Roman Religion and Roman Religion and WarfareWarfare

Roman Religion and WarfareRoman Religion and Warfare

Before Romans commenced any Before Romans commenced any hostilities, they needed to obtain the hostilities, they needed to obtain the favour of the godsfavour of the gods

Certain rituals had to be performed Certain rituals had to be performed Often vows were made to gods by Often vows were made to gods by

generals before a battle/campaign in generals before a battle/campaign in return for victoryreturn for victory

After victory sacrifices had to be made to After victory sacrifices had to be made to the gods; also after defeats to appease the the gods; also after defeats to appease the gods gods

Declaring War:Declaring War:The duty of the The duty of the fetialesfetiales

7272 The seventh division of his sacred institutions was The seventh division of his sacred institutions was devoted to the college of the fdevoted to the college of the fetialesetiales;; these may be called these may be called in Greek in Greek eirênodikaeirênodikaii or "arbiters of peace." They are or "arbiters of peace." They are chosen men, from the best families, and exercise their holy chosen men, from the best families, and exercise their holy office for life; King Numa was also the first who instituted office for life; King Numa was also the first who instituted this holy magistracy among the Romans ……this holy magistracy among the Romans ……

It is their duty to take care that the Romans do not It is their duty to take care that the Romans do not enter upon an unjust war againstenter upon an unjust war against any city in alliance any city in alliance with them, and if others begin the violation of treaties with them, and if others begin the violation of treaties against them, to go as ambassadors and first make formal against them, to go as ambassadors and first make formal demand for justice, and then, if the others refuse to comply demand for justice, and then, if the others refuse to comply with their demands, to sanction war. with their demands, to sanction war. 55 In like manner, if  In like manner, if any people in alliance with the Romans complain of having any people in alliance with the Romans complain of having been injured by them and demand justice, these men are to been injured by them and demand justice, these men are to determine whether they have suffered anything in violation determine whether they have suffered anything in violation of their alliance; of their alliance;

(Dionyssius of Halicarnassus II.72)(Dionyssius of Halicarnassus II.72)

Declaring war continuedDeclaring war continued

Numa had instituted religious Numa had instituted religious observances for times of peace, he observances for times of peace, he would hand down the ceremonies would hand down the ceremonies appropriate to a state of war. In order, appropriate to a state of war. In order, therefore, that wars might be not only therefore, that wars might be not only conducted but also proclaimed with conducted but also proclaimed with some formality, he wrote down the law, some formality, he wrote down the law, as taken from the ancient nation of the as taken from the ancient nation of the Aequioli, under which the Fetials act Aequioli, under which the Fetials act down to this day when seeking redress down to this day when seeking redress for injuries. The procedure is as follows: - for injuries. The procedure is as follows: -

The formulaThe formula The ambassador binds his head in a woollen fillet. When he has The ambassador binds his head in a woollen fillet. When he has

reached the frontiers of the nation from whom satisfaction is reached the frontiers of the nation from whom satisfaction is demanded, he says, "Hear, O Jupiter! Hear, ye confines" - naming demanded, he says, "Hear, O Jupiter! Hear, ye confines" - naming the particular nation whose they are - "Hear, O Justice! I am the the particular nation whose they are - "Hear, O Justice! I am the public herald of the Roman People. Rightly and duly authorised do public herald of the Roman People. Rightly and duly authorised do I come; let confidence be placed in my words." Then he recites the I come; let confidence be placed in my words." Then he recites the terms of the demands, and calls Jupiter to witness: "If I am terms of the demands, and calls Jupiter to witness: "If I am demanding the surrender of those men or those goods, contrary to demanding the surrender of those men or those goods, contrary to justice and religion, suffer me nevermore to enjoy my native justice and religion, suffer me nevermore to enjoy my native land." He repeats these words as he crosses the frontier, he land." He repeats these words as he crosses the frontier, he repeats them to whoever happens to be the first person he meets, repeats them to whoever happens to be the first person he meets, he repeats them as he enters the gates and again on entering the he repeats them as he enters the gates and again on entering the forum, with some slight changes in the wording of the formula. If forum, with some slight changes in the wording of the formula. If what he demands are not surrendered at the expiration of thirty-what he demands are not surrendered at the expiration of thirty-three days - for that is the fixed period of grace - he declares war three days - for that is the fixed period of grace - he declares war in the following terms: "Hear, O Jupiter, and thou Janus Quirinus, in the following terms: "Hear, O Jupiter, and thou Janus Quirinus, and all ye heavenly gods, and ye, gods of earth and of the lower and all ye heavenly gods, and ye, gods of earth and of the lower world, hear me! I call you to witness that this people" - mentioning world, hear me! I call you to witness that this people" - mentioning it by name - "is unjust and does not fulfil its sacred obligations. it by name - "is unjust and does not fulfil its sacred obligations. But about these matters we must consult the elders in our own But about these matters we must consult the elders in our own land in what way we may obtain our rights." land in what way we may obtain our rights."

consulting the senateconsulting the senate

With these words the ambassador returned to Rome With these words the ambassador returned to Rome for consultation. The king forthwith consulted the for consultation. The king forthwith consulted the senate in words to the following effect: "Concerning senate in words to the following effect: "Concerning the matters, suits, and causes, whereof the Pater the matters, suits, and causes, whereof the Pater Patratus of the Roman People and Quirites hath Patratus of the Roman People and Quirites hath complained to the Pater Patratus of the Prisci Latini, complained to the Pater Patratus of the Prisci Latini, and to the people of the Prisci Latini, which matters and to the people of the Prisci Latini, which matters they were bound severally to surrender, discharge, they were bound severally to surrender, discharge, and make good, whereas they have done none of and make good, whereas they have done none of these things - say, what is your opinion?" He whose these things - say, what is your opinion?" He whose opinion was first asked, replied, "I am of opinion that opinion was first asked, replied, "I am of opinion that they ought to be recovered by a just and righteous they ought to be recovered by a just and righteous war, wherefore I give my consent and vote for it." war, wherefore I give my consent and vote for it." Then the others were asked in order, and when the Then the others were asked in order, and when the majority of those present declared themselves of the majority of those present declared themselves of the same opinion, war was agreed upon. same opinion, war was agreed upon.

War commencesWar commences It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies' It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies'

frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at the end, and, in the presence of at least three adults, to the end, and, in the presence of at least three adults, to say, "Inasmuch as the peoples of the Prisci Latini have been say, "Inasmuch as the peoples of the Prisci Latini have been guilty of wrong against the People of Rome and the guilty of wrong against the People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of Rome and the Quirites have ordered that there be war with the Prisci Quirites have ordered that there be war with the Prisci Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Quirites Quirites have determined and decreed that there shall be have determined and decreed that there shall be war with the Prisci Latini, therefore I and the People of war with the Prisci Latini, therefore I and the People of Rome, declare and make war upon the peoples of the Prisci Rome, declare and make war upon the peoples of the Prisci Latini." With these words he hurled his spear into their Latini." With these words he hurled his spear into their territory. This was the way in which at that time satisfaction territory. This was the way in which at that time satisfaction was demanded from the Latins and war declared, was demanded from the Latins and war declared, and and posterity adopted the custom. posterity adopted the custom.

(Livy 1.32)(Livy 1.32)

devotiodevotioRoman Blood SacrificeRoman Blood Sacrifice

Roman religious ritual included blood sacrifices s in Roman religious ritual included blood sacrifices s in exchange for goodwill of the gods; usually these exchange for goodwill of the gods; usually these would be farm animals; large sacrificial victims such would be farm animals; large sacrificial victims such as bulls, etc., would be sacrificed by the as bulls, etc., would be sacrificed by the community/town/state.community/town/state.

Under exceptional circumstances victims could Under exceptional circumstances victims could include humans - include humans - devotiodevotio

devotiodevotio could be a could be a self-sacrificeself-sacrifice – a vow made by a – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.commander before a campaign in return for a victory.

It could also be captive enemies: Three times in the It could also be captive enemies: Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum BoariumGauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium

Execution of Christian martyrs were also described as Execution of Christian martyrs were also described as sacrificessacrifices

devotiodevotio – a general vows himself – a general vows himself to the gods to the gods

[Livy 8.9]The battle took place near the base of Mount [Livy 8.9]The battle took place near the base of Mount Vesuvius, where the road led to Veseris. Before leading out Vesuvius, where the road led to Veseris. Before leading out their armies to battle the consuls offered sacrifice. The their armies to battle the consuls offered sacrifice. The haruspex,haruspex, whose duty it was to inspect the different whose duty it was to inspect the different organs in the victims, pointed out to Decius a prophetic organs in the victims, pointed out to Decius a prophetic intimation of his death, in all other respects the signs were intimation of his death, in all other respects the signs were favourable. Manlius' sacrifice was entirely satisfactory. "It is favourable. Manlius' sacrifice was entirely satisfactory. "It is well," said Decius, "if my colleague has obtained favourable well," said Decius, "if my colleague has obtained favourable signs.“They moved forward to battle in the formation I have signs.“They moved forward to battle in the formation I have already described, Manlius in command of the right division, already described, Manlius in command of the right division, Decius of the left. At first both armies fought with equal Decius of the left. At first both armies fought with equal strength and equal determination. After a time the Roman strength and equal determination. After a time the Roman hastati on the left, unable to withstand the insistency of the hastati on the left, unable to withstand the insistency of the Latins, retired behind the principes. During the temporary Latins, retired behind the principes. During the temporary confusion created by this movement, Decius exclaimed in a confusion created by this movement, Decius exclaimed in a loud voice to M. Valerius: "Valerius, we need the help of the loud voice to M. Valerius: "Valerius, we need the help of the gods! Let the Pontifex Maximus dictate to me the words in gods! Let the Pontifex Maximus dictate to me the words in which I am to devote myself for the legions." … which I am to devote myself for the legions." …

DevotioDevotio continued continued The Pontifex bade him veil his head in his toga praetexta, The Pontifex bade him veil his head in his toga praetexta,

and rest his hand, covered with the toga, against his chin, and rest his hand, covered with the toga, against his chin, then standing upon a spear to say these words: "Janus, then standing upon a spear to say these words: "Janus, Jupiter, Father Mars, Quirinus, Bellona, Lares, ye Novensiles Jupiter, Father Mars, Quirinus, Bellona, Lares, ye Novensiles and Indigetes, deities to whom belongs the power over us and Indigetes, deities to whom belongs the power over us and over our foes, and ye, too, Divine and over our foes, and ye, too, Divine ManesManes, I pray to you, , I pray to you, I do you reverence, I crave your grace and favour that you I do you reverence, I crave your grace and favour that you will bless the Roman People, the Quirites, with power and will bless the Roman People, the Quirites, with power and victory, and visit the enemies of the Roman People, the victory, and visit the enemies of the Roman People, the Quirites, with fear and dread and death. In like manner as I Quirites, with fear and dread and death. In like manner as I have uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the have uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the commonwealth of the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the commonwealth of the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the legions, the auxiliaries of the Roman People, the Quirites, legions, the auxiliaries of the Roman People, the Quirites, devote the legions and auxiliaries of the enemy, together devote the legions and auxiliaries of the enemy, together with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth." After this with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth." After this prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at once prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at once announce to his colleague that he had devoted himself on announce to his colleague that he had devoted himself on behalf of the army. behalf of the army.

Into the midst of the enemyInto the midst of the enemy He then girded himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in He then girded himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in

full armour leaped upon his horse and dashed into the full armour leaped upon his horse and dashed into the middle of the enemy. To those who watched him in both middle of the enemy. To those who watched him in both armies, he appeared something awful and superhuman, as armies, he appeared something awful and superhuman, as though sent from heaven to expiate and appease all the though sent from heaven to expiate and appease all the anger of the gods and to avert destruction from his people anger of the gods and to avert destruction from his people and bring it on their enemies. All the dread and terror which and bring it on their enemies. All the dread and terror which he carried with him threw the front ranks of the Latins into he carried with him threw the front ranks of the Latins into confusion which soon spread throughout the entire army. confusion which soon spread throughout the entire army. This was most evident, for wherever his horse carried him This was most evident, for wherever his horse carried him they were paralysed as though struck by some death-they were paralysed as though struck by some death-dealing star; but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the dealing star; but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the Latin cohorts, in a state of perfect consternation, fled from Latin cohorts, in a state of perfect consternation, fled from the spot and left a large space clear. the spot and left a large space clear.

(Livy 8.9.1-10 – Samnite War)(Livy 8.9.1-10 – Samnite War)

Roman ambivalence about Roman ambivalence about devotiodevotio

““why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her (continued)(continued)

ambivalenceambivalence continuedcontinued private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and

headdress scattered in different directions, her headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (the spot (Plutarch, Plutarch, Roman QuestionsRoman Questions 83). 83).

Votive games (Votive games (muneramunera) held on ) held on the occasion of a military the occasion of a military

triumph triumph Ludi magni votivi Ludi magni votivi games vowed to Jupiter by generals games vowed to Jupiter by generals

before they set out on a military campaign before they set out on a military campaign During games in addition to regular gladiatorial contests, During games in addition to regular gladiatorial contests,

executions of executions of captivicaptivi (captured enemies) and criminals (captured enemies) and criminals took place; the blood of gladiators (who stood outside took place; the blood of gladiators (who stood outside Roman society) criminals and war captives was Roman society) criminals and war captives was considered offerings to the godsconsidered offerings to the gods

Regular Regular ludi votivi ludi votivi put on after 82 B.C. in honour of Sulla, put on after 82 B.C. in honour of Sulla, after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = ludi Caesaris ludi Caesaris

The The evocatioevocatio – seducing the – seducing the gods to change sidesgods to change sides

““Whether you are a god or a goddess who hold under your Whether you are a god or a goddess who hold under your protection the people and the city of Carthage, and you protection the people and the city of Carthage, and you also, almighty god, who have taken under your protection also, almighty god, who have taken under your protection this city and this people, to you I pray, you I implore, you I this city and this people, to you I pray, you I implore, you I respectfully ask to abandon the city and people of respectfully ask to abandon the city and people of Carthage, to desert their structures, temples, sanctuaries, Carthage, to desert their structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area, and to leave them. I ask you to instill in and urban area, and to leave them. I ask you to instill in that people and city fear, terror, and oblivion, and to come that people and city fear, terror, and oblivion, and to come to me and to my people when you have left these. I ask to me and to my people when you have left these. I ask that our structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area that our structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area may be more acceptable and more agreeable to you, and may be more acceptable and more agreeable to you, and that you may take under your protection me and the people that you may take under your protection me and the people of Rome and my soldiers in such a way that we may know of Rome and my soldiers in such a way that we may know and perceive it. If you will do this, I vow that I will build for and perceive it. If you will do this, I vow that I will build for you temples and celebrate your games.” (Macrobius, you temples and celebrate your games.” (Macrobius, Saturnalia ConversationsSaturnalia Conversations 3.9.7, 8. 3.9.7, 8.

evocatioevocatio

waswas a common practice in which one a common practice in which one or more of the enemy’s gods were or more of the enemy’s gods were evoked to change sides, and in evoked to change sides, and in return Romans would bring the cults return Romans would bring the cults of these deities to Rome and would of these deities to Rome and would build shrines or temples to honour build shrines or temples to honour them. them.

In short, the idea was to offer the In short, the idea was to offer the gods more honours: better houses gods more honours: better houses (temples) and bigger sacrifices.(temples) and bigger sacrifices.

The Roman TriumphThe Roman Triumph

God for a DayGod for a Day

God for a DayGod for a Day Military Triumphs, granted (by the senate) to Military Triumphs, granted (by the senate) to

victorious commander who had killed at least 5000 of victorious commander who had killed at least 5000 of the enemythe enemy

Roman triumph greatest achievement for a Roman Roman triumph greatest achievement for a Roman noblenoble

The general became god for a day – triumphant The general became god for a day – triumphant general dressed up like Jupiter: all in red – cloak and general dressed up like Jupiter: all in red – cloak and crown, face painted red; procession of general, his crown, face painted red; procession of general, his troops, captives, loot through city to centre. troops, captives, loot through city to centre. Temporary reversal of thingsTemporary reversal of things: normally army was : normally army was prohibited from entering Rome prohibited from entering Rome

Some sources claim a slave stood next to general, Some sources claim a slave stood next to general, whispering into his ear: “remember you are a man.”whispering into his ear: “remember you are a man.”

Soldiers were allowed to shout insults and obscenities Soldiers were allowed to shout insults and obscenities at general in order to prevent jealousy of godsat general in order to prevent jealousy of gods

The Roman State and the The Roman State and the GodsGods

Roman magistrates (senators) were closer to the gods than Roman magistrates (senators) were closer to the gods than ordinary Romansordinary Romans

It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the pax pax deorum deorum

Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being of Rome, success of state dependent on common purpose of Rome, success of state dependent on common purpose of human and divine leadersof human and divine leaders

Chief magistrates were also the priests, i.e. Caesar was Chief magistrates were also the priests, i.e. Caesar was pontifex maximuspontifex maximus; Cicero as consul was also an augur, ; Cicero as consul was also an augur, etc.,etc.,

until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-year positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one year positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one individual to the godsindividual to the gods

In the Imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most In the Imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most important priesthoodsimportant priesthoods

Republican Generals and the Republican Generals and the Gods Gods

Great Republican generals managed to extend or repeat offices and Great Republican generals managed to extend or repeat offices and

special commands that gave them power for long periods special commands that gave them power for long periods They now claimed They now claimed long-term association with the godslong-term association with the gods Symbolized by: triumphs, displaying themselves (or had them treated Symbolized by: triumphs, displaying themselves (or had them treated

by others) by others) as favourites of godsas favourites of gods, or even , or even like godslike gods Clear elevation of powerful figures: Scipio Africanus (late 2Clear elevation of powerful figures: Scipio Africanus (late 2ndnd century century

BCE) is accused of having claimed a close association with Jupiter BCE) is accused of having claimed a close association with Jupiter Optimus MaximusOptimus Maximus

Aemilius Paullus after defeating Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BCE Aemilius Paullus after defeating Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BCE was granted a triumph and was granted a triumph and allowed to wear triumphal dress at all allowed to wear triumphal dress at all Circus games; Circus games; same honours given to Pompey in 63 BCE same honours given to Pompey in 63 BCE

Marius (7 times consul, was given triumph for victory over Marius (7 times consul, was given triumph for victory over African king Jugurtha and over the Germans), entered the African king Jugurtha and over the Germans), entered the Roman senate in triumphal outfit; offence to senators, but Roman senate in triumphal outfit; offence to senators, but loved by loved by populuspopulus

Iulius Caesar topped them all – when he was allowed to wear the Iulius Caesar topped them all – when he was allowed to wear the triumphal costume on all public occasion – serious break with traditiontriumphal costume on all public occasion – serious break with tradition

Military Conquest and the GodsMilitary Conquest and the Gods

Rome’s success was also the success of the godsRome’s success was also the success of the gods Divine allegiance was important for a successful Roman Divine allegiance was important for a successful Roman

politician; in Republican era connection with gods, politician; in Republican era connection with gods, alienation of gods from rivals had to be constantly paraded alienation of gods from rivals had to be constantly paraded

For example: Octavian claimed success with the support For example: Octavian claimed success with the support of Apollo, in his capacity as healing god, against his final of Apollo, in his capacity as healing god, against his final opponent Antony who had likened himself to the god opponent Antony who had likened himself to the god Dionysos (god of wine, fertility)Dionysos (god of wine, fertility)

By the late Republic – Dionysos represented all the By the late Republic – Dionysos represented all the decadence and decadence and luxuria ofluxuria of the eas the eas

Military and political successMilitary and political success brought men into close brought men into close association with gods (triumphant general became god for association with gods (triumphant general became god for a day)a day)

In late Republic, the status of successful politician moved In late Republic, the status of successful politician moved increasingly closer to the status of the divine increasingly closer to the status of the divine

Culmination of trend: Iulius Caesar who was declared a god Culmination of trend: Iulius Caesar who was declared a god after his death after his death

Restored arch of TitusRestored arch of Titus

Victory Arch of TitusVictory Arch of Titus

SENATVSSENATVSPOPVLVSQUE ROMANVSPOPVLVSQUE ROMANVSDIVO TITO DIVI VESPASIANI FDIVO TITO DIVI VESPASIANI FVESPASIANO AUGUSTOVESPASIANO AUGUSTO

“The Senate and people of Rome (dedicate “The Senate and people of Rome (dedicate this) to the deified Titus Vespasian this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian.” Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian.” This is the Arch of Titus: a tribute felt to a This is the Arch of Titus: a tribute felt to a man who was a hero, an emperor, and a man who was a hero, an emperor, and a god of Rome god of Rome

Arch of TitusArch of Titus spoils of the First Jewish spoils of the First Jewish

War on their way to be War on their way to be displayed for the displayed for the satisfaction of the Roman satisfaction of the Roman mob. Chosen to represent mob. Chosen to represent the vast wealth brought the vast wealth brought back from Judea are the back from Judea are the most sacred artifacts of most sacred artifacts of the Jewish faith: the seven-the Jewish faith: the seven-branched menorah, the branched menorah, the silver trumpets, and the silver trumpets, and the table of showbread, all table of showbread, all plundered from the plundered from the innermost sanctum of the innermost sanctum of the Jewish temple Jewish temple

The Punic WarsThe Punic WarsA series of three wars with Carthage.A series of three wars with Carthage.Rome and Carthage came in conflict Rome and Carthage came in conflict

with each other as Rome expanded into with each other as Rome expanded into Southern Italy and the Western Southern Italy and the Western Mediterranean. Mediterranean.

First Punic War: 264 BCE – 241 BCE.First Punic War: 264 BCE – 241 BCE.Second Punic War: 218 BCE – 202 BCE.Second Punic War: 218 BCE – 202 BCE.Third Punic War: 148 BCE – 146 BCE.Third Punic War: 148 BCE – 146 BCE.

Carthage and Phoenician Carthage and Phoenician ColonizationColonization

http://www.utexas.edu/courses/classicalarch/images3/mapGrkColonies.jpg

Consequences of First Punic War

Rome developed into a powerful naval power

Has now expanded beyond Italian penninsula

Acquired its first overseas provinces

The Opening PhasesThe Opening Phases Hannibal unable to defeat powerful Roman navy invades Italy by Hannibal unable to defeat powerful Roman navy invades Italy by

marching through Gaul and over the Alps; accumulates allied troops marching through Gaul and over the Alps; accumulates allied troops along the way.along the way.

Hannibal has three successive victories: Battle of TicinusHannibal has three successive victories: Battle of Ticinus (218 BCE), (218 BCE), at Trebia (218 BCE – 30,000 Romans killed/captured) at Trasimene at Trebia (218 BCE – 30,000 Romans killed/captured) at Trasimene (217 BCE – ca. 40,000 killed/captured).(217 BCE – ca. 40,000 killed/captured).

Plunders the Italian countryside as he moves south 217 BCE – Roman victories by Q. Fabius Cunctator217 BCE – Roman victories by Q. Fabius Cunctator (The Delayer).(The Delayer). 216 BCE – Battle of Cannae Roman suffers enormous defeat (65,000 216 BCE – Battle of Cannae Roman suffers enormous defeat (65,000

Romans killed/captured).Romans killed/captured). Hannibal comes very close to Rome, but did not have siege equipment

and resources to besiege city 215 BCE – Hannibal forms alliance with Philip V of Macedon (First 215 BCE – Hannibal forms alliance with Philip V of Macedon (First

Macedonian War, 215-205 BCE). Macedonian War, 215-205 BCE). Rome is in troubleRome is in trouble

Hannibal’s Invasion of ItalyHannibal’s Invasion of Italy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hannibal_route_of_invasion-en.svg

The Final Phase of the WarThe Final Phase of the War 205 BCE – Carthaginian fleet sent to reinforce 205 BCE – Carthaginian fleet sent to reinforce

Hannibal in Italy destroyed in storm; Hannibal is now Hannibal in Italy destroyed in storm; Hannibal is now completely cut off.completely cut off.

204 BCE – Scipio prepares for invasion and sails to 204 BCE – Scipio prepares for invasion and sails to AfricaAfrica

Pretends to negotiate peace with Carthage but Pretends to negotiate peace with Carthage but destroys unsuspecting Carthaginian troops during destroys unsuspecting Carthaginian troops during negotiations.negotiations.

203 BCE – Hannibal is recalled to defend Carthage.203 BCE – Hannibal is recalled to defend Carthage. 202 BCE –P. Cornelius Scipio defeats Hannibal at the 202 BCE –P. Cornelius Scipio defeats Hannibal at the

battle of Zama; (Adds Africanus to his name) battle of Zama; (Adds Africanus to his name)

Peace Terms of 201 BCEPeace Terms of 201 BCE Carthage must give up all territories outside Africa.Carthage must give up all territories outside Africa. Numidia receives independence as a “client-Numidia receives independence as a “client-

kingdom” of Rome.kingdom” of Rome. Carthaginian fleet reduced to ten triremes Carthaginian fleet reduced to ten triremes Had to pay indemnity of 10,000 talents.Had to pay indemnity of 10,000 talents. Had to ask permission from Rome to wage war (even Had to ask permission from Rome to wage war (even

in self-defence)in self-defence)

Scipio Africanus Scipio Africanus Livy 30.45.1-7 on Scipio’s TriumphLivy 30.45.1-7 on Scipio’s Triumph

““With peace made by land and sea, and his army embarked on With peace made by land and sea, and his army embarked on ships, Scipio crossed to Lilybaeum in Sicily. After sending a large ships, Scipio crossed to Lilybaeum in Sicily. After sending a large proportion of his soldiers on shipboard, he made his way to Rome proportion of his soldiers on shipboard, he made his way to Rome through Italy, which was enjoying peace just as much as the victory, through Italy, which was enjoying peace just as much as the victory, while not only the cities poured out to honour him, but crowds of while not only the cities poured out to honour him, but crowds of country folk also blocked the roads, and on his arrival he rode into country folk also blocked the roads, and on his arrival he rode into the city in the most distinguished of triumphs. He brought into the the city in the most distinguished of triumphs. He brought into the treasury 123,000 pounds of silver in weight. To the soldiers he treasury 123,000 pounds of silver in weight. To the soldiers he distributed 400 asses each from the booty...Whether his popularity distributed 400 asses each from the booty...Whether his popularity with the soldiers or the favour of the people first gave him the with the soldiers or the favour of the people first gave him the honorific surname of Africanus, just like Felix for Sulla and Magnus honorific surname of Africanus, just like Felix for Sulla and Magnus for Pompey in our fathers’ time I cannot say. He was certainly the for Pompey in our fathers’ time I cannot say. He was certainly the first general to be distinguished by the name of a nation conquered first general to be distinguished by the name of a nation conquered by him; later, following his example, men who were in no way his by him; later, following his example, men who were in no way his equals in victory won eminent superscriptions for their masks and equals in victory won eminent superscriptions for their masks and glorious surnames for their families.” glorious surnames for their families.”

Polybius on the Destruction of Polybius on the Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE)Carthage (146 BCE)

““Scipio, when he looked upon the city as it was utterly Scipio, when he looked upon the city as it was utterly perishing and in the last throes of its complete destruction, perishing and in the last throes of its complete destruction, is said to have shed tears and wept openly for his enemies. is said to have shed tears and wept openly for his enemies. 2 After being wrapped in thought for long, and realizing 2 After being wrapped in thought for long, and realizing that all cities, nations, and authorities must, like men, meet that all cities, nations, and authorities must, like men, meet their doom; that this happened to Ilium, once a prosperous their doom; that this happened to Ilium, once a prosperous city, to the empires of Assyria, Media, and Persia, the city, to the empires of Assyria, Media, and Persia, the greatest of their time, and to Macedonia itself, the brilliance greatest of their time, and to Macedonia itself, the brilliance of which was so recent, either deliberately or the verses of which was so recent, either deliberately or the verses escaping him, he said: ‘A day will come when sacred Troy escaping him, he said: ‘A day will come when sacred Troy shall perish, And Priam and his people shall be slain.’” shall perish, And Priam and his people shall be slain.’” (Polybius, 38.22.) (Polybius, 38.22.)