rhetoric and composition1

8/13/2019 Rhetoric and Composition1

1/172


2/172

C ONTENTS IN BRIEF The Stages of the Writing Process...........................................................................................4

Overview Planning and Prewriting Collaborating Researching Drafting Editing Reviewing Revising Publishing

Writing !!lications.............................................................................................................. 4"Overview nal#$ing ssign%ents Descri!tion &arration E'!osition Evaluation rgu%ent

dvanced To!ics.................................................................................................................... ""Overview Writing in the (u%anities Writing in the Sciences Writing in )usiness Oral Presentations

Writer*s (andboo+................................................................................................................ ,,-nderstanding /ra%%ar nderstanding 0echanics Co%%on Errors Citing

Sources /& 1ree Docu%entation 2icense..................................................................................... ,3"

AUTHORS AND E DITORSBarton, Matthew D. n assistant !rofessor of English at Saint Cloud State niversit# in SaintCloud 0innesota.

Michele L. Tim !"ilon 5 graduate student studing English at Saint Cloud State niversit# inSaint Cloud 0innesota.

#roth, $ell% M., 6unior. ndergraduate student at Saint Cloud State niversit#. 0a7oring in

8nfor%ation 0edia.Brittan% S eich 6unior at Saint Cloud State niversit# Double 0a7oring in 0assCo%%unications and Political Science Double 0inoring in Rhetorical and !!lied Writing andPublic d%inistration

Denman, Traci . 6unior ndergraduate student at Saint Cloud State niversit#. Double %a7oring inRhetorical and !!lied Writing and Ps#cholog# doubling %inoring in English and 8nterculturalCo%%unications.

S rin&er, 'o(i . 1ifth #ear student at St. Cloud State niversit# double %a7oring in Rhetorical and!!lied Writing and Theatre with a %inor in 0usic.

M)r h%, Emil% E . )1 Print%a+ing 0inor English St. Cloud State niversit# ,99:. Currentl# !ursuing a ) in English !!lied and Rhetorical Writing E%!hasis and a )1 in /ra!hic Designat St. Cloud State niversit# St. Cloud 0&.

$o*al, 'amie M . Senior at St. Cloud State niversit# %a7oring in Public Relations and %inoring inRhetorical and !!lied Writing.

Chri+ten+on, 'erem% . 6unior ndergraduate student at Saint Cloud State niversit#.

ol-, Ste hanie M . Senior ndergraduate at St. Cloud State niversit# %a7oring in Rhetoricaland !!lied Writing

Ca(le, Lanette n assistant !rofessor of English at 0issouri State niversit# in S!ringfield

0issouri.
http://mattbarton.net/http://techsophist.net/http://mattbarton.net/http://techsophist.net/


3/172

C ONTENTSuthors and Editors.............................................................................................................................. ;

The Stages of the Writing Process........................................................................................................4Overview........................................................................................................................................................-@;>>3 Wi+i%edia 1oundation 8nc. and contributing authors all rights reserved.Per%ission is granted to co!# distribute andAor %odif# this docu%ent under the ter%s of the /&1ree Docu%ent 2icense version ,.;. co!# of this is included in the section entitled GNU FreeDocument License .

The current version of this Wi+iboo+ %a# be found atB

htt!BAAen.wi+iboo+s.orgAwi+iARhetoric and Co%!osition
http://wikibooks.org/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Compositionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Compositionhttp://wikibooks.org/


4/172

UNIT /0

T HE STA#ES OF THE .RITIN# " ROCESS

K ARL F RIEDRICH VON RUMOHR BY F RIEDRICH N ERLY
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Karl_Friedrich_von_Rumohr_by_Friedrich_Nerly.jpg


5/172

Unit 1 ~ The Stages o the !"iting #"o$ess

C( PTER ,.>> O ER 8EW

INTRODUCTIONWriting is a co%!licated and often %#sterious !rocess. lthough we %a# thin+of it as little %ore than arranging letters and words on a !age a few %o%ents*reflection reveals that it is %uch %ore than that.

On the one hand writing is an art55we don*t sa# Sha+es!eare*s language isFcorrectF but rather that it is beautiful. On the other hand writing is a science55we want the instructions that ca%e with our D D !la#er to be accurate !reciseand eas# to understand.

live version

discussionedit lessonco%%entre!ort an error as+ a Guestion

Then there*s the %atter of what %a+es writing Fgood writing.F Though we %ight sa# that both aninstruction %anual and a !la# are Fwell written F we a!!reciate the% for different reasons. !la#written in the clear una%biguous language of an instruction %anual would not be a hit on)roadwa#. 8n other words writing %ust be 7udged according to its conte't55what is its !ur!ose andwho is it written forH 1inall# even readers with a great deal in co%%on %a# not agree about theGualit# of an# !articular te't 7ust as !eo!le*s o!inions differ about which bands are reall# great. Wereall# don*t +now wh# !eo!le have such !references or %a+e accurate !redictions about what the#will li+e or disli+e. Si%!l# !ut writing isn*t si%!le.

8f writing is so co%!licated and %#sterious can it be taughtH Since ristotle great teachers havetaught co%!licated !rocesses to their students b# brea+ing the% u! into s%aller %ore

understandable !rocesses. ristotle reali$ed that effective co%%unication s+ills li+e good %aths+ills can be learned and taught. 0ath teachers don*t teach integral calculus to their ele%entar#studentsI instead the# begin with addition and subtraction. Ever#thing else builds on those si%!le

!rocesses. &o one is born a %athe%atician. Si%ilarl# while luc+ certainl# !la#s a role in an#successful writer*s career it is wrong to assu%e that good writers Jor s!ea+ersK are si%!l# born intothe role and ever#one else is fated to flun+ English class. Lou $an learn to write with substance andst#leB it ta+es wor+ but it is within #our !ower. Lou have alread# ta+en the first ste!.

0ost of what we +now about writing is also true of s!ea+ing. ristotle wrote a fa%ous treatise onthe sub7ect of effective co%%unication called The Rhetoric . Though this boo+ is %eant fors!ea+ers teachers and students have long used it to hel! !olish their writing. This treatise is stillwidel# read and a!!lied toda# b# an#one desiring to learn how to s!ea+ and write %oreconvincingl# to an audience. Lour first5#ear co%!osition course %a# even have the word FrhetoricFor FrhetoricalF as !art of its title. ristotle taught that rhetoric isn*t necessaril# +nowing e'actl# howto get what #ou want fro% an audience. 8nstead rhetoric is the abilit# to deter%ine all the available%eans of !ersuasion at #our dis!osal. lti%atel# it*s u! to #ou to guess the best course of action

but at least rhetoric hel!s #ou %a+e this an educated guess.

Co%!ared to s!ea+ing writing is a %uch %ore recent !heno%enon and for %an# centuries it wasassu%ed that the best wa# to learn to write well was either to !ra# entreat the %uses or carefull#i%itate writings that were alread# considered great. Eventuall# as %ore !eo!le desired to writeteachers began creating rules to hel! the% write Fcorrectl#.F nfortunatel# this heav# e%!hasis oncorrectness and writing according to a narrow set of rules did little to i%!rove student writing.Si%!l# +nowing how to write gra%%aticall# correct !rose is i%!ortant #et not enough. 8ndeed too%uch attention to correctness can result in unintentionall# co%ical writing. 2egend has it thatWinston Churchill grew so irritated at !edants telling hi% not to end sentences with !re!ositions
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8rh/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8rh/


6/172

that he told one F0ada%e that is a rule u! with which 8 shall not !ut.F

Since the *">s writing instructors have been teaching writing not as adherence to fi'ed rules but asa d#na%ic !rocess55that is a set of distinct ste!s that writers follow to !roduce te'ts. Whereas

before these ste!s were taught seGuentiall# now writing scholars e%!hasi$e the recursivit# 55 the bac+ and forth nature 55 and concursivit# 55 the all5at5onceness 55 of the !rocess. 8n other wordsthough we still thin+ of writing ta+ing !lace in various ste!s of a !rocess writers tend to switchfreGuentl# a%ong the% as the# wor+. n insight gained while editing a cha!ter %ight convince thewriter that an additional cha!ter is needed55thus she %ight re5enter the drafting !hase. 2i+ewisefailure to secure a !ublisher for a boo+ %ight lead the author all the wa# bac+ to the !lanning and

!rewriting stage. 8n short while it is ver# useful to conceive of writing as a !rocess it is not ste!5 b#5ste!. 8t involves a series of actions each with their own defining characteristics.

There are five criteria we can use to evaluate an# !iece of writing. These criteria are 1ocusDevelo!%ent Organi$ation St#le and Conventions. Throughout this boo+ we will be referring tothese criteria and discussing how #ou can %a+e #our te't %ore suitable for its intendeded audience.Lou will thin+ about these criteria during each ste! of the writing !rocess.

This wi+iboo+ contains a cha!ter on individual activities in the writing !rocess. )elow is a briefdescri!tion of each activit# and a lin+ to the corres!onding cha!ter.

" LANNIN# AND " RE RITIN#

Writers generall# !lan their docu%ents in advance. This stage often called F!rewriting F includesever#thing fro% %a+ing a tentative outline brainstor%ing or chatting with friends or colleaguesabout the to!ic. 1or so%e writers the !rewriting stage is %ostl# internal55the# thin+ about their

!ro7ects but do not write until the# are read# to start the actual docu%ent. Others !lan e'tensivel#and %a! out e'actl# how the# want their docu%ent to loo+ when it*s finished.

This cha!ter describes co%%on !lanning and !rewriting strategies and should hel! #ou Fhit theground runningF when starting out #our writing !ro7ects.

C OLLABORATIN#

While there is a long histor# of thin+ing of writing as a wholl# individual act %ost wor+!laceco%!ositions Jand co%!osing in %an# disci!linesK involve collaboration. 8f #ou*re wor+ing on acollaborative te't this cha!ter will hel! #ou develo! a collaboration !lan establish strengths andwea+nesses in the grou! assign roles and do what ever else will hel! in !roducing a co5authoredte't.

This cha!ter offers so%e hel!ful ti!s and strategies for collaborating on docu%ents.

R ESEARCHIN#

Writers freGuentl# reGuire reliable infor%ation to su!!ort their docu%ents. writer*s !ersonalo!inions and e'!erience are sufficient evidence for %an# t#!es of docu%ents but audiences willoften de%and %ore. See+ing out the infor%ation reGuired to su!!ort #our writing is calledFresearch F and it co%es in %an# for%s.

One for% of research is the interview in which #ou call u! or %eet with so%eone who has

infor%ation on the to!ic #ou are !ursuing. nother t#!e Ffield research F involves travel to !laceswhere the to!ic can be studied first5hand. Lou %ight also circulate a surve#. These three e'a%!lesare all !art of what is called F!ri%ar# reserachF 55 reserach #ou conduct #ourself.


7/172

While %an# writing teachers assign !ri%ar# research to their students in the !rocess of writing aFresearch !a!er F %uch of the research that writing at the college level as+s #ou to do is Fsecondar#researchF 55 e'!loring other !eo!le*s writing in the for% of boo+s scholarl# 7ournals news!a!ers%aga$ines websites and govern%ent docu%ents.

This cha!ter describes different research strategies and !rovides #ou with the tools #ou*ll need to !ro!erl# bac+ u! the clai%s #ou %a+e in #our writing.

DRAFTIN#

When at least #ou start !utting sentences and !aragra!hs on !a!er #ou*re drafting. Successfulwriters reali$e it*s OM to write recursivel#55that is the# don*t often start at !age one and !roceed allto the end without going bac+ and changing what the# wrote before. On the other hand gooddrafters don*t get so hung u! on returning over and over to !olish !age one that the# never reach

!age two.

This cha!ter describes drafting strategies and how to avoid co%%on !itfalls li+e !erfectionis% and

writer*s bloc+.

E DITIN#

Lou can*t edit what hasn*t been written. That*s wh# editing co%es after drafting. 1or our !ur!osesit*s i%!ortant to distinguish between deciding what needs to be i%!roved and actuall# %a+ing thechanges. We*ll call the decision5%a+ing !rocess FeditingF and %a+ing the changes the FrevisingF

!rocess.

nli+e !ublishers who hire !rofessional editors to wor+ with their writers student writers do %ostof their own editing with occasional hel! fro% !eer reviewers.

This cha!ter describes %acro editing Jediting at the level of content and arrange%entK and %icroediting Jediting at the sentence levelK and !rovides strategies for i%!roving #our te't.

R E1IE IN#

(aving other !eo!le review #our writing is essential to !roducing the best !iece #ou !ossibl# can.We often don*t %a+e the best FreadersF of our own wor+ because we are so close to it. Reviewerson the other hand bring valuable !ers!ective we can*t get an# other wa#. Reviewers are an#onewho is willing to loo+ at #our wor+ and !rovide feedbac+. Lou*re a reviewer too 55 for others* te'ts.

This cha!ter e'!lains how to successfull# review a docu%ent as well as how to %a+e the %ost ofthe feedbac+ #ou receive fro% other reviewers.

R E1ISIN#

Revising is %a+ing the changes #ou deter%ined were necessar# during the editing !rocess. Revisingis hard wor+ but it*s !robabl# so%e of the %ost valuable wor+ #ou can do to beco%e a better writer.Dive into the tas+ with the willingness to wrestle with #our writing and bring out the best in it and#ou will learn wh# revising is often considered the F%eatF of the writing !rocess.

This cha!ter e'a%ines the revision !rocess and identifies so%e strategies that will hel! #ou i%!rove#our docu%ents and reduce the li+elihood of creating even bigger !roble%s. This cha!ter will alsocover !roofreading or carefull# scanning a docu%ent for t#!os and other si%!le errors.


8/172

" UBLISHIN#

What*s the !oint of writing if no one will ever read itH Though so%e of us are content to writediaries or notes to ourselves %ost writers desire for others to read and ho!efull# en7o# or benefitfro% their docu%ents. This is where !ublishers co%e inB The# hel! connect writers to readers. The8nternet has introduced countless new wa#s for writers to !ublish their own docu%entselectronicall# but !rint !ublishing is still the !referred avenue for %ost !rofessional writers. Ofcourse getting #our docu%ents acce!ted for !ublication can be a long and frustrating ordeal. We*veall heard the stories of now5fa%ous novelists who were re7ected ti%e and ti%e again b#uni%aginative or overl#5cautious !ublishers.

This cha!ter describes the !rint and electronic !ublishing industr# then identifies strategies thatwill hel! #ou distribute #our docu%ents to their intended audience. We will also discuss wh# so%an# authors fail to ever secure a !ublisher for their wor+.

$ong"at%&ations on $o'(&eting

C( PTER ,.>> O ER 8EWlive version discussion edit lesson co%%ent re!ort an error as+ a Guestion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Processhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_Process&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


9/172


C( PTER ,.>, P 2 &&8&/ &D PREWR8T8&/

O 1ER1IE OF " LANNIN# AND " RE RITIN#

FWriting is eas#. ll #ou do is stare at a blan+ sheet of !a!er until dro!sof blood for% on #our forehead.F !!#ene Fowler

live version


lthough the above hu%orous Guote is hardl# the case for authors fro% ti%e to ti%e %an# goodwriters do find it difficult to begin writing. 0ost authors begin wor+ing on their docu%ents long

before the# sit down to t#!e. The# %a# first discuss their ideas with other !eo!le. Students are oftenadvised Jand so%eti%es even reGuiredK to tal+ about their intended !a!er to!ics with theirinstructors before investing ti%e and energ# wor+ing on the%. 1reelance writers t#!icall# sub%it aGuer# or abstract to an editor before actuall# writing and sub%itting a full5length !iece. This

!rocedure gives editors a chance to !rovide feedbac+ for the writer to consider as the# !re!are forsub%ission. Nueries are also a fast wa# for editors to 7udge whether a !ro!osal is a!!ro!riate fortheir !ublication. ll writers often want to +now well in advance whether readers will be interestedin their ideas.

Discussing #our writing ideas with other !eo!le %a# be useful but what if #ou don*t have an# ideasto discussH Writers !articularl# student writers often face a significant !rewriting !roble%B Whatto write about. 0an# college courses reGuire essa#s as a %a7or co%!onent of the course grade #etstudents %a# struggle to find an a!!ro!riate to!ic or thesis to satisf# the reGuire%ent. Professors

%a# face a si%ilar !roble%B Publications %a# be reGuired for tenure but it*s not alwa#s eas# for anindividual !rofessor to find good ideas for articles es!eciall# in saturated fields. Even !oets andnovelists %a# so%eti%es find their brains congealing as the# des!eratel# see+ for new andinteresting the%es for their wor+. 8n short one of a writer*s greatest difficulties is si%!l# findingso%ething interesting or useful to write about.

Even if a writer has a good to!ic other !roble%s %a# still %a+e it i%!ossible to begin writing.Probabl# the %ost tal+ed about !roble% is the infa%ous Fwriter*s bloc+F. Writers suffering fro%writer*s bloc+ %a# endlessl# stare at the blan+ screen of their word !rocessors unable to co%!ose asingle sentence. So%e writers find that this Fbloc+F is onl# lifted 7ust before their deadline or duedate and the# %ust then wor+ franticall# and rec+lessl# to co%!lete their docu%ent in ti%e.

Even if a writer has a good idea for a !a!er and is read# to start drafting the# %a# discover thatso%e of their thoughts are unorgani$ed. What should be !ut in the first sectionH Where does this

!aragra!h reall# belongH This can be es!eciall# !roble%atic when !lanning large docu%ents.Without a concrete !lan writers %a# find the%selves re!eating infor%ation referring the reader tonone'istent !assages or blurting out ideas at rando% to a ho!elessl# confused reader. 8f #ourreaders have co%!lained about the incoherence or lac+ of unit# in #our writing #ou %a# be guilt#of rushing into draft %ode too soon.

Than+full# there are sound strategies that can hel! #ou solve these !roble%s. The discussion will begin with so%e !re5writing strategies that can hel! #ou discover good to!ics for #our !a!ers. &e'twill be so%e strategies to hel! #ou reduce writer*s bloc+ or writing an'iet#. 1inall# coverage on

how #ou can best !lan #our draft and thus reduce the li+elihood of co%!osing confusing orincoherent docu%ents.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewritinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewritinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewritinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewritinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


10/172

Fin(in& a To ic

Perha!s the greatest fear of %ost students in a writing class is whether the# will be able to co%e u!with a good to!ic for the !a!ers reGuired b# their instructor. lthough students often desire as!ecific to!ic or thesis to write about instructors %a# be curiousl# vague about what to!ics areacce!table. The reason for this vagueness is that the teacher doesn*t want to li%it the !ossibilities55narrowl# li%iting the range of to!ics %ight !revent a student fro% !ursuing a !articularl#fascinating or radical a!!roach. nother !roble% is that few writing instructors care to read a stac+of near5identical !a!ers. Teachers get bored too. The# want to be sur!rised b# their students*ingenuit#. nfortunatel# a student never +nows whether their teacher will 7udge their essa# asFbrilliantl# originalF or Ftotall# untenable.F The tric+ is to do so%ething new or une'!ected withso%ething tried and true.

2et*s sa# that #ou are in an introductor# literature course. The teacher has assigned a -5< !age essa#with sources on a Sha+es!eare !la# of #our choice. Lou %ight tr# as+ing the teacher to be %ores!ecific or offer so%e suggestions. The teacher %ight res!ond F&o it*s u! to #ou. Sur!rise %e.F

&ow what do #ou doH

Probabl# the easiest thing to do is to travel to the librar# and start loo+ing for scholarl# 7ournals thatcover Sha+es!eare studies. Lou %ight also tr# scholarl# boo+s about Sha+es!eare and his !la#s.)rowsing these sources should give #ou so%e ideas about Fwhat*s hotF or what as!ects ofSha+es!eare or his !la#s that scholars have found worth# of serious discussion. Lou %ight findthat an idea #ou thought was ForiginalF turns out to be e%barrassingl# !asse. (owever #oushouldn*t let this worr# #ou. Eventuall# do$ens of !otential theses and lines of inGuir# will e%erge.Scholars freGuentl# engage in co%!le' and long5lasting argu%ents that s!an across 7ournal articlesand boo+s. The tric+ then is to select an issue that #ou can reasonabl# cover given the ti%e ands!ace J!age countK #ou have available and wor+ out #our own !osition on the issue. Then it*s asi%!le %atter of su!!orting #our argu%ent b# bringing in relevant Guotations fro% those who agreewith #ou. Lou should also identif# the counter5argu%ents and !rovide so%e general bac+ground onthe issue.

This techniGue also wor+s well for writing theses and dissertations. 8nstead of writing about Fwhat*snever been written about beforeF tr# to %a+e a new contribution to one of the %an# ongoingconversations in the field. This a!!roach is es!eciall# hand# if #ou ho!e to !ublish #our wor+ sinceso%e !ublishers tend to favor wor+s that fit with their e'isting line of !ublications. Readers alsoe'!ect #ou to be fa%iliar and !robabl# refer to wor+s of other scholars who have written on #ourto!ic. Thin+ of #our wor+ as either e'tending or ta+ing e'isting wor+ in a new direction.

Even if #ou intend to !ublish fiction it*s a good idea to first fa%iliari$e #ourself with the wor+ ofsuccessful fiction writers and consider what it is about their wor+ that a!!eals to !ublishers. Thereis no sha%e in following the sa%e roads that led to their success. This isn*t the sa%e as Fco!#ingF orFri!!ing offF an authorI there is a difference between du!licating techniGues and du!licatingcontent.

8n short the easiest wa# to find a to!ic to write about is to see what other writers are writing aboutand 7oin their FconversationF. This conversation %eta!hor is a ver# useful wa# to understand whatscholarshi! is all about. Rather than thin+ing of essa#s or boo+s as isolated units of scholarshi! tr#envisioning the% as !arts of a %assive networ+ of scholars who converse with each other viascholarl# docu%ents conference !resentations e5%ail !hone calls and other for%s ofco%%unication. See what*s available and where #ou can %a+e the %ost valuable contribution.


11/172

Dealin& with ritin& An2iet%

0an# students are concerned that even though the# feel well versed about a sub7ect the# will not beable to e'!ress the%selves well on !a!er. This is a fear that %an# if not all writers Jnot 7ust first#ear college writersK will e'!erience at one ti%e in their lives or another. The good news is that%ost writers have found a wa# to get over this fear and %ove on to a !oint where the# are actuall#able to write. 1or %an# writers the whole !rocess of writing beco%es so %uch easier after 7ustgetting a sentence or two written.

)ut what if #ou are still stuc+H 8s there e)e" going to be ho!e for #ouH Of course there isSo%e writing instructors believe that students should co%!lete long and intense !rewritinge'ercises before the# will be !re!ared to write. Students %a# be as+ed to co%!lete a Guestionairredesigned to encourage the% to thin+ about their to!ic. This t#!e of e'ercise is called a heuristic.Other teachers assign activities li+e Fbrain stor%ingF or Fclustering F in which students are e'!ectedto write whatever words !o! into their heads as the# conte%!late a to!ic. Other instructors advocateFfree writing F which %eans to si%!l# start writing and continue writing no %atter what55even if#ou*re forced to write sentences li+e F8 don*t +now what to write ne't 8 don*t +now what to writene't F and so on. So%e students find it hel!ful to 7ust start writing about an#thing 7ust to get theirFwriting 7uicesF flowing and then %a+e the 7u%! to addressing the assigned wor+.

So%e students find it hel!ful to record the%selves 7ust si%!l# tal+ing about the sub7ect at handsharing it with so%eone J#our voice recorderK as if #ou are infor%ing a friend about what #ou havediscovered through #our research. Other students find creating an outline about what #ou want toshare hel!ful Jsee the e'a%!le below this section for ideasK. Let another techniGue is %ind5%a!!ing in which #ou construct a %a! of all #our ideas and how the# relate to each other. notheridea is to %a+e an a!!oint%ent at #our universit#*s writing center and tal+ through #our assing%entwith a writing tutor.

F s a tutor in %# universit#*s writing center 8*ve often found that 7ust tal+ing with a studentabout a sub7ect can be a great hel! to hi% or her. s the student tal+s 8 7ot down what the#are telling %e. The# are usuall# sur!rised to find out that the# actuall# +now as %uch asthe# do and are relieved that the# have a !lace to sta"t their writing !rocess.F

The Guestion is do these activities reall# hel! writers get startedH Perha!s the# offer the sa%e benefit as stretching or war%ing u! before a wor+out. E'ercises li+e brainstor%ing and freewriting%a# hel! writers ease into the F$one F or the state of intense concentration and focus necessar# towrite good !rose. The best advice an#one can offer is to tr# these things for #ourself and if the#

wor+55good. Otherwise abandon the% and tr# other strategies. Re%e%ber what wor+s for others toget started on the writing !rocess %a# not be what wor+s for #ou. That is fine and is co%!letel#nor%al. What %atters is that #ou find a %ethod that does wor+ for #ou.

A +am le o)tline

8. 8ntroduction)rief descri!tion of issues that arise when reading F(a%letF

88. 8ssues of 1e%inis% uncovered through reading of F(a%letFa. what other scholars have discovered about 1e%inis% in F(a%letF

b. which of these discoveries was %ost evident to %e and howHc. ideas of fe%inis% that 8 uncovered on %# own

888. (ow uncovering fe%inis% in F(a%letF has led %e to better understand what Sha+es!earethought of the role wo%en !la#ed in societ#


12/172

8 . Conclusion

# ENERATIN# IDEAS

Once #ou have a to!ic about which to write ne't thin+ about the infor%ation #ou want to include in#our wor+. )rainstor% for ten %inutes and list ideas about #our to!ic. 8f #ou create an outline #oucan easil# organi$e these ideas and then #ou can also get rid of ideas that don*t fit an#where.Tal+ing to others about #our writing is also a good wa# to get new ideas and a fresh !ers!ectiveabout #our to!ic. This can also lead to ideas that #ou hadn*t considered before and can hel! #ou get%ore ideas to research.

Metho(+ -or &eneratin& i(ea+ -or %o)r writin&

Brain+torm

)rainstor%ing is used to generate a large nu%ber of ideas relativel# Guic+l#. ll #ou do is writedown whatever ideas co%e to #our head. Lou %ight tr# writing down each idea on a se!erate !ieceof !a!er. 8t also hel!s to as+ #ourself so%e Guestions such asB

,. What do 8 care about or en7o#H;. What do 8 +now that 8 could teach othersH-. What a% 8 interested inH4. What irritates %eH

Lou can brainstor% with others or #ou can brainstor% b# #ourself Joften ti%es this turns intofreewritingK.

Brain+torm e2am le+

2et*s sa# #ou are in a class when #our instructor tells #ou that #ou will have to write a !a!er on #ourfavorite free5ti%e activit# and that #ou have to !ersuade #our reader to tr# it.

s+ #ourself what do 8 $a"e a*o%t o" en+o,H 8t could be an#thing fro% gardening to ice s+ating. Or%a#be #ou*d rather tal+ about writing !oetr# or !la#ing the !iano. Lour list in this e'a%!le wouldreadB

,. gardening;. ice s+ating-. writing !oetr#4. !la#ing the !iano

t this stage an#thing is fine since #ou are 7ust tr#ing to co%e u! with as %an# ideas as !ossible.

s+ #ourself what do -no. that I $o%&/ tea$h othe"sH0a#be #ou are able to teach so%eone else so%ething that #ou reall# en7o#. /ood for #ou 8f notdon*t worr#. Lou are still 7ust brainstor%ing. 0a#be #ou teach swi%%ing lessons or t5ball or%a#be #ou ba+e reall# well and are able to teach so%e of #our insights. Lour list in this e'a%!lewould readB

,. swi%%ing lessons;. t5ball-. ba+ing


13/172

n#thing is fine. Lou are still brainstor%ing.

s+ #ourself what a% 8 inte"este/ inH gain 7ust %a+e a list. 0a#be #ou li+e ra! %usic. 0a#be#ou li+e doing #ard wor+. 0a#be #ou li+e going to the theater. Lour list in this e'a%!le wouldreadB

,. ra! %usic

;. doing #ard wor+-. going to the theater

8f an idea co%es to #our head write it down.

There are no wron& i(ea+ in a 3rain+torm4 44

2et*s thin+ of another e'a%!le. (ow about the co%%on situation where the instructor wants #ou towrite about Fso%ething #ou care aboutF or an Fissue.F

s+ #ourself what i""itates %eHEver#one has things that irritate the% so%e s%all so%e larger. n e'a%!le of so%ething s%allthat*s irritating could be !eo!le in #our dor% who leave trails of tooth!aste b# the sin+ and neverever clean u! after the%selves. This !ersonal e'a%!le is useful as a bridge to a larger issue that will

be #our to!ic55in this case it would be co%%unit# living and !ersonal res!onsibilit#.

8n acade%ic writing with a less !ersonal slant the source of irritation often is another writerAtheoristwho #ou disagree with. Lour FirritationF then leads to an effective !iece about wh# #ou have a

better conce!tion of what*s reall# going on. less direct version of this would be a writerAtheoristwho %a+es so%e good !oints but %a# lac+ so%ething in hisAher argu%ent that #ou can add to theFconversation.F

0uch acade%ic writing begins this wa#. /o ahead Tr# this or an# of the other ideas for brainstor%ing either b# #ourself or in a grou!. Wor+ing together to co%e u! with ideas %eans thatthere are %ore ideas for ever#one.

Cl)+ter

The !rocess in which #ou ta+e #our %ain to!ic and draw a circle around it. Lou then draw lines outfro% the circle connecting to!ics having to do with the %ain sub7ect. Clustering is useful in %a+ingsure that #ou cover all as!ects of #our %ain to!ic.

Cl)+ter E2am le

sing the brainstor%

e'a%!le let*s sa# #oudecided on the to!ic ofgardening. Lour %ainidea of gardening would

be in the center of #our !age circled. n#thingelse that #ou want to sa#about gardening would beconnected to the circlewith lines.


14/172


15/172


C( PTER ,.>; C O22 )OR T8&/

HAT IS C OLLABORATION 60ost if not all !rofessional writers collaborate on the docu%ents the# write.

&ews!a!er re!orters novelists and %aga$ine writers collaborate e'tensivel#with their editors. Scholars collaborate with other scholars to review and addinsight to their wor+. )usiness writers wor+ closel# with colleaguesad%inistrators and consultants to ensure their wor+ %eets the highest !ossiblestandards set b# their co%!an#. Even !oets freGuentl# %eet to discuss theirideas and techniGues. 8n short writing does not occur in a vacuu%. 8nstead it is

!ri%aril# a social !heno%enon.

live version


There will co%e a ti%e in #our life whether during #our college or !rofessional career when #ouwill wor+ with others to create a docu%ent. Professors freGuentl# create Fgrou! !ro7ectsF andreGuire that #ou !artici!ate. Perha!s #ou will be assigned a tas+ at school or on the 7ob that issi%!l# too large for one !erson to acco%!lish. s the effects of globali$ation continue to resonatethrough ever# level of the wor+force collaboration ta+es on ever5%ore !ro%inent roles in the da#5to5da# lives of e%!lo#ees. 8f #ou wish to succeed as a writer #ou %ust have an effective social

!rocess while wor+ing with others.

nfortunatel# %erican education tends to be a bit outdated when it co%es to teaching andrewarding collaboration. Lou %a# have been taught in school that collaboration was cheating andthat #ou should wor+ totall# alone. Lou %a# !refer to wor+ alone and resist collaborating with

others. This isn*t the wa# that our %odern econo%# wor+s however. Effective collaboration s+illscan %a+e a !owerful difference in the sco!e and Gualit# of #our wor+.

This cha!ter introduces so%e hel!ful strategies for successful collaboration. 8t also discusses so%eof the co%%on !ratfalls that can wrec+ an otherwise !ro%ising collaborative o!!ortunit#. There areseveral different t#!es of collaboration. Coo eration entails a 7oint o!eration or action involvingindividuals wor+ing together towards a si%ilar ob7ective. Coor(ination is an organi$ed ands#nchroni$ed efforts towards a si%ilar goal between individuals. Teamwor7 is a 7oint effort.

8ndividuals will collaborate in writing ever#thing fro% %e%os to boo+s !ro!osals to annualre!orts and even Web sites5 such as this Wi+i )oo+.

AD1ANTA#ES TO C OLLABORATION

Writers who collaborate can !roduce better docu%ents because %ore +nowledge is available to beused. 0ore co%!le' and detailed infor%ation can be the outco%e when +nowledge is !ut together.

)rainstor%ing with %ore than one !erson can lead to %ore co%!rehensive and accurateinfor%ation. 8n a grou! there are %ore s+ills available to be used. The strength of all the %e%bersadd to the overall !roduct because the strengths of so%e grou! %e%bers will cancel out thewea+nesses of others.

When individuals collaborate the# bring together %ore o!!ortunit# to have s!ecialties in different

areasB %anaging writing editing designing and !roducing. When a grou! wor+s together there can be %ore discussion of ideas regarding how the audience will inter!ret a docu%ent. The# can wor+together and share techniGues to to create the outco%e desired.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


16/172

Each grou! %e%ber is li+e a different !art of the audience. Ever# individual offers %ore Guestionsand suggestions to e'!lore. s %e%bers share ideas or as+ Guestions the co%%unication will alsoincrease a%ong e%!lo#ees.

/rou! %e%bers can learn about others in the grou! or organi$ation. &ew e%!lo#ees will beaccli%ated in an organi$ation and can learn how things wor+ in that organi$ation. Others can teachthe% what is necessar# to ensure a !roductive flowing wor+ s!ace.

D ISAD1ANTA#ES TO C OLLABORATION

Di+a(*anta&e+

Collaboration ta+es %ore ti%e than individual writing. /rou!thin+ can ha!!en. Dis7ointed docu%ent %a# be !roduced. neGual wor+ loads for individuals involved. Reduced %otivation. 8nter!ersonal conflict.

O*ercomin& the Di+a(*anta&e+

0eet earl# on in #our !ro7ect to decide its direction. Devise a wa# to e*enl% s!lit u! the wor+ between %e%bers. Create a ti%eline for when the various sections are due. Set u! %eetings where %e%bers can gather and share !rogress or obsticles. 0eet near the end of the !ro7ect to %a+e revisions.

C ONDUCTIN# M EETIN#S

8n order to have a successful %eeting it is i%!ortant to set a grou! agenda. 0ore will be covered if#ou stic+ to an outline or !lan. 8t is also i%!ortant to set u! efficient face5to5face %eetingswhenever !ossible. When ever#one gets together and co%%unicates o!enl# with one another %orecan be acco%!lished. 8t is also a good idea to co%%unicate di!lo%aticall# and be sensitive whencritiGuing a grou! %e%ber*s draft. 8t is i%!ortant to critiGue other grou! %e%bers but be gentle.Lou still have to wor+ with this !erson and #ou !robabl# wouldn*t li+e it if the# said bad thingsabout one of #our drafts. Successful %eetings and good grou! coo!eration with result with a better

!ro7ect.

C OMMUNICATIN# A A8 FROM M EETIN#S

8f #ou need to co%%unicate with other %e%bers but !utting together a %eeting is not !ossiblethere are other wa#s to co%%unicate. E5%ail is !robabl# the %ost effective since #ou can reach%ore !eo!le with one docu%ent and the reci!ients can res!ond when the# have the ti%e. Thetele!hone wor+s great if #ou onl# have to call a s%all nu%ber of !eo!le and the conversation will

be short. 0e%os are a lot li+e e5%ail but will ta+e %ore effort to send. fa' will also wor+ toco%%unicate infor%ation to other grou! %e%bers. ll #ou need to do is decide which for% ofco%%unication will wor+ best for the infor%ation.


17/172

STRATE#IES FOR E FFECTI1E C OLLABORATION

The %ost i%!ortant !arts of effective collaboration are discussion and !lanning. /rou! %e%bers%ust !artici!ate in o!en discussion so that all have a clear understanding of the assign%ent.Decisions %ust be %ade fro% the start such as whether the assign%ent will be divided a%onggrou! %e%bers or if all as!ects of the assign%ent will be shared. Continuous o!en discussion willalso aid in overco%ing obstacles because it is easier to tac+le obstacles as a tea% than it is to do soalone. 8t is also i%!ortant to schedule ti%es and co%%it to those ti%es to co%e together as a grou!.These ti%es %a# be in !erson or online s#nchronousl#.


C( PTER ,.>; C O22 )OR T8&/live version discussion edit lesson co%%ent re!ort an error as+ a Guestion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaboratinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Collaborating&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


18/172


C( PTER ,.>- R ESE RC(8&/

O 1ER1IE OF R ESEARCHWriters use !ri%ar# and secondar# research to answer Guestions the# %a# haveabout their to!ic and to locate evidence to bac+ u! the clai%s the# %a+e. When#ou do research and include it in #our writing along with #our own ideas #ou*re

!artici!ating in a conversationB finding out what others have alread# saidres!onding to the% and adding #our own contributions.

live version


(ere are five +e# strategies for successful research writingB

,. Deter%ine the role of research in #our writing.

;. Consider #our audience.-. nderstand how writers use sources.4. ssessAevaluate sources* credibilit#.


19/172

s #ou answer these Guestions thin+ about what t#!es of research will resonate %ost strongl# with#our !articular audience.

UNDERSTAND HO RITERS USE SOURCES

Writers wor+ with sources all the ti%e but the wa# in which the# do it and the FrulesF the#*ree'!ected to follow de!end on the conte't the#*re writing in.

cade%ic research writing involves strict and for%al rules. These rules are called Fcitation F andthe#*re so strict detailed and for%al because of the high value acade%e !uts on not FstealingFothers !eo!le*s ideas. Citation is a wa# to signal to #our readers what are #our words and ideas andwhat are so%eone else*s words and ideas. nd while the rules can be co%!le' re%e%ber #ou don*thave to %e%ori$e the%I #ou si%!l# need to +now where to find and a!!l# the%.

So)rce+ are other *oice+

Even before #ou learn the rules of citation recogni$e that #ou alread# +now a lot about how towor+ with sources. 8t can be hel!ful here to thin+ of sources as Fother voices.F Lou use sourceswhen #ou thin+ over an idea #ou heard about in a conversation. Lou use sources when #ou considerwhat to bu# 55 whether the sources are an advertise%ent haw+ing a sale a slogan #ou can*t get outof #our head the fact that a friend reco%%ended a !roduct or that #ou*ve loo+ed u! !rice Guotesand sho!!ed around. Lou are +nowledgeable and %a+e decisions b# !iecing together theinfor%ation fro% %an# sources. Sources are !art of our livesB all around us and !art of how we

breathe life into the words that e'!ress what we thin+.

8n research writing #ou do %uch the sa%e act of interacting with other voices onl# #ou addanother la#er. Since #ou*re writing #ou*re also !resenting not onl# #our sources in so%e organi$ed

wa# but what ,o% thin+ using #our sources to show how #ou ca%e to thin+ what #ou do. nd #oudon*t 7ust use an# sources fro% an#whereI instead #ou !ic+ and choose the best sources for #our !ur!oses and #ou use the% strategicall# 55 for effect.

8o) 7now more than %o) thin7

Sources !la# a variet# of roles in #our researched writing. So%eti%es #ou use and cite sources to let !eo!le +now what conversation #our research is a !art of. Lou can also use sources as e'a%!lesIso%eti%es sources !resent evidence. Sources can also !resent an argu%ent #ou want to counter.

rgu%ents and ideas can be ta+en fro% a sources and be built u!on refined and countered.

Lou do this a lot an#wa#. 8t*s nothing new. Don*t believe %eH Tr# this. S!end a wee+ !a#ingattention to the conversations and discussions #ou have. 2isten for sources used and the role the# !la#. Lou*ll hear !eo!le cite the news as the# o!ine on !olitics or refer to a ga%e or a !la#er*s Guoteas the# tal+ s!orts. Lou*ll hear friends catch u! with friends and recount conversations with otherfriends who aren*t there. Lou*ll hang out and discuss things that %atter and !artici!ants in thatdiscussion will !rovide reasons 55so%eti%es facts so%eti%es o!inion often a %i' of the two55 forwh# the# thin+ the wa# the# do Jand often wh# #ou should tooK.

8n research writing #ou ta+e that natural act of conversing with and referring to others and gofurther. Mnowing in advance that #ou*ll be writing to be share #our wor+ with other readers #ouloo+ for sources Jother voicesK while e'!loring an idea and !lanning how to a!!eal to those readersJother acade%ics li+e #ou 55 #es #ou*re an acade%ic nowK in ter%s and conventions the#*llrecogni$e. Don*t let the !art of the research !rocess and source wor+ that deals with conventionsand for%alities get in the wa# of doing what co%es naturall# even if wor+ing with thoseconventions feels unnatural. Curiousit#. 8nterest. So%ething to sa#. That*s the basis of research and


20/172

wor+ing with sources. The rules co%e second to those not first.

ASSESS SOURCES 9CREDIBILIT8

E*al)atin& So)rce+The abilit# to evaluate #our sources is a ver# valuable s+ill when #ou are researching a to!ic. Lou%a# be reGuired to use !ri%ar# sources onl#. So how do #ou deter%ine whether a source is !ri%ar#or secondar#H Pri%ar# sources are sources that were co%!osed in the ti%e fra%e #ou areresearching. These include letters diaries legislative bills laborator# studies field research re!ortsand e#ewitness accounts. Secondar# sources are co%%entaries about !ri%ar# sources such asenc#clo!dias. !ri%ar# source %a# not necessaril# be %ore reliable than a secondar# source but itis a firsthand account.

When reading docu%ents #ou %ust be aware of the author*s bias. Even the %ost credible sourcewill have so%e +ind of inter!retation on the sub7ect. 2oo+ for !olitical or religious leanings in thete't. These views %a# affect the ob7ectivit# of the te't. Chec+ to see if the author or !ublisher %a#have ties to a s!ecial interest grou! that %a# allow hi% or her to see onl# one side of the issue.Evaluate how fairl# the author treats the o!!osing views. Co%!lete ob7ectivit# reall# can not beattained in writing but tr# to find sources that are not incredibl# sub7ective. 0a+e sure #ou areaware of views and biases of the author or !ublisher when researching.

The internet is a wonderful tool for research but a researcher %ust also be aware of the credibilit# ofweb sources. Mnowing so%ething about the author andAor !ur!ose of the site can hel! #ou toevaluate if the site will be worth #our ti%e. When evaluating a website loo+ for these ite%sB

A)thor+hi 8f #ou can*t find the author of a site be cautious. Tr# loo+ing for Fabout this

siteF or chec+ the ho%e!age. Research the author of the site to %a+e sure he or she iscredible. 2oo+ for the author*s Gualifications or a lin+ to the author*s ho%e!age. These %a# !rovide insight to th author*s e'!ertise and credibilit#.

S on+or+hi Chec+ to see if the site is s!onsored b# a s!ecial interes grou!. )# learningabout the grou! in which the# are invlolved #ou will !robabl# learn a lot about the author*sand web site*s credibilit#. lso loo+ at the do%ain na%e. This will tell #ou if the site iss!onsored b# an educational J.eduK co%%ercial J.co%K non!rofit J.orgK %ilitar# J.%ilK ornetwor+ J.netK.

")r o+e Thin+ about wh# the site was created. 8s its !ur!ose to infor% !ersuade or sell a !roduct to the readerH 1or who% was the site createdH Who is the intended audienceH 8f #ou

are not included in the intended audience consider if the infor%ation is relevant to #ourresearch.

When #ou set out to write a researched !a!er #ou have a vast !ool of infor%ation available to #ouincluding boo+s news!a!ers !eriodicals reference wor+s govern%ent docue%nts #our ownresearch in the for% of interviews and surve#s as well as the enor%ous wealth of infor%ationcontained toda# in the World Wide Web. 8s it all worth usingH Definitel# not. 6ust as i%!ortant as

being able to find sources for #our to!ic is assessing their credibilit# 55 that is how trustworth#accurate and verifiable the# are.

While the World Wide Web !resents es!eciall# interesting challenges when deter%ining credibilit#due to the vast a%ount of infor%ation available and the o!enness of the foru% Jan#one can !ut u! a

web !ageK it*s also the case that 7ust because so%ething a!!ears in !rint doesn*t %a+e it reliable andstraightforward. good researcher will develo! s+ills in not onl# finding valuable infor%ationefficientl# but also in assessing the credibilit# of that infor%ation.


21/172


22/172


23/172

Con+)lt ADAM

Guic+ wa# to cover the essential !oints when faced with assessing a lot of sources Guic+l# is tore%e%ber this acron#%B

AgeB (ow old is this sourceH 1or al%ost ever# to!ic ai% for the %ost current sources #ou can find.

De!thB Does the source go in5de!th or does it 7ust s+i% over the surfaceH Does it have the %an#details and long discussions #ou e'!ect fro% acade%ic sourcesH Or does it see% to 7ust hit the highs!otsH lwa#s use substantive sources.

AuthorB Who wrote thisH What do #ou +now about their GualificationsH re the# reall# an e'!ertHCan #ou see their biasesH What are the# tr#ing to get #ou to thin+ or doH

M one#B 1ollow the %one#. 8s the source co%ing fro% a !lace that*s tr#ing to sellQ #ou so%ethingeither literall# or figurativel#H 8s there a lot of advertising where this source a!!ears that %ightaffect what gets !rintedH

C ITE SOURCES TO A1OID "LA#IARISMfter using other sources to gain infor%ation for a re!ort or !a!er #ou %ight decide to use that

infor%ation in #our !a!er. 8f the ideas e'!ressed in #our !a!er are not #our original thoughts #ou%ust cite where #ou obtained that infor%ation. 8f #ou do not cite where #ou obtained #ourinfor%ation #ou are !lagiari$ing. Plagiari$ing is an e'tre%e offense. 8f #ou are caught !lagiari$ingin school #ou usuall# will receieve a failing grade on the assign%ent if not in the entire course. Loucould also ris+ being e'!elled fro% school. 8f #ou are caught !lagiari$ing in a wor+!lace it couldli+el# end u! costing #ou #our 7ob. So %a+e sure #ou cite co!ied infora%tion The %ost co%%onfor%s of citation are direct Guotes and !ara!hrasing. fter a direct Guote or at the end of a

!ara!hrase #ou should cite the author and !age nu%ber of #our source. 8nfor%ation on how to citesources can be found in The Writer*s (andboo+B Citations 8f #ou are using other sources in #ourre!ort and are unsure whether or not #ou need to use citation it is better to be safe than sorr# so citethe infor%ation.

E 5TERNAL L IN$S

2earning to Research on the Web 2earning to Research in the 2ibrar# The Online )oo+s Page 2ists over ;< >>> free boo+s on the web. )artleb# Search dictionaries thesauri enc#clo!edias fa%iliar Guotations and usage

%anuals. )iogra!hical Dictionar# Searchable biogra!hical dictionar# online. Research!a!er.co% Relief for Writer*s bloc+.


C( PTER ,.>- R ESE RC(8&/live version discussion edit lesson co%%ent re!ort an error as+ a Guestion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Citationhttp://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/internet.htmhttp://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/library.htmhttp://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/http://www.bartleby.com/100/http://www.s9.com/http://www.researchpaper.com/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researchinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researchinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Citationhttp://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/internet.htmhttp://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/library.htmhttp://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/http://www.bartleby.com/100/http://www.s9.com/http://www.researchpaper.com/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researchinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researchinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


24/172


25/172

a s!ecific !oint where it uncovers the core of #our thesis. Lour thesis has to %a+e a contract with#our reader. 0a+e a clai% which forecasts the %ain !ointJsK of #our thesis then deliver the sourcewhich su!!!orts the argu%ent. (aving a clear recognition of #our wea+ !oint in #our co%!ositioncan be noted during this stage. Lou %a# alwa#s add bac+ground infor%ation definitions of theter%s review literature caveats reasons of #our assu%!tions and counterargu%ents to dee!en #ourargu%ent.

F0# starting !oint in writing is alwa#s a feeling of !artisanshi! a sense of in7ustice. . . . 8write because there is so%e lie that 8 want to e'!ose so%e fact to which 8 wish to drawattention and %# initial concern is to get a hearing.F !!#eor&e Orwell

So%eti%es #ou*ll find that it*s easier to write the introduction after #ou*ve written the bod# of #our !a!er. Lou certainl# %a# avoid writing the introduction first too. )ut no %atter how #ou write it isi%!ortant to sta# on trac+. En!hasi$e few !oints that are related to #our thesis b# adding %oreinfor%ation and getting closer to detail.

Let it -low

s #ou draft don*t sto! to edit or loo+ u! s%all !ieces of infor%ationI there will be %ore ti%e for !recision later. 6ust get #our ideas out without worr#ing about !unctuation or s!elling for now.Si%ilarl# if #ou notice a big ga! which reGuires %ore research s+i! it and wor+ on other sections.The i%!ortant thing is to let #our ideas +ee! co%ing and %a+ing !rogress on the !age. &o %atterhow irrelevant #our words %a# a!!ear write on.

FWrite ,>>> words a da#. That*s onl# about four !ages but force #ourself to do it. Put #ourfinger down #our throat and throw u!. That*s what writing*s all about.F !!Ra% Bra(3)r%

E2 eriment

(ow do #ou start #our draftH Do #ou alwa#s start fro% introductionH So%e !eo!le %a# find writingthe introduction first difficult. While the occasional flash of ins!iration can lead #ou to scribble outgreat wor+ on the bac+ of an envelo!e with a stubb# !encil !a#ing a brief attention to not onl#*what #ou write* but *how #ou write* can ins!ire #ou to write differentl# or even %ore effectivel#. 8f#ou start drafting fro% the conclusion for e'a%!le it could be li+e having the Fnorth starF in #our

!a!er. Or #ou could leave the introduction and conclusion blan+ until the end. That said #ou can%a+e u! #our own a!!roach to create #our own wa# of writing. ll the technological tools #ouhave access to toda# have %ade it !ossible for #ou to write virtuall# an#ti%e an#where andhowever #ou want. Ta+e advantage of it if #ou can. T#!e on #our co%!uter do research on itrecord #our own voice if !en is slowing down #our thin+ing or ta+e a !icture with #our !hone and

!ut it on #our !a!er. E'!eri%ent with #our a!!roach to write and if #ou can write better and evenhave fun during its !rocess he# it*s 7ust better world isn*t itH

riter9+ 3loc76

l%ost ever# writer suffers fro% writer*s bloc+ and we all +now the struggle and agon# of being inthe dee! hole for a long long ti%e. 8f #ou ever find #ourself !ulling #our hair out in front of a blan+ !age change the %ood. Ta+e a short brea+ sto! #our hand for a %o%ent stand u! stretch breathe


26/172

in dee!l# or ta+e a short bris+ wal+. Refresh #our %ind. Ta+ing dee! breaths tossing a ball into ahoo! or sGuee$ing a tension ball %a# also hel! #ou reduce #our stress. Lou can !eriodicall# ta+e a

brea+ and !h#sical sti%ulus or so%eti%es even a s%all %indless action can Guic+l# sha+e #our brain loose and give #ou 7ust enough !h#sicalA!s#chological outlet to let #our brain +ic+ bac+ intohigher gear. The +e# is to sti%ulate #our creativit# while reducing what distracts #ou the %ost so#ou can write %ore.

FWhen #ou get an idea go and write. Don*t waste it in conversation.F !!$enneth $och

SAM"LE D RAFT

s #ou have read drafts are not !erfect. The following is an e'a%!le of what a draft %ight loo+li+e. The e'a%!le contains gra%%atrical and s!elling erros lac+s detail could use so%e re!hrasingso%e fine tuning and overall e'!ansion of ideas.

Their are %an# wa#s in wich 8Uve been e'!osed to histor#. 1or%all# 8Uve learned about histor#in %# classes starting in grade school u! to now with college. 8nfor%all# 8Uve learnd abouthistor# thru friends television %ovies even art. Each wa# of learning 8 retain diffrentinfor%ation. 2earning histor# is classes 8 tend to recall %ore na%es facts dates and si%ilarthings. /aining facts fro% a friend 8 re%e%ber 7ust won fact rather than %an# facts. Whilelearning thru visual ele%ents li+e dis!la#s or !ro7ects 8 re%e%ber infor%ation better when 8see those i%ages again. rtisticall# learning about histor# thru television fil% and artwor+what 8 re%e%ber %ost is the feeling or e%otion involved with the !ersons or events in histor#.8 a% able to %a+e a connection to the !ast thru sense rather than atte%!ting to re%e%bers!ecific fact. isual learning 8 feel li+e 8 understand histor# better and a% able to %a+e aconnection fro% the !ast to !resent.

E 5TERNAL L IN$S

Writing the 1irst Draft 1irst Drafts 0ade Eas# /oing )e#ond the 1ive5Paragra!h Essa# Transitions 8ntroductions and Conclusions


C( PTER ,.>4 D R 1T8&/live version discussion edit lesson co%%ent re!ort an error as+ a Guestion
http://pratt.edu/~wtc/firstdraft.htmlhttp://riverbendlaw.com/firstdrafts.htmhttp://www.calstatela.edu/centers/write_cn/fivepara.htmhttp://www.asu.edu/duas/wcenter/transitions.htmlhttp://www.asu.edu/duas/wcenter/introconc.htmlhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Draftinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Draftinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://pratt.edu/~wtc/firstdraft.htmlhttp://riverbendlaw.com/firstdrafts.htmhttp://www.calstatela.edu/centers/write_cn/fivepara.htmhttp://www.asu.edu/duas/wcenter/transitions.htmlhttp://www.asu.edu/duas/wcenter/introconc.htmlhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Draftinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Draftinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Drafting&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


27/172


C( PTER ,.>< E D8T8&/

C ONTENT E DITIN# > UESTIONS &ow #ou have a stac+ of !a!ers with #our words on it. Since #ou*ve alread# gotall of the +e# ideas on !a!er it is ti%e to revisit what #ou wrote. 2isted beloware the chec+ !oints of #our !a!er. Does #our !a!er satisf# the% allH

live version


Ri*ettin& Intro()ctionThe function of the introduction is to grab the reader their nec+. 1irst state #our argu%entand eventuall# !resent a thesis while giving a s%ooth outline of #our !a!er as a whole.8ntroduction is after all what evo+es reader*s attention. Lou don*t have to have a bigintroduction. Tr# su%%erising ever# !aragra!h into one sentence each !ut the% all togetherin a !aragra!h and see if #our introduction covers the% all. J!sst K0an# writers use Guotes or

!oe%s to grab readers* attention and it a!!ears to be Guite effective.

Clear The+i+8s #our thesis clearH Will #our reader be able to identif# it and see the rest of #our !a!er issu!!orting or !roving the argu%entH 0ost %erican readers e'!ect to see the !oint #ourargu%ent within the first few !aragra!hs. To %a+e sure #ou have a clear thesis write it in asingle sentence at the end of #our introduction. This will feed the reader into the bod# of the

!a!er.

"lain an( Sim le Sentence+/ood writers avoid long and dull sentences. 8f a sentence is alread# !lain and direct there*s noneed to fluff it u!. Rather #ou should +ee! it !lain and si%!le. 1labb# words and !hrasesobscure #our ideasB when writing being $on$ise is +e#. 1or e'a%!le wh# sa# that FCats havea tendenc# toward slee!ing %ost of the da# F when #ou could si%!l# sa# FCats tend to slee!%ost of the da#HF (ow about changing FThe ,;th da# of the %onth of !rilF to F !ril ,;thHFTr# to !ic+ out and substite such sentences with si%!ler ones. The results are often *less is%ore.*

Flawle++ Or&ani?ation8s #our tense consistant throughout the !a!er J!ast future !resentKH (ow about narrator*se%otionH 8s the tone of #our narration consistantl# inconsistantH 8f so revise it. Then #ou%ust reevaluate #our clai% and %a+e sure the# tie in with #our thesis. Ever# sentence inever# !aragra!h should su!!or #our clai%.

#oo( Concl)+ionThe conclusion and the introduction could be si%ilar. So%e !eo!le actuall# restate their entirethesis in the conclusion 7ust to reestablish what the entire !a!er is about.

F0ost writers regard truth as their %ost valuable !ossession and therefore are %ostecono%ical in its use.F !!Mar7 Twain
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=new


28/172

Fo)r +trate&ie+ -or +ha in& ) %o)r +entence+

0. U+e acti*e *er3+. Be !erbs Jis a% are was were be hasAhave beenK indicate condition and often reGuire e'trasentence or clause to be sound. acti!e !erbs allow #ou to con!ose shar!l# without nu%bingthe rh#th% of #our writing. Read #our writing with distant e#es and thin+B (ow can 8 %a+e itJbe it a sentence or !aragra!hK si%!leHQ. The %ore #ou do this the shar!er #our sentences

beco%e. English has %ore verbs than al%ost ever# other languages. E'!lore the% "#amples

The sha"( "ise in %e& ("i$esis a se"io%s $ha&&enge to t"%$-ing i"'s0 It 'a-es it ha"/ o"the' to ("o)i/e ti'e&, se")i$e to $%sto'e"s an/ to 'eet (a,"o&& e (enses0

Shar!l# rising fuel !rices challenge truc+ing fir%s b# causing dela#s incusto%er service and !a#roll.

#"i'a", $a%ses o the "ise in %e& ("i$esare an iss%e o $on %sion o" 'an, $iti2ens0The, /on3t -no. ho. to ight the "ise *e$a%se the, /on3t -no. its $a%se0

Pri%ar# causes of rising fuel !rices elude %an# citi$ens %a+ing the% unawareof how to fight the increase.

@. Name the eo le.Directl# state who or what group is acting in #our sentences. &ote the contrast in !ower andclarit# a%ong the sentences belowB

"#amples itho)t eo le< A $it,.i/e *an on in/oo" s'o-ing in D%&%th o"igina&&, $a%se/ a

'a"-e/ /"o( in *a" (at"onage0 ith eo le< !hen the D%&%th Cit, Co%n$i& (asse/ a $it,.i/e *an on in/oo" s'o-ing4

'an, (eo(&e sto((e/ going to *a"s0 itho)t eo le< A ("otest to hea/ o a s'o-ing *an $a%se/ the iss%e to *e she&)e/ in

the neigh*o"ing $it, o S%(e"io"4 !is$onsin0 ith eo le< Resta%"ant an/ *a" o.ne"s4 as .e&& as O%" Rights No.54 a $iti2ens3a$tion g"o%(4 ("oteste/ in a neigh*o"ing $it,4 $a%sing the S%(e"io" 6!is$onsin7 Cit,Co%n$i& to she&)e the iss%e0

;. Ti&hten ) wor(% hra+e+.Certain stoc+ !hrases are wea+ and word#. The# can %a+e #ou sound stuff# or as if #ouUre

7ust tr#ing to fill u! s!ace. se these re!lace%entsB3eca)+e, +ince, wh% the "eason o"4 o" the "eason that4 o.ing8/%e to the a$t that4 in&ight o the a$t that4 $onsi/e"ing the a$t that4 on the g"o%n/s that4 this is .h,9 when on the o$$asion o 4 in a sit%ation in .hi$h4 %n/e" $i"$%'stan$es in .hi$h9 a3o)t, re&ar(in& as "ega"/s4 in "e e"en$e to4 .ith "ega"/ to4 $on$e"ning the 'atte" o 4.he"e ABC is $on$e"ne/9 m)+t, +ho)l( it is $"%$ia& that4 it is ne$essa", that4 the"e is a nee/8ne$essit, o"4 it isi'(o"tant that4 it $annot *e a)oi/e/ that9 can is a*&e to4 has the o((o"t%nit, to4 has the $a(a$it, o"4 has the a*i&it, to9 ma%, mi&ht, co)l( it is (ossi*&e that4 the"e is a $han$e that4 it $o%&/ ha((en that4 the (ossi*i&it, e ists o"9

F igorous writing is concise.F !! illiam Str)n7 'r., $he "lements of %tyle , 0 0

. Start o-- +tron&.void starting sentences with the empty phrases There is Q There are Q and 8t is.Q


29/172

"#amples The"e a"e se)e"a& inte""e&ate/ "easons o" this ,ea"3s a$ti)e h%""i$ane season0 It is o %t'ost i'(o"tan$e to /ete"'ine those "easons so that the"e a"e e.e" h%""i$ane$as%a&ties ne t ,ea"0

8nstead find the actor in your sentence, and start off with that& Se)e"a& inte""e&ate/ a$to"s $a%se/ this ,ea"3s a$ti)e h%""i$ane season0

Dete"'ining those a$to"s .i&& "es%&t in e.e" h%""i$ane $as%a&ties ne t ,ea"0

E DITIN# T I"S

FSo%e editors are failed writers but so are %ost writers.F !!T.S. Eliot

Lou don*t have to fall into either of the categories %entioned above. Ti!s listed below will hel! #ou

edit #our !a!er.Re!E(it

8t so%eti%es hel!s to loo+ through #our !a!er right when #ou are finished and then if ti%eallows loo+ at it again a da# later.

Rea( Alo)(When reading #our writing out loud #ou are %ore able to identif# s%all errors such as wordre!etition. 8t can also be beneficial to #ou to read aloud with another !erson. Lou will also beable to receive feedbac+ if what #ou were sa#ing %a+es sense or if #ou need to e'!and on acertain area of #our writing. Lou %a# 7ust have ta+en for granted that #ou did a good enough

7ob of e'!laining a !oint in #our !a!er. The reader or in this case the listener %a# not agreeand %a# be able to !rovide feedbac+ that will hel! #ou as #ou further develo! #our thoughts.

Ha*e a Di--erent "er+on E(it8t %a# also be hel!ful to have so%eone else review #our !a!er. )# doing this the# %a+e !ic+u! so%e editing %ista+es that #ou %ade because the# are loo+ing at it with fresh e#es.

Rea++e++ >)e+tion+fter #ou have corrected the %ista+es #ou have found loo+ at #our !a!er and as+ #ourself the

above %entioned Guestions again.

$ee Re+o)rce+ Clo+e/ather #our handboo+ dictionar# thesaurus handouts and an# other resources for editingand +ee! the% closel# on hand. This wa# #ou arenUt te%!ted to guess at the correct wa# to doso%ething but instead can loo+ it u! Guic+l# and easil#.

$now 8o)r Error+Mee! a list of the errors #ou tend to %a+e. &o writer %a+es ever# %ista+e all the ti%eIinstead we tend to %a+e the sa%e few t#!es of %ista+es over and over. Mnow what #ours are

b# loo+ing at #our instructorUs co%%ents on !ast !a!ers or b# wor+ing with a writing centertutor. That wa# #ou can focus #our editing on loo+ing s!ecificall# for those errors.

")t U Remin(er+Write rules #ou loo+ u! freGuentl# on inde' cards or !ost5it notes and !ut these u! in #ourwiritng s!ace so #ou can chec+ the% 7ust b# glancing u!.


30/172

Brea7 It DownEdit for one thing at a ti%e. 8nstead of reading #our !a!er through one or two ti%es and tr#ingto catch ever#thing read #our !a!er several shorter ti%es loo+ing for one thing at a ti%e. 1ore'a%!le #ou %ight go through #our !a!er once to tighten u! wordiness. Then #ouUd read asecond ti%e loo+ing for an error #ou freGuentl# %a+e such as co%%a s!lices. Then #ouUdread a third ti%e loo+ing for words that %a# have gotten %essed u! when #ou ran s!ellchec+.

LouUd read a fourth ti%e for another characteristic error such as sub7ect5verb agree%ent.

Re()ce 1i+)al Cl)tterse two !ieces of blan+ !a!er to cover u! ever#thing but one sentence at a ti%e. This forces

#ou to !a# closer attention to the words because the#Ure the onl# thing #ou see. &or%all# oure#es %ove all over a te't as weUre readingI this !revents that.

#o Bac7war(+Read bac+wards fro% the end of #our !a!er one sentence at a ti%e. When we read in theregular wa# V forward V we tend to read Guic+l# and are alwa#s lea!ing ahead not reall#focusing on what weUre seeing. Reading bac+wards hel!s brea+ u! that %o%entu% and forcesus to slow down thereb# hel!ing us catch %ore at the sentence level.

S ellin&

Do not rel# on s!ellchec+ers. The# will !ic+ u! on words that are si%!l# not s!elled correctl# suchas FtehF instead of Fthe.F There are too %an# words that have two se!arate s!ellings Ji.e. F#ourF vs.F#ou*reFK that a s!ellchec+er %a# not !ic+ u! on. 8f #ou do rel# on a s!ellchec+er be sure that #ouloo+ closel# at ever# word that co%es u! as a violation. Do not 7ust clic+ on Ffi'F without actuall#ta+ing the ti%e to read what #ou %ean to sa# before fi'ing the s!elling of the word. This give #ouan additional o!!ortunit# to !roofread what #ou have written.

)u# a dictionar# and use it often )e sure that it is an u!5to5date co%!rehensive version. Considerone that also has a thesaurus included.

8t is i%!ortant to +now which words to use and in which conte't. 0an# ti%es !eo!le %ista+enl#use one word for another Ji.e. Fe'ce!tF instead of Facce!tK. 8t is ver# i%!ortant to review #our wor+

before #ou !ublish it.

FT#!os are ver# i%!ortant to all written for%. 8t gives the reader so%ething to loo+ for sothe# aren*t distracted b# the total lac+ of content in #our writing.F !!Ran(% $. Milhollan(,

Somethin& "o+iti*e Comic, / !/;!/

Sentence Str)ct)re

When reviewing #our wor+ be sure to as+ #ourself Guestions in sentence structure. Do 8 have an#run5on sentencesH 8s there a co%%a continuing a run5on sentence where a !eriod should go to brea+it into two sentencesH

Do 8 have an# sentence frag%entsH )e cogni$ant of an# words that begin a sentence that wouldsuggest it %a# be a sentence frag%ent. Words and !hrases such as Fes!eciall# F Fli+e F Fsuch as F or

FnotF are co%%onl# used in the beginning of a sentence frag%ent.Do %# sentences use correct !unctuationH Did 8 insert a co%%a where a se%i5colon should beH reGuotations used correctl# es!eciall# when 8 a% not GuotingH


31/172

8n short +now the basics of gra%%ar and sentence structure when reviewing #our wor+.

Ten+e

When reviewing #our wor+ it is also i%!ortant to %a+e sure the tense #ou choose sta#s consistent.Tense refers to the relation of details in either the !ast or the !resent. 1or e'a%!le one writer %a#tell a stor# about going to the %all in the !resent tense b# sa#ing F8 a% wal+ing around the %allwhen 8 see %# third grade teacher.F nother writer %a# choose to relate this stor# in the !ast tense

b# sa#ing F8 was wal+ing around the %all when 8 saw %# third grade teacher.F lthough it isi%!ortant to choose which tense best suits the !articular discourse a writer is using it is %uch %orei%!ortant to sta# consistent with whichever tense #ou choose. 8nconsistenc# with tense is e'tre%el#confusing for readers. 8t is i%!ortant to review #our use of tense to %a+e sure #our language isclear.

Fini+he(4

F8 can*t write five words but that 8 change seven.F !!Doroth% "ar7er

Save the final editing for the end. fter #ou write review revise re5write and then re!eat the !rocess over and over it is then that #ou should begin to seriousl# edit #our !a!er. 8n other wordsdela# #our editing until all the other ste!s of the writing !rocess have been finali$ed.

When #ou are satisified that each of the above Guestions have been addressed #ou are done.Congratulations

" ERS"ECTI1ES ON ST8LE

Prescri!tion and descri!tion litter these !ages and others. So%e writers tell #ou how to write. (ow#our writing should loo+ sound feel. These writers !rescribe rules JWriter*s handboo+s are their

bibles.K. Should #ou follow the%H Prescri!tion li%itsI it also has li%ited use. 8n so%e instances it%a# be !rofitable or neccesar# to follow rules. When writing a legal docu%ent or a the%e for #ourfifth grade teacher for e'a%!le. 8t*s neccesar# to learn the rules if onl# to brea+ the%. Rules aren*tstatic though. The# evolve. Rules are added changed o%ittedB fashion is the onl# certaint#.

Other writers descibe how te't is actuall# written. The# anal#$e !ast and !resent te't highlightingsi%ilarities differances and res!ective efficienc#. The# define goals and !ur!ose. 8t %a# be

!ur!oseful to a!!l# rules. 8t %a# not. )ut don*t be li%ited b# !rescri!tion.

E'a%ine #our goal and deter%ine the best a!!roach to reach it.

h% (i+c)++ +t%le in a +ection on e(itin&6 s #ou write #ou %a+e choices. s #ou edit #oue'a%ine the effectiveness of those choices. nd #eah so%e choices are %ore effective than othersand %a# reinforce #our %essage. 8t all de!ends on #our goal #our !ur!ose. re #ou writing adiseration or a birthda# greetingH n instant %essage or a !ublic addressH Lour choices deter%ine#our te't*s effectivenessI the# hel! relate %eaning.

s #ou*d i%agine as %an# !ers!ectives on st#le e'ist as there are choices avaible to #ou whilewriting. The following is an atte%!t to !resent so%e of those !er!ectives.


32/172

Richar( Lanham on "ro+e St%le+

boo+ written b# Richard 2anha% titled Ana&,2ing #"ose is a great tool for writers to !ic+ u! ideasfor new st#les. Through his wor+ one can can learn techniGues covering the following st#lesB

O!aGue and Trans!arent &oun and erb Paratactic and (#!otactic Periodic and Running

2earning how to !ro!erl# involve these st#les into #our own writing can transfor% #our wor+ fro%ever#da# te'tboo+ st#le writing into colorful creative individualistic st#les.

O a )e an( Tran+ arent St%le+

t the onset it is crucial to note that one reader*s o!acit# %ight be another*s trans!arenc#. To garner%eaning fro% a te't an# te't it is necessar# to loo+ either at or th"o%gh it. Te'ts that reGuire

readers to loo+ th"o%gh words or !ictures or a co%bination of words and !ictures to understand%eaning as #ou could easil# guess can be labled trans!arent. Those that reGuire readers to e'a%inete't to loo+ at it to understand authorial intention andAor %eaning can be labled o!aGue.De!ending on #ou te'tual e'!erience so%e te'ts %ight a!!ear trans!arent others o!aGue.

There is a s!ectru% though. On the one side there is trans!aranc# and on the other o!acit#. erbalte'ts %ost often fall so%ewhere in the %iddle and lean to one side or the other. Prose and non5fiction are t#!icall# ideall# %ore trans!arent. Poetr# and fiction tend to fall toward the o!!osite endof the s!ectru% toward o!acit#. To understand o!aGue te'ts it is necessar# to read the% criticall#to e'a%ine the% to loo+ at the%. Trans!arent te'ts on the other hand do not reGuire e'tensivestud# for understanding. 8deall# the# are clear brief and sincere.

er# few te'ts however co%!letel# !osess clarit# brevit# and sincerit# JThe closest readers willget to a co%!letel# clear brief and sincere te't is a !hotogra!hK. s a result it is necessa# toconsider authorial choices to understand %eaning andAor intention. Even see%ingl# trans!arent te'ts%ight reGuire critical reading to trul# understand the%. )elow we*ll consider so%e of the choicesauthors %a+e when writing.

No)n an( 1er3 St%le+

We relate %eaning !ri%aril# though nouns and verbs. Which !art of s!eech carries the weight of%eaning in #our own writingH Writers who rel# on nouns e%!lo# a no%inal or noun st#leI theirwriting i%!lies stasis. Writers who ado!t a verbal st#le on the other hand value strong verbselectionI their writing reveals action.

(ow should #ou writeH Should #our writing rel# %ore heavil# on verbs or nouns to translate%eaningH That de!ends on #our !ur!ose. Who or what are #ou writing forH 1iction writers andthose interested in accelearating the !ace of their writing generall# e%!lo# a %ore verbal st#le.The# conve# action. &oun st#les are often used b# those ho!ing to a!!ear scholarl#. The# are%ar+ed b# being verbs Jis are was wereK and !re!ositional !hrases. )ureaucrats and others whoo!!ose social action freGuentl# e%!lo# no%inal st#le to deter action and %ove%ent.

"arat2i+ an( H% ota2i+

(ow do #ou connect ele%ents in #our writingH Do #ou relate the% eGuall# or uneGuall#H Do #ousubordinate ele%ents a %ar+ of the h#!otactic st#le or do #ou si%!l# 7u'ta!ose the% and leave the

!rocess of understanding realtionshi!s to the reader a %ar+ of the !aratactic st#le.


33/172

When #ou e%!lo# h#!ota'is #ou ran+ ele%ents in #our writing. Lou infor% readers what isderived fro% what. 1or e'a%!le A caused B B followed A. Such st#le e%!hasi$es a vertical

!attern one read fro% to! to botto%.

When #ou e%!lo# !arata'is #ou leave the ran+ing u! to the reader. Lou !ut all ele%ents on thesa%e s#natctic level. This st#le a!!ears %ore natural less contrived than h#!ota'is. J lthough #ou%a# e'!and %ore effort in tr#ing to write with a !aratactic st#le.K Para'is e%!hasi$es a hori$ontal

!attern one read fro% end to end.

So which st#le should #ou e%!lo#H s alwa#s it de!ends on #our intent. 8f #ou*d rather ran+ the%aterial for the reader ado!t h#!ota'is. )ut if #ou*d li+e readers to ran+ %aterial the%selves whichrelenGuishes so%e of #our authorit# tr# witing !aratacticall#. s #ou could guess #our st#le shouldreninforce #our %eaning #our intention.

The "erio(ic St%le an( the R)nnin& St%le

To begin it %ight be beneficial to !oint out that the !eriodic st#le is essentiall# h#!otactic and thatthe running st#le is essentiall# !aratactic. The ter%s !eriodic and running uliti%atel# though !ointto so%ething else the# !oint and relate to ti%e and subseGuentl# e'!erience. (ow do #ou want#ou audience to e'!erience #our writingH

The !eriodic st#le is a lot li+e the noun st#le. 8t reveals stasis. )ecause it is h#!otacticall# orderedstructured into !arts or co%!onents ti%e and e'!erience see% contrived and fro$en as if in a staged

!hoto. sa%!le of !eriodic writing %ust be co%!letl# read before its %eaning beco%es clearI thesa%!le*s %ain thought will be introduced at the outset and not resolved until the final word. s aresult a !eriodic st#le builds u!on itself with !arrallel !hrases and cli%a'es at the end when allthat is necessar# to conve# %eaning has been related.

The running st#le is %ore incre%ental and sha!eless. 8t doesn*t a!!ear as contrived as the !eriodic.2i+e thought it is %ar+ed b# internal Gualifications and !arenthetical interu!tions. 8t reveals action%ove%ent. Thin+ free verse !oetr# e%otional reflections. Writing with a running st#le as when#ou e%!lo# !arata'is !laces greater weight on #our readers to %a+e connections when inferring%eaning. Will the# follow #our train of thoughtH Do #ou want the% toH

E 5TERNAL L IN$S

English Writing St#le St#le /uide Rhetoricainc Our Own Online Rhetoric and St#le 0anual The Ele%ents of St#le Chec+5Sheet for Pa!ers /eneral Editing Ti!s ,; Co%%on ErrorsB n Editing Chec+list Revising vs. Editing


C( PTER ,.>< E D8T8&/live version discussion edit lesson co%%ent re!ort an error as+ a Guestion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_writing_stylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_guidehttp://www.rhetoricainc.com/http://cla.calpoly.edu/~smarx/courses/134/onlinerhetoricstyle.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/141/http://www.andrews.edu/WC/checker.htmlhttp://www.amherst.edu/~writing/tips.htmlhttp://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/CommonErrors.htmlhttp://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/style/rev-edit.htmhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editinghttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_and_Composition/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_writing_stylehttp://

rhetoric and composition1

Documents