 Macabees, SacredTexts.com

A more detailed accounting of the influence of the intertestimental books can be

found in The Origins of Christianity and the Bible.51

Book of Enoch

One of the most influential intertestimental books was called the Book of Enoch,

a book supposedly written by the great-grandfather of Noah. Within this book there is a

section called the Book of Watchers which combines the Greek story of Prometheus with

Genesis 6:2-4.

Genesis 6: 2-4 states:

“That the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took

them wives of all which they chose… when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of

men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old,

men of renown.”

According to Enoch, these angels were led by a leader named Sêmîazâz and when

these fallen angels came to mate with the daughters of men, they brought with them the

forbidden knowledge of the Gods. (Azazel brought the knowledge of weapons). The

leader of these fallen angels, Sêmîazâz, then became god’s adversary, the Satan.52

The name Satan is derived from the Hebrew word meaning to obstruct or oppose.

Satan opposes the will of God in the way Angra Manyu opposes the will of Ahura

Mazda. The words devil and demon are derived from Greek. The English word devil can

trace its origins to the Ancient Greek word diábolos, which means slanderer, and the

word demon is from the Greek word daimōn which denotes a spirit or divine power.53

As mentioned earlier in the discussion about messiahs, the book of Enoch also

contains the first biblical mentioning of a heavenly messiah.

51 Andrew D. Benson, The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, pages 139 – 155. See pages 108-109 for the origins of fallen angels (Book of Enoch).52Book of Enoch –The Book of the Watchers, Wikipedia 53 Douglas Harper, Online Etymology Dictionary, words Satan, devil, demon

The Greek / Hellenistic periodSyncretism

When the Greeks conquered the Persians, the Jews were placed under the rule of

the Greeks. These Greeks, Alexander the Great in particular, then promoted the concept

of syncretism.

Syncretism, or the blending of religious cultures, was a common practice in

ancient times. For example, when the Akkadians conquered the Sumerians, they didn’t

vanquish the Sumerian Gods. Instead they assimilated them into their pantheon of Gods.

The Romans did something similar with the Greek Gods. And some scholars suspect

Yahweh himself was a God of foreign origin who was assimilated into the Canaanite

pantheon of Gods.54

The reason a policy of syncretism made political sense was that it helped unify a

people together instead of leading to civil war or strife. Ptolemy 1 took this idea of

syncretism one step further when he created the god Serapis. Serapis was composed of

both Greek and Egyptian religious iconography in order to help blend the Egyptian and

Greek religious cultures.55 Because of an active policy of syncretism and extended

contact with Greek leaders, the Jews had ample opportunity to learn about the mystery

cults the Greeks practiced.

If 3 Maccabees is to be believed, Ptolemy IV Philopator took the practice of

syncretism a step further by actively rewarding participation in the Dionysian mysteries.

3 Maccabees 2:30 states: “To do away with the appearance of hating them all, he had it

written underneath, that if any of them should elect to enter the community of those

initiated in the (Dionysian) rites, these (Jews) should have equal rights with the

Alexandrians."56 Regardless of the accuracy of this passage, the Jews were undoubtedly

aware of the existence of Greek mystery cults and more than a few were aware of their

rites as well.

54 Karel Van der Toorn, Dictionary of Deities, pages 911-915 (Cited in Wikipedia)55 Serapis, Wikipedia 56 Sir Lancelot, The Translation of the Greek Septuagint Bible, Including the Apocrypha

The concept of mystery

One of the influences obtained from mystery cults was the concept of mystery

itself. For the Greeks, mysteries were secret rites or doctrines learned by an initiate

during his indoctrination into one of the mystery cults. With the exception of Daniel,

which was written during the Hellenistic era, there is no mentioning of the word mystery

in the Old Testament. The word is mentioned 20 plus times in the New Testament. 57 One

such example is 1 Corinthians 4:1: “Let a man so account of us, as of the ministers of

Christ, and stewards of the mysteries of God.” This passage suggests that the early

Christians were well aware of the concept of mystery. This makes sense considering

many of the early Christians were former pagans.

The Secret Rite of Baptism

One of the ancient mystery cults the Greeks practiced was called the Eleusinian

mysteries. The Eleusinian mysteries were centered on the Rape of Persephone.

According to Greek mythology, Persephone was captured by Hades and was brought to

the underworld to be his wife. Persephone’s mother, Demeter (the god of the harvest)

then went searching for her daughter, and during her fruitless search, food wouldn’t grow

because Demeter was spiteful. Then, when Hermes went to the underworld to bring

Persephone back to Demeter, things began to grow again.58

In order to celebrate Persephone’s return to Demeter and the harvest that resulted

from this, the participants of the Eleusinian mysteries would hold the Greater and the

Lesser mysteries. The Lesser mysteries honored Persephone and were held in the month

of Anthesterion (February/March). The Greater mysteries honored both Persephone and

Demeter, and were held in the month of Boedromion (September/October).59 The

initiates of the Eleusinian mysteries would participate in a baptism ritual – they would

immerse themselves in the sea with a piglet that would be later sacrificed.60

The Eleusinian mysteries were not the only ancient religion to practice baptism.

This rite was also practiced by the Egyptian religion (Isis)61 and by Mithraism. And, as 57 Andrew Benson, The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, page 17458 The Eleusinian Mysteries, scribd.com, page 359 Eleusinian Mysteries, Britannica 60 The Eleusinian Mysteries, scribd.com, page 461 Apuleius, The Golden Ass, pp. 208–210. (Cited in Religious Tolerance)

mentioned earlier, Zoroaster was participating in a pagan baptism ceremony when he

received his vision.

The Secret Rite of Communion

Another mystery cult the Greeks practiced were the Dionysian Mysteries, which

centered on the continued existence of Dionysus. Depending on which myth you used,

Dionysus was either born by a mortal named Semele or the god Persephone. In either

version of the myth, Zeus rescued Dionysus by sewing him into his thigh (Dionysus’

fetus was sewn into Zeus’s thigh in the case of the Semele story, and his heart according

to the Persephone version). Dionysus was twice born once he emerged out of Zeus’s

thigh.62

Dionysus had followers called Maenads who were wild women that ritualistically

tore the limbs off of animals, ate raw meat, drank blood, and had orgies.63 The maenads

quartering of the animals represented what happened to Dionysus after Hera convinced

the Titans to tear off the limbs of Zeus and Persephone’s love child. And the ritualized

eating the flesh and drinking of the blood could have been an attempt to obtain

Dionysus’s wilder traits.64

The Eleusinian Mysteries had their own form of communion. Initiates would

drink a beverage called kykeon, which consisted of meal, water, and pennyroyal mint

leaves. The grain in the drink has been argued to be a symbol of Persephone.65

Cicero (104- 46 BCE), a Roman, wrote the following before Christianity existed:

“When we speak of corn as Ceres (the Roman Demeter), and of wine as Liber (the

Roman Dionysus), we use, it is true, a customary mode of speech, but do you think

anyone is so senseless as to believe that what he is eating is the divine substance?”66

The symbolic representation of Gods as objects such as wine is called

metonymical interpretation and it was a common practice of the Greeks and Romans.67

62 Dionysus, Wikipedia 63 Dionysian Mysteries, Wikipedia 64 R. E. Witt, Review of Marcello Massenzio, (cited in Wikipedia)65 The Eleusinian Mysteries, scribd.com, Page 566 Marcus Tullius Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, 3:16:167 Heraclitus, Heraclitus: Homeric Problems, page xvi

We also know from Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 CE) and his work

Exhortation to the Heathen that the Greeks called bread Demeter and wine Dionysus.

“Others, plucking the benignant fruits of earth-born plants, called grain Demeter, as the

Athenians, and the vine Dionysus, as the Thebans.”68

Thus Greeks literally ate Demeter and drank Dionysus.

Again, it should be noted that many of the early Christians were former pagans

and therefore would have been familiar with the eating of Demeter and the drinking of

Dionysus. It should also be noted that communion was a religious practice of Mithraism.

The Cult of Asclepius

The cult of Asclepius was the cult you would attend if you were sick. The most

famous comment about this cult is found in Plato’s Phaedo. Upon drinking hemlock

poison, Socrates remarks that we need to sacrifice a cock to Asclepius, a statement which

essentially mocks the belief that the cult had the ability to heal.

The website Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth (pocm.info) provides several

ancient inscriptions and quotes pertaining to the miracles of Asclepius including the

following69:

Asclepius heals a lame man -

“Nicanor, a lame man. While he was sitting wide-awake in Asclepius' temple, a

boy snatched his crutch from him and ran away. but Nicanor got up, pursued him, and do

became well.” Inscriptiones Graecae 4.1.121- 122; Stele 1.16

Asclepius heals the blind -

" Hermon of Thasus. His blindness was cured by Asclepius." Inscriptiones

Graecae, 4.1.121 - 122, Stele 2.22

Asclepius heals a mute boy -

"A voiceless boy. He came as a supplicant to the Temple of Asclepius ...the temple

servant demanded the boys father...to bring...the thank offering for the cure. But the boy 68 Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Heathen, Chp. 269 Greg Kane, The Ancients Invented Miracle Stories

suddenly said, "I promise." His father was startled at this and asked him to repeat it. The

boy repeated the words and after that became well." Inscriptiones Graecae 4.1.121- 122;

Stele 1.5

Asclepius heals the sick and was thought to raise the dead -

Asclepius was the son of Apollo and Coronis, and since he excelled in natural

ability and sagacity of mind, he devoted himself to the science of healing and made many

discoveries which contribute to the health of mankind. And so far did he advance along

the road of fame that, to the amazement of all, he healed many sick whose lives had been

despaired of, and for this reason it was believed that he had brought back to life many

who had died. 70 Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, 4.71.1

The last quote has been confirmed through the website theoi.com.

The miracles of healing the lame, the blind, the mute, the sick and raising the dead

were also performed by Jesus Christ.

Hercules

Unlike Asclepius, Dionysus, or Demeter, Hercules did not have a cult associated

with him, but he was worshiped by the Ancient Greeks. This is demonstrated by the

following quote from Cicero: “Hercules has gone to heaven; he never would have gone

thither had he not, while among men, made that road for himself. These things are of old

date, and have, besides, the sanction of universal religion.”71 One can conclude from

Cicero’s quote that the Greeks and Romans worshiped Hercules’ ascension into heaven

and this belief was accepted as being true by the pagan universal religion.

There are other striking similarities between Hercules and Jesus. They were both

children of Gods, had earthly fathers, were descended from kings, had people trying to

kill them when they were infants (Hera vs. Herod), had betrayers who later hanged

themselves (Hercules’s wife vs. Judas), and they returned from the otherworld (Hades vs.

Heaven).72

70 Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4.71.171 Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, Book 1, 1472 Andrew Benson, The Origins of Christianity and the Bible, page 212-214

Greek Philosophy

There were several currents of thought that were promoted by the Greek

philosophers that would influence the formation of Christianity. The following is a

summation of some of these influences.

Philosophical Concepts

Logos

The Greek concept of logos is one of the oldest philosophical beliefs known to

mankind. It was first posited by the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus (535 – 475 BCE).

Fragment B2 states the following: “Though the logos is common, the many live as if they

had a wisdom of their own.”73

For the Greeks, logos meant reason or account, and the Greek philosopher’s

attempt to understand this true account was at the root of their epistemological

methodologies. In essence, philosophers like Heraclitus were on one side of the society

trying to understand the universal true account (logos),74 and they were in a constant

battle with the sophists who promoted the power of rhetoric.75 (Sophists were like the

Greek lawyers and political advisors. Plato and Aristotle didn’t like the sophists.)

In a spiritual context, you can think of logos as the reason that pervaded and

animated the universe,76 and that appears to be the way that Philo of Alexandria uses the

word. This concept of divine logos would later become incorporated into the New

Testament as demonstrated by the following quotes.

Philo’s On Flight and Finding Chp. xix (101) John 1:1

“The divine (logos) which is above these does not

come into any visible appearance… but is itself an

image of God… is placed in the closest proximity

In the beginning was the Word,

and the Word was with God, and

the Word was God.

73 Randy Hoyt, DKB2, Heraclitus Fragments74 W. K. C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers, p. 45. (Cited in Wikipedia)75 George Duke, The Sophists (Ancient Greek)76 Antonia Tripolitis, Religions of the Hellenistic, pages 37–38, (Cited in Wikipedia)

to the only truly existing God.”77

As seen, Philo’s concept of logos later gets translated as “the Word.” While

technically a true translation (logos in Greek does mean word), this translation loses some

of its original meaning. Logos is a philosophical concept meaning true account, whereas

the word of god is a theological concept that often means the bible is correct even if it

conflicts with logos. Sheol is another word, when translated loses its meaning. Sheol is

the ancient Jewish underworld, and the English translation of Sheol is the word grave

(aka the place where the coffins are put, or the dirt that lies over you if you happened to

be killed by the mafia). The author posits that words like Sheol and Logos shouldn’t be

translated so that their original meanings remain intact.

Allegorical Interpretation

Perhaps because of a Zoroastrian influence that entered Greek culture, the Greeks

believed that their Homeric Epics shouldn’t be glorifying evil. One of the philosophers

known to have this position was Plato. He said the following in the Republic: “We must

either forbid them to say that these woes (in the Homeric Epics) are the work of God, or

they must devise some such interpretation as we now require, and must declare that what

God did was righteous and good”78

This idea of a need for allegorical interpretation of evil myths was embraced by

later Greek philosophers, Heraclitus the paradoxographer being one of note. He created

an entire book called Homeric Problems dedicated to ways the epics could be

reinterpreted so that they are no longer considered immoral.

The following is how he allegorized Aphrodite’s infidelity with Ares (her

husband was Hephaestus): The love of Ares and garlanded Aphrodite, and how they

came together in Hephaestus’s house. And then the binding, and the god’s laughter, and

Poseidon’s plea to Hephaestus! If such are the failings of the gods, there is no longer

need for human wrongdoers to be punished! My own view is that, though this song was

sung to the Phaeacians, a people dominated by pleasure, it none the less has some

philosophical relevance. Homer seems here to be confirming Sicilian doctrine (the views 77 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, page 437, Chp. xix (101)78 Plato, Republic, (380 a-b)

of Empedocles) calling strife Ares and love Aphrodite. He therefore represents these old

adversaries as giving up their former contention and coming together in concord.

Naturally therefore the child born of these two is Harmonia, because the universe is

unshakably and harmoniously put together. That the gods should laugh and take pleasure

in all this is also probable, because the original forms (love and strife) are not

destructively separated, but maintain concord and peace. It may also, however, be an

allegory relating to the art of the bronzeworker. Ares may reasonably denote iron, and

Hephaestus easily subdues him, because fire, having (as I see it) a power superior to that

of iron, softens the stubbornness of the metal in its flames. But the craftsman also needs

Aphrodite for his construction: so he softens the iron with fire and brings his work to a

successful conclusion by delicate art. Poseidon plausibly represents the force that

rescues Ares form Hephaestus, because, when the mass of iron is withdrawn red-hot from

the furnace, it is plunged into water, and its fire is extinguished and laid to rest by the

special nature of that element.79

Philo of Alexandria and possibly Paul of Tarsus would use the concept of allegory

and apply it to the Jewish texts.

The Demiurge

The demiurge was an artisan-like figure that was responsible for designing and

maintaining the universe.80 Philo of Alexandria appears to have adopted this concept in

his trinity (God = the demiurge, his creative power designs the universe, his royal power

maintains it). Plato’s demiurge was benevolent.81

Corporeal Bodies and Incorporeal Souls

In Plato’s divided line, he separated concepts into two primary categories. The

corporeal world consisted of illusions and things that can be known by the senses such as

the movement of a rabbit, and the incorporeal world consisted of things that can be

known by the mind such as dianoia (math) and philosophical understanding (sophia).

79 Heraclitus, Heraclitus: Homeric Problems, page 11180 Demiurge, Britannica 81 Demiurge, Wikipedia

Plato goes on to conclude that incorporeal knowledge was of higher value than corporeal

knowledge.82 Plato also applied his concepts about corporeal and incorporeal to the body

itself. The body was corporeal and the soul was incorporeal.

Philo of Alexandria adopted the concept of corporeal bodies and incorporeal souls

from Plato, and influenced the writers of the New Testament. The following quotes

illustrate this influence.

Plato’s Phaedus 250 c 83 Philo’s Questions and

Answers on Genesis I 84

1 Corinthians 15:42

“Which we saw in the pure light,

being ourselves pure, and not

entombed in this which we carry

about us and call the body, in

which we are imprisoned like an

oyster in its shell.”

“The death of the good is the

beginning of another life; for

life is a twofold thing, one life

being in the body, corruptible;

the other without the body,

incorruptible.”

“So it is with the

resurrection of the

dead. The body is sown

in corruption, it is

raised in incorruption.”

Greek Philosophers / Philosophical Movements

The Pre-Socratic Pythagoreanism and the Post-Socratic Neopythagoreanism

Pythagoras was one of the pre-Socratic philosophers and he had many cult-like

followers. In essence, these philosophers worshiped math and had a life devoted to

contemplation. Among their philosophical contributions was the octave which was

developed during their study of harmonics. The holy a2 + b 2 = c 2 is also attributed to the

Pythagoreans. The pentagram was an important religious symbol of theirs.85

Pythagorean beliefs influenced many other philosophers. Among them was Plato

who used his devotion to math to develop and/or describe the Platonic solids. Philo of

Alexandria was another. The Pythagoreans held the number 3 as the noblest of all digits

which helped Philo of Alexandria develop his concept of the trinity. The Pythagorean

82 Analogy of the Divided Line, Wikipedia83 Plato, Phaedus, 250 c84 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, page 1042 (16)85 Pythagoreanism, Wikipedia

influence is still alive today as other people such as Euclid, Da Vinci and Galileo

expanded upon the Pythagorean school of thought to form the mathematical foundations

of science.86

In 2nd century BCE, Pythagoreanism had a revival and took on a slightly different

character which historians refer to as Neopythagoreanism. Among these Neopythagorean

philosophers was a man named Appolonius of Tyana who was born in 4 BCE. He was

said to have been a miracle worker who wrote many epistles that instructed his followers

about his religious beliefs. Appolonius of Tyana is often compared with Paul of Tarsus

and Jesus Christ because he has many traits in common with them. A comparison

between Appolonius of Tyana, Paul of Tarsus, and Jesus Christ can be found at the

website http://www.truthbeknown.com/apollonius.html.87

Socrates

According to Aristotle, Socrates was primarily a philosopher that focused on

establishing universals and definitions in the field of morality, 88 and the writings of Plato

appear to confirm this. Plato often portrays Socrates debating other individuals on issues

such as the good life and justice. In addition to moral philosophy, Socrates appears to be

someone who advocated for the philosopher king. In the Crito, Socrates argues that the

many don’t possess wisdom about health and therefore they need to consult wise doctors

when they are sick. Similarly, the many don’t understand how to achieve the good life

and therefore they must consult the one who has wisdom about the good life. Plato

depicts Socrates as the wise philosopher one must consult about the good life.

Beyond his philosophical contributions to the study of morality, Socrates could

have had a more direct influence on Christian theology. The depiction of Christ found in

the bible shares many parallels with the life of Socrates, and these parallels might be

more than coincidence considering Christianity is deeply rooted in the Platonist

philosophical movement (as shall be discussed in the section labeled Plato).

The following are parallels between Socrates and Jesus Christ:

86 Pythagoreanism, Wikipedia87 DM Murdok, Appolonius,88 Monique Canto-Sperber, “Ethics”

1. The Last Supper.

- In a ceremony similar to the western tradition of providing a last meal before

execution, Socrates is surrounded by his philosophers before his punishment

for ‘corrupting the youth.’ Jesus Christ is depicted as being surrounded by his

disciples at a last supper before he goes to be sacrificed.

2. The Holy Grail

- The cup Socrates’ drank poison out of would have been of importance to

Platonists and probably other philosophers as well. The cup that Jesus Christ

drank out of is of symbolic importance to the Christians.

3. The philosopher king / divinely inspired king

- Socrates was often portrayed by Plato as being the wisest of the Greeks, and

one must learn from him the logos of how to achieve the good life. Jesus is

portrayed as the living logos of God, and we are supposed to learn from him

how to live a good life.

4. Dying for the good of mankind.

- Socrates is depicted as someone who died so that the laws of Athens are

upheld, his family and friends don’t suffer because of his escape, and his

reputation doesn’t suffer for having pursued personal interest over what was

best for mankind. Jesus is depicted as having died for mankind so that they no

longer go to hell because Adam and Eve ate Enki’s sperm (original sin).

5. Doubting Crito / Thomas

- In the Crito, Socrates engages in a dialogue with a doubting Crito about why

he must accept his fate and drink his chalice of poison. In the Gospel of John,

Jesus engages in a dialogue with a doubting Thomas about his resurrection.

6. Being persecuted for pursuing justice.

- The following quote is from Plato’s Republic (bk.II. 361-362) in which

Socrates is the principle protagonist: “The just man will have to endure the

lash, the rack, chains, the branding-iron in his eyes, and finally, after every

extremity of suffering, he will be crucified.”89 This is a translation from Greek,

and the word “crucified” in Greek also translates as impaled.

89 Plato, Republic, bk.II. 361-362

While not tortured, Socrates, the just man, does die because of the

enemies he made while pursuing justice. Jesus dies almost exactly in the way

Plato depicts a just man should die. He is lashed, he is put up against a cross

(a sort of rack), and he is crucified by being impaled.

In short, Plato’s depiction of Socrates might have been a template for the

depiction of Jesus Christ found in the bible.

Plato and Platonism

There is little doubt that Plato had an influence upon Christianity. The early

church leaders Origen, Clement of Alexandria, the Cappadocian Fathers, and St.

Augustine90, and the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria91 each based their beliefs in

Platonism. Some of the concepts these philosophers and church leaders learned from

Plato are things we have already mentioned such as the concepts of allegorical

interpretation, corporal bodies and incorporeal souls, and the demiurge. This section will

be dedicated to other Platonic contributions.

The Myth of Er

The Myth of Er is about a man named Er who was killed on the battlefield and,

upon his resurrection, tells his friends about his experiences in the afterlife. According to

Er, there were four doors ones soul could go through—an entrance and an exit to both the

sky above and the land below. If you had lived a moral life, you were directed by judges

to go through the entrance to the sky. If you had lived an immoral life, you were directed

by the judges to go through the entrance that led to the interior of the earth. People like

murderers were trapped below for eternity, but everyone else would eventually return to

the judges through the exit and choose a new life. Er heard the stories of these people,

and he learned that the people who were moral had experienced nirvana, and the people

who were immoral had experienced pain and suffering.92

90 Platonism, Wikipedia91 Philo of Alexandria, Wikipedia92 Myth of Er, Wikipedia

While the Zoroastrians were probably the first to influence the Judeo-Christian

conception that moral acts lead to heaven and immoral acts lead to hell, Plato’s myth of

Er likely reinforced this belief.

The Allegory of the Cave

In the Republic, Plato uses the Allegory of the Cave to explain his divided line

epistemological theory.

The allegory of the cave starts with a fictional dialogue between Socrates and

Glaucon. Socrates asks Glaucon to imagine a group of people who have lived their entire

lives chained inside a cave and had their heads immobilized so that they can only see the

wall in front of them. Behind these prisoners is a huge bonfire, and between the prisoners

and the bonfire is a raised walkway used by people wearing animal costumes. These

prisoners, never knowing anything else, would believe that the shadows cast by these

animal costumes on the cave wall were the real objects even though they were not. Then

one of the prisoners escaped from his chains and exited the cave. Because of the light, the

prisoner was able to see objects like animals for what they really were and he soon

realized that shadows he had thought were real objects were just reflections of reality.

Or, in other words, the addition of light helped the prisoner achieve philosophical

understanding (wisdom) about the actual reality (the real animals), rather than continuing

to believe in illusion (the shadows). Socrates then engages in a dialogue with Glaucon

about how philosophers need to help people escape their chains and enter the light

outside the cave so they can see the true nature of things, and not continue to believe the

shadows as true reality.93

Plato’s allegory of the cave may have resulted in quotes found in the New

Testament such as John 9:25 “Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not: one thing I

know, that, whereas I was blind, now I see,” and John 8:32 “And ye shall know the truth,

and the truth shall make you free.” The allegory of the cave may also be responsible for

the cave found in the Gospel of Mark and the prevalence of Christian missionaries

(missionaries are supposed to help others see the light). And, in general, Plato’s divided

93 Allegory of the Cave, Wikipedia:

line epistemological theory influenced the need to understand true reality. One of the

Greek words for this true reality was logos.

The Ring of Geyges

Another allegory Plato uses in the Republic is called the Ring of Geyges.

According to this myth, one turn of the ring makes one invisible. And, because of this

invisibility, one is able to do almost anything without fear of repercussion (such as

murder, robbery, and secretly coveting thy king’s wife). Socrates then engages in a

discussion with Glaucon about whether or not the one who wears the ring is better off

engaging in illicit activities. In this dialogue, Socrates argues that the ring bearer has been

enslaved by his hedonistic desires, and the happiest and most virtuous life is that of a

philosopher because he understands intellectually what is best for him. 94 The idea that

philosophical understanding is more important than being a slave to one’s urges becomes

a common theme in many of the Greek philosophical schools.

Aristotle

Like Plato, Aristotle contends that the life of the philosopher is the most virtuous

and happiest; though his reasoning is slightly different because Aristotle was a proponent

of the function argument (Plato was a proponent of the form argument). Flute playing can

be used as an example of a function argument. The function of a flute is to make music,

and, in order to gain happiness from flutes, one must give the best flutes to the best flute

players because the function of the flute was to be played well.

Aristotle applied this function argument to humans themselves. He asserted that

humans alone have a rational soul, and therefore the function of humans was to be

rational:

“Must we not rather assume that, just as the eye, the hand, the foot and each of

the various members of the body manifestly has a certain function of its own, so a human

being also has a certain function over and above all the functions of his particular

members? What then precisely can this function be? The mere act of living appears to be

shared even by plants, whereas we are looking for the function peculiar to man; we must

94 Ring of Geyges, Wikipedia

therefore set aside the vital activity of nutrition and growth. Next in the scale will come

some form of sentient life; but this too appears to be shared by horses, oxen, and animals

generally. There remains therefore what may be called the practical life of the rational

part of man.” 95

The Aristotelian idea that human’s function was to be rational likely influenced

Philo to believe that humans were modeled after God’s logos (aka God’s ability to use

reason). It also had the unfortunate effect of promoting human life as being superior to

animal and plant life, a belief which was maintained by Christianity.

Aristotle also believed that virtue was achieved by pursuing the virtuous mean

and one must have a community that develops proper habits in children so that they

pursue this mean.96 This idea of a proper upbringing could have influenced the concept of

gentlemanly and ladylike behavior.

Stoicism

The stoics believed that a person’s behavior was the best indicator of a person’s

life philosophy, unhappiness was the result of human ignorance about the universal

nature of things (logos), and the individual should live a life that is in accord with the

logos. Stoics also argued that destructive emotions were caused by errors in judgment,

someone who had developed self-control would not have these emotions, and the purpose

of philosophy was to develop this self-control.97

Stoicism was an influential philosophy in the Roman period and some of these

philosophies seeped into the Christian tradition. One example is found in 1 Corinthians

12:21-22.

Seneca the Younger - On anger - 2.31.798 1 Corinthians 12:21-22.

“What if the hands should desire to harm the feet, “And the eye cannot say unto the

95 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I.7.1097b-1098a.96 Richard Kraut, Aristotle's Ethics97 Stoicism, Wikipedia 98 Lucius Annasus Seneca, Moral Essays (On Anger), 2.31.7

or the eyes the hands? As all the members of the

body are in harmony one with another because it is

to the advantage of the whole that the individual

members be unharmed, so mankind should spare

the individual man, because all are born for a life of

fellowship, and society can be kept unharmed only

by the mutual protection and love of its parts.”

hand, I have no need of thee: nor

again the head to the feet, I have

no need of you. Nay, much more

those members of the body, which

seem to be more feeble, are

necessary.”

Perhaps stoicism’s single greatest contribution to Christianity was their belief that

humans possess within them a portion of the divine logos that animates the universe.99

This idea was adopted by Philo of Alexandria.

The Platonic / Christian Opposition - Cynicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism

Plato was not the only student of Socrates. Another one was Antinsthenes who

would found the Cynic school of philosophy. Cynicism could be seen as oppositional to

Christianity as their founders believed suffering was caused by useless social customs

and conventions, and false judgments of what was important. On the other hand, the

cynics rejection of possessions so that they can live in tune with nature was in line with

vows of poverty made by monks and clergy.100

Epicurus rejected the Platonic and Aristotelian idea that one could be enslaved by

animalistic urges. He instead sought to understand the workings of the world so that

pleasure was maximized and pain was minimized. In essence, Epicurus was a utilitarian.

Epicurus viewed marriage as a threat to one’s inner peace and therefore was celibate, as

were many of his followers. This may have influenced later church leaders to adopt this

practice (at least superficially). Like the cynics, the epicureans believed in modest

living.101 Epicureanism was seen as being oppositional by both Rabbinical Judaism and

Christianity. 102

99 Antonia Tripolitis, Religions of the Hellenistic, pages 37–38. (Cited in Wikipedia)100 Cynicism, Wikipedia 101 Epicureanism, Wikipedia102 Vincent Cook, Epicurean History

Skepticism was another school of philosophical thought that was found during the

Greek and Roman periods, and their founding principle was to question everything.103

This school of thought doesn’t appear to have had any influence on Christian theology.

Roman / Christian PeriodThe Romans conquered the Greeks and subsequently came to rule over the Jews.

The following are some potential influences that occurred during this time period.

Mithraism

Ulansey used the following quote from the Roman historian Plutarch to place the

origins of Mithraism to 67 BCE. 104

“They (pirates) also offered strange sacrifices of their own at Olympus, and

celebrated there certain secret rites, among which those of Mithras continue to the

present time, having been first instituted by them.” 105

According to E.D.Francis, the testimony of Maurus Servius Honoratus shows that

some of these defeated pirates were settled in Italy following the Roman victory.106

Other evidence that could be useful in dating the origins of Mithraism are five

terracotta plaques from Kerch which date to around 50 BCE- 50 CE,107 Nero’s initiation

into Mithraism in 66 CE,108 the Thebaid poem by Statius which was written at about 80

CE,109 an inscription to Sol Invictus Mithras which dates to about 80-100 CE,110 and

CIMRM 2268 from Moesia Inferior which dates to about 100 CE.111

Most of the accounts detailing the rites of Mithraism are from the Christian

apologists, and these accounts are suggestive of shared religious practices. The following

quote is from Justin Martyr’s The First Apology:

103 Philosophical Skepticism, Wikipedia 104 Mithraic Mysteries, Wikipedia105 Plutarch, Life of Pompeii, page 176, 24 : 5 106 E.D.Francis, Plutarch's Mithraic pirates (cited in Wikipedia)107 Roger Beck, Mithraism since Franz Cumont, (cited in Wikipedia)108 Cassius Dio, Roman History, page 145, 63.5.2 109 Statius: Thebaid, 1.696.63 110 Richard L Gordon, The date and significance of CIMRM 593, (cited in Wikipedia)111 Mithraic Mysteries, Wikipedia

“Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do in remembrance

of Me, Luke 22:19 this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the

cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone. Which the

wicked devils have imitated in the mysteries of Mithras, commanding the same thing to be

done. For, that bread and a cup of water are placed with certain incantations in the

mystic rites of one who is being initiated, you either know or can learn.” 112

The next quote is from Tertullian’s Prescription Against Heretics:

“He, too, baptizes some— that is, his own believers and faithful followers; he

promises the putting away of sins by a laver (of his own); and if my memory still serves

me, Mithra there, (in the kingdom of Satan,) sets his marks on the foreheads of his

soldiers; celebrates also the oblation of bread, and introduces an image of a

resurrection, and before a sword wreathes a crown. What also must we say to (Satan's)

limiting his chief priest to a single marriage? He, too, has his virgins; he, too, has his

proficients in continence. Suppose now we revolve in our minds the superstitions of Numa

Pompilius, and consider his priestly offices and badges and privileges, his sacrificial

services, too, and the instruments and vessels of the sacrifices themselves, and the

curious rites of his expiations and vows: is it not clear to us that the devil imitated the

well-known moroseness of the Jewish law? Since, therefore he has shown such emulation

in his great aim of expressing, in the concerns of his idolatry, those very things of which

consists the administration of Christ's sacraments, it follows, of course, that the same

being, possessing still the same genius, both set his heart upon, and succeeded in,

adapting to his profane and rival creed the very documents of divine things and of the

Christian saints — his interpretation from their interpretations, his words from their

words, his parables from their parables. For this reason, then, no one ought to doubt,

either that "spiritual wickednesses," from which also heresies come, have been

introduced by the devil…”113

We learn from these quotes that Mithraism had various rites and images that were

similar to the Christian religion. Among these were the rites of communion and baptism,

the images of a resurrection, and the wreathing of a crown. We cannot be certain whether

these similarities were due to Mithraism’s direct influence upon Christianity, Justin 112 Justin Martyr, The First Apology, Chapter 66113 Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics, Chapter 40

Martyr’s and Tertullian’s “the devil did it” hypotheses, or because both religions shared

common sources of influence such as the Dionysian mysteries. But the aforementioned

quotes do prove that Christianity was not unique in many of its religious practices.

It should also be noted that the initiates in the Mithraic mysteries practiced their

religion in caves or Mithraeum which resembled caves.

Philo of Alexandria114

Philo of Alexandria lived from (20 BCE- 50 CE), and he was a philosopher who

blended Judaism with Greek philosophy. 115 One of the techniques he used was allegorical

interpretation, and he went through the Old Testament using this technique to explain

how God had always been a wise and benevolent God. For example, in Deuteronomy 20:

13-14, God tells his people to kill all of the men and take the women, children, and

livestock as plunder. Philo retells this story in the following manner: “These men…

rushed upon the dense phalanxes in a contemptuous manner, and slaying all whom they

met, they mowed down the thickly packed battalions … till not one of all the youth in the

opposing army was left. And they slew also all the women who had assented to the unholy

devices of the men, taking the maidens alive, because of their compassion for their

innocent age…” 116 In other words, Philo allegorized the capture of women to suggest that

the actions were due to ‘compassion’ rather than for more nefarious reasons.

There was one passage in the bible that resisted Philo’s attempts at allegorical

interpretation. Genesis 1:27 states “So God created man in his own image, in the image

God created he him.” The problem, of course, was how could God make man in his own

image if he lacks a body, is omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent? Philo’s

solution was deeply rooted in Greek philosophy.

In order to explain how humans were modeled after an omnipotent and

omnibenevolent God, Philo first divided Plato’s one demiurge responsible for designing

and maintaining the universe into a tripartite god. According to Philo, the demiurge

114 The Origins of Christianity and the Bible covers Philo’s influence on pages 192-207115 Philo, Wikipedia116 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, On the Virtues, 8:43, page 846, - Philo doesn’t specify what passage he is referring to, but his prior discussions on things like allowing men to consummate their marriage before battle (Deuteronomy 20:7) strongly suggest Deuteronomy 20: 13-14.

consisted of a father of the universe, a creative power which was responsible for the

designing of the universe (logos), and a royal power which was responsible for

maintaining the universe. This is demonstrated by the following quote:

“The one in the middle is the father of the universe, who in the sacred scriptures

is called by his proper name, I am that I am; and the beings on each side are those most

ancient powers which are always close to the living God, one of which is called his

creative power, and the other his royal power. And the creative power is God, for it is by

this that he made and arranged the universe; and the royal power is the Lord, for it is

fitting that the Creator should lord it over and govern the creature.”117

Now that the demiurge was divided into these three parts, Philo used Aristotle’s

human function argument and the stoic belief that human’s possesses divine logos within

them to conclude that man was modeled after God’s logos (creative power):

“No mortal being could have been formed on the similitude of the supreme Father

of the universe, but only after the pattern of the second deity, who is the (Logos) of the

Supreme Being.”118

Though he was largely ignored by philosophers in general and later Jews, Philo of

Alexandria was influential during his era and he was adopted by the Christians. One

example of Philo’s influence is found in the epistles.

Philo in On Drunkenness - Xxxviii (145)119 Ephesians 2:8.

“For without divine grace it is impossible either

to abandon the ranks of mortal things, or to

remain steadily and constantly with those which

are imperishable.”

“For by grace are ye saved through

faith; and that not of yourselves: it is

the gift of God.”

The Herodian Kingdom and the Jewish Revolts.

117 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, On Abraham, Chp. xiv 121, pages 555-556118 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, Questions and Answers on Genesis II, 62, page

1094 119 David M. Scholer, The Works of Philo, On Drunkenness, Chp. Xxxviii 145, page 296

When Philo was born, the Herodian kingdom which ruled Palestine was in a state

of peace due to the heavy hand of King Herod. This changed when Philo of Alexandria

was about 16. King Herod had died in 4 BCE,120 and, in response, several Jews led

revolts121 and/or declared themselves to be messiahs.122 These Jews were Simon of

Peraea, Anthronges, Menahem ben Judah, John of Giscala, Judas of Galilee, Simeon bar

Giora and Theudas.123 Two of the people claiming the title of messiah, Simon of Peraea

and Theudas, deserve greater elaboration.

Simon of Peraea was the first of the messianic rebels. He started a revolt that

burnt down the royal palace in Jericho and he was killed in 4 BCE by the Romans.124 There is a stone tablet called the Jeselsohn Stone which Israel Knohl asserts was a

description of how Simon was to be resurrected in three days. Unfortunately one of the

words upon which this interpretation rests cannot be read clearly due to the passage of

time.125,126 In any case, the very existence of the Jeselsohn Stone is strong evidence that

Simon of Peraea was very much on the minds of the Herodian Jews.

Theudas is a good option for those looking for a historical Jesus Christ who was

not named Jesus (the name Jesus theoretically could have been part of a title). Theudas

was someone who claimed to be a prophet and, according to Acts 5.36, he persuaded

about 400 followers to come with him to the Jordan. He was not, however, successful in

his attempts to evade the Romans. A troop of horsemen was sent after him, and he, and

many of his followers, were slaughtered. The rest were taken captive.127 If Theudas was

the Jesus figure, the slaughter of his followers would explain why they didn’t live to tell

any stories about him and why the Jews didn’t know about “Jesus Christos” (i.e. they

knew him as Theudas). It should be noted that Theudas was beheaded and not

crucified.128

120 P. M. Bernegger, Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C. (cited in Wikipedia)121 Zealotry in Jewish History, Wikipedia 122 Jewish Messiah Claimants, Wikipedia123 Flavius Josephus, The Works of Flavius Josephus124 Simon of Peraea, Wikipedia125 The First Jesus, National Geographic Channel126 Gabriel’s Revelation, Wikipedia127 Pseudo-Messiahs, Jewish Encyclopedia128 Theudas, Wikipedia

Jesus of Nazareth was not a rebel leader that Josephus mentions. Several

Christians will contest this claim due to a passage referred to as the Testimonium

Flavianum, but this passage is a forgery. DM Murdok compiled several reasons to make

this assertion,129 which are as follows:

1. The early church fathers and Christian converts make no mention of the

Testimonium Flavianum when defending their beliefs. These Christians are

Justin Martyr, Theophilus, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian,

Origen, Hippolytus, Minucius Felix, Anatolius, Chrysostom, and Methodius.

2. The Patriarch of Constantinople, Phontius, wrote three articles on Josephus

but never mentions the Testimonium Flavianum. This suggests he was

unaware of its existence.

3. One of the early church fathers, Origen, specifically mentions Josephus and

says he was not a Christian: “For in the 18th book of his Antiquities of the

Jews, Josephus bears witness to John as having been a Baptist, and as

promising purification to those who underwent the rite. Now this writer,

although not believing in Jesus as the Christ...”130

The Testimonium Flavianum says the following: "Now, there was about this

time, Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of

wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure.”

Josephus would have never said these words because he was a Jew and not a

Christian.

4. Rembsburgh on Josephus’s Testimonium Flavianum: "Its brevity disproves its

authenticity. Josephus' work is voluminous and exhaustive. It comprises

twenty books. Whole pages are devoted to petty robbers and obscure seditious

leaders. Nearly forty chapters are devoted to the life of a single king. Yet this

remarkable being, the greatest product of his race, a being of whom the

prophets foretold ten thousand wonderful things, a being greater than any

earthly king, is dismissed with a dozen lines...."

Based on the line of argumentation discussed, the Testimonium Flavianum is, in

all likelihood, a forgery. This does not mean, however, Jesus of Nazareth didn’t exist as a 129 D.M. Murdock, The Jesus Forgery: Josephus Untangled 130 Origen, Contra Celsus, Book 1, Chapter 47

rebel leader who claimed to be a messiah. He could have been one of them. It’s just that

if he was, he wasn’t famous enough for Josephus to know about him. And if Jesus had

followers, twelve was about right. If he instead had a couple hundred followers, Josephus

would almost certainly have mentioned Jesus of Nazareth considering his father was a

contemporary of Jesus, Josephus was born in Jerusalem 4-9 years after Jesus’s

crucifixion, and Josephus mentions other messiah claimants (several of whom predated

Jesus).

Paul of Tarsus

The author of this document uses a variety of techniques to establish an accurate

accounting of Christianity’s origins. One technique is to use quotes from people like

Josephus who are known to the historical record. This is useful because it provides both

an independent viewpoint and a time period when the views expressed were in

circulation. Another technique is to use textual comparisons of the bible to itself to see

how the text has evolved, or textual comparisons with outside texts such as the Enûma

Eliš to see how it was influenced. A third technique, theological inconvenience, has been

used to establish Yahweh-only worship prior to Babylonian captivity; Yahweh-only

worship prior to captivity is asserted to be historically accurate because it was

theologically inconvenient for the Jews to say Yahweh was mad at the Jews for their

recent sole devotion to Him.131

These techniques are mentioned in a section about Paul of Tarsus because none of

them can be used to establish his existence. Paul of Tarsus isn’t mentioned by his

contemporaries. Comparative analysis of text can’t be used to establish the historical

existence of someone.132 Nor is Paul of Tarsus’ existence theologically inconvenient. He

shares many traits with Appolonius of Tyana133 and he purportedly exists during a time 131 Robert Wright, The Evolution of God, page 245 – Note - The Evolution of God asserts Jesus’ existence can be established through theological inconvenience. This is wrong. The failed messianic movements in the Palestinian region make the concept of a dying messiah theologically convenient.132 Just because Satan is mentioned in later books and not earlier books doesn’t mean Satan exists. Rather it just means belief in his existence exists. The same argument holds true for Paul of Tarsus.133DM Murdok, Appolonius,

period when the Christians needed someone to spread the message of Jesus Christ (5 - 67

AD).134 This leaves the technique of trusting the bible as a reliable source of information

about historical events which the author refuses to do due to its poor track record.

In any case, if Paul of Tarsus existed, he states in Galatians 1: 11-12 that he was a

missionary who received a revelation directly from the heavenly Jesus Christ (and not

from the apostles): “But I certify you, brethren, that the gospel which was preached of me

is not after man. For I neither received it of man, neither was I taught it, but by the

revelation of Jesus Christ.”

If the accounts of epistles and acts are accurate, Paul disregarded Jewish laws and

teachings in his effort to convert pagans to Christianity and this led him to have a conflict

with the Jews. The following passages depict this conflict.

Paul’s Disregard of Jewish teachings

Paul of Tarsus? - Ephesians 2:8-9 Jewish Christians? - James 2:24

“For by grace are ye saved through faith;

… Not of works.”

“Ye see then how that by works a man is

justified, and not by faith only.”

Paul’s Conflict with the Jews

“And when Gallio was the deputy of Achaia, the Jews made insurrection with one

accord against Paul, and brought him to the judgment seat, Saying, This fellow

persuadeth men to worship God contrary to the law. And when Paul was now about to

open his mouth, Gallio said unto the Jews, If it were a matter of wrong or wicked

lewdness, O ye Jews, reason would that I should bear with you: But if it be a question of

words and names, and of your law, look ye to it; for I will be no judge of such matters.

And he drave them from the judgment seat.” Acts 18:12-16.

The aforementioned account of the Pauline Christian / Jewish conflict is

dependent upon the bible being historically accurate.

Gospel of Mark

134 Paul of Tarsus, Wikipedia

The Gospel of Mark was very important to the development of Christianity as it

was used to develop the other Gospels. The Gospels of Matthew, Luke and John borrow a

lot of their information from Mark and possibly a hypothetical document called Q

source.135 Thus, if you understand how Mark was derived, you understand the origins of

all four gospels.

We know the Gospel of Mark is set in the Herodian Kingdom during the time

period when the Jewish revolts were occurring. We know the Mark account is missing

many of the stories latter attributed to Jesus Christ such as his birth in Bethlehem136 and

the Sermon on the Mount.137 We also can be fairly certain that it was written sometime

after 70 AD and the person who wrote it compiled information from various sources.138

Unfortunately not much is known beyond this. We don’t know the author who wrote it

and we don’t know have any informative non-biblical sources of data about the person he

talks about (Jesus of Galilee).

According to The Evolution of God and the scholars Robert Wright references, the

popular conception of Jesus being someone who promotes love for all of mankind is not

the one found in Mark. The only passage in which Jesus commands people to love others

is Mark 12:30-31: “And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all

thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength: this is the first commandment.

And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. There is

none other commandment greater than these.”

While the command ‘love thy neighbor’ sounds like a promising commandment,

Wright contends that neighbor literally meant neighbor (aka. fellow Israelites). This

interpretation is supported by other passages in Mark such as Mark 7:25- 30 which

describes how a non-neighbor (a Syrophenician) went to Jesus to obtain an exorcism for

her daughter. Jesus said to the woman “It’s not fair to take the children’s food and feed it

to the dogs.” The woman, desperate for help, replied “Yes, Lord: yet the dogs under the

table eat of the children's crumbs.” And it was only after she said this that Jesus agreed

to help.139 135 Gospel of Mark, Wikipedia136 Gospel of Mark, Wikipedia137 Sermon on the Mount, Wikipedia138 Gerd Theissen, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, (cited in Wikipedia)139 Robert Wright, The Evolution of God, 257

Wright contends that Paul of Tarsus is responsible for the change from the more

ethnocentric Jesus found in Mark to the more accommodating one found in later gospels.

The author of this article is more skeptical as he suspects the philosophical movement out

of Alexandria or other church leaders seeking converts could be responsible.

Gospel of Mark’s Homeric Influence?

The Iliad and the Odyssey were considered to be religious by the Greeks, thus

Plato’s desire to have the evil acts in these works omitted or allegorized. When Virgil

created the Aeneid between 29 and 19 BCE, the Iliad and the Odyssey had been used as a

source of inspiration.140 In essence, the Aeneid was the Roman equivalent of the Homeric

Epics. Dennis MacDonald contends that the writer of Mark was like Virgil and created

the Gospel of Mark as the Jewish equivalent of the Homeric Epics / Aeneid. According to

the book’s description, MacDonald has strong evidence for this conclusion: “Entire

episodes in Mark mirror Homeric episodes, including stilling the sea, walking on water,

feeding the multitudes, the Triumphal Entry, and Gethsemane”.141

Astrological Influence on the Gospels?

In the movie Zeitgeist: The Greatest Story Ever Told, the story of Bethlehem was

purported to have an astrological component. The claim goes something like this: Jesus is

a modern day Horus / Osiris, the birth of Osiris was accompanied by three kings and a

star in the east, the three kings were the stars in Orion’s belt, the star in the east was

Sirius, and the constellation Virgo was responsible for the born of a virgin in the city of

Bethlehem reference.

The accompanying source book to the movie cites the sources used for their

astrological claims.142 The following are several of the sources cited:

1. The birth of Osiris is accompanied by three kings and a star in the east:

- Budge in An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary shows a hieroglyph

140 E.G. Knauer, Vergil's Aeneid and Homer, (Cited in Wikipedia)141 The Homeric Epics Gospel of Mark, Amazon.com142 DM Murdok, Zeitgeist Source Book

that depicts Osiris as three loops representing the three kings of Orion’s belt and a

star below it representing Sirius.143

- Barbara G Walker in Woman’s Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets:

“Osiris‘s coming was announced by Three Wise Men: the three stars Mintaka,

Anilam, and Alnitak in the belt of Orion, which point directly to Osiris‘s star in

the east, Sirius (Sothis), significator of his birth.”144

- Dr. Allen cites the Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts:

“Look, he is come as Orion, (they say). ―Look, Osiris is come as Orion... The

sky shall conceive you with Orion, the morning-star shall give you birth with

Orion. Live! Live, as the gods have commanded you live. With Orion in the

eastern arm of the sky shall you go up, with Orion in the western arm of the sky

shall you go down. Sothis, whose places are clean, is the third of you two: she is

the one who will lead you...”145

2. Three kings approach the birth of the baby who lies in a manger:

- John Wilkinson in The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians references

a hieroglyphic that shows Ptah, Sokar, and Osiris approaching a baby Sokar who

lies in a manger during the winter solstice.146

3. Born of a Virgo

- Edward Carpenter in Pagan and Christian Creeds:Their Origin and Meaning:

Immediately after Midnight then, on the 25th December, the Beloved Son (or

Sun-god) is born. If we go back in thought to the period, some three thousand

years ago, when at that moment of the heavenly birth Sirius, coming from the

East, did actually stand on the Meridian, we shall come into touch with another

curious astronomical coincidence. For at the same moment we shall see the

143 Budge, An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary. (Cited in Zeitgeist source book.)144 Barbara G Walker, Woman’s Encyclopedia, (Cited in Zeitgeist source book)145 James Allen, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, (Cited in Zeitgeist source book)146 John Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, (Cited in Zeitgeist source book)

Zodiacal constellation of the Virgin in the act of rising, and becoming visible in

the East divided through the middle by the line of the horizon.

The constellation Virgo is a Y-shaped group, of which α, the star at the foot, is

the well-known Spica, a star of the first magnitude. The other principal stars, γ at

the centre, β and ε at the extremities, are of the second magnitude. The whole

resembles more a cup than the human figure; but when we remember the

symbolic meaning of the cup, that seems to be an obvious explanation of the name

Virgo, which the constellation has borne since the earliest times....

At the moment then when Sirius, the star from the East, by coming to the

Meridian at midnight signalled the Sun‘s new birth, the Virgin was seen just

rising on the Eastern sky—the horizon line passing through her centre. And many

people think that this astronomical fact is the explanation of the very widespread

legend of the Virgin-birth.147

4. Bethlehem is in the stars:

- Marisa Larson in the post “Bethlehem of Judaea—or of Galilee?” for

National Geographic:

“Archaeological excavations have shown that Bethlehem in Judaea likely did

not exist as a functioning town between 7 and 4 B.C., when Jesus is believed to

have been born. Studies of the town have turned up a great deal of Iron Age

material from 1200 to 550 B.C. as well as material from the sixth century A.D.,

but nothing from the first century B.C. or the first century A.D. Aviram Oshri, a

senior archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, says, ―There is

surprisingly no archaeological evidence that ties Bethlehem in Judaea to the

period in which Jesus would have been born.”148

- The Hebrew word Bethlehem literally means house of bread (Strong‘s Word

Hebrew 1035).149 Virgo is depicted holding wheat.150

- John Hazelrigg in The Sun Book:

147 Edward Carpenter, Pagan and Christian Creeds (Cited in Zeitgeist source book)148 Marisa Larson, Bethlehem of Judaea—or of Galilee? 149 Strong’s Word 1035, Strong's Concordance with Hebrew and Greek Lexicon. 150 Virgo the Virgin, Astrologycom.com

“According to the gospels: ―Joseph went up to Nazareth, which is in Galilee,

and came into the City of David, called Bethlehem, because he was of that tribe,

to be inscribed with Mary his wife, who was with child.‖ And here, in the City of

David of the celestial expanse, called Bethlehem, the sixth constellation, Virgo,

the harvest mansion, do we discover Joseph (the constellation of Bootes, Ioseppe)

and his wife Mary with the child. Here is personified a constellation whose very

name (Ioseppe, the manger of Io, or the Moon) typifies the humble place of

accouchement of all the Virgin Mothers, and, as related to Virgo, the genesis of

all Messianic tradition.”151

The aforementioned quotes demonstrate that the astrological hypothesis

appears to have solid evidence backing it. This belief is further substantiated by

the fact that Gospel of Mark, the earliest gospel, does not depict the birth of Jesus

and therefore the manger scene was added later (by pagans?).

The Zeitgeist movie also ties in the crucifixion account with the death of

Horus. While the idea of being crucified, buried for three days, and resurrected

may have been imported from Horus, 152 or from Attis whose “festival began as a

day of blood on Black Friday and culminated after three days in a day of

rejoicing over the resurrection,”153 the author of this document contends the

failed messianic attempts in the Palestinian region, along with Plato’s idea of the

just man dying after being tortured, were the likely sources of inspiration for the

dying messiah concept.

Roman Imperial Influence on Christianity

Without the power of the Roman state, the Christian religion probably doesn’t get

organized around a single creed. The first event that led to this organization was

Constantine’s adoption of the Christian belief system. There is no consensus as to

whether Constantine was converted or if he simply adopted his mother’s belief system

during his youth (she was Christian).154 Constantine’s adoption of Christianity was

151 John Hazelrigg, The Sun Book, (Cited in Zeitgeist source book)152 DM Murdok, Zeitgeist Source Book153 Gerald L. Berry, Religions of the World154 R. Gerberding, Medieval Worlds (cited in Wikipedia)

closely followed by other important events such as his issuance of the Edict of Milan

which established tolerance towards Christians,155 Constantine’s presiding over the Arian

controversy, the creation of anti-pagan laws, the declaration of Christianity as the official

state religion, the destruction of the Serepeum, the creation of the Vulgate, and the

destruction of Platonism.

The Arian Controversy

Arius became controversial for issuing the following claim: "If the Father begat

the Son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence: and from this it is evident,

that there was a time when the Son was not. It therefore necessarily follows, that he had

his substance from nothing".156 Arius was brought before Bishop Alexander who

demanded that Arius change his religious stance. When Arius refused, Bishop Alexander

and Anthansius persuaded Constantine the Great to summon 250 to 318 bishops to create

the First Council of Nicaea. During this council, Constantine demanded that the

Christians choose one creed, and the one chosen was the one promoted by Bishop

Alexander.157 This was not the end of the Arian controversy, but it was one of the events

that lead to the strengthening of the Roman Pontiff and the overall strengthening of the

organizational structure of the Christian Church.

The Antipagan Laws

Constantinus II was a son of Constantine and he ruled the Roman Empire from

337 – 361 AD. He enacted laws that closed all of the pagan temples and made Pagan

sacrifices a capital punishment. During his rule, many of the ancient Pagan temples,

tombs, and monuments were vandalized.158

Declaration of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire

On February 27, 380 CE, Theodosius, Gratian and Valentinian II created the

“Edict of Thessalonica” which declared that all Roman subjects would adhere to the faith

155 Constantine I and Christianity, Wikipedia156Arian controversy, Wikipedia157 First Council of Nicaea, Wikipedia158Persecution of Pagans by the Christian Roman Empire, Wikipedia

of the Roman and Alexandrian bishops. This made the Nicene Creed version of

Christianity the only legitimate religion of the empire. This declaration was necessary

because the Arian Controversy continued to persist after the Council of Nicea officially

“resolved” the mater.159

Destruction of the Serapeum

Serapis, the god Ptolemy created, was a very important pagan god in the Roman

era, and his temple, the Serapeum, was a very important religious site. One can think of

the Serapeum as being the pagan equivalent of the Temple Mount or St. Peter’s

Cathedral. It was destroyed and raided of its riches by either the Christians, or by the

Roman soldiers in 391 CE. 160 The destruction of the Serapeum helped eliminate the

Christian competition, as did the anti-pagan laws and the declaration of Christianity as

the official state religion.

Vulgate

The Vulgate was created in late 4th century by St. Jerome at the behest of Pope

Damasus I, and it helped organize the Christian religion around a single doctrine. Before

the Vulgate, there was not a single text that was considered canonical by the Christians161

and therefore alternative religious texts couldn’t be declared heretical. Afterwards, the

church solidified the power to dictate what people were allowed to believe.

Destruction of Platonism

Justinian I, a Byzantine emperor, established a policy of trying to create religious

unity within his empire by condemning forms of “heretical” worship. This policy led to

Neoplatonic Academy of Athens being put under Justinian’s control in 529 AD,

effectively ending the independent views of this philosophical school.162

Adopted Pagan Holidays

159 Edict of Thessalonica, Wikipedia160 Serapeum, Wikipedia 161 Vulgate, Wikipedia 162 Justinian I, Wikipedia

Halloween

Halloween was originally a Celtic holiday named Samhain that was a celebration

of the final harvest, as well as being a time to thin the heard of animals not likely to

survive the winter. The Celts likely held Samhain midway between the fall equinox and

the winter solstice (approximately from Nov 5 – 7). The Celts believed that this time of

year was when the separation between earth and their world for ghosts called "Tir nan

Og" was thinnest. The Celts would participate in rituals to make contact with their dead

ancestors. It was a hopeful celebration and not one made in fear of the dead.163 Pope

Gregory III moved All Saints Day to Nov 1 which caused the Christian holiday to closely

correspond with the date for the pagan Samhain.164 The name Halloween is derived from

the phrase “All hallows eve” which is a reference to the evening before All Saints Day.165

Easter

Multiple pagan religions had celebrations that occurred at or around the Spring

Equinox. Among these are Austron, a German fertility goddess, Astarte from Greece,

Ishtar from Assyria, Hathor from Egypt, and Ostara from the Norse culture. The Cebele

cult also worshipped during the spring equinox. Cebele’s consort was Attis who was

crucified and resurrected.166 According to etymonline, the word Easter is derived from the

pagan goddess Austron.167

Christmas

The winter solstice was traditionally a pagan celebration of the rebirth of their

solar deities. The winter solstice was chosen because this was the time of the year when

the days stop becoming shorter and began becoming longer. Some of the solar deities

whose birth was celebrated on December 25 were Attis, Dionysus, Osiris and Mithra.

These deities were given epithets such as Son of Man, Light of World, and Sun of

Righteousness. The Roman Emperor Aurelian attempted to establish religious unity by

163 B.A. Robinson, Halloween From a Wiccan/Neopagan Perspective164 B.A. Robinson, Halloween, Samhain, All Saints' Day Facts and Misinformation165 Etymonline.com, Halloween166 B.A. Robinson, Easter: Its Pagan origins167 Etymonline.com, Easter

establishing Sol Invictus as the Supreme god of the Roman Empire and declaring

December 25 as Sol Invictus’ birthday. The birthday of Jesus Christ was not known by

the early Christians. Clement of Alexandria noted that others suggested April 18, April

19 and May 28. Sextus Julius Africanus proposed December 25.168

Saturnalia was a celebration of the Roman god Saturn and it was celebrated from

December 17 to 23. This was a time for the slaves and their masters to switch roles, and it

was celebrated with gift giving and continual partying.169 The first Christmas celebration

known occurred in 336 CE. 170 The gift giving ritual found in Christmas may have been

due to Saturnalia.

168 B.A. Robinson, About Christmas: Why and When the Christian Church169 Saturnalia, Wikipedia 170 B.A. Robinson, About Christmas: Why and When the Christian Church

SummationThe Jewish and Christian religions are an agglomeration of religious traditions

and pagan philosophies. The stories and laws found in the Old Testament are often

derived from Near Eastern cultures. The Babylonian Enûma Eliš, the Egyptian Hymn to

the Creator God, and the Sumerian Enki and Ninhursag were used to create the creation

account. Tablet 11 of the Epic of Gilgamesh was incorporated into Genesis as the story of

Noah’s Ark. King Sargon’s birth became the birth of Moses. Nestor and Ereuthalion

became David and Goliath. Articles 196 and 200 of the Code of Hammurabi became the

famous eye for eye passage in the bible. Article 195 of the Code of the Nesilim became

the Jewish capital crime for having sex with both your wife and her mother (having sex

with her sister was ok, though). And the Ten Commandments themselves became

influenced by foreign contracts and customs such as Hittite suzerainty treaties and the

Egyptian Book of the Dead.

As time progresses, the Jewish religion is forced to adapt to new laws and

customs as they become a small part of vast empires. While hardly the first to rule over

the Jews, the Persian Empire had a lasting impact on the Jewish religion as concepts from

the Zoroastrian religion seeped into the Jewish religion. These concepts included the idea

of an omniscient, omnipotent and omnibenevolent God, Satan, heaven and hell, and a

heavenly savior. The Macedonian empire that conquered the Persians was also very

influential. Their mystery religions exposed the Jews to baptism, communion, and the

concept of mystery. Their philosophers introduced the Jews to logos, allegorical

interpretation, corporeal bodies, incorporeal souls, the demiurge, and the thoughts of

Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Antisthenes, Epicurus and Zeno.

Philo of Alexandria would combine the Greek philosophies with Judaism to

create a Judaist philosophical movement out of the city of Alexandria. At around the

same time, a messianic movement was occurring in the region of Palestine, and these two

movements would combine to form the Christian religion. What part, if any, Paul of

Tarsus had in this remains unclear. The organizational power of Rome enabled these

disorganized Christian movements to become a religion that could declare certain

thoughts and actions to be heretical. And, as time progressed, the Christian religion used

this power to obtain a monopoly on religious thought within the western world.

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Tolerance, 2012-MAR-26, http://www.religioustolerance.org/easter1.htm

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Useful Links Notes

http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com A source for anything Babylonian.

http://www.touregypt.net/ A source for anything Egyptian.

http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt Another source for anything Egyptian.

http://www.sacred-texts.com A source for early religious writing.

http://www.theoi.com A source for Greek and Roman writers

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu A source for Greek and Roman writers

http://www.heraclitusfragments.com A site that provides all of the fragments of

Heraclitus.

http://www.religioustolerance.org A source for data about religious topics.

http://www.friendsofsabbath.org/

Further_Research/ebooks/PHILO.pdf

The complete works of Philo of Alexandria.

http://jewishencyclopedia.com/ A source for anything Jewish (prior to 1906). Much

more informative than the Catholic Encyclopedia.

http://www.newadvent.org/ The Catholic Encyclopedia. It is fun to use the words

of their Church Fathers against them.

http://www.truthbeknown.com/ D. M. Murdok provides primary source information

about the origins of Christianity.

http://www.pocm.info Greg Kane also provides primary source

information about the origins of Christianity.

http://etymonline.com/ A source for the origins of words.

http://www.eliyah.com/cgi-bin/strongs.cgi Strong’s Concordance

Entertaining Videos Notes

The Jeselsohn Stone http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/videos/the-first-

jesus/ Highly recommended.

J, E, D, and P source http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=MlnnWbkMlbg&feature=channel&list=U Evid3nc3 talks

about the origins of Christianity in a straightforward manner.

It’s a good video though I have yet to read the book he cites

and therefore can’t trust some of the info yet. He makes good

videos in general.

Sun Gods (Zeitgeist) If you haven’t seen the Zeitgeist movie, you probably should.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oZgT1SRcrKE I would

recommend checking any claim against the source book.

http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/zeitgeistsourcebook.pdf

I feel the video places far too much emphasis on the Egyptian

religion and not nearly enough emphasis on Judaism,

Zoroastrianism, and the Greek philosophers. Plus the evidence

is overstated in places, particularly in regards to the claim that

Moses was the leader of an astrological age. While Christianity

may have astrological roots, Judaism does not appear to.

Further Reading:

An article that discusses the archeological evidence for the floods that occurred in the

Mesopotamian region. http://ncse.com/cej/8/2/flood-mesopotamian-archaeological-

evidence

An article about why archeologists believe the philistines were descended from the

Mycenaeans. http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/canaanites-and-philistines.asp

An article that discusses the evidence for why Yahweh is asserted to be a war God.

http://www.biblicalheritage.org/God/el-goi.htm

An article that discusses the influence of Mithraism.

http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Mithraism/mithraism_and_christianity

.htm

A book written by the Freudians that discusses the psychology of the hero myths (not as

interesting as it might sound, but it is still a good thing to scan.)

http://www.scribd.com/doc/22520901/The-Myth-of-the-Birth-of-the-Hero-Otto-Rank

I have no idea who wrote it, but he/she provides an excellent overview of the Eleusinian

mysteries. It looks like it is a thesis paper. http://www.scribd.com/doc/54939547/The-

Eleusinian-Mysteries

Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age by Antonia Tripolitis

The book has a Christian bias as the author clearly trusts the bible as a reliable

source of historical information and she calls the early Pagan arguments against the

illogicalness of Christianity “prejudicial,” but the book does provide a scholarly overview

of the religious that existed in the Greek and Roman eras including Gnosticism which I

have not discussed.

The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark by Dennis MacDonald

It is a book I have been meaning to read as it discusses the evidence for why he

believes the Gospel of Mark is based on the Homeric epics. It appears to be interesting.

I would recommend Andrew D. Benson’s The Origins of Christianity and the

Bible, but unfortunately it is no longer in print. If you do happen to read it, a few words

of caution. Only the first half of the book is accurate. Once Benson gets out of discussing

Judaism to discuss the origins of Christianity, he begins making unwarranted assumptions

such as a mysterious “First Gospel of Matthew” that supposedly was written before the

Gospel of Mark. He also assigns the Dead Sea Scrolls to the Essenes, and while this is a

majority opinion, it is not definitive. In short, his book is a good source of information for

textual comparison of the bible and the history of the Old Testament, but if you are going

to use information from it, verifying the claim with another source is recommended. His

citations are accurate and a good source of information.