RME 500(01) RESEARCH METHODS AND ETHICS

Prof. Dr. Fetih YILDIRIM’s Lecture Notes

2016-2017 Academic Year Fall Semester

Contents

• General Concepts • Their Short Definitions • Some Examples • Research : Steps on Conducting it • Obligations and Standards of Science • On being a scientist, Advising and Mentoring • Choosing a Research Group • Treatment of Data • Mistakes and Negligence • Research Misconduct

General Concepts

• Research: a broad definition of research is given by Godwin Colibao who says “In the boadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.” Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that “research is the process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase one’s understanding of a topic or issue”.

Cont’ed

• The Merrium- Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as “a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories, or laws in the light of new facts, orpractical application of such new or revised theories or laws”.

Cont.’ed

• Other Definitions of Research are:

• Research is a systematic activity combining both basic and applied works, and aimed at discovering solutions to problems or creating new goods or knowledge.

• Discovering new knowledge about products, processes, and services with Research and development, applying that knowledge to create new and improved products, processes, and services that fill market needs.

Cont.’ed

• It is a creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge.

• Research comprises (contains) “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to device new applications. It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the result of previous work,solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.

Purposes of Pure or Basic Research

• Basic or pure research is the research which is directed at understanding what something is or how it works.

• Applied research is the research which is directed at applying existing research to obtain or create new product or find out of them.

• The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of methods and system for the advancement of human knowledge.

Forms of Research

• There are three forms of reseach: • Scientific Research: • Scientific research is a systematic way of

gathering data and harnessing curriosity, which is usually funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups.

• Research in the humanities is a research that involves different methods such as for example, hermeneutics and semiotics.Like historical research, which is embodied in historical methods.

Cont.’ed

• Artistic Research also seen as “practice-based research” can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the oject of research itself.

ETYMOLOGY

• The word research is derived from the Middle French “recherche”, which means “to go about seeking” the term itself being derived from the Old Frech term “ recerchier” a compound word from “re-”+ “cerchier”, or “sercher”, meaning search. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH

The Major Steps in Conducting Research are

• Identification of research problem

• Literature Review

• Specifying purpose of research

• Determine spesific research questions

• Specification of a Conceptual framework, usually a set of hypotheses (suppositions to be tested)

Cont.’ed

• Choice of Methodology (for data collection)

• Data Collection

• Verification of Data

• Analyzing and Interpreting the Data

• Reporting and Evaluating Research

• Communicating the Research Findings and, possibly, recommendations.

Obligations and Standards of Science

• When beginning researchers are learning these obligations and standards of science, the advising

and mentoring of more-experienced scientists is essential. Terminology: Values, Standards, and

Practices Research is based on the same ethical values that apply in everyday life, including

honesty, fairness, objectivity, openness, trustworthiness, and respect for others. A “scientific

standard” refers to the application of these values in the context of research. Examples are

openness in sharing research materials, fairness in reviewing grant proposals, respect for one’s

colleagues and students, and honesty in reporting research results. The most serious violations of

standards have come to be known as “scientific misconduct.” The U.S. government defines

misconduct as “fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism (FFP) in proposing, performing, or reviewing

research, or in reporting research results.” All research institutions that receive federal funds must

have policies and procedures in place to investigate and report research misconduct, and anyone

who is aware of a potential act of misconduct must follow these policies and procedures.

Scientists who violate standards other than FFP are said to engage in “questionable research

practices.” Scientists and their institutions should act to discourage questionable research

practices (QRPs) through a broad range of formal and informal methods in the research

environment. They should also accept responsibility for determining which questionable research

practices are serious enough to warrant institutional penalties. Standards apply throughout the

research enterprise, but “scientific practices” can vary among disciplines or laboratories.

Understanding both the underlying standards and the differing practices in research is important to

working successfully with others.

On being a scientist , Advising and Mentoring

All researchers can have had advisers, many are fortunate to have acquired mentors as well. An adviser oversees the conduct of researchers, offering guidance and an advice on matters connected to research. A mentor-who also may be an adviser- takes a personel as well as a professional interest in the development of a researcher. A mentor might suggest a productive research direction offer encouragement during a difficult period, help a beginning researchers gain credit for work accomplished, arrange a meeting that leads to a job offer, and offer contiuing advice thoughout a researcher’s career. Adivisers and mentors often have considerable influence over the lives of beginning researchers, and they must be careful not to abuse their authority. The relationship between an adviser or mentor and an advisee or metee can be complex, and conflicts can arise over the allocation of a credit, publication practices, or the proper division of responsibilities. The main role of an adviser or a mentor is to help a researcher move along a productive and successful career trajectory. Researchers also have responsibilities toward their advisers and mentors. They should develop clear expectations with advisers and mentors concerning availibility and meeting times.

Choosing a Research Group

When a graduate student or postdoctoral fellow is deciding whether to join a research group, gathering information about the group and its leaders is valuable in helping that individual arrive at a good decision. Sometimes this information can be acquired from written materials, from conversations with current or previous students or postdoctoral fellows in the group, or by asking the senior researcher directly. This may help to determine whether you are really interested in the research that the group is or will be pursuing. Among the useful questions that could be asked are the following:a

• Who oversees the work of beginning researchers? • Will a research adviser also serve as a mentor? If so, what is that person’s mentoring style? • What role does a trainee have in choosing and developing a project? • how long do graduate students or postdoctoral fellows typically take to finish their training? • What are the sources of funding for a project, and is the funding likely to be disrupted? • Do beginning researchers participate in writing journal articles, and how are they recognized as authors? • how much competition is there among group members and between the group and other groups? • Are there potential dangers from chemical, biological, or radioactive agents? If so, what training is offered in these

areas? • What are the policies regarding ownership of intellectual property developed by the group? • Are graduate students and postdoctoral fellows discouraged from continuing their projects when they leave? • Are graduate students and postdoctoral fellows encouraged and funded to attend professional meetings and make

presentations? • Are there opportunities for other kinds of professional development, such as giving lectures, supervising others, or

applying for funds? a for additional questions, please see: Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, Phillip A. Griffiths, Chair,

Adviser, Teacher, Role Model, Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering, National Academy Press, 1997. 84 pp.

ThE TREATMENT Of DATA

In order to conduct research responsibly, graduate students need to understand how to treat data correctly.

Researchers who manipulate their data in ways that deceive others, even if the manipulation seems insignificant at the time, are violating both the basic values and widely accepted professional standards of science. Researchers draw conclusions based on their observations of nature. If data are altered to present a case that is stronger than the data warrant, researchers fail to fulfill all three of the obligations described at the beginning of this guide. They mislead their colleagues and potentially impede progress in their field or research. They undermine their own authority and trustworthiness as researchers. And they introduce information into the scientific record that could cause harm to the broader society, as when the dangers of a medical treatment are understated.

Cont.’ed

• This is particularly important in an age in which the Internet allows for an almost uncontrollably fast and extensive spread of information to an increasingly broad audience. Misleading or inaccurate data can thus have far-reaching and unpredictable consequences of a magnitude not known before the Internet and other modern communication technologies.

Cont.’ed

Misleading data can arise from poor experimental design or careless measurements as well as from improper manipulation. Over time, researchers have developed and have continually improved methods and tools designed to maintain the integrity of research. Some of these methods and tools are used within specific fields of research, such as statistical tests of significance, double-blind trials, and proper phrasing of questions on surveys. Others apply across all research fields, such as describing to others what one has done so that research data and results can be verified and extended.

Cont.’ed

Because of the critical importance of methods, scientific papers must include a description of the procedures used to produce the data, sufficient to permit reviewers and readers of a scientific paper to evaluate not only the validity of the data but also the reliability of the methods used to derive those data. If this information is not available, other researchers may be less likely to accept the data and the conclusions drawn from them. They also may be unable to reproduce accurately the conditions under which the data were derived.

Cont.’ed

The best methods will count for little if data are recorded incorrectly or haphazardly. The requirements for data collection differ among disciplines and research groups, but researchers have a fundamental obligation to create and maintain an accurate, accessible, and permanent record of what they have done in sufficient detail for others to check and replicate their work. Depending on the field, this obligation may require entering data into bound notebooks with sequentially numbered pages using permanent ink, using a computer application with secure data entry fields, identifying when and where work was done, and retaining data for specified lengths of time. In much industrial research and in some academic research, data notebooks need to be signed and dated by a witness on a daily basis.

Cont.ed

Unfortunately, beginning researchers often receive little or no formal training in recording, analyzing, storing, or sharing data. Regularly scheduled meetings to discuss data issues and policies maintained by research groups and institutions can establish clear expectations and responsibilities.

Cont.’ed

Most researchers are not required to share data with others as soon as the data are generated, although a few disciplines have adopted this standard to speed the pace of research. A period of confidentiality allows researchers to check the accuracy of their data and draw conclusions. However, when a scientific paper or book is published, other researchers must have access to the data and research materials needed to support the conclusions stated in the publication if they are to verify and build on that research.

Many research institutions, funding agencies, and scientific journals have policies that require the sharing of data and unique research materials. Given the expectation that data will be accessible, researchers who refuse to share the evidentiary basis behind their conclusions, or the materials needed to replicate published experiments, fail to maintain the standards of science.

Cont.’ed

• In some cases, research data or materials may be too voluminous, unwieldy, or costly to share quickly and without expense. Nevertheless, researchers have a responsibility to devise ways to share their data and materials in the best ways possible.

• For example, centralized facilities or collaborative efforts can provide a cost-effective way of providing research materials or information from large databases. Examples include repositories established to maintain and distribute astronomical images, protein sequences, archaeological data, cell lines, reagents, and transgenic animals.

• New technology of high capacity and memory computers hve been developed in recent years which help this issue.

MISTAKES AND NEGLIGENCE

• All researchers are human. They do not have limitless working time or access to unlimited resources. Even the most responsible researcher can make an honest mistake in the design of an experiment, the calibration of instruments, the recording of data, the interpretation of results, or other aspects of research. Despite these difficulties, researchers have an obligation to the public, to their profession, and to themselves to be as accurate and as careful as possible.

• Scientific disciplines have developed methods and practices designed to minimize the possibility of mistakes, and failing to observe these methods violates the standards of science. Every scientific result must be carefully prepared, submitted to the peer review process, and scrutinized even after publication.

Cont.’ed

Some mistakes in the scientific record are quickly corrected by subsequent work. But mistakes that mislead subsequent researchers can waste large amounts of time and resources. When such a mistake appears in a journal article or book, it should be corrected in a note, erratum (for a production error), or corrigendum (for an author’s error).

Mistakes in other documents that are part of the scientific

record—including research proposals, laboratory records, progress reports, abstracts, theses, and internal reports—should be corrected in a way that maintains the integrity of the original record and at the same time keeps other researchers from building on the erroneous results reported in the original.

RESEARCH MISCONDUCT

• A statement developed by the U.S. Office of Science and Technology Policy, which has been adopted by most researchfunding agencies, defines misconduct as “fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.” According to the statement, the three elements of misconduct are defined as follows:

• Fabrication is “making up data or results.” • Falsification is “manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or

changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.”

• Plagiarism is “the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.”

• In addition, the federal statement says that to be considered research misconduct, actions must represent a “significant departure from accepted practices,” must have been “committed intentionally, or knowingly, or recklessly,” and must be “proven by a preponderance of evidence.” According to the statement, “research misconduct does not include differences of opinion.”

Cont.’ed

• A crucial distinction between falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism (sometimes called FFP) and error or negligence is the intent to deceive. When researchers intentionally deceive their colleagues by falsifying information, fabricating research results, or using others’ words and ideas without giving credit, they are violating fundamental research standards and basic societal values.

• These actions are seen as the worst violations of scientific standards because they undermine the trust on which science is based.

Cont.’ed

• However, intent can be difficult to establish. For example, because trust in science depends so heavily on the assumption that the origin and content of scientific ideas will be treated with respect, plagiarism is taken very seriously in science, even though it does not introduce spurious results into research records in the same way that fabrication and falsification do. But someone who plagiarizes may insist it was a mistake, either in note taking or in writing, and that there was no intent to deceive. Similarly, someone accused of falsification may contend that errors resulted from honest mistakes or negligence.

Planning educational research

• Ethical Principles for the Guidance of Action Researchers

• Observe protocol: take care to ensure that the relevant persons, committees

and authorities have been consulted, informed and that the necessary

permission and approval have been obtained.

• Involve participants: encourage others who have a stake in the improvement

you envisage to shape and form the work.

• Negotiate with those affected: not everyone will want to be directly involved;

your work should take account of the responsibilities and wishes of others.

• Report progress: keep the work visible and remain open to suggestions so that

unforeseen and unseen ramifications can be taken account of; colleagues must

have the opportunity to lodge a protest to you.

• Obtain explicit authorizations: this applies where you wish to observe your

professional colleagues, and where you wish to examine documentation.

• Negotiate descriptions of people’s work: always allow those described to

challenge your accounts on the grounds of fairness, relevance and accuracy.

• Negotiate accounts of others’ points of view (e.g. in accounts of

communication): always allow those involved in interviews, meetings and

written exchanges to require amendments which enhance fairness, relevance

and accuracy.

Cont.’d • Obtain explicit authorization before using quotations: this includes

verbatim transcripts, attributed observations, excerpts of audio and video recordings, judgements, conclusions or recommendations in reports (written or to meetings).

• Negotiate reports for various levels of release: remember that different audiences require different kinds of reports; what is appropriate for an informal verbal report to a faculty meeting may not be appropriate for a staff meeting, a report to council, a journal article, a newspaper, a newsletter to parents; be conservative if you cannot control distribution.

• Accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality.

• Retain the right to report your work: provided that those involved are satisfied with the fairness, accuracy and relevance of accounts which pertain to them, and that the accounts do not unnecessarily expose or embarrass those involved, then accounts should not be subject to veto or be sheltered by prohibitions of confidentiality.

• Make your principles of procedure binding and known: all of the people involved in your action research project must agree to the principles before the work begins; others must be aware of their rights in the process.

An Ethical Code: An Illustration

1. It is important for the researcher to reveal fully his or her

identity and background.

2 The purpose and procedures of the research should be fully

explained to the subjects at the outset.

3 The research and its ethical consequences should be seen

from the subjects’ and institution’s point of view.

4 Possible controversial findings need to be anticipated and,

where they ensue, handled with great sensitivity.

5 The research should be as objective as possible: this will

require careful thought being given to the design, conduct and

reporting of research.

Cont.’d

6 Informed consent should be sought from all participants: all agreements reached at this stage should be honoured.

7 Sometimes it is desirable to obtain informed consent in writing.

8 Subjects should have the option to refuse to take part and know this, and the right to terminate their involvement at any time and know this also.

9 Arrangements should be made during initial contacts to provide feedback for participants who request it: this may take the form of a written summary of findings.

10 The dignity, privacy and interests of the participants should be respected and protected at all times.

11 Deceit should be used only when absolutely necessary.

12 When ethical dilemmas arise, the researcher may need to consult other researchers or teachers.

Ethical Principles for Educational Research (to be agreed before the Research Commences)

Responsibility to Research • The researcher should be competent and aware of what is

involved in conducting research. • The research must be conducted rigorously and with the correct

procedures – avoid misuse of procedures at all stages. • Report procedures accurately and publicly (rigour). • Don’t jeopardize future research(ers). • Report clearly and make data available for checking. • Tell the truth: do not tell lies or falsify data, avoid being unfairly

selective (e.g. to support a case), do not misrepresent data. • Maintain the integrity and autonomy of the research, e.g. avoid

censorship of, or interference with, the research by sponsors or those who give permission for the research to be undertaken.

Cont.’d

Responsibility to Participants and Audience(s) • Gain fully informed consent where appropriate (usually in writing), in

order to respect self-determination and autonomy; provide information on all aspects of the research and its possible consequences.

• Decide whether, and how, overt or covert research is required/justified. • Decide whether, and how, deception is required/justified; be honest or

justify dishonesty. • Ensure non-maleficence (no harm, hurt or suffering to be caused to

participants and those who might be affected by the research); be humane.

• Ensure beneficence (the research will bring benefit to the participants or will contribute to the welfare of participants).

• Ensure that participants do not leave the research worse off than when they started it.

• Respect people’s rights and dignity and interests, and be respectful: research participants are subjects, not objects to be exploited. Treat people as subjects, not objects.

Cont.’d

• Agree individuals’ rights to privacy. • Ensure participants have the right to withdraw at any time. • Inform participants who will have access to the data/report, i.e. the audiences of

the research, how public it will be, when it will become public, and how it will be disseminated; negotiate levels of release, i.e. who see which parts of the research.

• Ensure anonymity/confidentiality/non-traceability; if these are not possible then tell participants in advance.

• Indicate how anonymity will be addressed (e.g. by confidentiality, aggregation of data).

• Inform participants how data will be collected and how files/questionnaires/audio data/video data/computer files will be stored during the research and destroyed after use.

• Ensure sensitivity to people (e.g. age, ethnicity, gender, culture, religion, language, socio-economic status).

• Gain permission from all relevant parties (e.g. parents/guardians, school, principals etc.) for access.

Cont.’d

• Respect vulnerability (e.g. in interviewing children or those without power).

• Agree respondent validation. • Agree ownership of the data (and when ownership passes from

participants to researcher). • Allow time for review. • Avoid causing unnecessary offence. Thank the participants. • Ensure that participants and sponsors have the right to dissent or

distance themselves from the research. • Demonstrate social responsibility and obligations. • Consider indemnification, liabilities and disclaimers. • Don’t abuse your position or power as a researcher. • Don’t use dangerous methods

Planning educational research • A Framework for Planning Research:

Clearly, the set of issues that constitute a framework for planning research will need to be interpreted differently for different styles of research, nevertheless it is useful to indicate what those issues might be.

A possible sequence of consideration is shown in the diagram : Preparatory issues → Methodology → Sampling and instrumentation→ Piloting → Timing and sequencing Constraints, purposes, foci, ethics, research question, politics → Approaches, reliability and validity → Reliability and validity, pre-piloting →→

The Elements of Research Design

1 A clear statement of the problem/need that has given rise to the research.

2 Constraints on the research (e.g. access, time, people, politics). 3 The general aims and purposes of the research. 4 The intended outcomes of the research: what the research will

do and what is the ‘deliverable’ outcome. 5 How to operationalize research aims and purposes. 6 Generating research questions (specific, concrete questions to

which concrete answers can be given) and hypotheses (if appropriate).

7 The foci of the research. 8 Identifying and setting in order the priorities for the research. 9 Approaching the research design. 10 Focusing the research.

Cont.’d 11 Research methodology (approaches and research styles, e.g.

survey; experimental; ethnographic/naturalistic; longitudinal; cross-sectional; historical; correlational; ex post facto).

12 Ethical issues and ownership of the research (e.g. informed consent; overt and covert research; anonymity; confidentiality; non-traceability; non-maleficence; beneficence; right to refuse/withdraw; respondent validation; research subjects; social responsibility; honesty and deception).

13 Politics of the research: who is the researcher; researching one’s own institution; power and interests; advantage; insider and outsider research.

14 Audiences of the research.

15 Instrumentation, e.g. questionnaires; interviews; observation; tests; field notes; accounts; documents; personal constructs; role-play.

16 Sampling: size/access/representativeness; type: probability: random, systematic, stratified, cluster, stage, multi-phase; non-probability: convenience, quota, purposive, dimensional,

Cont.’d 17 Piloting: technical matters: clarity, layout and appearance, timing,

length, threat, ease/difficulty, intrusiveness; questions: validity, elimination of ambiguities, types of questions (e.g. multiple choice, open-ended, closed), response categories, identifying redundancies; pre-piloting: generating categories, grouping and classification.

18 Time frames and sequence (what will happen, when and with whom).

19 Resources required.

20 Validity: construct; content; concurrent; face; ecological; internal; external.

21 Reliability: consistency (replicability); equivalence (inter-rater, equivalent forms), predictability; precision; accuracy; honesty; authenticity; richness; dependability; depth; overcoming Hawthorne and halo effects; triangulation: time; space; theoretical; investigator; instruments.

22 Data analysis.

Four Main Areas of the Framework

for Planning Research.

• Orienting decisions

• Research design and methodology

• Data analysis

• Presenting and reporting the results

Orienting Decisions

Orienting decisions Decisions in this field are strategic; they set the general nature of the research, and there are several questions that researchers may need to consider:

• Who wants the research? • Who will receive the research/who is it for? • Who are the possible/likely audiences of the research? • What powers do the recipients of the research have? • What are the general aims and purposes of the research?

Cont.’d • What are the main priorities for and constraints on the

research?

• Is access realistic?

• What are the time scales and time frames of the research?

• Who will own the research?

• At what point will the ownership of the research pass from the participants to the researcher and from the researcher to the recipients of the research?

• Who owns the data?

• What ethical issues are to be faced in undertaking the research?

• What resources (e.g. physical, material, temporal, human, administrative) are required for the research?

Research Design and Methodology • Whatare the specific purposes ofthe research? • How are the general research purposes and aims

operationalized into specific research questions? • What are the specific research questions? • What needs to be the focus of the research in order to

answer the research questions? • Whatis the main methodology of the research

(e.g.aquantitative survey, qualitative research, an ethnographic study, an experiment, a case study, a piece of action research etc.)?

• How will validity and reliability be addressed? • What kinds of data are required? • From whom will data be acquired (i.e. sampling)?

DATA ANALYSİS • The prepared researcher will need to consider how the data will

be analysed. This is very important, as it has a specific bearing on the form of the instrumentation. For example, a researcher will need to plan the layout and structure of a questionnaire survey very carefully in order to assist data entry for computer reading and analysis; an inappropriate layout may obstruct data entry and subsequent analysis by computer. Decisions will need to be taken with regard to the statistical tests that will be used in data analysis as this will affect the layout of research items (for example in a questionnaire), and the computerpackagesthatareavailableforprocessing quantitative and qualitative data, e.g. SPSS and N-Vivo respectively. For statistical processing the researcher will need to ascertain the level of data being processed – nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio(discussedinChapter 24).PartFiveaddresses issues of data analysis and which statistics to use:

Cont.’d

• Decisions will need to be taken with regard to the statistical tests that will be used in data analysis as this will affect the layout of research items (for example in a questionnaire), and the computer packages that are available for processing quantitative and qualitative data.

Cont.’d

• The planning of data analysis will need to consider:

• What needs to be done with the data when they have been collected?

• How will they be processed and analysed?

• How will the results of the analysis be verified, cross-checked and validated?

Cont.’d For qualitative data analysis the researchers have at

their disposal a range of techniques, for example:

• coding and content analysis of field notes

• cognitive mapping

• seeking patterning of responses

• looking for causal pathways and connections

• presenting cross-site analysis

• case studies

• personal constructs

• narrative accounts

• action research analysis

• analytic induction

• constant comparison and grounded theory

• discourse analysis

• biographies and life histories.

Presenting and Reporting the Results

• As with the stage of planning data analysis, the prepared researcher will need to consider the form of the reporting of the research and its results, giving due attention to the needs of different audiences (for example, an academic audience may require different contents from a wider professional audience and, a fortiori, from a lay audience).

Cont.’d

Decisions here will need to consider: • how to write up and report the research • when to write up and report the research (e.g.

ongoing or summative) • how to present the results in tabular and/or

written-out form • how to present the results in non-verbal forms to whom to report (the necessary and possible

audiences of the research • how frequently to report.

Managing the Planning of Research

• The researcher has to be concerned with the uses as well as the conduct of the research.

• To manage the complexity in planning a simple four-stage model can be proposed:

1 Identify the purposes of the research. 2 Identify and give priority to the constraints under

which the research will take place. 3 Plan the possibilities for the research within

these constraints. 4 Decide the research design.

SAMPLING

• The quality of a piece of research stands or falls not only by the appropriateness of methodology and instrumentation but also by the suitability of the sampling strategy that has been adopted .

• Questions of sampling arise directly out of the issue of defining the population on which the research will focus. Researchers must take sampling decisions early in theoverallplanningofapieceofresearch.Factors such as expense, time, accessibility frequently preventresearchersfromgaininginformationfrom the whole population.

Cont.’d

• Therefore, they often need to be able to obtain data from a smaller group or subset of the total population in such a way that the knowledge gained is representative of the total population (however defined) under study. This smaller group or subset is the sample. Experienced researchers start with the total population and work down to the sample. By contrast, less experienced researchers often work from the bottom up, that is, they determine the minimum number of respondents needed to conduct the research

Cont.’d

• However, unless they identify the total population in advance, it is virtually impossible for them to assess how representativethesampleisthattheyhavedrawn. Judgements have to be made about four key factors in sampling:

• the sample size • representativeness and parameters of the sample • access to the sample • the sampling strategy to be used. • The decisions here will determine the sampling

strategy to be used