roger d. blackwell paul w. miniard james f. engel


Roger D. Blackwell Paul W. Miniard James F. Engel

Consumer Behavior

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to the following address:

Permissions Department, Thomson Business and Economics

5109 Natorp BoulevardMason, OH 45040

800–423–0563


Shaping Consumers’ Opinions

CHAPTER 15


Opinion Formation


Opinion FormationOpinion formation: the first time we develop a belief, feeling, or attitude about something


Opinion FormationOpinion formation: the first time we develop a belief, feeling, or attitude about something

Comprehension: involves the interpretation of a stimulus

When meaning is attached to the stimulus

The meaning depends on what occurs during stimulus processing


Opinion FormationStimulus categorization: classifying stimulus using the mental concepts and categories stored in memory

The category to which a product is assigned will affect how the product is interpreted

Products and advertisements can be miscategorized


Encouraging the Activation of Particular Mental Categories


Opinion FormationWhen consumers pay attention to advertising, they may experience:

Cognitive responses: thoughts evoked by the ad

Affective responses: feelings evoked by the ad


Opinion FormationDifferent advertisements require different amounts of processing

Information-laden ads require extensive processing, while simple ads require less processing

As consumers invest varying amounts of cognitive effort in comprehending information, they will have different interpretations of advertisements


Opinion FormationClassical conditioning


Opinion Formation

The meaning, feelings, and liking associated with one object can be transferred to another object by simply pairing the two objects together

Classical conditioning


Opinion Formation

The unconditioned stimulus (US) evokes an unconditioned response (UR)

The unconditioned response can be transferred to a conditioned stimulus (CS) through simple association

Because this response arises from the conditioning, it is called the conditioned response (CR)

Classical conditioning


The Classical Conditioning Approach to Influencing Consumer Attitudes

KnivesKnives SharpnessSharpness(US) (UR)



ProductProduct

KnivesKnives SharpnessSharpness(US)

(CS)

(UR)



Sharp flavorSharp flavorProductProduct

KnivesKnives SharpnessSharpness(US)

(CS)

(UR)

(CR)


Product Irrelevant Stimuli Can Enhance Product Liking


Opinion Formation

It frees companies from the constraints imposed by how well the product actually performs

Simple association works without requiring consumers to undertake extensive thinking during processing

The power of association in shaping consumers’ opinions


Opinion Formation: The Content of Processing

The Central Process of Opinion Formation

The Peripheral Process of Opinion Formation



Central process: process in which opinions are formed from a thoughtful consideration of relevant information



Central process: process in which opinions are formed from a thoughtful consideration of relevant information

These opinions are very sensitive to the strength or quality of the relevant information presented

Ads describing brand advantages lead to more favorable opinions



The persuasiveness of an ad’s claims depends on the thinking undertaken during processing

The extent to which opinions about the advertised product were affected by the ad claims depends on the amount of product-relevant thinking during processing


The Influence of Advertising Claims Depends on the Thinking That Occurs During Ad Processing

MoreLessAmount of relevant thinking during ad

processing

Favorability of post-

message product

opinions


The Influence of Advertising Claims Depends on the Thinking That Occurs During Ad Processing

MoreLess

Weaker ad claims

Stronger ad claims

Amount of relevant thinking during ad processing


message product

opinions



What is the potential for nonclaim advertising elements to provide product-relevant information?

When relatively little thinking is done during processing, opinions are unaffected by picture manipulation

When more thinking occurs, opinions are more likely to change


The Influence of Pictures That Convey Product-Relevant Information also Depends on Thinking During Processing


processing


message product

opinions


The Influence of Pictures that Convey Product-Relevant Information also Depends on Thinking During Processing

MoreLess

Irrelevant ad picture

Relevant ad picture



message product

opinions



Peripheral process: leads to the formation of opinions without thinking about relevant information



Peripheral process: leads to the formation of opinions without thinking about relevant information

Often attitude toward an ad is an important determinant of advertising effectiveness in shaping opinions

Peripheral cues: stimuli devoid of product-relevant information


Peripheral Pictures Become More Influential When Product-Relevant Thinking Declines During Ad Processing


processing


message product

opinions


Peripheral Pictures Become More Influential When Product-Relevant Thinking Declines During Ad Processing

MoreLess

Negative irrelevant picture

Positive irrelevant picture



message product

opinions



The attractive picture caused subjects to develop more favorable product opinions than did the unattractive picture when thinking about the product’s merits was minimal

When thinking was more likely, opinions were unaffected by the pictures


Influence of Biased Processing

Other factors may bias or alter information processing and cause a change in how the information is interpreted

Expectations and mood states may bias information


The “Broken B” Stimulus: Prior Expectations Affect Perceptions


Opinion Change


Opinion Change

Any subsequent modification in an existing opinion represents opinion change


Opinion Change

Any subsequent modification in an existing opinion represents opinion change

Whenever consumers have opinions that may prevent them from buying a product, businesses may strive to change consumers’ opinions


Opinion Change

The need to change consumers’ product opinions often arises for mature products


Opinion Change

The need to change consumers’ product opinions often arises for mature products

Sometimes changing consumers’ opinions requires improving or changing the product itself (updating its image, packaging or claims)


Opinion ChangeThe differential threshold: the smallest change in stimulus intensity that will be noticed

Just noticeable difference (jnd)

Weber’s law: achieving jnd depends on more than simply the absolute amount of change

Consumers will perceive a $1.00 discount as significant if it is on a $2.00 item, but not for a $100 item


The Difficulty of Changing Consumers’ Opinions

Influencing opinions at the time they are formed is easier than changing preexisting opinions, especially if they are confident

Consumers’ resistance to change varies from opinion to the next and depends on whether it is based on direct or indirect experience


The Danger of Changing Consumers’ Opinions

Making changes can improve the opinions of some but harm the opinions of others

Changes in a products’ image may attract one segment but alienate another

Sacrifices are acceptable as long as the losses are more than offset by the new customers gained


How Businesses Shape Consumers’ Opinions


Product name

Product packaging

Colors

Price perceptions



Free product samples

Advertising

Product endorsers

Message framing



The Product’s Name Influences Opinion Formation

The meaning derived from the name may influence the opinion formed about the product

When it conveys the wrong meaning, sales can suffer


The Product’s Name Influences Opinion Formation

Research on composite branding shows the brand name appearing first has the strongest influence on attributes associated with that name

Descriptive names and labels have also been seen to influence consumers’ opinions and behaviors


Order of Composite Brand Names Influences Product Opinions


The Influence of Descriptive Names


Product Packaging Influences Opinion Formation

Product packaging creates expectations of the product and its capabilities including impressions of how much product is inside the package

Packages are effective at drawing attention particularly when they have an unusual shape or are taller and thinner as opposed to shorter but wider packaging


Product Packaging Influences Opinion Formation

Me-too product packaging, which imitates packaging of a leading brand, tries to create favorable opinions with consumers

Stimulus generation occurs when, for an existing stimulus-response relationship, the more similar a new stimulus is to the existing one, the more likely it will evoke the same response


Color Influences Opinion Formation

Consumer opinions are often tied to the product’s color (which conveys meaning)

Color granules in detergents and cold capsules serve as a visual cue for products’ effectiveness

Pastel colored vacuum cleaners are perceived to be lighter in weight rather than dark colored tones


Color Influences Opinion Formation

Colors of foods may change expectations of flavor and also change perceived flavor (vanilla pudding that is colored chocolate)

Websites that use blue screens are seen as more relaxing with faster download times than those with yellow screens


Price PerceptionsNine-ending prices: when the last digit of the price is the number 9, it signals a lower price or is mentally rounded down

Given a price of $19.99, it can be viewed as $19.00 instead of $20.00


Price PerceptionsReference pricing: information about a price other than that actually charged for the product is provided


Price PerceptionsReference pricing: information about a price other than that actually charged for the product is provided

Price tag may carry actual price and manufacturer recommended price or price previously charged

Designed to encourage consumers to form a favorable opinion about the reasonableness of the price


Free Product Samples Influence Opinion Formation

Free samples (gifting) can be effective when introducing a new product

They encourage trial and help foster positive opinions


Impact of Free Samples on Purchase Behavior: Free Samples Boost Trial Purchasing

Months 1 2 3 4 5 6

11.4%

16%

Based on eight brand composite

Percentage of house-

holds buying

Free Sample Recipients

Control


Impact of Free Samples on Purchase Behavior: Free Sample-Induced Triers Tend to Be Better Repeaters

Months 1 2 3 4 5 6

31.8%

35.7%

Based on eight brand composite

Percentage of triers

repurchasingFree Sample Recipients

Control


Advertising Influences Opinion Formation

Advertising Appeals



Informational advertising appeals attempt to influence consumers’ beliefs about the advertised product

Emotional advertising appeals try to influence consumers’ feelings about the advertised product



Utilitarian advertising appeals aim to influence consumers’ opinions about the advertised product’s ability to perform its intended function

Value-expressive advertising appeals attempt to influence consumers’ opinions about the advertised product’s ability to communicate something about the use of the product



Advertising Appeals

The appropriateness of using a particular type of appeal depends on what’s important to consumers as they form their product opinions

Products can be valued for both their utilitarian and value-expressive properties



Advertising Claims



Stronger claims create more favorable product opinions

Relevancy makes claims stronger

Strength also depends on what the ad conveys about the product’s characteristics and benefits


Ad claim substantiation is important in opinion formation

Testimonials and product demonstrations are effective ways to substantiate claims



Search claims: claims that can be validated before purchase by examining information readily available in the marketplace




Experience claims: claims that require product consumption for verification




Experience claims: claims that require product consumption for verification

Credence claims: claims whose verification is impossible/unlikely



Objective claims focus on factual information that is not subject to individual interpretations

Subjective claims are ones that may evoke different interpretations across individuals

Objective claims are more persuasive than subjective claims




Advertising Executional Elements

Other elements play a role in the persuasion process:

Pictures

Camera angles

Typeface


Product Endorsers Influence Opinion Formation

Association with brand may be reason enough to buy it

Endorsers may embody meanings that companies want attached to their brands

Endorsers can help shape product opinions in several ways:



Match-up hypothesis: endorsers are more effective when perceived as appropriate for the product

Association with brand may be reason enough to buy it

Endorsers may embody meanings that companies want attached to their brands

Endorsers can help shape product opinions in several ways:



Endorsers may give testimonials and provide evidence of product’s attributes (make-up on a model)

Endorser’s trustworthiness is critical in increasing the believability of the ad claim

Endorsers may serve as a peripheral cue


Gain-frame messages emphasize what is attained by following a message’s recommendation

Loss-frame messages emphasize potential costs incurred by ignoring a message’s recommendation

Message Framing Influences Opinion Formation


The loss-frame is more effective as losses loom larger than gains (loss aversion)

Loss-frame messages are more effective when consumers are in a positive mood state



Framing can also shape opinions of the product’s affordability by describing the product’s total cost as smaller costs over time

Pennies-a-day strategy: decomposes a product’s price into its cost on a daily basis



Creating the perception of scarcity for a product can influence consumer behavior

Scarcity effect: an object is viewed as more desirable as its perceived scarcity increases

Perceived Scarcity Influences Opinion Formation


Can be done by communicating how little of the product is available or suggesting that demand exceeds supply

Perceived Scarcity Influences Opinion Formation


Limiting how much consumers can buy may lead to an increase in demand for the restricted item

Purchase restrictions: restriction is interpreted as a signal of the deal’s popularity and value, increasing its attractiveness

Purchase Restrictions Influence Opinion Formation


Consumers use the maximum number of units identified in the restriction as a starting point and adjust downwards based on other considerations (a deal’s attractiveness, budget constraints, etc.)

Purchase Restrictions Influence Opinion Formation


Happy consumers are more likely to interpret product information in a mood congruent manner

Good Moods: Consumers in a positive mood state have a greater chance of forming more favorable product opinions

Moods Influences Opinion Formation


Salespeople can use humor in their sales pitches or companies can engage potential consumers in playful activities with direct mail promotions that create good feelings and “warm up” prospects

Moods Influences Opinion Formation

roger d. blackwell paul w. miniard james f. engel

Documents