rome

Roman Theatre and DramaRoman Theatre and Drama

General History and Cultural General History and Cultural ContextContext

Scholars date the founding of Rome at Scholars date the founding of Rome at 753 B.C.E. 753 B.C.E.

In 509 B.C.E. the Romans kick out the In 509 B.C.E. the Romans kick out the Etruscans and found their republic Etruscans and found their republic (just as Athens was becoming a (just as Athens was becoming a Democracy).Democracy).


By 265 B.C.E. Rome controls the By 265 B.C.E. Rome controls the entire Italian Peninsula.entire Italian Peninsula.

As a result of its expansion As a result of its expansion between 270 and 240 B.C.E., between 270 and 240 B.C.E., Rome took over several Greek Rome took over several Greek territories in which theatre had territories in which theatre had long flourished.long flourished.


By 240 B.C.E., (The year regular By 240 B.C.E., (The year regular comedy and tragedy were added to comedy and tragedy were added to the state-sponsored festival called the state-sponsored festival called Ludi RomaniLudi Romani) a great number of ) a great number of Romans were familiar with Greek art Romans were familiar with Greek art and theatre.and theatre.

It is this dateIt is this date (240 B.C.E) (240 B.C.E) that is that is often said to mark the beginning often said to mark the beginning of Roman Theatre.of Roman Theatre.


To understand Roman theatre, it is To understand Roman theatre, it is essential to recognize that drama in essential to recognize that drama in the Greek sense played only a small the Greek sense played only a small role in it.role in it.

Roman Theatre was always dominated Roman Theatre was always dominated by variety or popular entertainment.by variety or popular entertainment.


Roman Theatre encompassed acrobatics, Roman Theatre encompassed acrobatics, trained animals, jugglers, athletic events, trained animals, jugglers, athletic events, music and dance, dramatic skits, short music and dance, dramatic skits, short farces, and full length dramas.farces, and full length dramas.

The public was fickle and The public was fickle and frequently left one event for frequently left one event for another and demanded diversions another and demanded diversions capable of withstanding all capable of withstanding all competition.competition.

Etruscan InfluenceEtruscan Influence

Prior to 240 B.C.E Etruria was the dominant Prior to 240 B.C.E Etruria was the dominant influence on Roman theatrical activities.influence on Roman theatrical activities.

Sacred festivals in Etruria included acting, Sacred festivals in Etruria included acting, dancing, flute playing, juggling, dancing, flute playing, juggling, prizefighting, horseracing, acrobatics, and prizefighting, horseracing, acrobatics, and competitive sports. competitive sports.

Roman festivals inherited many features Roman festivals inherited many features from Etruria and therefore mingled diverse from Etruria and therefore mingled diverse activities in and atmosphere partly religious, activities in and atmosphere partly religious, partly secular, or even carnival-like.partly secular, or even carnival-like.


The Etruscans also originated The Etruscans also originated gladiatorial contests, as funeral gladiatorial contests, as funeral ceremonies rather then the form of ceremonies rather then the form of entertainment they became under entertainment they became under the Romans.the Romans.


In addition to Etruria, southern Italy also In addition to Etruria, southern Italy also contributed to Romecontributed to Rome’’s early theatre in the s early theatre in the form of its form of its Atellan farceAtellan farce ( (fabula Atellanafabula Atellana). ). These were probably short mimes, largely These were probably short mimes, largely

improvisedimprovised

and based on domestic situations and based on domestic situations

or mythological burlesque.or mythological burlesque. They were likely derived They were likely derived

from the Greek mimesfrom the Greek mimes

(phlyakes).(phlyakes).


By 240 B.C.E., when Greek drama By 240 B.C.E., when Greek drama was imported to Rome, various kinds was imported to Rome, various kinds of entertainments (music, dance, of entertainments (music, dance, farce, chariot races, and boxing) farce, chariot races, and boxing) were already well established at were already well established at Roman festivals. Regular drama wasRoman festivals. Regular drama was

merely added to them.merely added to them.

Cultural ContextCultural Context

So, by 146 B.C.E., Rome had So, by 146 B.C.E., Rome had conquered Greece and gradually conquered Greece and gradually absorbed the entire Hellenic world. absorbed the entire Hellenic world. Rome was heavily influenced by Greek Rome was heavily influenced by Greek

culture, most Roman art and literature culture, most Roman art and literature was based on was based on Greek Vase Greek Vase Roman VaseRoman Vase

Greek models.Greek models.


However, Romans should not be However, Romans should not be viewed as mere extensions of the viewed as mere extensions of the Greeks, their own character made Greeks, their own character made them reject much that was them reject much that was characteristic of the Greeks.characteristic of the Greeks.


RomeRome’’s history can best be understood s history can best be understood by dividing it into two phases:by dividing it into two phases:The Republic (509 - 27 B.C.E)The Republic (509 - 27 B.C.E)The Empire (27 B.C.E – 476 C.E.)The Empire (27 B.C.E – 476 C.E.)

It was the virtues of It was the virtues of

the Republic that the Republic that

enabled Rome to enabled Rome to

become a world power.become a world power.


But by 27 B.C.E., power had passed But by 27 B.C.E., power had passed from representative bodies to the from representative bodies to the emperor.emperor.


Elements of the same change can be Elements of the same change can be noted in the theatre.noted in the theatre.Under the rule of the republic, regular Under the rule of the republic, regular

drama prospered. drama prospered.


Under the empire, regular drama was largely Under the empire, regular drama was largely

abandoned in favor of variety entertainment. abandoned in favor of variety entertainment.


By the 2By the 2ndnd century C.E., women had gained century C.E., women had gained more rights and were respected members more rights and were respected members of society. of society.


Women engaged freely in birth control and Women engaged freely in birth control and entered freely almost any profession open to entered freely almost any profession open to men.men.

Roman women gave orders to maidsRoman women gave orders to maids Received visitors of both sexesReceived visitors of both sexes Enjoyed the better education, Enjoyed the better education,

leisure, and work.leisure, and work. Attended religious festivals, games, Attended religious festivals, games,

theatre, and circuses.theatre, and circuses.


Women became performers, clowns and Women became performers, clowns and gladiators, one even became Empress of gladiators, one even became Empress of the empire.the empire.

Sexual equality was legislated and Sexual equality was legislated and practiced to an unparalleled degree.practiced to an unparalleled degree.


Theatrical offerings, no matter what Theatrical offerings, no matter what the content, were thought to be the content, were thought to be pleasing to the Gods.pleasing to the Gods.

There were Roman counter parts to There were Roman counter parts to each of the Greek Gods and each of the Greek Gods and

Goddesses, and household Goddesses, and household

spirits and animalistic forces spirits and animalistic forces

were venerated as well.were venerated as well.

Greek and Roman God & Greek and Roman God & GoddessesGoddesses

Greek name Roman Name TitleGreek name Roman Name Title Zeus Jupiter King of Gods Zeus Jupiter King of Gods Apollo Phoebus Apollo God of Light Apollo Phoebus Apollo God of Light Hermes Mercury Hermes Mercury Messenger of the GodsMessenger of the Gods

Poseidon Neptune God of the Sea Ares Poseidon Neptune God of the Sea Ares Mars God of War Hephaestus Mars God of War Hephaestus Vulcan God of Fire Dionysus Bacchus Vulcan God of Fire Dionysus Bacchus God of Wine Pan Pan God of Wine Pan Pan God of Woods Eros Cupid God of God of Woods Eros Cupid God of Love Love

Hades Pluto God of Underworld Hades Pluto God of Underworld Athena Minerva Goddess of Wisdom Athena Minerva Goddess of Wisdom Artemis Diana Goddess of the Hunt Artemis Diana Goddess of the Hunt Aphrodite Venus Goddess of Love/Beauty Aphrodite Venus Goddess of Love/Beauty Hera Juno Queen of the GodsHera Juno Queen of the Gods

Demeter Ceres Goddess of Grain/Crops Demeter Ceres Goddess of Grain/Crops


As Rome expanded, new As Rome expanded, new

Gods and Goddesses were Gods and Goddesses were

continually added to the list.continually added to the list.

The Romans were a superstitious The Romans were a superstitious people fearful of offending any people fearful of offending any supernatural power.supernatural power.

Roman FestivalsRoman Festivals

Most state-sponsored theatrical Most state-sponsored theatrical performances in Rome were given at performances in Rome were given at official Roman Festivals, or official Roman Festivals, or Ludi,Ludi, honoring various Gods.honoring various Gods.A number of other festivals were given on A number of other festivals were given on special occasions:special occasions:

Major victories in warMajor victories in warDedication of public buildings or monumentsDedication of public buildings or monumentsFunerals of important peopleFunerals of important peopleOr when a private individual wished to win favorOr when a private individual wished to win favor

Roman FestivalsRoman Festivals The oldest of the official festivals was the The oldest of the official festivals was the Ludi Ludi

RomaniRomani, established in the 6, established in the 6thth century B.C.E. and century B.C.E. and given in honor of Jupiter each September.given in honor of Jupiter each September.

THE LUDI SAECULARES

(May-June, 17 B.C.)

The Ludi CircenesThe Ludi Circenes

Roman FestivalsRoman Festivals The The Ludi FloralesLudi Florales, which began in April, was an , which began in April, was an

ancient May Day celebration. Flora, the Roman ancient May Day celebration. Flora, the Roman goddess in whose honor the festival was held, goddess in whose honor the festival was held, was a goddess of flowers. The intension was to was a goddess of flowers. The intension was to please the goddess into protecting the blossoms. please the goddess into protecting the blossoms.

Ludi FloralesLudi Florales

Roman FestivalsRoman Festivals

Roman public games (ludi) were Roman public games (ludi) were financed financed

by minor public magistrates known as by minor public magistrates known as AedilesAediles. . • There were many other festivals There were many other festivals throughout the year which included throughout the year which included theatre, however, none honored the theatre, however, none honored the God Bacchus – the Roman equivalent God Bacchus – the Roman equivalent of Dionysus.of Dionysus.

Drama under the RomansDrama under the Romans

By the time Rome ceased to be a By the time Rome ceased to be a republic in 27 B.C.E., regular drama republic in 27 B.C.E., regular drama had already declined markedly and the had already declined markedly and the minor forms had become dominant.minor forms had become dominant.Of more than 900 years over which the Of more than 900 years over which the

history of Roman theatre extends, only history of Roman theatre extends, only about 200 are of much importance for about 200 are of much importance for drama since it was during this time that drama since it was during this time that most of the plays for performance were most of the plays for performance were written.written.


Roman literature is usually said to Roman literature is usually said to have begun with the foreigner have begun with the foreigner Livius Livius AndronicusAndronicus (240-204 B.C.E) (240-204 B.C.E) He wrote, translated and adapted He wrote, translated and adapted

comedies and tragedies that are now comedies and tragedies that are now considered the first important literary considered the first important literary works inworks in

Latin.Latin.


The first native-born dramatist was The first native-born dramatist was Gnaeus NaeviusGnaeus Naevius (270 – 201 B.C.E.) (270 – 201 B.C.E.) He did much to He did much to ““RomanizeRomanize”” the drama the drama

by introducing many Roman allusions by introducing many Roman allusions into the Greek originals and by writing into the Greek originals and by writing plays on Roman stories. plays on Roman stories.


Because comedy was more popular than Because comedy was more popular than tragedy in Rome, the names of many tragedy in Rome, the names of many comic writers have come down to us.comic writers have come down to us.

However, we only have plays from two However, we only have plays from two comedic authors.comedic authors. PlautusPlautus

TerenceTerence

PlautusPlautus

Titus Maccinus PlautusTitus Maccinus Plautus (254 – 184 (254 – 184 B.C.E.) was the first important B.C.E.) was the first important successor to Livius Andronicus and successor to Livius Andronicus and Naevius in comedy. Naevius in comedy.

PlautusPlautus

His popularity was so great that after His popularity was so great that after his death as many as 130 his death as many as 130 plays came to be attributed to him. plays came to be attributed to him.

PlautusPlautus

Few of the plays can be dated with Few of the plays can be dated with certainty, although all were probably certainty, although all were probably written between 205 and 184.written between 205 and 184.

PlautusPlautus

He added many Roman allusion and He added many Roman allusion and was much admired for his Latin was much admired for his Latin dialogue, his varied poetic meters, dialogue, his varied poetic meters, and his witty jokes. and his witty jokes.

Although his plays show a Although his plays show a

wide range of comic powers, wide range of comic powers,

Plautus is best known for his Plautus is best known for his

farce.farce.

TerenceTerence

Publius Terentius AferPublius Terentius Afer (195 or 185 – (195 or 185 – 159 B.C.E.) is said to have been born in 159 B.C.E.) is said to have been born in Carthage, brought to Rome as a slave Carthage, brought to Rome as a slave when he was a boy, educated, and when he was a boy, educated, and freed.freed.

He wrote 6 plays all of which survive:He wrote 6 plays all of which survive:Andria (166), Mother-in-law (165), Self-Andria (166), Mother-in-law (165), Self-

Tormentor (163), Eunuch (161), Phormio Tormentor (163), Eunuch (161), Phormio (161), and The Brothers (160).(161), and The Brothers (160).

TerenceTerence

TerenceTerence’’s plots are more complex s plots are more complex than those of his predecessors, than those of his predecessors, because he combined stories from because he combined stories from

more than one Greek more than one Greek

original, a practice for original, a practice for

which he was often which he was often

denounced.denounced.

TerenceTerence

The chief interest in his works, The chief interest in his works, however, does not lie in intrigue, but however, does not lie in intrigue, but in character and the double plots in character and the double plots that provided him with opportunities that provided him with opportunities for showing contrasts in human for showing contrasts in human behavior.behavior.

TerenceTerence

His sympathetic treatment of His sympathetic treatment of characters moves his plays toward characters moves his plays toward romantic or sentimental comedy. romantic or sentimental comedy.

Since he strove for consistency, he Since he strove for consistency, he avoided inserting Roman allusions into avoided inserting Roman allusions into the Greek plots upon which he drew.the Greek plots upon which he drew.

TerenceTerence

His language, that of everyday polite His language, that of everyday polite conversion, lacks the great metrical conversion, lacks the great metrical variety found in Plautusvariety found in Plautus’’ plays plays

Terence was much more conscious of Terence was much more conscious of artistic principals than Plautus, but artistic principals than Plautus, but he never equaled the latterhe never equaled the latter’’s s popularity.popularity.


Comedy ceased to be a vital form after Comedy ceased to be a vital form after about 100 B.C.E., but the works of Plautus about 100 B.C.E., but the works of Plautus and Terence survived, even after the and Terence survived, even after the decline of Rome, perhaps because they decline of Rome, perhaps because they were valued as models of spoken Latin.were valued as models of spoken Latin. Since later critics turned to Since later critics turned to them as the foremost them as the foremost examples of comic drama, examples of comic drama, the plays of Plautus and the plays of Plautus and Terence had an enormous Terence had an enormous influence on Renaissance influence on Renaissance comedy.comedy.


Although all of the existing Roman Although all of the existing Roman comedies are adaptations of Greek comedies are adaptations of Greek plays, Plautus and Terence did make plays, Plautus and Terence did make some minor changes in the structure of some minor changes in the structure of the originals. the originals.

One of the main things they didOne of the main things they did was eliminate the chorus, with was eliminate the chorus, with the result that the plays are not the result that the plays are not divided into episodes.divided into episodes.


Another important addition in the case of Another important addition in the case of Plautus was the musical accompaniment of Plautus was the musical accompaniment of the dialogue.the dialogue.

However, in subject matter, plot devices, and However, in subject matter, plot devices, and characterization, Roman comedy seems to characterization, Roman comedy seems to have differed little from Greek New Comedy.have differed little from Greek New Comedy.


The only Roman tragedies that The only Roman tragedies that survive are from a later period and survive are from a later period and all but one of these were written byall but one of these were written by

one author.one author.

SenecaSeneca

Lucius Annaeus SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca

(5 or 4 B.C.E. – 65 C.E.) Born in (5 or 4 B.C.E. – 65 C.E.) Born in

Spain, educated in Rome.Spain, educated in Rome.

Famous for his works on rhetoric and Famous for his works on rhetoric and

philosophy and became one of the most philosophy and became one of the most

influential men in Rome after his pupil influential men in Rome after his pupil

Nero was named emperor in 54 C.E. Nero was named emperor in 54 C.E.

Committed suicide in 65 C.E.Committed suicide in 65 C.E.

SenecaSeneca

Nine of SenecaNine of Seneca’’s plays survive:s plays survive:The Trojan Women, Medea, Oedipus, The Trojan Women, Medea, Oedipus,

Phaedra, Theyestes, Hercules on Oeta, Phaedra, Theyestes, Hercules on Oeta, The Mad Hercules, The Phoenician The Mad Hercules, The Phoenician Women, and Agamemnon.Women, and Agamemnon.

All were adapted from GreekAll were adapted from Greek

originals.originals.

SenecaSeneca

Since they helped shape tragedy in Since they helped shape tragedy in the age of Shakespeare their the age of Shakespeare their characteristics are important.characteristics are important.First, SenecaFirst, Seneca’’s plays were divided into 5 s plays were divided into 5

episodes. (During the Renaissance this episodes. (During the Renaissance this became standard).became standard).

Second, SenecaSecond, Seneca’’s elaborate s elaborate speeches, often resembling forensic speeches, often resembling forensic addresses, were imitated by addresses, were imitated by later writers.later writers.

SenecaSeneca

Third, SenecaThird, Seneca’’s interest in morality, s interest in morality, reflected through sensational deeds. reflected through sensational deeds.

Fourth, SenecaFourth, Seneca’’s scenes of s scenes of

violence and horror (for example, in violence and horror (for example, in Oedipus, Jocasta rips open her womb, and Oedipus, Jocasta rips open her womb, and in Thyestes, the bodies of children are in Thyestes, the bodies of children are served at a banquet) were imitated by served at a banquet) were imitated by later writers.later writers.

SenecaSeneca

Fifth, SenecaFifth, Seneca’’s preoccupation with s preoccupation with magic, death, and the merging of the magic, death, and the merging of the human and superhuman worlds human and superhuman worlds paralleled a major interest of the paralleled a major interest of the Renaissance.Renaissance.

Sixth, SenecaSixth, Seneca’’s creation of characters s creation of characters who are dominated by a single who are dominated by a single obsessive passion (such as revenge) obsessive passion (such as revenge) that drives that drives

them to their doom provided.them to their doom provided.

SenecaSeneca

Seventh, many of SenecaSeventh, many of Seneca’’s technical s technical devices, such as, soliloquies, asides, and devices, such as, soliloquies, asides, and confidantes, were taken over by later confidantes, were taken over by later authors.authors.

Thus, even though he is now, by Thus, even though he is now, by some, considered to be an inferior some, considered to be an inferior dramatist, dramatist,

Seneca exerted enormous Seneca exerted enormous

influence in later times.influence in later times.

Atellan Farce, Mime, and Atellan Farce, Mime, and PantomimePantomime

By the first century C.E., regular By the first century C.E., regular comedy and tragedy had totally lost comedy and tragedy had totally lost their popularity on the public stages.their popularity on the public stages.

However, there were minor forms However, there were minor forms that dominated the Roman repertory that dominated the Roman repertory from the first century B.C.E. onward. from the first century B.C.E. onward.

Four parts of ComedyFour parts of Comedy

ProloguePrologue

Prostasis - introduces the actionProstasis - introduces the action

Epistasis - complicationEpistasis - complication

Catastrophe - resolutionCatastrophe - resolution

The Fabula PalliataThe Fabula Palliata(Literally: a tale in Greek dress) Comedy (Literally: a tale in Greek dress) Comedy

translated wholly from Greek or, in later translated wholly from Greek or, in later years, a play that was mostly based on a years, a play that was mostly based on a Greek original. Greek original.

The word The word PalliataPalliata comes from the Latin comes from the Latin word, word, Pallium,Pallium, for a type cloak worn by for a type cloak worn by Greeks.Greeks.

The only substantial works that survive are The only substantial works that survive are from Plautus and Terence. from Plautus and Terence.

Only small line fragments remain from the Only small line fragments remain from the other authors.other authors.

The Fabula PalliataThe Fabula PalliataCommon elements include:Common elements include:

Exotic location (often somewhere in Greece) Exotic location (often somewhere in Greece) with witty servantswith witty servants

Lovesick young men and womenLovesick young men and women

Foolish old menFoolish old men

Everything wrapping up neatly by the end of Everything wrapping up neatly by the end of the play the play


Most importantly, the Most importantly, the Atellan farceAtellan farce and and MimeMime. .

Nonliterary forms until the 1Nonliterary forms until the 1stst century century

B.C.E. B.C.E.

Not until major forms began to declineNot until major forms began to decline

Atellan farce and the mime were first Atellan farce and the mime were first

written down.written down.


PomponiusPomponius and and NoviusNovius (100-75 B.C.E.) (100-75 B.C.E.)Credited with making it a literary form.Credited with making it a literary form.

At this time, the At this time, the AtellanaAtellana seem to have seem to have been short (perhaps 300-400 lines)been short (perhaps 300-400 lines)

Served as Served as ExodiaExodia, or , or afterpieces, to regular afterpieces, to regular drama.drama.


Emphasized rural settings, characters, and Emphasized rural settings, characters, and speech. speech.

ItIt’’s subject matter: s subject matter: Cheating, gluttony, fighting, or Cheating, gluttony, fighting, or

sexual exploits.sexual exploits.Rustic atmosphere Rustic atmosphere Use as an afterpieceUse as an afterpieceRomans associate it with the Romans associate it with the

satyr play.satyr play.

Atellan Farce, Mime, and Atellan Farce, Mime, and PantomimePantomimeFour stock characters appeared in the Four stock characters appeared in the

Atellana:Atellana:

BuccoBucco, the boisterous braggart, the boisterous braggartPappusPappus, the comic old man, the comic old manMaccusMaccus, the gluttonous fool, the gluttonous foolDossermsDosserms, a hunchback, a hunchback

Many historians trace Commedia Many historians trace Commedia delldell’’Arte back to the Atellan farce Arte back to the Atellan farce and these stock characters.and these stock characters.


MimeMime or or fabula riciniatafabula riciniata, , First clear reference to it is found in First clear reference to it is found in

Rome in 211 B.C.E.Rome in 211 B.C.E.Mime was transformed into a literary Mime was transformed into a literary

type in the 1type in the 1stst c. B.C.E. c. B.C.E.

Decimus LaberiusDecimus Laberius (106 – 43 B.C.E.) (106 – 43 B.C.E.) and his contemporary, and his contemporary, Publius Publius SyrusSyrus are usually credited with this are usually credited with this development.development.


Under the empire, the mime appears Under the empire, the mime appears to have reverted back to a to have reverted back to a nonliterary type, although its nonliterary type, although its popularity increased until it virtually popularity increased until it virtually drove all other forms from the stage.drove all other forms from the stage.


Usually short, dramatic form Usually short, dramatic form Sometimes elaborateSometimes elaborate Complex spectacle with Complex spectacle with

large casts.large casts.


They could be obscene or violent in They could be obscene or violent in content. content.

Usually there was some kind of depravity Usually there was some kind of depravity going on.going on.

Mimes reflected the taste of the period as Mimes reflected the taste of the period as can be seen from thecan be seen from theNumerous beatingsNumerous beatingsFightsFightsDeathsDeathsOther forms of violence.Other forms of violence.


Mimes disliked by the ChristiansMimes disliked by the Christians Beliefs were often mocked onstage.Beliefs were often mocked onstage.

Sufficient evidence to show that the mimes were Sufficient evidence to show that the mimes were artistically inferior.artistically inferior.

Much about their depravity Much about their depravity

and excesses comes fromand excesses comes from

Christian writers seeking toChristian writers seeking to

undermine the theatres undermine the theatres

appeal.appeal.


Mime troupes also presented a wide range Mime troupes also presented a wide range of incidental entertainment:of incidental entertainment:Tightrope walking and trapezes, fire-spittingTightrope walking and trapezes, fire-spittingsword swallowingsword swallowingjuggling with balls, daggers, and other objectsjuggling with balls, daggers, and other objectsstilt walkingstilt walkingtrained animalstrained animalssinging and dancing, etc.singing and dancing, etc.

Audiences were very fickle, so the range of Audiences were very fickle, so the range of mimic offerings was extremely wide.mimic offerings was extremely wide.


Under the empire, Under the empire, PantomimePantomime ((fabula salticafabula saltica) was also popular.) was also popular.

Roman pantomime was a forerunner Roman pantomime was a forerunner of modern ballet. of modern ballet.

Essentially aEssentially a

storytelling dance.storytelling dance.


A solo dance. A solo dance. Plots were usually taken fromPlots were usually taken from

mythology or history.mythology or history.The action was accompanied by a The action was accompanied by a

chorus (sang exposition) and an chorus (sang exposition) and an

orchestra of flutes, pipes, orchestra of flutes, pipes,

and cymbals.and cymbals.


Could be both comic and serious, the Could be both comic and serious, the serious form became most popular serious form became most popular and after the 2and after the 2ndnd century C.E. century C.E.

It was increasingly subordinated to It was increasingly subordinated to mime.mime.

HoraceHorace Quintus Horatius FlaccusQuintus Horatius Flaccus (65 – 8 B.C.E) (65 – 8 B.C.E)

Second only to Aristotle, Horace exerted a Second only to Aristotle, Horace exerted a major influence on later dramatic theory major influence on later dramatic theory during the renaissance. during the renaissance.

After publishing the Odes in 23 B.C.E., After publishing the Odes in 23 B.C.E., Horace wrote three episodes on the Horace wrote three episodes on the nature of poetry. nature of poetry.

The second of these The second of these was was Ars PoeticaArs Poetica, The Art of Poetry,, The Art of Poetry, which examines the merits of which examines the merits of philosophical expression over lyric poetry.philosophical expression over lyric poetry.

HoraceHoraceBased on decorum. Based on decorum.

Complains of silly plays with complicated Complains of silly plays with complicated scenery and disjointed plotsscenery and disjointed plots

Gives some clear-cut laws which will Gives some clear-cut laws which will become the become the credocredo of neoclassical writers: of neoclassical writers:

Characters in comedy must beCharacters in comedy must betypical, and speak and behavetypical, and speak and behaveaccording to their age and nature.according to their age and nature.

HoraceHoraceTraditional characters in Traditional characters in

tragedy must not be altered.tragedy must not be altered.

Invented characters must be Invented characters must be

consistent.consistent.

Unbelievable or immoral actions must be Unbelievable or immoral actions must be narrated and not shown on stage.narrated and not shown on stage.

Plays must have 5 acts.Plays must have 5 acts.

HoraceHoraceThe The deus ex machina deus ex machina must not be must not be

used in unworthy occasions.used in unworthy occasions.

Only three actors can speak at one Only three actors can speak at one time in a scene.time in a scene.

The chorus must behave like The chorus must behave like one of the actors, and sideone of the actors, and sidewith the good characters.with the good characters.

Actors and ActingActors and Acting

The usual term for actors in RomeThe usual term for actors in Rome

was was histrioneshistriones but but cantorescantores

(or declaimers) was also used.(or declaimers) was also used.

The majority of performers were The majority of performers were

male – women only appeared on male – women only appeared on

stage in mimes.stage in mimes.

Actors and ActingActors and ActingThe social status of the actor is much The social status of the actor is much

disputed. disputed. Some historians suggest that all Some historians suggest that all

actors were slaves owned by actors were slaves owned by company managers, or company managers, or DominiDomini..


Some actors were members of the Some actors were members of the collegium poetarum, an association of , an association of writers and actors founded in 207 B.C.E., writers and actors founded in 207 B.C.E., which would have only been given to which would have only been given to men with full civil rights.men with full civil rights.

Actors and ActingActors and ActingActing style probably varied Acting style probably varied

according to the dramatic form. according to the dramatic form. In comedy and tragedy, In comedy and tragedy,

acting seems to have followed acting seems to have followed

conventions already developed conventions already developed

by the Greeks.by the Greeks.


Contemporary writers also make it Contemporary writers also make it clear that expressive gesture and clear that expressive gesture and pantomime (perhaps heavily pantomime (perhaps heavily dependant on stock attitudes and dependant on stock attitudes and poses) were prominent in poses) were prominent in performance.performance.

Roman TheatresRoman Theatres

Roman theatresRoman theatres

were typically built onwere typically built on

ground level rather ground level rather

than cut out of a hillthan cut out of a hill

side as Greek theatres side as Greek theatres

were.were.


The facade or The facade or scaena fronsscaena frons, , of the of the stage stage

House, or House, or scaenascaena, was decorated with , was decorated with columns, niches, and statues. columns, niches, and statues.


The seating area was called a The seating area was called a caveacavea and and the parodoi were roofed over to provide the parodoi were roofed over to provide corridors and were called corridors and were called vomitoriavomitoria..

CaveaCavea

OrchestraOrchestra VomitoriaVomitoria Scaena fronsScaena frons ScaenaScaena

PompeyPompey

Orange-Southern FranceOrange-Southern France11stst C. AD C. AD

Other EntertainmentsOther Entertainments

Theatre had to compete with many Theatre had to compete with many other kinds of entertainments.other kinds of entertainments.

The oldest and most popular of these The oldest and most popular of these was Chariot racing.was Chariot racing.The races were included among the The races were included among the

events of several religious festivals events of several religious festivals during both the Republic and the during both the Republic and the Empire.Empire.

Other EntertainmentsOther EntertainmentsTheir popularity was enormous during Their popularity was enormous during

the empire, and was favored well into the empire, and was favored well into the 6the 6thth century C.E. century C.E.

Several other entertainments were Several other entertainments were given in the circuses (the most famous given in the circuses (the most famous being the being the Circus MaximusCircus Maximus, built to , built to accommodate chariot races:accommodate chariot races:


Gladiatorial contests provided Gladiatorial contests provided another kind of popular another kind of popular entertainment.entertainment.Before the end of the 1Before the end of the 1stst century C.E. the century C.E. the

contests were established throughout contests were established throughout the empire.the empire.


As time went by, contests became more As time went by, contests became more and more elaborate.and more elaborate.

Accompanied by mood music and sound Accompanied by mood music and sound effects, even appropriate costuming and effects, even appropriate costuming and scenic elements.scenic elements.

Other EntertainmentsOther Entertainments Special schools trained the Special schools trained the

gladiators, most of whom gladiators, most of whom

were slaves.were slaves.

Some free men voluntarily became gladiators, Some free men voluntarily became gladiators, as as

some reached a type of some reached a type of ““superstarsuperstar””

status. status.

Other EntertainmentsOther Entertainments Also female gladiators. They would have Also female gladiators. They would have

been pitted against each other.been pitted against each other. Contest between a man and a woman Contest between a man and a woman

would not have been considered fair. would not have been considered fair.

Other EntertainmentsOther EntertainmentsVenationesVenationes, or wild animal fights, , or wild animal fights,

were closely related to the were closely related to the gladiatorial contests and were also gladiatorial contests and were also staged in amphitheatersstaged in amphitheaters..

Other EntertainmentsOther EntertainmentsThe most famous amphitheater was The most famous amphitheater was

the the ColosseumColosseum (or Flavian (or Flavian Amphitheatre), opened in 80 C.E. Amphitheatre), opened in 80 C.E.

Other EntertainmentsOther Entertainments The Colosseum had a full network of The Colosseum had a full network of

tunnels, cages, and elevators to reveal tunnels, cages, and elevators to reveal gladiators or animals onto arena floor. gladiators or animals onto arena floor.

Other EntertainmentsOther EntertainmentsThese amphitheatres were built These amphitheatres were built

throughout the Roman Empire, throughout the Roman Empire, though none is as grand as the though none is as grand as the Colosseum.Colosseum.

Tunisia PompeiiTunisia Pompeii

Other EntertainmentsOther EntertainmentsMost spectacular of all the Most spectacular of all the

entertainments were the entertainments were the NaumachiaeNaumachiae, or sea battles. , or sea battles.

The first was given by Julius Caesar on a The first was given by Julius Caesar on a

lake dug for the occasion.lake dug for the occasion.Battle involving 2,000 marines and Battle involving 2,000 marines and

6,000 oarsman. 6,000 oarsman.

The Decline of the Roman The Decline of the Roman TheatreTheatre

The Roman theatre reached its height The Roman theatre reached its height during the 4during the 4thth century C.E. century C.E.

Although it continued for as a public Although it continued for as a public supported institution for another 200 supported institution for another 200 years, it has already years, it has already

encountered difficulties that would encountered difficulties that would eventually eventually

overwhelm it.overwhelm it.


One source of opposition was the One source of opposition was the rising Christian church.rising Christian church.Constantine (Emperor 324 – 377 C.E.) Constantine (Emperor 324 – 377 C.E.)

first made Christianity lawful, and first made Christianity lawful, and Theodosius I made the practice of any Theodosius I made the practice of any other religion unlawful in 393 C.E.other religion unlawful in 393 C.E.

The theatre was a favorite target of the Christians for The theatre was a favorite target of the Christians for at least three reasons:at least three reasons:1.1. It was associated with Pagan festivals.It was associated with Pagan festivals.

200AD Tertullian200AD TertullianAll forms of imitation are sinfulAll forms of imitation are sinfulPantomimes:Pantomimes:

Sex outside of marriageSex outside of marriageThieveryThieveryPhysical AbusePhysical Abuse

2.2. The licentiousness of the mimes offended the moral The licentiousness of the mimes offended the moral sense of the church leaders.sense of the church leaders.

3. Mimes often ridiculed church 3. Mimes often ridiculed church

practices.practices. Even mimicking was a Even mimicking was a ““falsificationfalsification””

Church leaders sought to dissuade Christians Church leaders sought to dissuade Christians from attending the theatre:from attending the theatre:Excommunication (Constantine)Excommunication (Constantine)

Church opposition alone did not cause the Church opposition alone did not cause the decline:decline:Decay of the Roman Empire from withinDecay of the Roman Empire from withinPressures from barbarian tribes without eventually Pressures from barbarian tribes without eventually

took their toll.took their toll.Other excesses:Other excesses:

Domitian used condemned men to be killedDomitian used condemned men to be killedElagabalus….adulterous scenes in comediesElagabalus….adulterous scenes in comediesMimi (mimes) making fun of religious practices. Mimi (mimes) making fun of religious practices.

Found audiences in provinces.Found audiences in provinces.

The last definite record of a The last definite record of a performance in Rome is found in a performance in Rome is found in a letter written in 533 C.E.letter written in 533 C.E.568-Justinian married an archimima 568-Justinian married an archimima

(leading actress in mime troupe) (leading actress in mime troupe) Theodora. Then she had to denounce Theodora. Then she had to denounce acting.acting.


Does not seem to have survived the Does not seem to have survived the Lombard invasion of (Justinian) 568 C.E.Lombard invasion of (Justinian) 568 C.E.

State recognition and support for State recognition and support for theatrical performances definitely theatrical performances definitely ceased.ceased.

Theatre in the western territories Theatre in the western territories returned to that obscurity out of which returned to that obscurity out of which it had slowly emerged some 900 years it had slowly emerged some 900 years earlier.earlier.

Circa 959 CECirca 959 CE

rome

Documents

beginning of roman theatre

cultural contextby

roman festivals

cultural contextromes

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cultural contextbut