river sand mining and its impact on physical and...

1ECO-CHRONICLEECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 1. March 2006, pp 01 - 06

RIVER SAND MINING AND ITS IMPACT ON PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICALENVIRONMENTS OF KERALA RIVERS, SOUTHWEST COAST OF INDIA

P. R. Arun, R. Sreeja, S. Sreebha, K. Maya and D. PadmalalEnvironmental Sciences Division, Centre for Earth Science Studies,

Thiruvananthapuram - 695 031, Kerala, India.

ABSTRACTIndiscriminate mining of construction grade sand from the rivers of Kerala impose intense pressure onthese life support systems. The present paper deals with the impact of sand mining on the physical andbiological environments of river systems of Kerala. A few suggestions are also made here to improvethe overall environmental quality of the river basins of Kerala.key words: sand mining, physical and biological environments.INTRODUCTION

Rivers, termed as arteries of continentalmasses, are fundamental components oflandscape and lifescape. They have played amajor role in the development of humancivilizations. Fully interdependent with thelandscape and life system, they provide manybeneficial services to human society. Sustainingall parts of the natural environment and nearly allaspects of human culture, rivers act as integratorsand centers of organizations within landscape(Naiman, 1992, 1995; Kondolf, 1994a & b, 1997).Accelerated developmental efforts during the past3-4 decades, have imposed immense pressureon these life support systems. As a result, manyrivers of the world are being drastically altered tolevels often beyond their natural resiliencecapacity (Padmalal and Maya, 2000; Arun et al,2003; Padmalal et al, 2003). Among various typesof human interventions, indiscriminate mining ofsand and gravel is the most disastrous one, asthis activity threatens the very existence of theriverine ecosystem. Depending on the geologicand geomorphic setting, the degree of off-site andon-site impacts of sand mining would vary.Continued and indiscriminate mining can changethe physical characteristics of the river basin inaddition to disturbing the closely linked flora andfauna, hydrology and soil structure of the region(UNEP, 1990; CESS, 2005).

Kerala state is blessed with 44 rivers. Thesand reserve in these rivers is substantially lowcompared to the other rivers in Peninsular India,because of the small catchment area (<6000 km2)and limited riverbed resources (Sreebha andPadmalal, 2006). However, these rivers havebeen subjected to reckless exploitation of sand

and gravel for construction purposes and otherdevelopmental activities. It is reported that sandand gravel mining is taking place several foldshigher than the natural replenishments. This, inturn, leads to severe damages to the riverineecology. Reduction in sediment supply fromcatchments and erosion of its own channel duringhigh flow regimes are very common in manyrivers of Kerala. These in many of the occasions,led to channel deepening (incision) andundermining of engineering structures such asriver bank protection walls, water intakestructures constructed within river channels forwater supply schemes, bridges etc. Apart fromthese, sand mining provides employmentopportunities to a section of the people of Kerala.It is a fact that i ts impacts on variousenvironments and the broader economy of Keralaare not fully understood and adequately informedto the regulatory authorities. There is thereforea need to improve our understanding on variousaspects of sand mining from Kerala rivers thatare known for their scenic beauty, pure flowingwater and rich biological wealth.

BASELINE DATA

Extensive field surveys were carried out inthe rivers of Kerala for the collection of primaryand secondary data. The sand extraction fromthe river channels were estimated fromsecondary information available with the DistrictAdministration, various local bodies, various sandmining reports of Centre for Earth ScienceStudies (CESS), etc. The information on thedischarge of sand and riverbed lowering wascollected from the office of the Central WaterCommission (CWC) at Kochi. The set of primaryand secondary information collected from the

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IMPACTS OF RIVER SAND MINING

The impacts of mining activit ies onenvironment can be placed next to agriculture(Ramachandran and Padmalal, 1997). No doubt,minerals (including the building materials comingunder the minor mineral category like river sandand gravel) are indispensable for developmentand sustenance of the quality of life. At the sametime, it is essential that mining activities need tobe continuously monitored and kept under controlfor the overall management of the environment.Most of the developmental activities, do not givedue regard and attention to various environmentalproblems, which, the activity generates. Thequestion to be addressed with regard toenvironmental issues of mining pertains toconservation of minerals, on the one hand, andthe environmental problems on the other(Padmalal et al., 2005). Depending on thelocation and type of mining, the magnitude andthe importance of impacts would vary. Some ofthe general impacts of river sand and gravelmining on various components of the river basinenvironment of Kerala are summarized in Table1. The river channels, in the midlands andlowlands of Kerala, are deteriorated drasticallydue to illicit scooping of sand even from prohibitedareas close to the river banks. In some cases,the river bank itself is being scooped out first fortile / brick manufacturing (overlying clay richlayers) and then for construction grade sand(underlying layers). The process ends up in thedestruction of riparian vegetation, which provideshabitat to many organisms.

Channel incision due to indiscriminate sandmining not only causes vertical instability in thechannel bed, but causes lateral instability in theform of accelerated stream bank erosion andchannel widening. Incision enhances stream bankheight, resulting in bank failure when themechanical properties of the bank material cannotsustain the material weight. Channel widening,on the other hand, causes shallowing of thestreambed, producing braided flow or subsurfaceinter-gravel flow in riffle areas, hinderingmovement of fishes between pools. Channelreaches becomes more uniformly shallow asdeep pools fill with gravel and other sediments,reducing habitat complexity, riffle-pool structure,and number of large predatory fishes. Shallowing

and widening of the channel also increasesstream temperature extremes, and channelinstability increases transport of sedimentsdownstream. Mining-induced bed degradationand other channel changes may not develop forseveral years until major channel-adjustmentflows occur, and adjustments may continue longafter extraction has ended. Reduced flow velocitydue to channel deepening and widening canaggravate salt-water ingression in thedownstream reaches of rivers. This furtherimpose added stress to the physico -chemicaland biological environments of the riverecosystems. Studies carried out in some of themajor rivers of Kerala show that on an average,the river channels at its storage zones lower by5-20 cm per year consequent to unabated sandmining (Plate I and Fig. 1).

In addition to physico - chemical changes,sand mining can impose marked damages onthe biodiversity of the aquatic environment aswell. Studies revealed that the physical habitatvariables play a leading role in the distribution offishes in rivers (Sheeba and Arun, 2003; Kurupet al., 2005). Habitat alteration / transformationbrought out in various rivers contributesignificantly to the endangerment of freshwaterfishes in the rivers of Kerala. Sand mining notonly imposes serious threat to fishes but also tothe entire benthic communities in the riverineenvironment. A recent study on the benthic faunaof Achenkovil river by Sunilkumar (2002),revealed that sand and gravel mining over thepast few decades has caused notable changesin the eco-biology of benthic communities. Theimpacts are not restricted to the aquaticenvironment alone, but may extend even toterrestrial environment as well.

Plate I : The exposed water intake structure of arural water supply scheme. A clear evidence ofriver bed lowering from Manimala river.

field were processed carefully to assess theimpacts of sand extraction from the river channels.

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Fig.1. River bed lowering of some major rivers of Kerala.

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The study related that, the insects like Mayfly, Dragon fly, Chironomids, Caddis fly and otherinsects of the order Diptera are declining at fasterrate due to indiscriminate scooping of sand fromriver basins and other aquatic environments(Table 2). It is a fact that the initial life history ofmany of the above organisms begins in aquaticenvironments. Scooping of sands along with thelarval forms may impose marked decrease in thepopulation of these beneficial insects, which formfood to other higher order aquatic organisms likefishes and amphibians.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

To conclude, indiscriminate river sand andgravel mining imposes irreparable damage to theriver ecosystems of Kerala. Lack of adequatemultidisciplinary studies is a major lacuna inproperly addressing this problem. Therefore, thereis an urgent need for integrating the studies onvarious disciplines on the human induceddegradation of the small catchment rivers ofKerala. This is very much important not only forlaying down strategies for regulating the miningactivities on environment friendly basis, but alsofor creating awareness on the impact of river sandmining on the physical and biological environmentof these life support systems of nature.

Sl.No.

System /components

Impact(s) of mining

1. River channel Erosion of river banks; river bank slumping; lowering of river channels; changes inriver bed configuration; undermining of engineering structures like bridges, waterintake structures, side protection walls, spillways, etc.; loss of placer mineral resourcesassociated with alluvial sand and gravel.

2. Surface water Rise in suspended particulate level, turbidity and other pollutants like oils, greaze, etc.,from vehicles used for the removal of sands; ponding of water and reduction in naturalcleansing capacity of river water; aggravated salt water ingression.

3. Ground water Lowering of ground water table in areas adjacent to mining sites; damage to the freshwater aquifer system in areas close to the river mouth zones.

4. Flora and fauna Dwindling of floral and faunal diversity within river basin; decline in terrestrial insectslike mayfly, dragon fly, stone fly etc., whose larval stages are in the shallow watersandy fluvial systems; habitat damage / loss and changes in breeding and spawninggrounds; reduction in inland fishery resource.

5. Culture Damage to culturally significant places; places of annual religious congregations, etc.

6. Coast /near shore

Lack of replenishment of coastal beaches leading to coastal erosion and reduction inthe supply of nutrient elements from terrestrial source.

Table. 1. The general impacts of river sand and gravel mining on various components of riverecosystem

The following are some of the suggestionsto improve the overall environmental quality ofthe river systems in general and Kerala rivers, inparticular.

An integrated environmental assessment,management and monitoring program should bepart of the sand extraction processes. Individualextraction operations should be evaluated froma perspective that includes their potentialsecondary and cumulative impacts.

Evaluate physical, chemical and biologicaleffects of instream mining on a river basin scale,so that cumulative effects of extraction on theaquatic and riparian resources can be recognisedand addressed at various levels for properremedial measures.

Examine and encourage alternatives to riversand for construction purposes.

Evaluate control measures such as bankstabilization, revegetation of buffer strips,influences of connected floodplain pits etc.Restoration efforts should concentrate ontechniques that will optimize fish production,promote aquatic diversity and restore bioticintegrity.

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Awareness campaign should be conductedat various levels about river sand mining, presentstate of environment of rivers, immediate needfor control measures etc.

Enforce strictly the ‘Kerala River BankProtection and Sand Mining Regulation Act’, 2001.

Immediate steps are to be taken to intensifyresearch activities leading to the finding of asuitable, low cost and easily available alternativeto river sand.

Regulate building construction throughappropriate legislative measures such thatconstruction reduces the use of river sand ofKerala rivers in the coming years.

Sand auditing should be made mandatory atregular intervals and necessary changes beapplied in the resource allocation scheme forreviving the overall environmental quality of theriver basins of Kerala.

.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are indebted to Dr. M. Baba, Director,Centre for Earth Science Studies forencouragement and support. The financialassistances from Ministry of Environment andForests, Government of India and, Districtadministration and various Panchayat RajInstitutions of Kerala are also greatlyacknowledged.

REFERENCES

Arun P. R., Mini S. R., Rajesh Reghunath andPadmalal, D., 2003. Mining of construction gradefine aggregates from river basins: a caseanalysis. 15 th Kerala Science Congress,Thiruvananthapuram, 29 - 31, Jan. 2003, pp.586 - 590.

CESS, 2005. River sand mining andmanagement. District wise reports. Centre forEarth Science studies, Thiruvananthapuram.

Undisturbed area Disturbed areaPhylum / Class

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10ARTHROPODAInsectaChironomus larvae 108 99 167 135 98 217 182 39 18 35May fly nymph (Sp. 1) 15 3 7 7 7 29 7 2 11 7May fly nymph (Sp. 2) 12 4 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- --May fly nymph (Sp. 3) -- -- -- -- 2 3 -- -- -- --Heptagenia sp. -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- -- --Dragon fly nymph (Sp. 1) 2 3 2 -- -- -- -- -- --Dragon fly nymph (Sp. 2) 2 4 -- -- 2 4 2 2 -- --Dragon fly nymph (Sp. 3) -- 2 -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- --Diptera larvae 24 21 17 4 9 13 13 -- 4 4Chironomus pupa 1 2 7 17 4 7 238 4 -- 1Caddis worm (larvae) -- 1 20 1 50 20 13 2 -- 1Insect larvae (unidentified) 3 4 4 -- 6 2 9 -- -- --Crustacea -- -- 2 -- -- 2 -- -- -- --ANNELIDAPolychaete -- -- 4 -- -- 9 -- -- -- --MOLLUSCAFresh water mussel 5 2 -- -- -- 3 6 -- -- --Bivalve -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- -- --Gastropod -- -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- --VERTEBRATAPiscesNoemacheilus sp. 2 1 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- --Unidentified species -- 2 -- 3 -- -- -- 3 -- --Total number of species 10 13 11 7 9 12 9 6 3 5

Table.2. Distribution and density (0.1 m² area) of benthic organisms in the Achenkovil river nearMaroor, Pathanamthitta district (Sunilkumar, 2002)

6 ECO-CHRONICLEKondolf, G. M. 1994a. Geomorphic andenvironmental effects of instream gravel mining.Landscape and Urban Planning, 28, pp. 225-243.

Kondolf, G. M. 1994 b. Environmental planningin regulation and management of instream gravelmining in California. Landscape and UrbanPlanning, 29, 185 – 199.

Kondolf G. M. 1997. Hungry Water: Effects ofdams and gravel mining on river channels.Environmental Management, 21, pp. 533 – 551.

Kondolf, G. M. 1998. Environmental effects ofaggregate extraction from river channels andfloodplains. In Aggregate resources: a globalperspective. (Edr. Bobrowsky, P.T.) A. A. Balkema,Brookfield, Vermont. pp. 113 -129.

Kurup, B. M., Radhakrishnan, K. V. andManojkumar, T. G. 2005. Biodiversity status offishes inhabiting rivers of Kerala (S. India) withspecial reference to endemism; threats andconservation measures. http//: www.lars2.org /Proc. / Vol.2 / biodiversity-status- pp. 163-182.

Naiman, R.J., 1992. Ed. Watershedmanagement. Springer Verlag, New York.

Naiman, R. J., Magnuson, J. J., McKnight, D. M.and Stanford, J. A. 1995. Eds. The fresh waterimperative. Island Press, Washington DC.

Padmalal, D. and Arun, P. R. 1998. Sand miningfrom Periyar river. Report submitted to StateCommittee on Science Technology andEnvironment, Government of Kerala,Thiruvananthapuram.

Padmalal, D. and Maya, K. 2000. Sand miningfrom Kerala Rivers. Mruthika – A WWF India,Kerala State Office Publication; August-September, pp.4 - 7.

Padmalal, D., Maya, K., Mini, S. R. and Arun, P.R. 2003. Impact of river sand and gravel mining:

A case of Greater Kochi Region (Kerala),Southwest coast of India In Water ResourcesSystem Operation, Proc. Int. Con. on Water andEnvironment, Bhopal (India), Eds. Singh V P andYadava R N, Allied Publishers pvt. Ltd., NewDelhi. pp.48 - 59.

Padmalal, D., Maya, K., Arun, P. R. andRamachandran, K. K. 2005. Mining of somenatural resources of Greater Kochi Region (GKR):Problems and perspectives. In Earth SystemScience and Natural Resourse Management.Eds. G. R. Rabindrakumar and N. Subhash.Centre for Earth Science studies,Thiruvananthapuram, Siver Jubilee Compodium.pp. 347 - 357.

Ramachandran, K. K. and Padmalal, D. 1997.Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ofMineral based industries of Kerala. In “TheNatural Resources of Kerala”. Eds. Thampi, K.B., Nair, N. M. and Nair, C. S. World Wide Fundfor Nature - India, Thiruvanantha-puram, pp.31 -49.

Sheeba, S. and Arun, P. R. 2003. Impact of sandmining on the biological environment of Ithikarariver – An overview. Proc. 15th Kerala Sci. Cong.,Jan. 29-31, Thiruvananthapuram.

Sreebha, S. and Padmalal, D. 2006. Sand miningand its environmental impacts on the rivercatchments of Vembanad lake, South-west India.Extended abstracts, 18 th Kerala sciencecongress, Thiruvananthapuram, Jan 29 - 31,2006. pp. 365 - 367.

Sunil Kumar, R. 2002. Impact of sand mining onbenthic fauna: A case study from Achenkovil river– An over view. Catholicate College,Pathanamthitta district, Kerala.

UNEP. 1990. Environmental guidelines and gravelextraction projects. Environmentalguidelines, No. 20, United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, Nairobi.

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PREVENTION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEPATOTOXICITY BY THE CRUDE POWDER OFLEUCAS ASPERA (WILLD.) SPR.

M. G. Rajesh and M.S. LathaSchool of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Priyadarshini Hills P.O.

Kottayam, Kerala, India

ABSTRACTThis communication presents the antihepatotoxic effect of Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. on carbontetrachloride (CCl4) – induced toxicity in rats. The CCl4 – induced alterations in the activities of serumenzymes (i.e., aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase) weremarkedly decreased by treatment with the crude powder of Leucas aspera. This medicinal plant alsoameliorated the elevated serum levels of bilirubin, total lipid, cholesterol, phospholipids, triglyceridesand the decreased level of serum total protein. The changes induced by CCl4 in tissue lipid profile werealso reversed on treatment with the herb. The data indicate that Leucas aspera may be effective in thetreatment of liver diseases.Key words: Carbon tetra chloride (CCl4), hepatotoxicity, Leucas aspera, medicinal plant, serum enzymes.

INTRODUCTION

Liver injury caused by carbon tetra chlorideis a well documented model for liver injury causedby xenobiotics (Comporti, 1985). CCl 4 ismetabolized in the liver by cytochrome P – 450, aterminal oxidase of a heterogeneous oxidasesystem in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of liver(Castro et al., 1968). One of the products of CCl4

metabolism is believed to be a trichloromethylradical (CCl .

3) that leads to the formation ofchloroform, hexa chloro methane, carbonmonoxide, tri chloro methanol, phosgene andCO2. CCl. 3 is thought to induce lipid peroxidation,resulting in membrane destruction and loss oforganelle and cell function (Bhat and Madyastha,2000).

In India, numerous medicinal herbs and theirformulations are used for liver diseases intraditional systems of medicine, like Ayurveda.Many of them have been evaluated for theirprotective action against toxins (Latha andRajesh, 1999; Rajesh et al., 2000; Rajesh andLatha, 2001, 2004a, 2004b; Sane et al., 1995;Venkateswaran et al., 1997).

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr., an erect herb ofthe family Lamiaceae is used in anorexia, cough,dyspepsia, fever, helminthic manifestation,jaundice, psoriasis, respiratory diseases and skindiseases (Sivarajan and Indira, 1994). The herbhas been reported to possess antifungal activity(Damayanthi et al., 1996). Despite its usage inliver disorders, no systematic studies on liver

protecting activity have been reported. In thisconnection, we present the effects of Leucasaspera crude powder against CCl4 – inducedhepatotoxicity in the rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Leucas aspera (whole plant) was collectedfrom the Mahatma Gandhi University Campus,Kottayam, Kerala and dried at 450C for two daysafter washing in tap water and powdered. Thiscrude powder was used for the experiment.

Adult male albino rats of Sprague-Dawleystrain, weighing between 120 – 150, were usedas experimental models. The animals werehoused in polypropylene cages and weremaintained on standard pellet diet (M/s HindustanLever Ltd., Bombay, India). Water was given adlibitum. Rats were divided into three groups ofsix each. Group I rats served as normal controland were given normal diet. Group II rats receiveda dose of 0.1 ml of CCl4 in ground nut oil (1:1, v/v) per 100 g body weight through an intra gastrictube twice a week and were provided with normaldiet. Group III animals, in addition to the abovedose of CCl4, received a dose of 1000 mg/kg bodyweight of Leucas aspera powder suspended inwater daily in the morning for 60 days. The doseof the herb was ascertained by a pilot study overa range of doses varying from 250 mg/kg bodyweight to 1500 mg/kg body weight. At the end ofthe experimental period, rats were deprived offood overnight and sacrificed by decapitation.

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8 ECO-CHRONICLEBlood was collected by excising the jugular vein.It was allowed to clot and then centrifuged at 3000rpm for 20 min. The serum samples werecollected and left standing on ice until required.The tissues (liver, kidney, heart and lungs) wereexcised and transferred into ice – cold containersfor biochemical estimations.

Activit ies of serum enzymes such asaspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanineaminotransferase or ALT (Mohun and Cook, 1957)and alkaline phosphatase (Kind and King, 1954)were determined. The protein (Lowry et al., 1951)and bilirubin (Malloy and Evelyn, 1937) were alsoestimated. The concentrations of total lipids(Frings and Dunn, 1970), phospholipids (Varley,1988), cholesterol (Zlatkis et al., 1953) andtriglycerides (Van Handel and Zitversmith, 1957)were estimated in serum and tissues. Results arepresented as mean ± SEM for the animals inexperimental group. The statistical significancebetween groups was analyzed using Student’s t– test.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows the activit ies of serumenzymes and the concentrations of total protein,total lipid, cholesterol, phospholipids andtriglycerides. A significant elevation in the activitiesof the enzymes AST, ALT, ALP and in theconcentrations of total lipid, cholesterol,phospholipids, triglycerides and decrease inprotein content were observed in the CCl4 treatedgroup II rats compared to normal control. In rats,which received both Leucas aspera and CCl4, theactivities of the liver function marker enzymes andthe concentrations of total protein, total lipid,phospholipids, triglycerides and cholesterol weremaintained at near normal levels.

The concentrations of total lipids, cholesterol,and phospholipids in tissues such as liver, kidney,heart and lungs are presented in Table 2. Oraladministration of CCl4 showed increased levelsof total lipid, cholesterol and triglycerides. Thelevel of phospholipids increased in all the tissuesstudied except liver and lungs. These changeswere very much reduced in rats treated withLeucas aspera and CCl4. But no significantchanges were noted in the level of phospholipidsin the lungs of Group II rats. Similarly, nosignif icant change was observed in theconcentration of triglycerides in the lungs of GroupII and Group III rats.

DISCUSSION

Intracellular enzymes are normally tightlybound to particular organelles. Once membraneintegrity is lost due to the participation ofmembrane destabilizing agents, the enzymeactivities in respective tissues increase and inthe case of severe tissue destruction, they leakout into the blood and their activities in serumincreases (Brattin, et al., 1985). Oraladministration of Leucas aspera crude powderdecreased the activities of the above serumenzymes. This indicates that the herb caninterfere with important biochemical reactions,which can be beneficial in reducing hepaticdamage.

Hyper bilirubinaemia is a very sensitive testto substantiate the functional integrity of the liverand severity of necrosis, which increases thebinding, conjugating and excretory capacity ofhepatocytes that is proportional to the erythrocytedegeneration rate (Singh et al; 1998). Depletionof elevated bilirubin level in the serum of ratstreated with the herb suggests the possibility ofit being able to stabilize biliary dysfunction of ratliver during chronic injury with CCl4.

In liver damage, a reduction in total proteinin serum is observed due to the defect in proteinbiosynthesis (Clawson, 1989), which is due tothe disruption and dissociation of polyribosomesfrom the endoplasmic reticulum following CCl4

administration. Treatment with the herbal powdergave protection to the damage. This can be dueto the promotion of the assembly of ribosomeson endoplasmic reticulum to facil itateuninterrupted protein biosynthesis.

Treatment of rats with CCl 4 causescentrilobular necrosis leading to the accumulationof fat in liver and other tissues. Fat from theperipheral adipose tissue is translocated to theliver and kidney leading to its accumulation duringtoxicity. Liver toxins interfere with hepaticphospholipid biosynthesis (Recknagel, 1967).The changes in the lipid profile caused by CCl4

were almost completely restored with Leucasaspera treatment.

Our study revealed the protective effect ofLucas aspera in CCl4 induced liver damage inrats. However, the hepato-protective effects ofthis herb against various hepatotoxic chemicalsremain to be studied.

9ECO-CHRONICLETable 1.

Effect of Leucas aspera on the activities of enzymes, the concentrations of bilirubin, protein andlipids in serum.

Parameters Group I Pairfed Group II CCl4 Group III CCl4 +control treated Lucas aspera

AST (1U/L) 16.66 ± 0.042 29.17 ± 1.02 * 20.16 ± 0.086 † ALT (1U/L) 27.78 ± 0.70 69.44 ± 2.45 * 40.69 ± 1.83 † ALP (1U/L) 88.75 ± 2.24 390.50 ± 13.73 * 178.23 ± 8.00 † Bilirubin (mg%) 1.80 ± 0.05 2.26 ± 0.08 * 1.93 ± 0.09 ††† Protein (g %) 5.16 ± 0.13 4.02 ± 0.14 * 4.65 ± 0.21 ††† Total lipids (mg %) 256.76 ± 6.45 342.95 ± 12.00 * 270.33 ± 13.50 †† Phospho lipids (mg%) 150.00 ± 3.77 187.50 ± 6.58 * 157.21 ± 7.31 †† Triglycerides (mg%) 5.70 ± 0.14 8.70 ± 0.31 * 623 ± 0.28 †Cholesterol (mg %) 50.00 ± 1.26 66.67 ± 2.33 * 53.21 ± 2.39 ††

Group II has been compared with Group IGroup III has been compared with Group II

Values are mean SEM of 6 animals in each group*p<0.01, † p< 0.01, †† p<0.02, ††† p<0.05

Table 2.Effect of Leucas aspera on the lipid profile of different tissues.

Parameters Group Liver Kidney Heart Lungs

Total lipids(mg %) pairfed control 6012.90±149.84 2153.84±53.42 1846.15±46.15 1969.22±49.23CCl4 treated 8017.20±280.60* 2769.23±97.20* 2153.84±75.38* 2297.43±80.18*CCl4 + L. aspera 6440.94±289.84 †† 2301.40±100.32 †† 1338.46±66.92 † 2953.84±147.69 NS

Phospholipids (mg %) pairfed control 2230.50±55.76 2240.91±56.02 2018.80±50.23 1066.50±26.67CCl4 treated 1584.82±55.47** 5890.20±206.16* 2708.00±50.29* 986.50±34.53 NSCCl4 + L. aspera 2020.98±89.93 †† 3007.27±137.43 † 2218.04±145.20 † 1290.71±58.64 †

Triglycerides (mg %) pairfed control 450.80±11.90 280.18±7.11 49.50±1.24 42.51±1.07CCl4 treated 540.90±18.72** 376.07±13.31* 152.71±6.87* 50.72±2.30 NSCCl4 + L. aspera 482.15±21.47 ††† 309.52±14.27 †† 50.40±2.29 † 41.84±1.96 NS

Cholesterol (mg %) pairfed control 533.33±27.20 533.33±13.28 365.42±9.14 346.67±8.67CCl4 treated 719.72±7.20* 666.66±23.33* 602.94±21.10* 266.67±9.33*CCl4 + L. aspera 583.43±26.25 † 571.20±26.56 †† 324.90±15.69 † 373.33±18.67 †

Group II has been compared with Group IGroup III has been compared with Group II

Values are mean ± SEM of 6 animals in each group.* p<0.01, ** p< 0.02, † p<0.01, †† p<0.05, ††† p<0.10

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The hepatoprotective effect of Leucas asperaon CCl4 induced liver damage was investigatedin albino rats. The CCl4- evoked alterations in theactivities of liver function marker enzymes,concentrations of bilirubin, protein, total lipids,cholesterol, phospholipids and triglycerides in

serum were significantly restored by treatmentwith the crude powder of Leucas aspera. Thechanges induced by the hepatotoxin in tissue lipidprofi le were also reversed due to theadministration of the herb. From the data, it canbe concluded that Leucas aspera possessseshepatoprotective activity.

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Rajesh, M. G. and Latha, M. S. 2004 a.Preliminary evaluation of the antihepatotic activityof Kamilari, a polyherbal formulation. Jour.Ethnopharmacol. 91, 99 – 104.

Rajesh, M. G. and Latha, M. S. 2004 b. Protectiveactivity of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. On carbon tetrachloride – induced peroxidative damage. IndianJour. Pharmacol. 36 (5), 284 – 287.

Sivarajan, V. V. and Indira, B. 1994. In: Ayurvedicdrugs and their plant sources. Oxford and IBHpublishing Co. pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. p. 138.

Van Handel, E. and Silversmith D. B., 1957.Determination of serum triglycerides. Jour. Lab.Clin. Med. 50: 152.

Varkey, H. 1988. In: Practical cl inicalbiochemistry. CBS Publishers and distributors.New Delhi. p. 357.

Zlatkies, A., Lak, B. and Boyle, G. J. 1953. Amethod for the determination of serumcholesterol. Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 41, 486 – 492.

Singh, B., Saxena, A. K., Chandran, B. K., Anand,K. K., Suri, O. P., Suri, K. A. and Satti, N. K.1998. Hepatoprotective activity of verbenalin inexperimental l iver damage in rodents.Frelotherapia, 69,135 - 140.

Clawson, G. A. 1989. Mechanism of Carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity. 19, 145 – 208.

*****


LOSS OF NATURAL HABITATS: A CASE STUDY OF SHOOLPANESWAR WILD LIFESANCTUARY, GUJARAT.

G. Pradeep Kumar, G. Prathapasenan* and C.P. RavindranDepartment of Plant Science, Mahatma Gandhi Government Arts College, Mahe - 673311,

U. T. of Pondicherry, India.*Department of Botany, M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, India.

ABSTRACTA detailed study of the flora of Shoolpaneswar Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat was carried out. Along withfloristic studies, emphasis was also given to study rare plants and the present status of their naturalhabitats. The present paper embodies the observations pertaining to the plant diversity, their naturalhabitats and the present status.Key words: Habitat, Biodiversity, Shoolpaneswar Wild life Sanctuary, Biomonitoring.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of biodiversity or the biologicaldiversity which pertains to the diversity of all theliving organisms (both plants and animals) in aregion/ country or the entire globe has beenknown ever since the early humans beganobserving living objects around them and makinguse of these for their survival (Chowdhery andMurti, 2000). In recent years the word biodiversitybecame the catch word of biologists andconservationists. The biodiversity is fast depletingdue to the multifacious activities of human beings.The loss of biological diversity and thedegradation of habitats and ecosystems willimmensely affect the present and futuregenerations as the species lost today may havefood, medicinal and industrial values presently notknown to mankind.

The disappearance of species may be dueto population crash / fragmented population, lossof specific pollinators, loss of seed germinationcapability, habitat degradation or destruction(clearing of land habitat of plants and animalspecies) for human settlement , agriculture andother commercial projects, etc., over exploitation,removal of timber, fuel, fodder and othercommercially important species in excess;outbreaking of diseases and other environmentalfactors. Of the above mentioned factors, the mostimportant is habitat loss. It is estimated that theloss of one plant species results in the loss of 10to 13 dependent species of insects, higheranimals and even other plants (Manilal, 1997).Protected areas such as Wildlife Sanctuaries,National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, Reserved

Forests, Sacred Groves have immense role inpreserving the biological diversity and the naturalhabitats. However due to various reasons theseare also under tremendous threat. It is now highlyessential to inventorise the biological diversityof different habitats for proper biomonitoring.Correct inventorisation and assessment ofbiodiversity in different habitats is also necessaryfor evolving a long term strategy for rehabilitationof endangered species in similar alternatehabitats when original habitats gets destroyed(Rao, 1994).

STUDY AREA

The Shoolpaneswar Wildlife Sanctuarycomprises an area of 607 km2 and locatedbetween 730 32' and 730 54' East longitude and210 34' and 210 52' North latitude. The Sanctuaryforms a connecting link between Vindhya andSatpura hill ranges. It is bounded in the North byNarmada river and the proposed Sardar Sarovar,in the West by Karjan reservoir and Tarav river.Most of its eastern boundary slowly merges intomore populated areas or forests of Sagbararange (Map 1). A large number of small rivuletsand streams originate from the area and aftertraversing the area they form the tributaries ofTarav, Karjan and Narmada rivers. The climateof the area is periodical and the temperaturevaries between 430C and 100C. The averagerainfal l is about 1000 mm. The principalgeological formation in sequence of depositioninclude Bagh lime stone, Sand stone, the Deccantrap lava flows and the alluvial deposits (Deota,1991). The area received great importance as itforms part of the catchment of Karjan reservoir

12 ECO-CHRONICLEas well as the proposed Sardar sarovar. It alsocontains one of the best forests in South Gujarat(Pradeep Kumar, 1993).


The area was surveyed by arranging regularfield trips covering all seasons. A detailed gridmap of the area was prepared. During the fieldtrips collection of plant specimens, observationson rare plants, present status of habitats and thecauses of deterioration of habitats etc. weremade. The plants collected were processed byfollowing routine herbarium techniques andidentified with the help of floras and other relatedliterature (Cooke, 1958; Shah, 1978, Sharma etal, 1996). The observations on habitats and thecauses of depletion were documentedphotographically. The results are incorporatedhere with the help of supporting evidences.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The field survey revealed the presence of atypical dry deciduous forest (Champion and Seth;1968) with dominance of teak at many places. Insome areas, along with teak, other species suchas Terminalia, Adina, Mitragyna etc. form co-dominants. Certain areas showed the dominanceof Bamboos. Some peripheral areas towards thenorth shows a highly deteriorated conditiondepicting the presence of a thorny scrub forestsdominated by Mimosa hamata. The study alsorevealed the presence of 649 angiosperms,belonging to 113 families (Table 1). In addition, anumber of lower forms were also observed.

A study by Pilo et al. (1992) revealed thepresence of a number of animal species includingWild life. So the area exhibit a fairly richbiodiversity. But a number of factors are operating

in the area which are responsible for thedeterioration of natural habitats.

Table 1. Floristic analysis

Some of the interior areas possess a verythick forest patch (Fig. 1). At the same time, thereare incidents of depletion of natural vegetation.This is due to human encroachments forsettlement and agriculture (Fig. 2). Initially thedisturbances are visible in the valleys and foothills and later on as demand increases, itgradually proceeds even to the high hillocks. Thishas lead to the depletion of natural habitats ofmany plants. Some plant species such asRadermachera xylocarpa, Phanera integriforla,Dillenia pentagyna etc. are now restricted to someundisturbed patches only. Due to the aboveactivities many of the areas are now turned intopure agriculture lands. One such example is seenin Malsamot. The area was described under drydeciduous forests (Joshi, 1983), where as it isnow exhibiting a vast stretch of plain agriculturalland (Fig. 3). During monsoon season, thesprouting of forest tree species is visible in thesecleared areas. It confirms the fact that the areawas under a very good forest cover in the recentpast.

Another factor is the overgrazing by cattle.These cattle include resident cattle and other fromthe surrounding areas (Fig. 4). Over exploitationof forest wealth and unskilled method of minorforest produce also resulted in the loss of many

Group Family Genera Species

Dicot 91 342 510monocot 22 91 139Total 113 433 649

Table 2. Rare plants in Shoolpaneswar Wild life Sanctuary

Name of the plant Family

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. DilleniaceaeFirmiana colorata (Roxb.) R. Br. SterculiaceaeRadermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum. BignoniaceaeOroxylum indicum (L.) Vent BignoniaceaePhanera integrifolia (Roxb.) Bth. CaesalpiniaceaeButea parvifolia Roxb. FabaceaeBegonia crenata Dryand BegoniaceaeColebrookea oppositifolia Sm VerbenaceaeDendrobium microbulbon A. Rich Orchidaceae

13ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig 1.Thick forest patches in the interior areasof the sanctuary

Fig 2. Encroachments for settlement andagriculture

Fig 4.Cattle menace - a general scenceFig 3. Deforestation in valleys and foothills

Map 1. Location map of Shoolpaneswar Wildlife Sanctuary

14 ECO-CHRONICLE

Table 3.Faunal diversity of Shoolpaneswar Wild life

Sanctuary

plant species and natural habitats. The key factoris that the area has 103 villages. More than 40,000human population and 30,000 resident cattle. Thecumulative effect of all these factors on the areaexerts a drastic impact on the natural habitats.So it is highly imperative to arrest the process orat least take some measures to diminish theprocess so that we can preserve the plantdiversity and their natural habitats for our futuregenerations.

CONCLUSION

From the observations it is very clear that unlesswe adopt some sustainable measures forprotecting the biodiversity and natural habitats wewill loose many of our precious plant diversity andtheir natural habitats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors wish to put on record their sincere thanksto the team members of Eco-environmental andWildlife management studies on the SardovarSarovar Environs in Gujarat, M. S. University ofBaroda.

REFERENCES

Champian, H. G. and Seth, S. K. 1968. A revisedsurvey of forest types of India, New Delhi.

Chowdhery, H. J. and Murti, S. K. 2000. Plantdiversity and conservation in India - An overview.Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh, Dehradun.

Cooke, T. 1958. Flora of the Presidency ofBombay, Calcutta (reprinted) Vol I to III.

Deota, B. S. 1991. Geological studies in the southGujarat quaternary landscape with specialreference to environmental planning andmanagement, Ph.D. thesis, M. S. University ofBaroda.

Manilal, K. S. 1997. National parks andconservation. A case study of silent valley in“Conservation and economic evaluation ofBiodiversity” (Vol.1) by Pushpangadan, P., Ravi,K. and Santhosh, V. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

Pilo, B. 1992. Faunal studies of ShoolpaneswarWildlife Sanctuary in “ Eco - environmentalstudies of Sardar Sarovar environs in Gujarat”Environment series (2) by Sabnis, S. D. andAmin, J.V., M. S. University of Baroda.

Pradeep Kumar, G. 1993. Vegetational andecological studies of Shoolpaneswar WildlifeSanctuary. Ph. D. Thesis, M. S. University,Baroda.

Rao, R. R. 1994. Biodiversity in India (Floristicaspects), Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh,Dehradun.

Shah, G. L. 1978. Flora of Gujarat state (Part Iand II). S. P. University Press, VallabhVidhyanagar, Gujarat.

Sharma, B. D., Karthikeyan, S. and Singh, N. P.1996. Flora of Maharashtra (Monocotyledons):Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata.

Group No. of Spp.

Annelids 4Crustaceans 3Myriapoda 3Arachnids 57Insects 212Molluscs 9Fishes 4Amphibians 19Reptiles 16Birds 174Mammals including 28Wild life

*****


BASE LINE APPRAISAL OF THE WATER QUALITY OF KAVARATTI ISLAND,LAKSHADWEEP, UNION TERRITORY OF INDIA.

G. Madhusodanan Pillai, I. S. Indulekshmi, V. Sobha* and P. P. Ouseph**Sredha Scientific Trust, Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram -31, Kerala State, India,

*Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram** Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

ABSTRACTFresh water, floating on thin lens, forms the sole source of drinking water, in Lakshadweep Islands,Union Territory of India. Analysis of dug well waters at Kavaratti Island was made for the period 2000 to2003 to evolve a baseline data on its chemical and bacteriological quality. Though the pH (7.1 to 8.3)was slightly alkaline, the seasonal impact was negligible. There was four times increase in conductivityand three times increase in chloride in waters during the period. Considerable rise in TDS, alkalinityand hardness (especially Mg hardness) elaborates the seawater intrusion due to overdraft. Nitrate(74.6mg/l) due to sewage infiltration points out the possible threat of methaemoglobinaemia. Fluoridecontent (0-1.8ppm) was, however, almost within the permissible barrier. Prevalence of coliforms duringall seasons, over 70% E.coli in monsoon and nearly complete occurrence of Enterococci faecalisdetails the septic tank/leach pit infiltration. High incidence of Salmonella like, Shigella like and Vibriocholerae like organisms, though many species could be natural inhabitants in freshwater, warns aboutenteric fever and dysentery, highlighting the need for hygiene awareness. Rain effect was negligible onchemical characteristics but considerable in bacterial counts. Centralized sewage treatment andcontrolled exploitation of aquifers seems the solution, though relaxed specification can make manywaters acceptable chemically.Key words: Water quality, bacterial enumeration, leach pit infiltration, sewage treatment.INTRODUCTION

Kavaratti is the headquarters ofLakshadweep, the tiniest Union territory of Indiahaving an area of 32 sq. km and 10 inhabitedislands with 60595 persons (Census, 2001).Freshwater that floats, as thin water lens onseawater under equilibrium condition is the mostdeficient natural resource in the islands. Becauseof dense population, highly porous coral soil,shallow nature of the aquifer, proximity of leachpit/ septic tanks to the dug wells and themechanised mode of withdrawal, the well wateris exposed to both bacterial contamination andseawater intrusion. The water table is 0.5 to 4.0m below ground level with an elevation of 0.5 to5.74 m above MSL (Varma et al, 1995) and theseptic tank/ leach pits are about 2 to 2.5 m deepwith an overflow provision at an average depthof 0.5 - 1.0 m below ground level (Pillai et al,2001), i.e., in many cases, the dug wells areconstructed to tap the same aquifer in to whichthe effluents are discharged. It is equally possiblethat during tidal influx owing to overdraft, thewastewater from the pits overflow and mixes withthe freshwater lens. In Kavaratti Island, out of1638 dug wells, in more than 75%, the mode of

withdrawal has become mechanical over 10years span in which, 50% of the wells possessesmultiple pumps (PWD (civil), 2002). Seawaterintrusion, thus, is equally expected. Under thisbackground, a study was undertaken from 2000to 2003, to develop a baseline data on the waterquality in terms of both physico-chemical andbacteriological perspectives.


Water samples from 30 representative dugwells and 2 experimental tube wells werecollected and analysed. In 2000, the samplingwas during southwest monsoon (August) and in2001, in pre-south west monsoon. In 2002, postmonsoon (Nov-Oct) and in 2003 pre monsoonsampling was undertaken. Daily sampling wascarried out for a week and the average valuesused for interpretation. The physico- chemicalparameters analysed included pH, ElectricalConductivity (EC), chloride, Total DissolvedSolids (TDS), total alkalinity, total hardness, Caand Mg hardness, Nitrate Nitrogen and fluoride.Total coliforms (TC), E.coli, Enterococci faecalis(EFLO), Salmonella like organisms (SLO),Shigella like (SHLO) and Vibrio cholerae like

16 ECO-CHRONICLE

Parameters Desirable limit Permissible limitin the absence ofalternate source

pH 6.5-8.5 9.2Conductivity (mhos/cm) 1500 3000Chloride (mg/l) 250 400Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 500 2000Total hardness (mg/l) 300 600Calcium hardness (mg/l) 75 200Magnesium hardness ( mg/l ) 30 100Total alkalinity (mg/l) 200 600Nitrate nitrogen (mg/l) 45 100Fluoride (mg/l) 1.0 1.5

organisms (VCLO) were the bacteria enumerated(APHA, 1985). Membrane Filter technique wasemployed with 1.0 to 100 ml samples usingselective agar media (M/S Hi-Media Ltd., Bombay,India). E.coli was enumerated at 45 + 0.20C after24hrs incubation, while all others preferably growat 370C. Logarithmic representation of bacterialcounts was made in the charts to skew down theindividual differences.


Physico-Chemical characteristics

pH

The pH values in well waters ranged from7.4 to 8 in 2000, 7.2 to 8.1 in 2001, 7.14 to 8.09in in 2002 and 7.23 to 8.05 in 2003. Though, pHgenerally falls within the prescribed limit (Table1) (6.5-8.5 as per BIS) is slightly alkaline in nature,which is expected in the atolls. Beyond this range,the water will affect the mucous membrane andwater supply system. The limit is categorized asessential; however, it may be relaxed up to 9.2 inabsence of alternate sources. Out of 30 dug wellsstudied, no sample was found above this limit.Also the impact of season over pH has been foundnegligible.

Conductivity

In 2001, 11 wells showed conductivity range500-1000 mhos, 9 between 1000 to 1500, 3between 1500 to 2000, 13 wells above 2000 upto 3000, and 4 wells above 3000 mhos. The fourvalues above the permissible limit could be theresult of overdraft, which is being practiced in the

Island. During 2002, 19 wells were in 1000 -1500, 2 in 1500 - 2000 range and one above3000mhos. This may be due to the fact thatduring rainy season, dilution partially lowers theconductivity. In 2003, 8 values were in 1000 -1500 mhos range; 4 in 1500 - 2000 mhosrange when 3 showed values above 3000mhos. This is a clear indication of overdraftprevalent in the Island.

Chloride

The chloride content broadly varied from 23.4to 583 mg/l. The maximum values in the firstthree samplings are above the desirable limit,but, however, below the permissible limit. During2000, chloride values in well no.11 exceeded thepermissible limit while 6 wells in 2001, 2 wells in2002 and 6 wells in 2003 exceeded the desirablelimit. This indicates overdraft from 2000 onwards,but slight dilution occurred during the monsoonperiod of 2002. This further suggests that partialdilution is effective only during rainy season andon reaching post monsoon, the original conditionreturns.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

TDS broadly varied from 231 to 3170mg/l.24 wells in 2000, 25 wells in 2001, 16 and 22wells respectively in 2002 and 2003 exceededthe desirable limit. This observation is similar tothat by Madan Nanoti (1989) who had suggestedcontrolled exploitation of the resource. Beyond500 mg/l, the palatability of water decreases andmay cause gastro-intestinal irritation. This is acase of seawater intrusion that increases thesalinity.

Table 1BIS standards for drinking water

17ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig. 1. Well locations in Kavaratti Island

The effect of rain on lowering conductivity,chloride and TDS was marginal, only where thecontamination had not exceeded the permissiblelimit and water withdrawal was the minimum, andin fact, immediately after the rain the original statewas re established. This was in contrary to thereport (Najeeb, 1995) that heavy rainfall couldrevert the increasing conductivity.

Total alkalinity

Alkalinity values showed that almost all thewell waters except well no. 4 are having alkalinityabove desirable limit (200 mg/l), but below thepermissible limit (600 mg/l). In 2001 also all thevalues fell above desirable limit, but belowpermissible barrier. In 2002; one value evencrossed the permissible extent where as in 2003,all values were above the desirable limit.Alkalinity, as an indicator of seawater intrusion,is on the rise in the island and can be furtherenhanced by the continued overdraft.

Total hardness

Total hardness varied from 148 to 736 mg/lin 2000, 195 to 941mg/l in 2001, 170 to 890mg/l

in 2002 and 186 to 934 mg/l in 2003, the highesvalue in all the years exceeding even thepermissible limit (600 mg/l). Though excessconcentration of total hardness has no knownadverse effect on health, it prevents theformulation of lather with soap and increases theboiling point of water. Unpublished data (PWD,2002) showed that out of 180 samples studiedduring premonsoon 2000, 150 exceeded thedesirable hardness barrier in which 150 crossedeven the permissible extent. In 2001, thesefigures increased to 26% of the total wells usingthen and is in a condition to be rejected. Thissituation is an obvious result of overdraft. In fact,Jacob et al (1987) has warned that the lens isvery thin that large scale water withdrawal waslikely to disturb the equilibrium condition resultingin seawater rise.

Calcium hardness

The calcium hardness in broadly ranged from24.8 to 124 mg/l. Though the maximum valueduring 2000 was slightly above the desirable limit(75 mg/l), but in 2001-2003, the maximum valuesfell within the permissible limit (200 mg/l).

18 ECO-CHRONICLE

pH in well waters of Kavaratti during 2000-2003

7

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

8

8.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Well numbers

pH

val

ues

2000 2001 2002 2003

Conductivity of well waters in 2000-2003

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

we l l numbe r s

m

2000 2001 2002 2003

Chloride content in Kavaratti well waters, 2000-2003

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001

2002 2003

TDS in well waters at Kavaratti during 2000-2003

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

mg/l

Total alkalinity in well waters at Kavaratti ,2000-2003

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

Total hardness of well waters in 2000-2003

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

2000200120022003

Calcium hardness in Kavaratti well waters, 2000-2003

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003Mg hardness of well waters of Kavaratti, 2000-2003

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

Chart 1.

Results of physico – chemical parameters of well waters, Kavaratti 2000 - 2003

Total Dissolved Solids

ConductivitypH

HardnessAlkalinity

Chloride

pH

Magnesium HardnessCalcium Hardness

19ECO-CHRONICLE Nitrate nitrogen in well waters during 2000-2003

0

20

40

60

80

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Nit

rtate

nit

rog

en

(m

g/l

)1997 1998 1999 2000

Flouride in well waters, 2000-2003

00.20.4

0.60.8

11.21.4

1.61.8

2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30well numbers

Flo

uri

de

con

cen

trat

ion

(p

pm

)

2000 2001 2002 2003

Chart 2. Results of microbiological parameters of well waters, Kavaratti 2000 - 2003

Total coliforms in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

Faecal E.coli in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

SLO in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

EFLO in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2000 2001 2002 2003

SHLO in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2000 2001 2002 2003

VCLO in well waters during 2000-2003

1

10

100

1000

10000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2000 2001 2002 2003

Nitrate Nitrogen Flouride

SLO EFLO

E coliTotal coliforms

SHLO VCLO

20 ECO-CHRONICLEMagnesium hardness

Mg hardness fluctuated from 15 to 131.2 mg/l in 2000, 10.45 to 195.8 mg/l in 2000, 17 to 143.4mg/l in 2002 and 12.5 to 177.5 mg/l in 2003. In2000, in 16 wells the values were withinand 13above the desirable limit when one well (no 25)crossed the permissible limit. 3 wells, in 2001;one well in 2002, 4 wells in 2003 exceeded thepermissible extent. The dilution during 2002 ispartial and more magnesium content comparedto calcium during 2003 is an indication of loweringof water quality due to seawater intrusion.

Nitrate Nitrogen

The nitrate concentration showed occasionalhigh values, crossing the desirable limit (45mg/l). Nanoti Madan (1989) reported 43 wells inKavaratti having values up to the desirable limitand 13 wells in 46 to 100mg/l range. He suggestedthat the high nitrate might have originated fromfertilizer usage. In the present study, the greatestproportion of wells with high values was found tobe shallow and even in areas of no agriculturalactivities. This could be of sewage origin. As nitriteis a major component of sewage, its subsequentoxidation is possible. As per WHO guidelinesvalue (10mg/l), the possibility of methaemo-globinemia cannot be ruled out in the island.Nitrate related environmental problems aredifficult to control due to the diffuse nature of thesource. Isolation and treatment of sewage seemsthe only solution.

Fluoride

Concentration of fluoride varied from non-detectable limit (nil) to 1.9mg/l in 2000, nil to 1.8,nil to 1.3 and nil to 1.9mg/l in the following years.During 2000, though most of well waters showedfluoride content within the desirable limit. 12 wellscrossed the desirable limit. However majority ofthe waters showed considerably low values,indicating that fluoride contamination is not severethat treatment in this direction, as of now, is notrequired. Further, the values are lesser than themaximum value (2.6mg/l) reported (Nanoti, 1989).

Results of bacterial analysis

TC

TC count varied from nil to14x104 cfu/100mlin 2000, nil to 21x103, nil to 85x102 cfu/100ml in2002 and nil to 27x103 respectively in the following

years. The results showed that coli l formcontamination was nearly complete covering allseasons and even in deep tube well. From themainland, Rao et al., (1986) reported 35%contamination in Nuzvid Town (A.P.) withcoliforms showed as high as 1800 MPN and 11-40x 103 cfu/100 ml TC from Ponnani (Rahman etal., (2001). The case of Kavaratti is far severe.This can be attributed to this includes proximityof septic tanks/leach pits to the wells, highlyporous soil and shallow nature of the wellstogether with the poor physical environmentaround.

Faecal E.coli

E.coli was enumerated from 14 wells in 2000,19 in 2001, 20 in 2002 and 15 in 2003. Themagnitude was in the order of 46.6% in postmonsoon, 66.6% in monsoon and 50% inmonsoon. This clearly depicts that about 50% ormore of the samples were contaminated withE.coli. Considering the shallow water table anddug wells septic tanks/leach pits in closeproximity, possibility of tapping the aquifer intowhich the effluent discharge takes place cannotbe ruled out. Thus the septic tanks/ leach pits,by design, allows entry of its effluents into thewater table (Pillai et al., 2001).

Salmonella like organisms

21 wells in 2000, 15 in 2001, 17 in 2002 and6 in 2003 recorded SLO. Their presence even inthe absence of faecal E.coli may be due to thenatural inhabitants. However high incidence, aspotential enteric pathogens, is an alarming caseof drinking water pollution. Pathogen originatedin human sewage may diffuse with domesticwastewater through the sandy soil and reach thefreshwater lens. It is equally possible that duringtidal influx, the wastewater from the pits overflowand mix with the freshwater. The Salmonellaspecies that cause typhoid fever and havingnumerous serotypes enumerated in highnumbers from the well waters is alarming.

Enterocooci faecalis like organisms

EFLO count varied from nil to 41x102 cfu/100ml in 2000, nil to 44 x102 in 2001, 12 to 75x102 in 2002 and nil to 10x102cfu/100ml in 2003.EFLO was present in almost all the waters duringall sampling seasons. Their presence without aspatial and temporal pattern was an indication

21ECO-CHRONICLEof wide spread faecal contamination possibly fromthe un- plastered septic pits.

Shigella like organisms

SHLO count varied broadly from nil to 60x102cfu/100ml and enumerated from most of thewaters irrespective of seasons. Hygiene behaviorattains significance here to the reduction ofshigellosis. One study in Bangladesh showed thatproviding free soap and water pitches along withawareness classes reduced the incidence ofsecondary cases of shigellosis by 84% (WHO -GEMS / DATA, 1989).

Vibrio cholera like organisms

VCLO count ranged from nil to 41x102 in2000, 15 to 60x102 in 2001, nil to 2.8x102 in 2002and nil to 21x102 cfu/100ml in 2003. 27 waters in2000, all samples during 2001, 27 in 2002 and24 in 2003 recorded VCLO. Though many of thespecies are natural inhabitance, high counts inwater could be considered critical as cholerastrain can also be among them.

CONCLUSION

Two to three times increase in conductivityand chloride, gradual increase in TDS and totalhardness clearly indicated overdraft andresultant seawater intrusion.

Presence of coliforms over 90% wells, 50%incidence of E.coli even in premonsoon, completecontamination with Enterococcus faecalis,frequent enumeration of Salmonella, Shigella andVibrio cholera like organisms elucidated the extentof anthropogenic contamination.

Dense settlement with point source dischargeof untreated domestic wastes acts as thecontributing factor that cross contaminate the wellwaters.

Higher bacterial counts recorded in monsoonrevealed that coliforms, E.coli and other potentialpathogens originated in human sewage diffusewith rainwater and domestic wastewater throughthe sandy soil to reach freshwater.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Due to the limited capacity of the well watersto assimilate the anthropogenic wastes, the

pollution source has to be alienated from thewater source. In this regard, isolation andtreatment seems the only way to prevent bacterialcontamination.

The simplest and effective control measureis a modification of the pumping regime orreduction of the abstraction to re-establish astronger seaward hydraulic gradient.

Hygiene awareness must be an integralcomponent of the primary education and a routineaction plan for the local self-governments.

Though chemical quality does decide theaesthetic preference, bacterial contaminationbecomes harmful to primary health. In thisrespect, it would be ideal to monitor the systemin terms of the economic impat water bornediseases.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Dept. of OceanDevelopment, Govt. of India for the financialsupport.Thanks are due to the Dept. of Science andTechnology and PWD (civil) of Kavaratti, U.T. ofLakshadweep.

REFERENCES

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), 1992. Drinkingwater specification (first revision). IS 10500:1991, New Delhi.

Census Report, 2001. Department of Census,Kavaratti, U.T. of Lakshadweep. 5 -10.

Greenber, A. E., Trussell, R. R. and Clescri, L.S., 1985. Standard methods for the examinationof the water and wastewater. 16th edition, APHA,A W W A, N P C F (Eds & Pubs), New York. 37 -81.

Jacob, V. C., Rajagopal, K., Thampi, D.S.,Najeeb, K.M. and Raman, K., 1987. Groundwater investigation in the Kavaratti Island, UnionTerritory of Lakshadweep. Report, CentralGround water Board (CGWB), Trivandrum. 30 -32.

Najeeb, Md. K., 1995. Rainfall and its importanceon importance on the ground water quality inLakshadweep Island. Abs. workshop, status of

22 ECO-CHRONICLE

*****

Sci. database on Lakshadweep, GeologicalSurvey of India, Trivandrum. 35 -39.

Nanoti Madan, 1989. Ground water quality ofLakshadweep Island” Preliminary Project Report,National Environmental Engineering ResearchInstitute (NEERI), Nagpur, India. 1 - 50.

Pillai Madhusoodanan, G. 2002. Coastal andGround water Pollution of Kavaratti, U.T.ofLakshadweep, Ph.D.Thesis, Cochin University ofScience And Technology (CUSAT), Kochi: 163 -164.

Pil lai Madhusoodanan, G., Walter, C.S.,Raviendren, V. and Ouseph, P.P., 2001.Investiagtion on the tidal influence on groundwater quality in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep Islands- a bacteriological perspective. Proc. 13 th KeralaScience Congress: 21 - 23.

Public Works Department (PWD), civi llaboratory,1998. Unpublished data, Kavaratti, U.T.

of Lakshadweep.

Rao Somasekhara Kazha., Thathai, U.,Muralikrishna, Rao Mohan, M. and Rao Mohana,N.V.R., 1986. Quality of Ground water of NuzvidTown (A.P.)”. Indian J. of Environmental Health.28, (4). 349 - 351.

Rahman Mujeeb., Sabitha, A. P., HathaMohammed, A. A., 2001. Bacteriological qualityof well water samples from Ponnani, Kerala. Abs.of the national Seminar on water qualitymanagement. P. 7

Varma Ajayakumar, R., Unnikrishnan, K. R.,Ramachandran, K. K. 1995. Ground waterresource potential in the U. T. of Lakshadweep,India. Ind. J. Earth Sci. 22. 165 – 170.

WHO, 1984. Guidelines for Drinking Waterquality, Recommendations. World HealthOrganisation, Geneva. P. 130.


NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF BENTHIC DIATOMS FROM COCHIN ESTUARY

K. K. Sivadasan and K. J. Joseph* Post Graduate Department of Plant Science, Mahatma Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe,

Union Territory of Pondicherry - 673311, India.*School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin - 16,

Kerala, India.

ABSTRACTThough microbenthic algae contribute significantly to the primary production of shallow waters, very littlehas been expolred for the mocrophytobenthos due to the specific habitat. The present study focuses onsystematics of microphytobenthos in Cochin estuary. It is found that 14 microalgae belong to pennatediatoms are new to their dustributioal record to the estuary. The study forms supplementary to the knowl-edge of biodiversity of this large tropical estuary. Systematic explanation, distribution and ecology of thediatoms were also described.Key words: Benthic microalgae, microphytobenthos, pennate diatoms, estuary, primary production.

INTRODUCTION

Taxonomy of planktonic diatoms of Indianwaters have been studied by various authors(Venketaraman, 1939; Menon, 1945;Subrahmanyan, 1946; Nair, 1959; Gopinathan,1975; Desikachary et al., 1987 (a), 1987 (b),Desikachary, 1988). However, knowledge on thebehthic diatoms is comparatively limited except forthe studies of littoral diatoms (Misra, 1956), littoraldiatoms of south west coast of India (Gopinathan,1984), diatom flora of sediments from the IndianOcean region (Desikachary et al., 1987c),community structure of estuarine benthic diatoms(Rajan et al., 1987), colony formation and valvemorphology in the marine benthic diatomDimeregramma fulvum (Prasad and Felgehauer,1988) and Marine Microphytobenthos fromSouthern Coast of India (Harikrishnan et al., 2005).

In the estuary, benthic microalgal studiescarried out include photosynthetic pigments(Sivadasan and Joseph, 1995) an their relation tothe pollution, community structure (Sivadasan andJoswph, 1998), potential primary production(Sivadasan and Joseph, 1998) and role of benthicmiroalgae in the estuary with seasonal and spa-tial variation in the biomass (Sivadasan and Jo-seph, 1997). Only scanty information is availableon the taxonomy of estuarine benthic diatoms.Systematic analysis of benthic microalgae will besupplementary information to the knowledgemicroalgae in the system and thus to biodiversity.Distributional pattern of these diatoms may behelpful for the forensic studies connected to

drowning cases.


The Cochin estuary extends (Fig. 1) fromAleppey in the South to Azhikode in the north withtwo openings to the Sea, one at Azhikode andother at Cochin. The total area of water spread isabout 300 sq. km. Six rivers empty into the back-waters, each through their tributaries andbranches. On the southern half, the riversMuvattupuzha, Manimala, Meenachil, Pampa andAchankovil join the estuary, while the Periyar riverjoins at the northern half.

For the present study, area extending fromThanirmukkom in south to Munambam in the northwas selected. Monthly sampling were collectedat 10 stations viz. Thannirmukkam, Murinjapuzha,Panavally, Vaduthala, Kumbalam, Bolgatty,Chittoor, Eloor, Kathedom and Munambam.

Samples of mud or sand from exposed areawere collected by using special syringe(Sivadasan and Joseph, 1995) and from variousdepths by using Van Veen grab and syringe. Livediatorms were spearated using fabric from thesediment collected. A piece of fabric was placedabove mud samples kept in prtridishes with fil-tered water from the same station, where the col-lection was made. The diatoms penetrate throughthe meshes and got trapped on the fabric werecollected. Taxonomic evaluation carried out us-ing Nikon SE microscope and the diagram drawnby using Camera Lucida.

24 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig. 1. Sampling station

Systematic account of the new distributionalrecords of benthic diatoms are as follows:

Amphiprora alata (Ehr.) Kutzing (Plate 1, No. 1 )(Hendey, 1976, p.253, pl.39, figs. 14-16)

Frustules constricted in the middle andtwisted in a “figure of eight” pattern. Valves linear,with acute apices. Axial area raised to form asigmoid keel enclosing the raphe. Valve surfacestriate, striae finely lineate, keel coarsely punctate.

Girdle composed of numerous narrow bands,complex, finely striate. Junction line not sinuose.Dimension: Length 90-100Ecology : Marine, brackish and benthic.Distribution: North Sea, English channel, China,India.

Pleurosigma angulatum var. quadratum (W.Sm.)Van Heurck (Plate 1. No.2)(Van Heurck, 1896, p. 251, fig.259; Jin Dexianget al., 1985, p.70, fig.158).

Valves broadly naviculoid, with rhombicangle on central part of valve margin, endsobtuse, length width ratio 4.2-4.3:1. Raphe in themiddle or slightly excentric at the ends. Centralnodule small sub-rhombic. Oblique / transversestriae in equal number, 14-16 in 10 .Dimension: Length 150-186 , width 37-44 Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: North Sea, Chichester harbour, UK,China, India.

Gyrosigma wormleyi (Sull. ) Boyer (Plate 1.No. 3)Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p.79, fig.185.

Valves sigmoidly naviculoid, protracted inrostrated ends in medium length at the ends,length width ratio 5.4-6:1. Ratio of widthsbetween the central part of valve and rostratedprocesses about 4:1. Raphe on the middle line,or sub-excentric near the ends. Central noduleelliptical. Striae fine, transversal striae moreevident than the longitudinal, longitudinal /transversal striae over 23/23 in 10 .

Dimension: Length 91-97 , width 15-18 .Ecology: Freshwater, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Britain, Norway, China, India.

Gyrosigma fasciola var. arcuata (Donk.) Cleve(Plate 1. No. 4)Van Heurck, 1896, p.259; Jin Dexiang et al.,1985, fig.188.

Valves naviculoid, ends abruptly protractedinto long and narrow rostrated ends. Length widthratio 8-8.1:1. Raphe on the central line straightat the middle portion of valves. Longitudinal/transversal stria 24/24 in 10 .Dimension: Length 120-128 , width 9-10 .Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Britain, Sweden, France, ChinaIndia.

Results and Discussion

Fourteen species of pennate diatoms arefound to be new distributional record from Cochinestuary (Plate 1). The species belong to eitherraphidae or psudoraphidae group ofbacillariophyceae. Diatoms with raphe are knownfor their vertical migration (Guarini et al., 2002).All the species showed variation in theirdistribution to the selected stations.

Fig. 1. Location Map

25ECO-CHRONICLE

01. Amphiprora alata02. Pleurosigma angulatum var. quadratum03. Gyrosigma wormleyi04. Gyrosigma fasciola var. arcuata05. Frustulia lewisiana06. Diploneis natabilis

07. Diploneis bomboides08. Diploneis littoralis09. Caloneis brevis var. distoma10. Navicula lyra var. dilatata11. Navicula mesolepta12. Hantzschia marina13. Nitschia panduriformis14. Nitschia constricta

Plate 1. Diatom diversity of Cochin estuary .

26 ECO-CHRONICLE

Frustulia lewisiana (Grev. ) De Toni (Plate 1. No.5 )Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p.84, fig. 206-207.

Valves broadly clavate. Central nodule about7 in length and terminal nodules about 13-14 in length. Siliceous ribs on both sides of rapheelevated evidently. Striae parallel, 24-30 in 10 and striae at the ends radial. Cells colonized dueto mucilage secretion forming brown ebb onmuddy surface.Dimension: Length 118-200 , width 13-14 Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Atlantic coast, North America, China,India.

Diploneis natabilis (Grev. ) Cleve (Plate 1. No. 6 )Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p.97, fig. 271-272.

Valves elliptical, central nodule large, square.Longitudinal canals moderately broad, ratherarcuate at the margin. Costae 7-12 in 10 .Outside of the longitudinal canals to the valvemargin present elongated and interlocked large,elongated alveoli forming 4 to 5 longitudinalundulating rows, more close towards the margin.Dimension: Length 40 , width 25 Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Sri Lanka, China, India.

Diploneis bomboides (A.S) cleve (Plate 1 No. 7 )Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p.98, fig. 278.

Valves constricted in the middle, with broadlyelliptical segments, 22 in the width ofconstriction. Central nodule square, longitudinalribs parallel. Longitudinal canals narrow, dilatedin the middle, with a row of puncta in it. Coarseradiate at the ends, 7-8 in 10 crossed by severalundulating longitudinal costae on each side of themedian line about 6 in 10 .Dimension: Length 95, width 35 .Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Japan, Sri Lanka, North Sea,Mediterranean Sea, Sydney, China, India.

Diploneis littoralis (Donk.) Cleve (Plate 1. No. 8)Hendey, 1976, p.226, pl. 32, fig. 9; Jin Dexiang etal., 1985, p. 101, fig. 290.

Valves elliptical to elongated. Central nodulesmall, rectangular longitudinal ribs narrow, equallybroad, closed to the central nodule andlongitudinal ribs. Costae radiate at the valve ends,

12 in 10 , with double rows of faintly oppositealveoli between the costae, longitudinal rows ofalveoli not very distinct.Dimension: Length 30-65 , width 15-28 .Ecology: Marine, benthic.Distribution: British coasts, North Europeancoasts, China, India.

Caloneis brevis var. distoma (Grun. ) Cleve (Plate1. No.9)Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p.111, fig. 323.

Valves elongated, ends rostrate. Striaeradiate, 14 in 10 . A longitudinal line near themargin, slightly broad. Central area circular, large.Central pores expanded, distinct, axial areadistinct, tapering to the ends. Raphe straight,central raphe curved to the same direction.Dimension: Length 116 , width 32 Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: China, India.

Navicula lyra var. dilatata A. Schmidt (Plate 1,No. 10)Jin Dexiang et al., 1985, p. 128, fig. 378.

Valves olivary, striae and puncta sparser thanthat of the typical form. Puncta 12-14 in 10 .striae 11 in 10. Lateral areas equal in width,not tapered at the ends.Dimension: Length 70-100 , width 37-55 .Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: Gulf of Mexico, China, India.

Navicula mesolepta Ehr. (Plate 1 No. 11)Van Heurck, 1896, p. 174, fig. 96

Valves linear-oblong, tri-undulate, withapices rostrate-capitate; striae graduallyshortened towards the central nodule, the medianones very radiate, the terminal convergent 1-14in 10 Dimension: Length 40-60 , width 10-12 Ecology: Brackish, freshwater, benthic.Distribution: North Sea, India.

Hantzschia marina (Donk.) Grunow (Plate 1 No.12)Van Heurck, 1896, p. 386, fig. 486 b; Jin Dexianget al., 1985, p. 187, fig. 638-641.

Valves slightly arucate, dorsal margin slightlycurved, ventral margin straight, ends elongatedinto a rostrate. Keel puncta prolonged into costaetraversing the entire valves 4-6 in 10 .

27ECO-CHRONICLEIntercostae with double row puncta, striae 12 in10 .Dimension: Length 106 , width 16 .Ecology: Marine, benthic.Distribution: North Sea, Atlantic coasts of NorthAmerica, China, India.

Nitzschia panduriformis Gregory (Plate 1 No.13)Hendey, 1976, p. 279, Jin Dexiang et al., 1985,p. 191, fig. 666-669.

Valves linear-elliptic, with slightly constrictedsides, dividing the valve into tongue-shapedsegments. Apices broadly cuneate, sometimessub-acuminate. Margin with strongly marked keel,keel puncta 6 in 10 . Valve surface with a distinctlongitudinal fold. Valve surface striate, striaearranged in transverse and oblique lines, 14-19in 10 .Dimension: Length 60-100 , width 12-29 .Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthic.Distribution: North European coasts, Englishchannel, China India.

Nitzschia constricta (Greg.) Grunow (Plate 1No.14)Van Heurck, 1896, p. 386, fig. 501; Jin Dexianget al., 1985, p. 191, fig. 6672-673.

Valves linear elliptic, with slightly constrictedsides. Apices indistinct longitudinal folds and keelpuncta.Dimension: Length 22-25 , width 8 Ecology: Marine, brackish, benthicDistribution: France, England, Scotland, Germany,China, India.

Forteen diatoms were found to be new to thedistributional record from the estuary. All benthicdiatoms are pennate diatoms and belong to eitherNaviculacea, or Nitzchiaceae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are thankful to the Director Schoolof Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Scienceand Technology, Kochi and first author extend hisgratitude to Head of the PG Department of PlantScience and Principal, Mahatma Gandhi Govt.Arts College, Mahe, Pondicherry for theirencouragement.

REFERENCES

Desikachary, T. V. 1988. Marine diatoms of theIndian ocean region, Atlas of Diatoms, Fasc. V.

Desikachary, T. V. and Ranjitha devi, K. A. 1986.Marine fossil diatoms from India and IndianOcean, Ibid., Fasc. I.

Desikachary, T. V., Gowthaman, S. and Latha,Y. 1987. Diatom flora of some sediment fromthe Indian Ocean region, Ibid., Fasc. II.

Desikachary, T. V. and Prema, 1987 a: Diatomsfrom Bay of Bengal, Ibid., Fasc. III.

Desikachary, T. V., Hema, A., Prasad, A.K.S.K.,Sreeletha, P. M., Sridharan, V. T. andSubrahmanyan, R. 1987 b. Marine Diatomsfrom the Arabian sea and Indian Ocean, Ibid.,Fasc. IV.

Gopinathan, C. P. 1975 a: On the new distributionrecords of plankton diatoms from the IndianSeas. J. Mar. boil. Ass. India, 17 (1); 223 - 240.

Gopinathan, C. P. 1975 b. Studies on theestuarine diatoms of India, Bull. Dept. Mar. Sci.Univ. Cochin, 1975, 7 (4), 955 - 1004.

Gopinathan, C. P. 1984. A systematic accountof the littoral diatoms of the south-west coastsof India, J. Mar. boil. Ass. India, 26 (1, 2), 1-31.

Guarini, J. M., Cloern, J. E., Edmunds, J. andGros, P. 2002. Microphytobenthic potentialproductivity estimated in three tidal embaymentsof the San Francisco Bay; A comparativestudy. Estuaries, 25 (3), pp. 409 - 417.

Harikrishnan, E., Sanilkumar, M. G., Rejil, T.,Sivadasan, K. K., Saramma, A. V. and Joseph,K. J. 2005. Marine microphytobenthos fromsouthern coast of India, Proc. Internationalseminar on Science and technology forsustainable development, Aug. 2005 (in press).

Hendey, N. I. 1976. An introductory account ofthe smaller algae of the coastal waters. Part V.Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms), Fishery invest. Ser.4: p.317.

Jin Dexiang, Chang zhaodi, Lin Junmin and LiuShicheng, 1985. Marine benthic diatoms in ChinaVol. 1., p.331. China Ocean Press, Beijing.

Menon, M. A. S. 1945. Observation on theseasonal distribution of the plankton ofTrivandrum coast, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 22:31- 62.

28 ECO-CHRONICLEMisra, J. N. 1956. A systematic account of somelittoral diatoms from the west coast of India, J.Bomb. Nat. Hist., 53 (4); 537 - 568.

Nair, P. V. R. 1959. The Marine planktonic diatomsof the Trivandrum coast. Bull. Cent. Res. Inst.Univ. Kerala, 7 (1); 1 - 63.

Prasad, A. K. S. K and Flgenhauer, B. E. 1988:Colony formation and valve morphology in themarine benthic diatom Dimeregramma fulvum, Br.Phycol. J., 23 (4), 365 - 378.

Sivadasan, K. K and Joseph, K. J. 1995.Photosynthetic pigments of benthic microalgae

in Cochin estuary, Indian J.Mar. Sci., 24, 231 -232.

Sivadasan, K. K. and Joseph,K. J. 1997.Distribution and role of benthic microalgae inCochin estuary, J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 39 (1&2),27 - 32.

Sivadasan, K. K. and Joseph, K. J. 1998.Potential productivity of microbenthic algae inCochin estuary, J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 40 (1&2),175 - 178.

Sivadasan, K. K and Joseph, K.J. 1998.Community structure of microalgal benthos in theCochin backwaters, Indian J. Mar. Sci., 27, 323- 327.

*****


IMPACT OF WASTE WATER ON THE HYDROCHEMISTRY OF PARVATHYPUTHEN AR,KERALA, SOUTH-WEST INDIA.

P. Unnikrishnan and V. Sobha*

St. John’s College, Anchal, Kerala, India.*Dept. of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariyavattom,

Thiruvananthapuram 695 581, Kerala, India

ABSTRACTUrbanisation is one of the main problems of developing world. One of the direct effects of urbanizationis the deterioration of surface water quality. In this paper an attempt is made to know the impact ofUrban waste water on the Hydrochemistry of Parvathyputhan ar, a canal in Kerala, South west India.The parameters taken for the study are pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Free carbon dioxide, Biochemical OxygenDemand, Nitrate, Ammonical Nitrogen, Inorganic Phosphorus and Sulphate. It was observed that allthese parameters were on the negative side indicating pollution by organically rich waste. It was alsoobserved that the high concentration of nutrients near the city is an indication of eutrophication. Henceit is recommended that it is high time to take corrective measures to prevent the destruction of thiscanal.Key words : Urbanisation, water quality, Parvathyputhan ar, Nutrients, Urban waste

INTRODUCTION

The steady growth of population demandsincrease in urban amenities. The stress of thepopulation growth is felt on the urban centers.This urbanization has its own impact on the landuse. This changes in land use has its own impacton the stream ecosystems worldwide. Indeveloping countries the change is characterizedby loss of agricultural and forest land andconversion of these land to residential andcommercial uses. The effects of such changingland cover on streams may occur largely via landdisturbance, increased impervious surface andresultant altered hydrology and transport of non– point source pollutants to streams and canals.Increased impervious surface in catchmentsassociated with urbanization causes increasedsurface runoff (Hollis, 1975), leading to increasedchannel erosion (Trimble, 1997) and increasedconcentration of sediment, nutrients, particulateorganics and potentially toxins in streams (Wilber& Hanter, 1977; Klein, 1979; Herlily et al, 1998and Ometo et al, 2000)

The speedy urban development with theexplosion in population, especially in a state likeKerala, has not only created strain on the availablequantity of water but also affected the quality ofwater of the different water bodies changing theseplaces into sanctuaries of disease spreadingorganisms. The reoccurrence of various

communicable diseases can be attributed to this.Also water born diseases such as diarrhea,dysentery is common in many of these pollutedareas. The drainage channels, which run throughthe city, play an important role in transportingthese wastes from the various parts of the city.These canals are under great environmentalstress due to pollution from various sources likedomestic sewage, eutrophication, silting, growthof organic matter and human encroachment.Domestic sewage in most of the places isdischarged into these canals due to which thewater bodies are gradually getting filled upleading towards extinction


To assess the status of water quality of theParvathyputhen ar, samples were collected fromfive different stations in the entire length (9 Km.)of the channel from Vallakadavu to Veli (Figure01). The first three stations (S1, S2 and S3) wereone kilometer apart, while the station S4 wasabout 3 Km away from S3 and S5 was at themouth zone of the channel/canal with Veliestuary. The sample collection were done for aperiod of one year from March 1999 to February2000. The collection was done between 6.30 hrsand 8.00 hrs in the morning. The analysis wasdone according to the procedures laid down byTrivedy and Goel (1986) and APHA, (1998).

30 ECO-CHRONICLERESULTS

The results of the hydro chemical analysisare given in Table 1 (Monthly Variation), Table 2(Spatial Variation) and in figure 2.

pH

The monthly average of pH in Parvathyputhenar showed a maximum of 7.34 in November anda minimum of 6.81 in June (average 7.00). Spatialmaximum average values were reported fromstation S5 (7.73)and minimum of 6.83 fromstation S1. Thus it showed a variation from theacidic to alkaline side, towards the estuarine end(station S5). This increase in pH might be due tothe salt-water intrusion from the Veli estuary.

Dissolved Oxygen

Monthly average values of DO ranged from0.16 mg/l in the month of February to 2.93 mg/l inthe month of June and the average was 1.16 mg/l The annual spatial values of Dissolved Oxygen

ranged from 0.46 mg/l in the station S2 to 2.7mg/l in the station S5.

Free Carbon dioxide

High carbon dioxide value was reportedduring the month of February (94.04 mg/l) whilethe low value was reported during the month ofJune (16.06 mg/l) with an average of 55.53 mg/l during the study period. Station S1 reportedhigher values of CO2 (72.70 mg/l) and the lowervalues was reported from station S5 (36.41). Ingeneral a decreasing trend was observed in thespatial distribution of CO2

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

The range of f luctuation of BOD inParvathyputhen ar was between 108.4 mg/l(June) and 276.42 mg/l (September) with anaverage of 205.26 mg/l. Station S5 recordedlowest average value of BOD (138.48 mg/l) andstation S1 recorded the highest value (262.95mg/l).

31ECO-CHRONICLE

Table 1.Monthly variation of various parameters in Parvathyputhen ar

Parameters March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

pH 7.33 6.90 6.88 6.81 6.85 6.93 6.95 7.02 7.34

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 0.81 1.17 0.90 2.93 0.89 1.24 0.65 2.18 1.38

Free CO2 (mg/l) 89.76 50.16 66.00 16.04 70.26 27.40 60.30 17.76 48.86

B.O.D (mg/l) 203.36 171.20 260.25 108.40 222.80 126.40 276.42 138.66 215.78

Nitrate (mg/l) 9.68 2.82 10.05 11.64 9.03 9.60 11.94 7.47 2.38

Amm. Nitrogen (mg/l) 6.45 1.60 8.00 9.38 2.91 4.10 7.77 1.74 0.84

Phosphate (mg/l) 0.71 1.11 0.67 1.03 0.72 1.03 1.14 0.60 0.76

Sulphate (mg/l) 17.53 4.68 36.33 10.78 20.95 23.87 41.65 8.46 34.04

Parameters Dec. Jan. Feb. Avg. Max. Min.

pH 7.00 7.02 6.96 7.00 7.34 6.81

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 1.14 0.43 0.16 1.16 2.93 0.16

Free CO2 (mg/l) 67.08 58.64 94.04 55.53 94.04 16.04

B.O.D (mg/l) 235.77 234.90 260.16 205.26 276.42 108.40

Nitrate (mg/l) 7.40 3.18 4.11 7.44 11.94 2.38

Amm. Nitrogen (mg/l) 3.61 3.25 4.10 4.48 9.38 0.84

Phosphate (mg/l) 1.90 1.26 0.22 0.93 1.90 0.22

Sulphate (mg/l) 40.72 37.60 48.58 27.10 48.58 4.68

Nitrate

The minimum values of nitrates were notedin November (2.38 mg/l) while Septemberrecorded the maximum values (11.94 mg/l) withan average of 7.44 mg/l in the surface waters ofParvathyputhen ar. Station S5 recorded the lowestvalue (4.78 mg/l) while station S1 recorded thehighest average values (9.4 mg/l).

Ammonical Nitrogen

The range of fluctuation of ammonia in thesurface waters of Parvathyputhen ar was between0.84 mg/l (November) and 9.38 mg/l (June) withan average of 4.48 mg/l. The concentration ofammonia decreased from 5.89 ppm (station S1)to 2.53 mg/l (station S5).

Inorganic Phosphorus

The concentration of Inorganic phosphoruswas lowest during the month of February (0.22mg/l) and was high during the month ofDecember (1.9 mg/l) with an average of 0.93 mg/l. Spatially the fluctuation of the average valueswas between 0.33 mg/l (station S5) and 1.24 mg/l (station S3).

Sulphate

The sulphates in the surface waters ofParvathyputhen ar ranged from 4.68 mg/l in themonth of April to 48.58 mg/l in the month ofFebruary with an average of 27.1 mg/l. Spatialvalues of sulphates in the surface water ofParvathyputhen ar ranged from 24.81 mg/l(station S4) to 29.39mg/l (station S1).

32 ECO-CHRONICLE

6.56.66.76.86.97.07.17.27.37.47.5

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Figure 2.Spatial variation of different parameters in Parvathyputhen ar

Sl.No Parameters S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Average

1 pH 6.83 6.88 6.93 7.13 7.23 7.00

2 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 0.50 0.46 0.68 1.46 2.70 1.16

3 Free CO2 (mg/l) 72.71 64.99 54.64 48.88 36.41 55.53

4 B.O.D (mg/l) 262.95 243.57 214.71 166.59 138.48 205.26

5 Nitrate (mg/l) 9.40 9.22 7.27 6.54 4.78 7.44

6 Amm. Nitrogen (mg/l) 5.89 5.41 4.78 3.79 2.53 4.48

7 Phosphate (mg/l) 1.00 1.06 1.24 1.02 0.33 0.93

8 Sulphate (mg/l) 29.39 27.48 25.74 24.81 28.08 27.10

33ECO-CHRONICLEDiscussion

From the above results it can be observedthat the stations near the city (Stations S1, S2and S3) receive a substantial quantity oforganically rich urban waste water. The pH in thesurface water of Parvathyputhenar showed anincrease from acidic region to alkaline regiontowards the estuarine side (station S5). Thisvariation can be attributed to the decompositionof organic waste which liberates Carbon dioxidethis making the water acidic due to thedissociation of carbonic acid formed by theliberation of carbon did oxide. This is in tune withthe spatial decrease of carbon dioxide from stationS1 (Urban center) to station S5 (Estuarine side).The dissolved oxygen also showed an increasedtowards the estuarine side contradicting thebehavior of BOD and CO2. Other parameterswhich was high in the city region was Nitrate,Ammonical nitrogen, Inorganic phosphate,Sulphate. For all these parameters anthropogenicactivities is one of the major source. Theorganically rich waters from the nearby sewagefarm and other non point sources supply theorganic form of these parameters. These are thenconverted to in organic forms in the water duringthe process of decomposition.

After decomposition, these parametersundergo reduction due to the reducing conditionsthat are prevailing in the canal. The nitrate presentwill be reduced to Nitrite and subsequently toAmmonia by the process of Ammonification.According to Trivedy and Goel (1986) occurrenceof Ammonia in the water can be accepted as thechemical evidence of organic pollution. They havealso stated that if only ammonia is present thanthe pollution by sewage must be recent, and nitriteis present a long term has been passed afterpollution, because water has purified itself. In thepresent study bulk of the nitrogen is present asnitrates, but Ammonia is also present in the waterof this canal. This is an indication the t the pollutionhas been stated for a long time and it is stillcontinuing.

Since reducing condition are prevailing in thecanal the complex formation between Phosphate,Iron and Manganese is arrested thus makingavailable phosphate for the growth of plants. Thismight be the reason for the high concentration ofPhosphate in the stations near the city. Underreducing condition the Iron forms a black solubleFeS with Sulphate thus increasing the

concentration of Sulphates in the waters. Theformation of FeS in the waters of Parvathypthenarmight be the reason for the comparatively highconcentration of Sulphate in the city centers.

CONCLUSION

Thus it can be confirmed that this canalreceives a substantial quantity of Urban wastesin Stations S1, S2 and S3. The main source ofthese organic waste are the numerous sewerswhich open into this canal and the indiscriminatedisposal of waste material by the people residingon its bank. Another source of pollution is thesewage farm, which is situated near by (nearValyathura). According to a report by CESS(2002) and numerous other leading Malayalamnewspapers, only a part of the sewage collectedthrough three pumping stations is treated andthe remaining part from the pumping station andfrom the sewage farm overflows in this canal.Lacks of technological upgradation in thefunctioning of the sewerage system also augmentsewage pollution. Thus it can be concluded thatthe nutrient status is high in this canal that canlead to eutrophication and subsequent death ofthis canal. Hence it is high time to take steps forthe prevention of pollution on this canal.

REFERENCE

APHA. 1998 Standard methods for theexamination of water and wastewater. 19 th

Edition. Washington, DC, USA.

CESS. 2002. Geo - environmental studies ofsewage pollution around Muttathara sewage farmin Thiruvanathapuram city. Final report.

Herlihy, A. T., Stoddard, J. J. and Johnson, C. B.1998. The relationship between stream chemistryand watershed land cover data in the mid –Atlantic Region, USA. Water, Air and SoilPollution, 105, 377 – 386.

Hollis, G. E. 1975. The effects of urbanization onfloods of different recurrence interval. Waterresources and research, 8, 431 – 435.

Klein, R. D. 1979. Urbanisation and streamquality impairment. Water resources Bulletin, 15,119 – 126.

Ometo, J. P. H. B., Martinelli, L. A., Ballester, M.V., Gessner, A., Krusche, A. V., Victoria, R. L.

34 ECO-CHRONICLE

*****

and Williams, M. 2000. Effects of land use onwater chemistry and macro invertibates in twostreams of the Piracicaba river basin, SoutheastBarzil. Fresh water Biology, 44, 327 – 337.

Trimble, S. W. 1997. Contribution of streamchannel erosion to sediment yield from anurbanizing water shed. Science, 278, 1442 –1444.

Trivedy, R. K. and Goyel, P. K. 1986. Chemicaland Biological methods for water pollutionstudies. Environmental publications, Karad.

Wilber, A. G. and Hunter, J. V. 1977. Aquatictransport of heavy metals in the urbanenvironment. Environment Management, 21, 203– 217.


HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTALIMPLICATIONS OF VELLAYANI FRESHWATER LAKE, SOUTHERN KERALA, INDIA.

A. Krishnakumar, V. Sobha, D. Padmalal*, R. S. Baiju and B. BaijulalDepartment of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom,

Thiruvananthapuram – 695 581, Kerala, India.*Environmental Sciences Division, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam,

Thiruvananthapuram – 695 031, Kerala, India.

ABSTRACTThe freshwater lakes are the mirrors of nation’s civilization and culture and they acts as an integral partof the socio-environmental frame of its holding region. Vellayani Lake is the second largest freshwaterlake in the Kerala State with a water-spread area of about 5.5 km2 located inside the Karamana riverbasin. The lake is located in the outskirts of the capital city of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram and liesbetween North latitudes 80 24’ 90" and 80 26’ 30" and East longitudes 760 59’ 08" and 760 59’ 47". Thesediments collected from the Vellayani lake were analysed for geochemical parameters (N, P, K and C-org. and heavy metals viz. Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb and Cd). The observed values of NPK status and C-org. indicate that, the lake is under severe stress due to urbanization in the nearby city areas. The N, P,K concentration ranged from 0.22% to 1.18%, 0.14% to 0.36% and 0.01% to 0.12% respectively and C-org. concentration ranged from 0.84% to 2.53%. Correlation analysis showed that nitrogen appearedto be associated with organic carbon while phosphorus has a strong bearing on Fe/Mn complexes.Considerable amount of organic matter was also associated with the detritus originating from runoff.No strong geochemical variation was observed suggesting an almost identical enrichment of heavymetals in the sites. The sediments from the area showed higher levels of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu, while theminimum levels found were of Cr ,Pb and Cd. The observed geochemical concentration of elements inthe lake system is due to the variation of basin geology and various degrees of human impact. Theanalytical results of the Vellayani lake water show that it is contaminated in terms of particulateconcentrates as indicated by its turbidity, iron and fecal coliforms. The other parameters like pH, TDS,Nitrates, Sulphates, Chlorides, Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium are within the prescribed limits ofIndian and International standards. The present socio-environmental importance of the lake is alsoaddressed and some suggestions and recommendations are made for the sustainable use of thepristine laccustrine system of Kerala.Key words: Vellayani freshwater lake, Geochemical characterization, Socio-environmental importance,Environmental management.

INTRODUCTION

Water is literally, the source of life on earth.The availability of safe drinking water is thebiggest crisis facing the world today. In India, thecrisis in terms of spread and severity affects onein three people. As population grows rapidly anduse of water per person rises, the demand forfreshwater goes up. Besides, the supply offreshwater is threatened by pollution. Realizingthe importance of the problem, the IndianGovernment has taken several major steps withrespect to water management, maintenance andconservation and laid down policies andprogrammes for development and regulation ofthe country’s water resources. The State of Keralais well known for its lush forests, abundant rainfall,

perennial springs, rivers, lakes and other waterbodies. But ironically, Kerala is fast movingtowards a severe water crisis. The main reasonsfor this are inadequacies in planning,indiscriminate exploitation leading to rapidlydepleting water sources, and an ever increasingwater demand caused due to the spiralingpopulation growth and aspiration for anincreasingly urban lifestyles. In such a situation,the unexploited fresh water bodies have greatersignificance for meeting the future demands.

The freshwater lakes are playing vital rolesin the hydrological, biological and biogeochemicalaspects of the environment. These includesources of water, flood water storage and floodcontrol, ground water recharge, regulation of

36 ECO-CHRONICLE

water quality, habitats for plants and animals,socio - economic, socio - cultural, aesthetic andrecreational values. But human activities arethreatening the sustainable use of lakes andreservoirs, which are the critical components inthe ecological system around the globe.Management and conservation of the lakes allover the world is utmost important owing to meetthe needs of future generations to use and enjoyfor all of their needs/benefits (Dinar et al, 1995).Ramsar Convention promotes the concept of“wise use” which refers to “sustainable utilizationfor the benefit of human kind in a way compatiblewith the maintenance of the natural properties ofthe ecosystem”. Only during recent decades anemphasis on exploitation and modification forgreater economic returns has caused muchdamage to many of the Indian lakes. The majorissues are, increased silt load causing theshrinking of water body, threatened by agriculturalchemicals, toxic effluents, insecticide andpesticide residues, domestic sewages, reductionin waterfowl and growth of water hyacinth, declinein fish production, heavy metal accumulation andso on (Unni, 2002). Rapid urbanization is fastshattering the organic structure of the freshwaterlakes of Kerala State. Indiscriminate wetlandreclamation results in the environmentaldegradation of the precious freshwater resourcesin various ways.

There is not much systematic investigationshave so far been carried out to evaluate / updateinformation regarding the various freshwaterenvironments in Kerala State for their propermaintenance and management or for theirsustainable utilization. The geochemical studiesof aquatic sediments have been extended in thelast few decades due to the growing awarenessof environmental pollution and its impact on theecosystem.

This investigation is an attempt to providebase-line data on texture, organic carbon, nutrientstatus (Total N, P and K), Na, Ca and heavy metalssuch as Fe, Mn, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cr, Cd and Pb in thesediments and to assess the water quality statusof the Vellayani lake located at the outskirts ofThiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala, foraddressing the hydrogeo-chemicalcharacterization of the lake system. Theenvironmental problems of the lake is also brieflydiscussed and some suggestions andrecommendations are made for the sustainableutilization of the lake through environmentalmanagement.

The Present Study - Vellayani freshwater lake

The Vellayani freshwater lake, located at theoutskirts of Thiruvanantha-puram city, is thesecond largest freshwater lake in Kerala. Thelake is located between north latitude 80 24’ 90"– 80 26’ 30" and east longitude 760 59’ 08" – 760

59’ 47" (Fig. 1). The water spread area of theVellayani lake is estimated to be about 5.5 km2.

The lake is shallow and its depth varies from 2mto 6m. It is oriented almost parallel to the coastalline and the northern portion of this lake isconverted to a reservoir, which is used mainlyfor irrigation purposes.

Geology, Geomorphology and Land use.

Four major l i tho-units of differentcharacteristics and ages are noticed in the studyarea. The Vellayani basin is dominated mainlyby the Precambrian crystallines composed ofquartz-feldspar-hypersthene granulite,charnockite gneiss, hypersthene- diopside gneissand khondalites (GSI, 1995). The southwesternside of the lake is occupied by Tertiary hillockscomprising sandstones and clays with seams ofl ignite known as the Warkall i Formation.Quaternary sediments of coastal sand andalluvium dominate the northwestern side.

The major geomorphological features of thedrainage basin of the Vellayani lake is depicted

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

37ECO-CHRONICLE

Experiments

Twenty surface sediment samples werecollected from the Vellayani Lake using a van veengrab. The Surface and bottom waters werecollected from different regions of the lake. Thetextural characteristics of the samples weredetermined following the procedures of Lewis(1984) and classified using the ternary model ofFolk et al (1970).

Nitrogen and total phosphorus estimations inall samples were performed following standardmethods of APHA, 1998. The sediment samplesdigested using HF-HClO4-HNO3 acid mixture hasbeen used for heavy metal analysis. Organiccarbon content of the sediment was estimatedfollowing the method of El-Wakeel and Riley(1957). Water samples were collected from theVellayani lake from five stations usingpolyethylene bottles. pH, EC and DO weredetermined on spot using a portable wateranalyzer. The various physico-chemical

parameters like total solids, total dissolved solids,total suspended solids, COD, BOD, alkalinity,carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates,nitrates, phosphates, hardness, calcium,magnesium, iron, total nitrogen and totalphosphorus were estimated fol lowingEnviromedia (1987) and APHA (1995). Sodiumand Potassium content in both the sediment andwater samples were determined using Flamephotometer and the trace metals by using AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer (AAS; GBC 932).Advanced statistical computational techniques(Correlation plots and matrix analysis) were usedfor the interpretation of the results using Systat8.0 software.

RESULTS

TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTS

Texture deals with the size, shape andmutual relationship of individual particlesconstituting sedimentary deposits. The Vellayanilake is blanketed mainly by silt dominatedsediments. Fig. 3 shows the sediment faciesworked out following Folk et al (1970). Thecontent of silt varies from 54.38% to 85.77% withan average of 79.91%. The ranges of sand andclay fractions are 0.36 - 26.5% (average 18.54%)and 8.28 – 41.15% (average 18.54%),respectively, (Table 1). Sand concentrates in theupper portion of the lake, where distributarychannel of the Karamana river joins the lake. Twoisolated pockets of sand dominant domains occurnear the confluence zones of Pallichal thodu.

S - Sand; Z - Silt; C - Clay; M - MudcS - Clayey Sand; sC - Sandy Clay; zS - Silty sandmS - Muddy Sand; sM - Sandy Mud; sZ - Sandy silt

Fig. 3. Ternary diagram showing various faciesfields of the sediments of Vellayani Lake

in Fig. 2. The lake is drained by second and fourthorder streams of smaller sizes, in addition to majorcontribution from the Karamana river. The lakeis surrounded by hillocks with steep to moderatelyslopes. The regions adjacent to the lake basinexhibit nearly leveled/gently sloping surfaces. Thewatershed areas of the Vellayani lake is utilizedextensively for a variety of cultivation, but thepredominant one is coconut based. Rice, banana,vegetables are also cultivated extensively on thebanks of the lake.

Fig.2.Geomorphology of Vellayani lake basin

38 ECO-CHRONICLEIn general, the distribution of sand exhibits a

marked spatial variation within the lake. Thedistribution of silt and clay does not exhibit muchcomplexity compared to that of sand. The spatialdistribution of the sediment facies is presentedin Fig. 4. Sandy silt dominates in the upper andmiddle portions of the basin. Mud dominates inthe border areas of the reservoir as well as thesouthern arm of the lake. The remaining portionsare blanketed by silt-dominated sediments. Theoverall sediment dispersal patterns observed inthe Vellayani basin indicate the extent of siltationto which the lake has been subjected for the pastseveral years.

SEDIMENT GEOCHEMISTRYNitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and OrganicCarbon

Aquatic sediments offer a major sink fornutrient elements like nitrogen, phosphorus,potassium, etc. However, under favourablecircumstances, these sedimented nutrients willbe released back to the overlying watersenhancing the productivity of the aquatic system.So analysis of aquatic sediments is a useful toolin the overall assessment of the health of theecosystem.

Table 2 summarises the concentrations ofnitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic

carbon in the sediments of the Vellayani lake.The spatial distributions of these elements aredepicted in Fig. 5. The concentration of nitrogenvaries from 0.22% to 1.18% (average 0.74%). Itis distributed almost uniformly within the lakebasin, except in the central zone where nitrogenrich sediment pockets of variable dimensions arefound. Nitrogen exhibits positive correlation (r =0.76) with organic carbon (Table 3) indicating thata major part of the nitrogen is of organic origin.The distribution of phosphorus, on the otherhand, exhibits a highly complex distributionpattern within the lake basin.

The content of phosphorus varies from0.14% to 0.36% (average 0.22%). A greater partof the lake basin is covered with phosphorus richsediments (Fig. 5). Phosphorus shows a positivecorrelation with organic carbon and Fe (Fig. 6).This clearly indicates that this nutrient elementget deposited in the lake sediments probably intwo forms -organic bound as well as Fe – bound(hydrolysate) forms.

The content of potassium varies between0.01% and 0.12 %( average 0.05%). The metalrecords the highest concentration in areas closeto the confluence zone of the Pallichal thodu,whereas the minimum in the middle part of thelake basin. About 60% of the lake basin is floored

Fig. 4. (a) Spatial distribution of sediments (b) general distribution of sand (c) silt and (d) Clay in theVellayani Lake substratum

39ECO-CHRONICLEby sediments with 0.05 – 1% potassium-bearingconcentrations (Fig. 5).

Organic carbon is an integral component ofaquatic sediments. It varies from 0.84% to 2.5%with an average of 1.82%. (Table 2).

Fig. 5 also depicts the spatial distribution patternof organic carbon in the sediment blanket of theVellayani lake. Sediments rich in organic carbonare found on the marginal areas of the reservoir.Organic carbon concentration is also found onthe southern arm of the lake in addition to twopockets in the central zone (Fig. 5). The river-influenced zones are, in general dominated bysediments with low organic carbon contents. Thismight be due to the dilution of sediment carbonby coarser clastics brought by land drainage, afeature also observed elsewhere (Padmalal andSeralathan, 1995).

Heavy metals

The concentration of various heavy metalsin the sediments of the Vellayani lake is shown inTable 2. The content of heavy metals variesconsiderably with sediment texture. Mud richsediments generally exhibit high concentration ofheavy metals. The content of Fe varied between

0.39% and 1.89% (av. 1.07%). The concentrationof Mn varies between 50 ppm and 81 ppm (av.63.15 ppm). The relative concentrations of theheavy metals are of the order ofFe>Zn>Mn>Cu>Cr>Pb>Cd ( Table 2).

Fig. 5. (a) Spatial distribution of organic carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in the sedi-ments of Vellayani Lake

Fig. 6.Bivariate correlation plots of geochemical

parameters in Vellayani Lake

40 ECO-CHRONICLEThe average concentration of Zn, Cu, Cr,

Pb and Cd are 66.35ppm, 31.65ppm, 3.55ppm,1.27ppm, and 0.81ppm, respectively.

Hydrochemistry

The water samples remained slightly on thealkaline side with an average pH of 7.02. ThepH range was found to be within the desirablelimit of drinking water standards. Turbidity, ameasure of suspended particles in the watercolumn varies from 8.3 NTU to 12.4 NTU.

The overall concentration of various ionspresent in water indicated by conductivity, andit varies from 0.078mS/cm and 0.101mS/cm.All suspended, dissolved and volatile solidconcentrates in water constitute the total solids(TS).

TS ranged from 53.33 to 396.67 mg/l.TDS, on the other hand varied between16.67mg/l and 53.33mg/l. The minimumconcentration of TSS was 20mg/l and themaximum concentration was 250mg/l. Thedissolved oxygen is one of the most limitingfactors in aquatic environments, varies from 4.0mg/l to 7.8mg/l. The biochemical oxygendemand (BOD) values also exhibited markedvariation and ranges from 1.01mg/l to 3.07mg/l, but the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was

below detection limit (BDL) in the surface watersof Vellayani lake. The alkalinity values of the lakewater varies from 0 to 25mg/l, and are directlyrelated to the bicarbonate contents rather than thecarbonate ions, a feature also observed by Abbassiet al., 1989. The carbonate content was found tobe below detection limit for all the samples. Thechlorides exhibited a range of 18.93 - 21.3 mg/l,and the values found to be low when compared tothe drinking water standards. The range of sulphateconcentration was 3.7 – 17.25 mg/l, and was belowthe desirable limit of drinking water standards of

BIS. Nitrate concentration of the Vellayani lakewater varied between 0.19mg/l and 0.29mg/l andthe major sources of nitrates are rocks, soils andplant remains. The values suggest that theVellayani lake water is free from excess nitrogenouscontaminants than the desirable limits. Phosphatecontents ranged from 0.06mg/l to 0.09mg/l. Thenatural waters generally attain the hardness largelyfrom their contacts with soil and rock formationswithin the drainage basin. The hardness values varyfrom 16.67 – 26.67 mg/l in the lake water. Thecalcium and magnesium content in the Vellayanilake water varied between 2 and 5.33mg/l and 0.81-3.25mg/l respectively. Sodium is the most dominantcation than calcium, magnesium and potassium inthe waters of Vellayani lake. The sodium contentranged from 13.3to 23.5mg/l, and potassium valueswere several folds lower and ranged between

Sample Sand % Silt % Clay % Mud % Textural facies No. (after Folk et al, 1970)1 26.5 55.39 18.11 73.5 Sandy silt2 7.75 79.96 12.29 92.25 Silt3 12.73 74.54 12.73 87.27 Sandy silt4 4.17 78.54 17.29 95.83 Silt5 2.17 85.77 12.06 97.83 Silt6 19.13 66.15 14.72 80.87 Sandy silt7 2.58 82.07 15.36 97.43 Silt8 5.73 79.72 14.55 96.27 Silt9 22.78 68.94 8.28 77.22 Sandy silt10 4.47 83.83 11.7 95.53 Silt11 7.1 80.55 12.35 92.9 Silt12 0.5 84.59 14.91 99.5 Silt13 3.13 77.29 19.58 96.87 Silt14 0.36 79.99 19.65 99.64 Silt15 0.7 81.97 17.33 99.3 Silt16 4.47 54.38 41.15 95.53 Mud17 7.65 77.3 15.05 92.35 Silt18 7.11 55.42 37.47 92.89 Mud19 25.84 56.03 18.13 74.16 Sandy silt20 6.18 55.79 38.03 93.82 Mud

Table 1. Size spectral composition and textural facies of the sediments of Vellayani Lake

41ECO-CHRONICLE1.7mg/l and 2.3mg/l in the lake waters during thestudy periods. Iron concentration fluctuated widelyand ranged between below detection limit (BDL)and 0.68mg/l. In terms of the bacterial point ofview, the Vellayani lake is polluted to a greaterextent. The coliform count ranges from 900 – 1100per 100ml of water samples. Such high content ofthese organisms prohibits the direct consumptionof water from the lake. The content of coliforms inwater must be zero for drinking purposes.

DISCUSSION

The pace of urbanization and otheranthropogenic activities around the Vellayani lakeimpose severe problems to physico-chemical

environment of the Vellayani lake. Thedistribution of Nitrogen content varies with thatof organic carbon (r of N Vs C-org = 0.76,number of samples = 20). This indicates that asubstantial portion of nitrogen content can alsoreaches the system through mineral fertilizersapplied to the paddy-cultivated land in themarginal agricultural fields of Vellayani lake. Thephosphorus distribution in the sediments of theVellayani lake is controlled by many factors viz.

physical, chemical and biological processesoperating in the aquatic environments. Fishfarming practices in the lake and the agriculturalactivities are some of the causative factors thatpromote the enhancement of phosphorus in the

Sample N P K C-org Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Pb CdNo.

1 0.56 0.25 0.05 1.54 1.59 69 96 62 4.4 2 ND2 0.5 0.27 0.12 1.04 1.3 72 68 24 4.1 0.9 -3 1.18 0.36 0.05 2.48 1.56 73 78 16 4 1 -4 0.53 0.14 0.07 0.84 1.89 81 62 19 3.8 1.1 0.15 0.59 0.25 0.02 2.43 0.88 62 53 23 2.7 1.3 0.66 0.42 0.23 0.05 0.99 1.2 62 60 20 4.2 1.6 27 0.83 0.15 0.02 1.88 0.7 63 59 33 1.5 0.9 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.02 0.94 0.93 63 75 22 1.6 1 ND9 0.76 0.22 0.01 2.5 0.88 60 84 40 1.4 1.2 ND10 1.16 0.17 0.02 1.95 0.39 50 44 22 3.2 ND 611 0.95 0.15 0.02 1.63 0.85 58 32 10 4.2 ND ND12 0.98 0.2 0.02 2.38 1.11 61 47 12 2 0.8 ND13 0.87 0.27 0.07 1.54 1 66 68 184 6 2.4 -14 0.67 0.25 0.06 2.18 1.22 63 62 4 3.4 1.2 -15 0.98 0.25 0.05 2.53 1.13 67 88 14 10.4 6.2 ND16 0.89 0.24 0.08 2.43 0.97 57 72 40 5 0.8 417 0.69 0.15 0.04 1.42 0.65 52 74 21 1.6 1 118 0.62 0.15 0.07 1.99 0.86 54 63 16 2.2 ND 0.319 0.6 0.26 0.05 1.56 1.6 70 68 20 1.9 0.9 ND20 0.77 0.18 0.08 2.18 0.6 60 74 31 3.4 2.1 1.9

Table 2. Geochemistry of sediments of Vellayani Lake(ND - Not Detected)

N P K C-Org. Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Pb

N 1P 0.37 1K -0.03 0.25 1C-org. 0.76 0.34 -0.29 1Fe -0.09 0.37 0.28 -0.31 1Mn -0.07 0.28 0.35 -0.34 0.85 1Zn 0.06 0.23 0.1 0.07 0.1 0.07 1Cu 0.13 0.17 0.17 0.11 -0.11 0.01 0.14 1Cr 0.33 0.38 0.42 0.17 0.2 0.26 0.38 0.24 1Pb 0.26 0.14 0.07 0.24 -0.04 0.08 0.45 0.14 0.85 1

Table 3. Correlation matrix of various geochemical parameters in the sediments of Vellayani Lake

42 ECO-CHRONICLEsystem. A substantial proportion of phosphorusis reaching the system through artificial fish feedsand fertilizers and eventually gets deposited inthe sediments. The fate of phosphorus depositedin the lake sediments is also depend on thecontent of Fe forms in the system. This is evidentfrom the positive correlation of P with Fe (Fig.6). It is well understood that under aerobicconditions prevailing in small shallow lakes,like that of Vellayani, phosphorus is sorbed insediment particles and often precipitated as ferric-phosphate complexes. The ferric forms areinsoluble, as long as the redox potential in thesediment is on the higher side. From the Fig. 5,it is noted that, in the northern part of the lake, Prich sediments are discharged into the lakethrough the distributary channel of the Karamanariver. Potassium reaches the system through avariety of sources. Weathering/decomposition ofthe source rocks, clay minerals from soil quarryingareas, agricultural activities on the surroundingareas, etc., are the major sources of K in theVellayani lake. This nutrient element will betrapped in clay rich finer sediments. Indiscriminatequarrying activities of the laterite hillocks thatsurround the lake not only promote the siltationbut also influence the geochemical condition ofthe lake bottom sediments in areas close to themining/quarrying sites. All these reflected well inthe sediment as well as the organic carbon patternof the system. In all other locations, organiccarbon exhibits a strong positive correlation withfiner clastics, a feature also observed elsewhere(Padmalal and Seralathan, 1995).

In sedimentary environments, thegeochemical behavior of Mn will always becoupled with Fe (Forstner and Wittman, 1983).From Table 3, it is evident that the elements Feand Mn exhibit marked positive correlation (r =0.85) among each other and also withphosphorus, (Fig. 6) indicating that a major partof the phosphorus in the sediments is being co-precipitated with Fe and Mn complexes, a processrevealed earlier by Padmalal and Seralathan(1991) elsewhere. The Vellayani lake sedimentsare dominated mainly by silt. The increase in theassociation of Fe and Mn in finer clastics (i.e.,silts and clays) is primarily related to the greatersurface area of these particulates. A number ofinvestigators repeatedly advocated that theadsorptive ability of particulates increasesconsiderably as the surface area increases (Gibbs1977; Thorne and Nickless 1981; Forstner andWittman 1983; Salomons and forstner 1984; Lee

1985; Nair and others 1990). Further, theprecipitation of Fe and Mn hydrolysates overfinely dispersed particulates also enhances thelevel of Fe and Mn in finer fractions (De Grootand Allersma 1975). It is well known that the Fe/Mn complexes have a strong bearing on thedispersal pattern of trace metals present in manyof the aquatic environments. The complexes canscavenge trace metals present in the overlyingwater and can add to the sediments underoxidizing conditions. But under reducingconditions, the sorbed materials will be releasedback to the overlying waters, thus regulating thegeochemical balance between sediments andwater column in an aquatic system. (Forstner andWittman, 1983; Mance, 1987; Klomp, 1990;Padmalal and Seralathan, 1991; Sreejith, 1998).Trace metals like Cu, Cr, Pb and Cd also reachesthe system through all the various sourcesmentioned under N, P, K, Fe and Mn.

Water Quality Assessment

The various physicochemical parameters of thewater resource of Vellayani lake, such as odour,pH, TDS, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates,chlorides, hardness, calcium and magnesium fallwithin the prescribed limits of Indian andInternational standards for drinking needs (Table4).

Table 4. Comparative evaluation of the observedstudy against the drinking water quality standards

The turbidity and iron concentration are slightlyhigher than the bureau of Indian Standards fordrinking water. The content of iron is almostagreeable, however, vary marginally compared

No Parameters Unit Lake BIS WHO

1 Colour Agr. Agr. Uno.2 pH 7.07 6.5 7.0

- -8.5 8.5

3 Turbidity (NTU) 14.65 10 -4 TDS (mg/l) 45 500 5005 Nitrates (mg/l) 0.17 45 456 Phosphates (mg/l) 0.07 - -7 Sulphates (mg/l) 6.94 200 2008 Chlorides (mg/l) 19.4 250 2009 Hardness (mg/l) 18.21 300 20010 Calcium (mg/l) 4.53 75 7511 Magnesium (mg/l) 1.75 30 3012 Iron (mg/l) 0.31 0.3 0.1

Agr. - Agreeable; Uno. - Unobjectionable

43ECO-CHRONICLEto BIS prescriptions. On bacteriological point ofview, the raw water of Vellayani lake is not at allgood for drinking purposes as it contains highercoliform counts. From the overall water qualityevaluation, it can be concluded that the waterresources of Vellayani lake should be thoroughlytreated prior to using it for consumption. Thevarious treatment processes like aeration (toprecipitate impurities like iron), coagulation andflocculation (to remove turbidity), sedimentation(to separate suspended solids) and filtration (toremove the very fine suspended particles of silt,clay, microorganisms including algae, bacteria,viruses etc.) and disinfection (to disinfect thewater to destroy all the disease producingorganisms) etc. should be adopted to treat thewater of Vellayani prior to supply for drinkingneeds. As such, the water is not available fordrinking purpose, instead, can be used forirrigation/industrial requirements.

SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

Vellayani lake, is one among the three rainfed freshwater lakes of Kerala State. The otherlakes are Sasthamcotta lake in Kollam and Pookotlake in Wayanad. These freshwater lakes are setfar back into the coastal land away from themodern shoreline. The freshwater supplies tothese lakes are from internal drainage andunderground sources.

The water bodies like Vellayani lake, play anatural role in storing rainwater, in maintainingthe recharge of groundwater, and as an aquiferfor dug-wells in the neighborhood. They collectand store large quantities of water during themonsoon period and serve as very useful systemin the conservation of water, more especially inthe topographical situation as the one existing inthe Kerala State. The Vellayani lake included itselfin extensive paddy fields, reservoirs and lagoonin the possession of the Agricultural college. Thefreshwater lake, which once enriched the naturalbeauty and was the sources of several watersupply schemes are degrading due to severalenvironmental problems in and around the lake.Now about one third of the lake is in the hand ofindividuals, allotted under reclamation scheme foragricultural purposes. Besides theencroachment, reclamation is also going onseveral parts of the lake in possession ofgovernment and the agricultural college. Fishfarming in the lake is also doing much havoc tothe ecosystem so far as the artificial fish feeds,

pesticides etc. pollute water in the lake.

Some scenic natural beautiful hills occurringnear the lake are the sources of water flow inthe lake. But, almost all hills in the regions wereflattened. It is in the sharp rise in the price ofreal estate that persuades the land owners toflatten these hillocks. The operation causingsilting in the lake, and this in turn results thedecrease of depth. The indiscriminate soilquarrying processes caused severalenvironmental problems. The after effects ofthese processes affect the people who are livingin the near places. The flattening processescaused several environmental problems. Thewells are being draughtened before summer, thecracking of the walls of the adjacent houses, andmore over the nutrient rich top soil was lost. TheCentre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) gavewarnings against the indiscriminate soil quarryingactivities of the areas as the process can catalyzeland failures particularly during monsoon. TheAssembly Committee on Environment in 1992reported about the different problems affectingthe freshwater lakes of Kerala State includingVellayani lake. But till this time, not any actionsare taken for the better conservation andsustainable use of the Vellayani lake system.Although, it is too late, urgent measures have tobe taken for the wise use of this preciousfreshwater reserve of our State.

A close examination of the recent IRS – 1ALISS II (Jan 1990) data and aerial photographic(Feb 1990) data for Vellayani lake with respectto Survey of India topographical data of 1966-’67 reveals that the area of the lake is shrinking(Table 5).

The area of the water body is diminishedconsiderably during the last 25 years due toskewed developmental activit ies andmismanagement. Rapid urbanization is fastshattering the organic structure of the lake.In several places on the fringes of the lake,

Source of Data Year Area (Km2)

Survey of India 1966-'67 3.312 toposheetsIRS - 1A LISS II January 1990 2.290Geocoded imageryAerial photographs February 1990 2.030

Table 5. Area decreasing trend of the VellayaniLake (after Nalinakumar and Nair, 1998)

44 ECO-CHRONICLEreclaiming activity is resorted to the hope oftourism catching up the lake area. As a result,the extent of the lake is steadily decreasing. Suchkinds of diverse environmental problems aretaking place at alarming rates in the Vellayani lakeand its adjacent areas.

A detailed investigation on the water qualityof the lake has been carried out owing to theimportance of the Vellayani lake for using it asthe drinking water resource ofThiruvananthapuram city and its suburbanpanchayats (Krishnakumar, 2002). The waterquality parameters of the Vellayani lake, whencompared with the drinking water standards (Table5), it is evident that the lake water is suitable fordrinking purposes after required treatments.

The requirement of water forThiruvananthapuram city by 2021 A.D is predictedto the tune of 400 million litres. The existingAruvikkara and Peppara dams do not have muchstorage capacity. The studies relating to theVellayani lake convinces beyond doubt that thisVellayani lake project when undertaken will offera permanent solution to the drinking waterproblems of the capital city of Kerala. It isinevitable that Vellayani lake scheme isundertaken in order to tide the insufficiency ofwater supply from the Aruvikkara scheme. Whenthis scheme materializes, 70 million litres offreshwater will be available for distribution in thecity, according to findings of some recent studies(KWA, 1997). Since this scheme, need not belinked to the Aruvikkara scheme, occasionaldisruption of water supply due to bursting of pipescan be obviated.

The Vellayani project can be implemented atcomparatively less expenditure for the followingreasons. Environmental problems are not comemuch in its way. Being a freshwater source, thequality is almost ideal for drinking purposes.Purification processes will be simpler andtherefore economical. It is an undisputed factthat if and when this scheme is implemented, itwil l augment the total development ofThiruvananthapuram city and the standard ofliving of the people. It is imperative that thescheme should be implemented in order toretrieve the invaluable position of this lake in thenatural and economic structure of Kerala. If thefollowing suggestions are put into practice, thefuture requirements can also be adequately metand the supply system flawless. For this purpose,

the Vellayani lake has to be well protected.

Suggestions and Recommendations for theSustainable use of the Vellayani lake

The government should take over the entire lake.The cultivable area in the ownership of the privateindividuals should be demarcated. The lake areaincluding the reservoir should be deepened tosufficient depth level to enhance the storagecapacity of the lake.

People who have encroached upon the lake areashould be evicted and further encroachmentshould be banned.

The catchment area of the lake should beprotected by constructing necessary low costengineering structures to prevent soil erosion.

Steps should be taken to reduce the input ofresidues/remains of chemical fertilizers andpesticides from the adjacent fields to the lake.

The level of Kakkamoola road-bridge across thenorthern part of the Vellayani lake should beraised sufficiently so as to prevent the lake waterover flowing the road-bridge during heavymonsoon showers. The free flow of water underthe road can be facilitated by providing additionalprovisions under the road.

Promotion of tourism facilities is likely toadversely affect the eco-balance of the lake andtherefore such activities should be discouraged.

People living around the lake should be madeconscious of the necessity to adopt proper/scientific land use practices in the catchmentareas of the lake.

Proper arrangements should be made regularlyto assess the water quality of the lake and fortaking remedial measures for improving thequality of Vellayani lake water.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

One of the authors, AKK greatfully acknowledgesthe financial support of the Department ofScience and Technology, Government of Indiathrough the DST - SERC - OYS Project. Theauthor DP thanks Director, Centre for EarthScience Studies (CESS) for support andencouragement.

45ECO-CHRONICLE

REFERENCES

Abbassi, S. A., Nair, S. R., Vasu, K., Padmini,V. and Nirmala 1989. Management andconservation of Pookot lake ecosystem in theWestern Ghats. Report submitted to Departmentof environment, Forest and Wildlife, Govt. of India(CWRDM).

APHA. 1998.Standard methods for theexamination of water and wastewater. AmericanPublic Health Association, Washington.

De Groot, A. J., Allersma, E. 1975. Fieldobservations on transport of heavy metals insediments. In: Krenkel PA (ed), Heavy metals inaquatic environment. Oxford: Pergamon Press,pp. 85 -101.

Dinar Ariel, Peter, Harvey Olem, Vanja Jorden,Alfred Duga, Robert Johnson, 1995. Restoringand protecting the world’s lakes and reservoirs.World Bank Technical Paper No.289,WashingtonD.C., USA.

El Wakeel, S. K., Riley, J. P. 1957. Determinationo f o r g a n i c c a r b o n i n t h e m a r i n e m u d s . Jour. Cons.Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 22. 180 -183.

Enviromedia, 1987. Physico-chemical analysisof water, Karad, India.

Folk, R. L., Andrews, P. B., Lewis, D. W. 1970.Detrital sedimentary rock classification andnomenclature for use in New Zealand Jour. Geol.and Geophys . 13. 937 - 968.

Forstner, U., Wittman, G. T. W. 1983. MetalPollution in the aquatic environment, New York:Springer Verlag, pp. 486 .

Gibbs, R. J. 1977. Transport phases of transitionmetals in the Amazon and Yukon rivers. Geol.Soc.Am. Bull. 88. 829 - 843.

GSI. 1995. Geological and mineral map of Kerala.Geological Survey of India.

Klomp, R. 1990. Modelling the transport andfate of toxics in the southern north sea. Sci. TotalEnviron 97/ 98. 103 -114.

Krishnakumar, A. 2002. Hydrogeo chemistry ofVellayani lake, Kerala with special reference toits drinking water potential. In Unni, K.S.(Ed.)

Conservation and management of aquaticsystems, Daya publishers, New Delhi, pp. 44 -61.

Krishnakumar, A., Sobha, V. and Padmalal, D.2005. Status of Nutrients and Heavy Metals inthe recently deposited sediments of Vellayanifreshwater lake, Kerala, South west coast ofIndia. Int. Jour. of Eco. Env. & Cons. 11 (2). pp65 - 70.

KWA. 1997. Greater Thiruvananthapuram watersupply scheme (South Zone), Preliminaryengineering report. IPDD, Thiruvananthapuram.

Lee, C. B. 1985. Sedimentary process of finesediments and the behavior of associated metalsin the Keum estuary, Korea. In: Sieleo A.C. andHatton, A. (Eds.), Marine and estuarinegeochemistry. Michigan: Lewis Publishers, pp210 - 225.

Lewis, D. W. 1984. Practical sedimentology.Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company.Pennsylvania, pp. 227.

Mance, G. 1987. Pollution threat of heavy metalsin aquatic environments. New York: ElsevierApplied Science, pp. 372.

Nair, N. M., Balchand, A. N., Nambisan, P. N. K.1990. Metal concentration in recently depositedsediments of Cochin backwaters, India. Sci. TotalEnviron 97/ 98. pp. 507 - 524.

Nalinakumar, S. and Nair, A. S. K. 1998.Environmental degradation of Vellayani lakeusing IRS – LISS II data. Proceedings of the tenthKerala Science Congress, Kozhikode, pp. 68-70.

Padmalal, D., Seralathan, P. 1995. Organiccarbon and phosphorus loading in recentlydeposited riverine sediments – A granulometricapproach. Ind. Jour. Ear. Sci. 22, (1-2), pp. 21 -28.

Padmalal, D., Seralathan, P. 1991. Interstitialwater sediment geochemistry of P and Fe in thesediments of Vembanad lake, West coast ofIndia. Ind.Jour. Mar.Sci. 20. pp. 263 - 266.

Salomons, W., Forstner, U. 1984. Metals in thehydrologic cycle. Berlin: Springer Verlag, p. 348.Sreejith, S. 1998. Hydro-geochemistry of theSasthamcotta lake, Kollam district, Kerala with

46 ECO-CHRONICLEspecial reference to sediment – water interaction.Proceedings of the Tenth Kerala ScienceCongress, Kozhikode, pp. 4 - 7.

Thorne, L. T., Nickless, G. 1981. The relationbetween heavy metals and particle size fractions

within the Seven estuary (U.K.) intertidalsediments. Sci. Total Environ. 19. 207 - 213.

Unni, K. S. 2002. Conservation and Managementof aquatic ecosystem (Ed.), Daya publishers,New Delhi, pp. 3 - 6.

*****


SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHANGES OF WETLANDS : A GIS BASED ANALYSIS

Anuroop. R.L, Manju. S and Rajesh ReghunathDepartment of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom – 695581, Trivandrum, India

ABSTRACTThe multiple roles of wetland ecosystem and their value to humanity have been increasingly

understood and documented in recent years. Unfortunately, in spite of important progress made inrecent decades, wetlands continue to be among the world’s most threatened ecosystem, owing mainlyto ongoing reclamation and drainage conversion, pollution and over-exploitation of their resources.One of the important pre-requisite for the conservation and management of wetlands is the informationon the areal extent of the wetlands, their spatio-temporal variations and the present status. In thepresent study, which covers an area of 10.8 km2, it is found that about 41% of the wetlands has beenlost during a time span of 40 years. Small patches of paddy fields which escaped from the reclamationcannot support any agricultural activity since there is no proper outlet or inlet to these patches andthus, in practical sense, adds to the reclamated category.Key words: spatio-temporal changes, wetlands, Ayiroor river basin.

INTRODUCTION

Wetlands are among the world’s mostproductive environment. Wetlands are alsoimportant storehouses of plant genetic material.Rice, for example, which is a common wetlandplant, is the staple diet of more than half ofhumanity. Apart from the agricultural importance,the wetlands also perform an array of vitalfunctions such as water storage, storm protection,flood mitigation, shoreline stabilization, erosioncontrol, groundwater recharge, groundwaterdischarge, water purification, etc.

In India, wetlands are seriously affected dueto pressures from various sectors l ikeurbanisation, agriculture, aquaculture, industrialdevelopment, demographic pressure, overexploitation, hydrologic alterations, etc (Kulkarniet al, 2002; Garg et al, 1998). Among the variouswetlands of Kerala, the paddy field wetlands facemaximum threat in terms of its very existence(Balachandran et al, 2002).

Information on wetlands is needed forformulating policies aiming at sustainabledevelopment. One of the important pre-requisitefor the conservation and management of wetlandsis the information on their areal extent, theirspatio-temporal variations and the present status.By keeping these in mind, a paddy field wetlandssystem from which a river basin originates hasbeen selected for micro level mapping with anobjective of finding out its spatial changes overthe last few decades.

STUDY AREA

The present study area falls in the Ayiroorriver basin and it spreads on both sides of theNational Highway in between Parippally andKallambalam, South Kerala (Fig.1). The Ayiroorriver basin starts from this wetland and hencethe existence of this wetland is very muchessential for the existence of the river basin too.


To derive the temporal changes, thematicmaps depicting the spatial distribution of the thenexisted (1966-67) paddy fields and present paddyfields were prepared. The first map has beenprepared from the toposheets (Fig.2). Thesecond map has been prepared by conductingfield work all around the study area (by criss-cross walking) and the mapping has been doneon a scale of 1:23000 (Fig.3). Later both thesemaps were digitized and over-lapped in GISplatform. Maps showing the extent of reclamationand spatio-temporal changes of the paddy fieldwetlands were prepared in the GIS platform (Fig.4and 5).


The spatial distribution of paddy fieldwetlands existed in the past as depicted in figure2 shows that it covered an area of 10.81 km2

during the 1960s. It is also observed that thepaddy fields extended in a linear pattern parallelto the channels and valleys. Figure 3 shows the

48 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig.1. Location Map

Fig. 1.Location Map

49ECO-CHRONICLE

50 ECO-CHRONICLE

51ECO-CHRONICLEpresent day distribution of paddy fields in the studyarea and it is evident from the figure that the arealextent of the paddy fields at present is limited to6.35km2. It is also noted that the present daypaddy field in the study area are not continuousbodies as in the past. There are many patchesof paddy fields in the study area. Figure 4 showsthat the spatial distribution of reclaimed lands inthe study area. It is found that 4.46 km2 area hasbeen subjected to reclamation during the last fourdecades. The spatio-temporal change map ofpaddy fields (Fig.5) clearly indicates that 41% ofthe area has been reclaimed in a time span ofnearly 40 years.

It is also to be noted that many patches ofpaddy fields which escaped from reclamationcannot function as a ful l f ledged wetlandecosystem because of the unscientif icreclamation around them. Hence these patchesof wetlands have to be kept as barren and willfinally end-up in reclamation. After a short timespan, these patches will also be disappeared.

As mentioned earlier, the main river channelsof Ayiroor river basin is fed by the wetlands understudy. A drastic reduction in the areal extent ofthe wetlands to the tune of 41% should have itsown implication in the riverine ecosystem as awhole and to the stream flow in particular. Studiesin this direction is under progress now.


To find out the temporal changes suffered by the paddy field wetlands, a micro-level mapping

*****

has been undertaken in a typical paddy fieldwetland system. The study clearly indicates that41% of the then existed paddy fields has beensubjected to reclamation and being used for otherpurposes now. It is felt that lack of adequatepublic awareness encouraged the reclamationof wetlands. More over, many developmentalprojects carried out by governmental and otheragencies upset the balance of wetlands. Henceit is suggested that a watershed based EIAshould be done with an emphasis on wetlandsbefore going for any major projects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Facilities provided in the Department ofGeology, University of Kerala is gratefullyacknowledged. Thanks are also due toMr.Pramod and Mr. Shoby Shankar for helpingout in GIS analysis and drafting of figures.

REFERENCES

Balachandran, P. V., Mathew Gracy and Peter,K.V. 2002. Wetland conservation andmanagement in Kerala, State Committee onScience, Technology and Environment, 5 - 22.

Garg, J. K., Singh, T. S. and Murthy, T. V. R. 1998.Wetlands of India – Nation-wide wetland mappingproject report, Space Application Centre,Ahmedabad, P. 97.

Kulkarni, V. S., Kaul, S. N. and Trivedy, R. K.2002. Environment impact assessment forwetland protection. Scientif ic Publishers,Jodhpur, p.142.

52 ECO-CHRONICLE

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH (SENSOR)

Society for Environmental and Social Research is an NGO, registered with the Registrar of Societies,Thiruvananthapuram (Reg. No. T 646 / 2000), under Travancore – Cochin, Cultural, Scientific andCharitable societies Act (1955). This organization is intended to create environmental awarenessacross various segments of the society. The administration and management of this society is underthe control of an executive council which include distinguished scientists and eminent personalitiesfrom various front–line educational and scientific organizations.

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH (CESR)

CESR is an R&D Institution of the Society for Environmental and Social Research, located at Cochin.The major activities of this centre include research, development, consultancy and trainingprogrammes related to environmental conservation and management. The research mandate ofthis centre lies in the areas of environmental monitoring, resource analysis, pollution studies, EIA,eco- restoration studies, conservation and planning, socio-economic studies etc. All the programmesare backed by an in-house pool of expertise from various research and consultancy services.

ECO-CHRONICLE

ECO-CHRONICLE, printed and published by the Secretary, Society for Environmental and SocialResearch, is an International quarterly journal dealing with multidisciplinary aspects of Environmentaland Social Sciences . Quality oriented research papers with great scientific accuracy and socialsignificance pertaining to environmental and social sciences can be submitted for publication.Individuals / firms or organizations can also subscribe the journal by making a request to the secretaryin plain paper along with a Demand Draft (drawn in favour of Secretary, Society for Environmentaland Social Research, payable at Ernakulam) or by enclosing a Money Order receipt for the requiredfee. The present rate of subscription is as given below (one year). Authors may refer to the guidelinesfor contributors, given overleaf, for submission of manuscript.

With in India Outside India

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E mail: [email protected]

SENSOR

53ECO-CHRONICLE

A SCREENING STUDY RELATED TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FLAVONOIDS FROM VARIOUSEDIBLE PORTIONS Of MUSA PARADISIACA.

S. Vijayakumar and N.R. Vijayalakshmi*Department of Zoology, NSS College, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kerala, India.

*Department of Biochemistry University of Kerala Thiruvananthapuram - 695 581, Kerala, India

ABSTRACTFlavonoids extracted from different parts of the Banana (Musa paradisiaca) like pith of the stem, raw andripe banana, raw and ripe banana peel, inflorescence etc. orally applied at doses of 0.5 mg and 1 mg/100g BW showed hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic activities in rats. Even though the flavonoids from differ-ent parts of banana showed hypolipidemic as well as hypoglycemic activities, significant reductionwas noticed in the rats fed 1 mg/100 BW flavonoids from raw banana.Key words: Musa paradisiaca, Flavonoids, Cholesterol, Glucose, Phospholipids, Triglycerides and Freefatty acid.INTRODUCTION

Flavonoids constitute one of the largestgroups of naturally occurring phenols. They areubiquitous in all parts of green plants and as suchare likely to be encountered in any work involvingplant extracts. For this reason it is important thatchemists, biochemists and plant physiologists iso-late and identify these natural products in all theirmany forms. It is estimated that about 2% of allcarbon photosynthesized by plants is convertedinto flavonoids or closely related compounds.Most tannim too are flavonoid derived. Polyphe-nolic compounds are interchangeably calledtannins by investigators (1-3). Consumption of fla-vonoids may be beneficial because they possessanti–inflammatory (4-7), anti-proliferative (8), anti-fertility (9), antihepatotoxic (10), anticarcinogenic(11), antial lergic (12), antioxidant (13),hypolipidemic (14) and hypoglycemic (15)activities.

The relationship of flavonoids to human healthor disease is evident from the biological activitiesof flavonoids mentioned above. Since banana isa common fruit eaten by men from times imme-morial and is a rich source of flavonoids, the needto furthering our understanding on the various ed-ible portion of the plant was deeply felt.

The concentration of flavonoids vary from rootto inflorescence, it was felt necessary to under-take an experiment to provide much informationregarding the most beneficial edible portion whichis also a rich source of the potent flavonoid. Thevarious parts of the plant such as raw and ripebanana, banana peel, inflorescence, pith of the

stem etc. were selected to study the hypolipidemicand hypoglycemic effect of flavonoids present inthose parts.


Flavonoids were extracted from various partsof the banana plant by the method ofMarkham(16).Male albino rats (Sprague – DawleyStrain weighing 100-125g) were divided into 13groups of 6 rats each. The details of which aregiven below. Group 1 was treated as control.Flavonoids extracted from inflorescence, stem,ripe and raw bananas, ripe and raw peel wereadministered to animals of groups 11 to XIII atdoses 0.25 mg/100g BW and 0.5 mg/100g BWdaily by gastric intubation. The rats were housedin polypropylene cage and water was given ad-libitum. At the end of 45 days the rats were de-prived of food overnight and sacrificed by decapi-tation. Blood was collected in the test tubes andtissues were removed and collected in ice coldcontainers and estimated blood glucose choles-terol, phospholipids, free fatty acids andtriglycerids of serum and tissues by different meth-ods(15-20).

The data given in the tables are the averageof the values from the number of animals used inthe respective tables ± SEM. Statistical signifi-cance was calculated using Student’ ‘t’ test (21).


Food consumption and weight gain did notshow any significant difference in the experim-ental groups when compared to the control group.

ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 1. March 2006, pp 53 - 57

54 ECO-CHRONICLETable 1.

Concentration of blood glucose dose responsestudy of flavonoids from various parts of Banana

Average of the values of six rats in each group ±SE.Groups II to XIII are compared with group I.a = P < 0.01, b = 0.01 < P < 0.05.

Groups Doses Blood glucose(mg/100 g (mg/100 ml)BW/day)

I 87.2 ± 2.6 1Il 0.25 76.7 ± 1.99bIll 0.25 79.1 ± 2.21IV 0.25 78.1 ± 2.18bV 0.25 76.1 ± l.97bVI 0.25 81.3 ± 2.31VII 0.25 80.2 ± 2.28VIII 0.5 75.1 ± 1.95aIX 0.5 81.2 ± 2.31X 0.5 75.9 ± 1.99bXl 0.5 70.6 ± 1.41aXII 0.5 79.1 ± 2.21XIII 0.5 76.5± 1.91b

Table 2.Concentration of cholesterol in serum and tissues

(Values expressed as mg/100ml serum; mg/100 g wet tissue)

Doses Tissues(mg/100 g

Groups BW/day) Serum Liver Kidney Heart Aorta

I 68.9± 2.06 340.5±9.19 363.2±10.89 243.1±6.32 142.9±3.85II 0.25 60.41±1 .2a 348.35±10.45 340.5±8.17 245.43±6.38 1 49.9±4.34III 0.25 65.41±1.5 302.16±6.04b 350.78±9.82 230.7±5.53 141.12±3.81IV 0.25 61.56±1 .29b 318.10±6.99 326.33±6.52b 249.5±6.73 135.08±3.37 V 0.25 67.76±1.82 342.28±9.58 329.6±7.25b 235.6±5.59 141.2±3.67VI 0.25 65.25±1.5 308.51 ±6.47b 345.3±8.63 240.6±6.25 1 50.8±4.52VII 0.25 61.56±1.29b 324.61±8.11 360.23±10.44 238.77±5.96 148.3±4.3VIII 0.5 65.41±1.5 326.16±7.68 346.3±8.31 231.5±5.55 131.55±2.84IX 0.5 64.93±1.49 324.23±8.10 358.96±9.33 260.57±7.81 139.97±3.63X 0.5 65.41±1.5 343.08±9.6 348.07±8.35 230.4±5.52 131.8±2.89XI 0.5 60.96±1.28b 305.95±6.4b 320.53±6.41b 220.44±4.4b 133.86±3.07XII 0.5 65.39±1.5 326.8±7.84 345.33±8.28 235.53±5.88 147.38±4.12XIII 0.5 59.08±1.18a 304.19±6.08b 336.7±7.4 221.46±4.87b 135.82±3.39

Average of the values of 6 rats in each group ± SE.Groups II to XIII are compared with group I.

a =P <0.01, b = 0.01 <P <0.05.

Groups Doses Liver(mg/i 00 gBW/day)

I 429.25 ± 12.87II 0.25 429.56 ± 12.88III 0.25 422.69 ± 11.83IV 0.25 402.96 ± 9.26V 0.25 396.5 ± 8.72VI 0.25 414.63 ± 10.36VII 0.25 408.01 ± 9.79VIII 0.5 415.15 ± 10.37IX 0.5 419.77 ± 10.91X 0.5 415.91 ± 10.39XI 0.5 390.8 ± 7.81bXII 0.5 425.61 ± 12.34XIII 0.5 394.49 ± 8.28

Average of the values of six rats in each group±SE.Groups II to XIII are compared with group I.a = P < 0.01 b = 0.01 < P < 0.05.

Table 5.Concentration of triglycerides (Values

expressed as mg glycerol/100 g wet tissue)

55ECO-CHRONICLETable 3.

Concentration of phospholipids in tissues(Values expressed as mg/100 g wet tissue)

Doses Tissues Groups (mg/100 g

BW/day) Liver Kidney Heart Aorta

I 2208 ± 66.25 2220.7 ± 62.17 2018.9 ± 52.49 1135.3 ± 31.78II 0.25 2089.44 ± 54.32 2241.39 ± 62.75 21 96.7 ± 63.7 1114.16 ± 31 .19III 0.25 2091.42 ± 54.37 201 6.44 ± 50.44b 2087.39 ±58.44 1154.68 ± 32.33IV 0.25 1892.7 ± 45.42a 2461.53 ± 73.84 221 7.26 ± 66.51 1075.75 ± 29.04V 0.25 1904.11 ± 45.69a 2064.65 ± 53.68 1871.19 ± 43.03 1029.18 ± 26.75bVI 0.25 1976.4 ± 49.41b 2494.5 ± 74.83b 2100.2 ± 60.90 1315.06 ± 39.45VII 0.25 2081.52 ± 54.11 2217.5.5 ± 62.09 2050.67 ± 53.31 1057.9 ± 27.5VIII 0.5 1837.09 ± 42.25a 1902.11 ± 45.65a 1734.65 ± 34.69a 1029.2 ± 25.73bIX 0.5 1848.84 ± 42.52a 2175.6 ± 58.74 1935.36 ± 48.39 1207.95 ± 35.03X 0.5 1802.1 ± 39.64a 2055.09 ± 53.43 2089.55 ± 58.59 976. 58 ± 22.46aXI 0.5 1799.32 ± 35.98a 1744.13 ± 34.88a 1838.62 ± 42.28b 947.68 ± 20.84aXII 0.5 1945.8 ± 48.64b 2020.9 ± 50.61 1882.35 ± 44.23 1057.53 ± 28.55XIII 0.5 1899.09 ± 47.49 1 899.48 ± 43.68a 1971.73 ± 50.27 917.57 ± 18.35a

Groups II to XIII are compared with group I.a = P < 0.01, b = 0.01 < P <0.05.

Table 4.Concentration of free fatty acids in tissues (Values expressed as mg/100 g wet tissue)

Groups Doses Liver Kidney Heart Aorta(mg/100 gBW/day)

I 289.3 ± 8.1 457.65 ± 13.72 1 79.5 ± 5.2 48.24 ± 1.30II 0.25 243.2 ± 6.08a 454.25 ± 13.17 180.85 ± 5.24 46.61 ± 1.21III 0.25 286.6 ± 8.02 402.18 ± 9.25b 173.53 ± 4.68 53.9 ± 1.59IV 0.25 276.07 ± 7.59 442.84 ± 12.39 176.38 ± 4.93 51.48 ± 1.48V 0.25 250.58 ± 6.26a 435.98 ± 12.2 178.13 ± 5.07 47.54 ± 1.25VI 0.25 309.11 ± 9.27 398.01 ± 8.75a 1 68.6 ± 4.21 52.93 ± 1.53VII 0.25 273.28 ± 7.37 427.63 ± 11.11 189.25 ± 5.67 54.67 ± 1.64bVIII 0.5 240.46 ± 5.la 418.31 ± 10.45 152.85 ±3 .51a 40.57 ± 0.81aIX 0.5 274.03 ± 7.53 370.68 ± 7.41a 161.78 ± 3.88b 48.12 ± 1.29X 0.5 213.13 ± 4.26a 400.12 ± 9.2b 155.96 ± 3.66a 50.32 ± 1.4XI 0.5 249.5 ± 6.23a 385.5 ± 8.48a 150.49 ± 3.31a 41.28 ± 0.86aXII 0.5 282.3 ± 7.9 421.6 ± 10.54 166.68 ± 4.16 51 .81 ± 1.47XIII 0.5 276.11 ± 7.59 400.7 ± 9.21b 155.33 ± 3.65a 44.40 ± 1.02

Average of the values of six rats in each group ± SE.Groups II to XIII are compared with group I.

a = P < 0.01, b 0.01 <P < 0.05.

56 ECO-CHRONICLEConcentration of bood glucose (Table-1)

Though boold glucose levels showed reductionin all experimental groups, highly significant de-crease was observed only in groups VIII and XI.

Concentration of cholesterol (Table-2)

Hypocholesterolemia was noted in the serumof animals of groups II, IV, VII, XI and XIII and inthe liver of groups III, VI, XI and XIII. In the heartsignificant reduction was noted in animals ofgroups XI and XIII whereas in the aorta no signifi-cant decrease was observed. In the kidneyhypocholeterolemia was noted in animals of groupsIV, V and XI.

Concentration of Phospholipids (Table-3)

Phospholipid concentration was significantlylowered in the liver of all experimental groups ex-cept II, III and VII. In the kidney significant de-crease was observed in groups III, VI, VIII, XI andXIII. In the heart significant reduction was shownin VIII and XI. In the aorta, concentration ofphospholipids lowered significantly in groups V,VIII, X, XI, XIII.

Concentration of free fatty acids (Table- 4)

Free fatty acid concentration in the liver wasdecreased to significantly lower levels in groupsII, V, VIII, X and XI. In the kidney pronounced de-crease was observed in groups III, VI, IX, X, XIand XIII, while in the heart significant reductionwas observed in the groups VIII, IX, X, XI and XIII.In the aorta only groups VIII and XI showed signifi-cant decrease.

Concentration of Triglycerides (Table- 5)

Triglycerides level in the liver showed signifi-cant decrease in group XI only.

On evaluating the results of the experiment itwas shown that various parts of the banana plantexert some glucose lowering effect. This effectseems to vary with the variations in the dose offlavonoids administered to the animals. Hypogly-cemic activity was higher in inflorescence, stemand raw banana. Maximum activity was shownon administration of 0.5 mg of the flavonoids fromraw banana. Hypercholesterolemic effect waspredominant in serum, liver and heart of animals

administered flavonoids from various portions, ac-tivity being significant in serum and tissues ofgroups received 0.5 mg flavonoid from raw ba-nana and raw peel. In the case of phospholipids,reduction was seen in all 0.5 mg flavonoids ad-ministered groups. Maximum effect was shownby animals of group XI (raw banana). Levels offree fatty acids reduced significantly in the liver ofanimals received flavonoids from inflorescenceand stem axis(pith). In the heart , phospholipidslowering effect was noted only in 0.5 mg flavonoidadministered group.


Food therapy has been receiving astonish-ingly greater importance now a days. AsHippocrates said let food be your medicine, fromthe inception to the demis, food has a very im-portant role in the growth, maintenance and re-pair mechanisms in our body. The investigationson the effect of flavonoids from banana (MusaParadisiaca), a comparatively cheaper and pal-atable fruit, showing hypoglycemic,hypolipidemicand hypo cholesterolemic properties. The abovefindings may generate a general awareness onthe consumption of banana as a healthier food.Further studies may be promising in the field ofdrug development.

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