revisiting the conceptualization and measurement of service quality
TRANSCRIPT
Revisiting The Conceptualization And
Measurement Of Service Quality
By:
Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
BIT (Information Systems)
Queensland University of Technology
Supervisors:
Prof. Guy Gable (Principal)
Dr. Taizan Chan (Associate)
A dissertation presented to the Faculty of Information
Technology, Queensland University of Technology, in
fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters degree.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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I dedicate this Thesis to my late mother, Madam
Chua Choon Hiang (1953 – 2008), for her constant
prayers and support during my candidature.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God because without Him all these things would not be
possible.
I would like to thank my Family (Dad, late mum and brother) for being a pillar of
encouragement, support and prayers.
I would like to thank Prof. Guy Gable (Principle Supervisor) and Dr. Taizan Chan
(Associate Supervisor) for their encouragement, patience, guidance, time and sharing
of their knowledge with me. I also thank them for believing and having confidence
in me. They have definitely played a significant part in my life in my education
journey.
I would like to thank Dr. Greg Timbrell for his assistance, motivation and belief in
me in our collaboration for our Australasian Conference on Information Systems
(ACIS) paper which was accepted and presented in Year 2007.
I would like to thank Assoc Prof. Judy Drennan from QUT Business Faculty for
her kind and generous contribution and support towards my research.
I would like to thank Pastors, cell and church members from International City
Church (Brisbane) for their constant prayers, encouragement and belief in me.
I would like to thank Pastor, connect group and church members from Church
Arise (Singapore) for their constant prayers, encouragement and belief in me.
I would like to thank members of the Information Technology Professional
Services (ITPS) research track in QUT, whom I reside in, for their support and
encouragement.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Statement Of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for any reasons.
To the best of my knowledge, the material in this thesis is original unless otherwise
stated by referencing.
Signature
Yap Zhi Wei David
Date
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Table Of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................... 4
1.1 Research Problem Statement ................................................................................... 4
1.2 Motivation For Research ......................................................................................... 6
1.3 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 7
1.5 Research Background .............................................................................................. 7
1.6 Significance Of Research ........................................................................................ 9
1.7 Structure Of Report ................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Objectives Of The Literature Review ............................................................. 10
2.1.2 Structure Of The Literature Review ............................................................... 11
2.2 Services .................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Definitions Of A Service ................................................................................ 12
2.2.2 Products Versus Services................................................................................ 14
2.3 Service Quality ...................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Definitions Of Service Quality ....................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Why Measure Service Quality? ...................................................................... 18
2.3.3 Problems With Measuring Service Quality .................................................... 19
2.3.4 Conceptualizations Of Service Quality .......................................................... 20
2.3.5 Measurements Of Service Quality .................................................................. 50
2.4 Relationships Between Perceived Service Quality And Satisfaction .................... 59
2.5 Relationships Between Service Quality And IS Success ...................................... 69
2.5.1 Definition Of IS Success ................................................................................ 69
2.5.2 Service Quality And IS Success ..................................................................... 69
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 74
Chapter 3: Research Design ..................................................... 76
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 78
Chapter 4: Archival Analysis Of Data And Discussion Of Mapping Results ........................................................................ 79
Chapter 5: Conclusions ............................................................ 96
5.1 Limitations Of Research ........................................................................................ 99
5.2 Future Research ..................................................................................................... 99
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Appendices ............................................................................. 101
Appendix A – List Of Journal Articles Considered For B&C (2001) Model Mapping
Exercise ..................................................................................................................... 102
Appendix B – Mapping Protocol ............................................................................... 113
Appendix C - Mapping Of Industries’ Service Quality Dimensions To The B&C
(2001) Model’s Sub-dimensions ............................................................................... 150
Appendix D - Mapping Of Industries’ Service Quality Dimensions To The B&C
(2001) Model’s Primary Dimensions ........................................................................ 167
References .............................................................................. 180
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Table of Figures
Figure 1 – The Brady and Cronin (2001) Model (Brady and Cronin 2001) ................................... 46
Figure 2 – Discovery grant model (Gable 2008) ................................................................................ 72
Figure 3 – IS-Impact model................................................................................................................. 73
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Abstract
Since the 1980s, industries and researchers have sought to better understand the
quality of services due to the rise in their importance (Brogowicz, Delene and Lyth
1990). More recent developments with online services, coupled with growing
recognition of service quality (SQ) as a key contributor to national economies and as
an increasingly important competitive differentiator, amplify the need to revisit our
understanding of SQ and its measurement.
Although ‘SQ’ can be broadly defined as “a global overarching judgment or attitude
relating to the overall excellence or superiority of a service” (Parasuraman, Berry
and Zeithaml 1988), the term has many interpretations. There has been considerable
progress on how to measure SQ perceptions, but little consensus has been achieved
on what should be measured. There is agreement that SQ is multi-dimensional, but
little agreement as to the nature or content of these dimensions (Brady and Cronin
2001). For example, within the banking sector, there exist multiple SQ models, each
consisting of varying dimensions. The existence of multiple conceptions and the lack
of a unifying theory bring the credibility of existing conceptions into question, and
beg the question of whether it is possible at some higher level to define SQ broadly
such that it spans all service types and industries.
This research aims to explore the viability of a universal conception of SQ, primarily
through a careful re-visitation of the services and SQ literature. The study analyses
the strengths and weaknesses of the highly regarded and widely used global SQ
model (SERVQUAL) which reflects a single-level approach to SQ measurement.
The SERVQUAL model states that customers evaluate SQ (of each service
encounter) based on five dimensions namely reliability, assurance, tangibles,
empathy and responsibility. SERVQUAL, however, failed to address what needs to
be reliable, assured, tangible, empathetic and responsible. This research also
addresses a more recent global SQ model from Brady and Cronin (2001); the B&C
(2001) model, that has potential to be the successor of SERVQUAL in that it
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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encompasses other global SQ models and addresses the ‘what’ questions that
SERVQUAL didn’t. The B&C (2001) model conceives SQ as being multi-
dimensional and multi-level; this hierarchical approach to SQ measurement better
reflecting human perceptions. In-line with the initial intention of SERVQUAL,
which was developed to be generalizable across industries and service types, this
research aims to develop a conceptual understanding of SQ, via literature and
reflection, that encompasses the content/nature of factors related to SQ; and
addresses the benefits and weaknesses of various SQ measurement approaches (i.e.
disconfirmation versus perceptions-only). Such understanding of SQ seeks to
transcend industries and service types with the intention of extending our knowledge
of SQ and assisting practitioners in understanding and evaluating SQ.
The candidate’s research has been conducted within, and seeks to contribute to, the
‘IS-Impact’ research track of the IT Professional Services (ITPS) Research Program
at QUT. The vision of the track is “to develop the most widely employed model for
benchmarking Information Systems in organizations for the joint benefit of research
and practice.” The ‘IS-Impact’ research track has developed an Information Systems
(IS) success measurement model, the IS-Impact Model (Gable, Sedera and Chan
2008), which seeks to fulfill the track’s vision.
Results of this study will help future researchers in the ‘IS-Impact’ research track
address questions such as:
• Is SQ an antecedent or consequence of the IS-Impact model or both?
• Has SQ already been addressed by existing measures of the IS-Impact model?
• Is SQ a separate, new dimension of the IS-Impact model?
• Is SQ an alternative conception of the IS?
Results from the candidate’s research suggest that SQ dimensions can be classified
at a higher level which is encompassed by the B&C (2001) model’s 3 primary
dimensions (interaction, physical environment and outcome). The candidate also
notes that it might be viable to re-word the ‘physical environment quality’ primary
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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dimension to ‘environment quality’ so as to better encompass both physical and
virtual scenarios (E.g: web sites). The candidate does not rule out the global
feasibility of the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions, however, acknowledges
that more work has to be done to better define the sub-dimensions. The candidate
observes that the ‘expertise’, ‘design’ and ‘valence’ sub-dimensions are supportive
representations of the ‘interaction’, physical environment’ and ‘outcome’ primary
dimensions respectively. The latter statement suggests that customers evaluate each
primary dimension (or each higher level of SQ classification) namely ‘interaction’,
physical environment’ and ‘outcome’ based on the ‘expertise’, ‘design’ and
‘valence’ sub-dimensions respectively. The ability to classify SQ dimensions at a
higher level coupled with support for the measures that make up this higher level,
leads the candidate to propose the B&C (2001) model as a unifying theory that acts
as a starting point to measuring SQ and the SQ of IS. The candidate also notes, in
parallel with the continuing validation and generalization of the IS-Impact model,
that there is value in alternatively conceptualizing the IS as a ‘service’ and ultimately
triangulating measures of IS SQ with the IS-Impact model. These further efforts are
beyond the scope of the candidate’s study.
Results from the candidate’s research also suggest that both the disconfirmation and
perceptions-only approaches have their merits and the choice of approach would
depend on the objective(s) of the study. Should the objective(s) be an overall
evaluation of SQ, the perceptions-only approached is more appropriate as this
approach is more straightforward and reduces administrative overheads in the
process. However, should the objective(s) be to identify SQ gaps (shortfalls), the
(measured) disconfirmation approach is more appropriate as this approach has the
ability to identify areas that need improvement.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Over the years, as importance has shifted from product quality to SQ, many
researchers have focused their research on SQ, yielding a range of SQ models and
measurement approaches. Despite much research done in the SQ field, there is a lack
of consensus regarding the conceptualization and measurement of SQ (Dabholkar,
Shepherd and Thorpe 2000). The aim of this study is to explore the potential from a
new high-level and global conception of SQ, that as far as possible, logically
subsumes existing models and conceptions. This study is being conducted within the
IS-Impact track at QUT; the track vision being “to develop the most widely
employed model for benchmarking Information Systems in organizations for the
joint benefit of research and practice.” The IS-Impact track has yielded the IS-
Impact measurement model, “a measure at a point in time of the stream of net
benefits from the IS, to date and anticipated, as perceived by all key user groups”
(Gable, Sedera and Chan 2008, 381). Results of this study will help future
researchers in the IS-Impact track address questions such as: Does the IS-Impact
model encompass SQ? Alternatively, is SQ an antecedent or consequence of IS-
Impact? Can Information Systems be usefully conceptualized as services? More
information about the foundational work done within the IS-Impact track can be
found in Chapter 2.5 (page 46)
1.1 Research Problem Statement
Although it is apparent that perceptions of SQ are based on multiple dimensions,
there is no agreement as to the nature or content of these dimensions (Brady and
Cronin 2001; Ko and Pastore 2004). This lack of agreement is evidenced by the
existence of multiple SQ models, even within in a single industry, each model
consisting of a unique combination of dimensions (Mersha and Adlakha 1992;
Ennew, Reed and Binks 1993; Avkiran 1994; Aldlaigan and Buttle 2002; Allred and
Addams 2000). Over the years, there has also been a transition in the conceptual
structure of SQ from being single-level (Gronroos 1984; Parasuraman et al. 1988;
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Rust and Oliver 1994; Lehtinen and Lehtinen 1991) to multi-level (hierarchical)
(Fassnacht and Koese 2006; Kang 2006; Brady and Cronin 2001; Dabholkar, Thorpe
and Rentz 1996; Carman 1990; Dagger, Sweeney and Johnson 2007; Ho and Lee
2006; Loiacono, Watson and Goodhue 2007; Bauer, Falk and Hammerschmidt 2006;
Ko 2000; Ko and Pastore 2004; Collier and Bienstock 2006). This transition from a
single-level to a multi-level (hierarchical) structure is in response to the observation
that customers tend to cognitively decompose SQ dimensions into various sub-
dimensions (Carman 1990) and a hierarchical structure accounts for the complexity
of human perceptions (Dabholkar et al. 1996).
There exist issues regarding the measurement of SQ. Two measurement approaches
dominate, namely the disconfirmation approach (which encompasses computed and
measured disconfirmation) and the perceptions-only approach. The disconfirmation
approach measures both expectations and perceptions and equates SQ evaluation to
the difference scores derived from the two measures. The perceptions-only approach
equates SQ evaluation to the measurement of service performance perceptions after
the service has been delivered. Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) argue that
the majority of empirical studies conducted to measure SQ (E.g: disconfirmation
approach, perceptions-only approach) have been cross-sectional meaning that
perceptions and expectations are captured after the service has been delivered and
this assumes that customers’ expectations do not change over time nor do they
change after the delivery of the service. Even within the disconfirmation approach,
there is a debate as to whether measured disconfirmation (a mental estimation of
perceptions compared to expectations) is superior to computed disconfirmation or
difference scores (a mathematical calculation of perceptions-minus-expectations).
In the services realm, the success of a service encounter is dependent on the service
outcome which is the customers’ purchase intentions or behavior intentions. The
service encounter is deemed successful if customers have purchase (behavior)
intentions to re-purchase the service(s) in question at the end of the service
encounter. In any service encounter, the formulation of the customers’ purchase
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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(behavior) intentions comprise of two components. These two components are SQ
and Satisfaction (SAT) which are evaluated by the customers during the service
encounter. There, however, exist two notions of causality between SQ and SAT that
influences (or is an antecedent of) purchase intentions or behavior intentions. One
notion states that SQ influences SAT while the other states that SAT influences SQ.
The direction of causality is important because both SQ and SAT are important
strategic objectives of ensuring the success of a service encounter (Dagger et al.
2007).
1.2 Motivation For Research
SERVQUAL, which was developed to measure SQ globally, continues to be popular
and widely-used, with many studies using SERVQUAL as the basis of SQ
measurement (Li, Tan and Xie 2002). Despite its widespread popularity, several
concerns with the SERVQUAL model were noted by marketing researchers in
relation to difficulties with reproducing SERVQUAL’s five dimensions (reliability,
assurance, tangibles, empathy and responsiveness) when the SERVQUAL survey
was administered in various industries (Collier and Bienstock 2006). These main
concerns include: (1) SERVQUAL’s five dimensions were not able to capture the
SQ dimensions from all industries and had to be modified to suit the service nuances
of specific industries; and (2) SERVQUAL answered the ‘HOW’ questions (i.e. How
should SQ be measured? E.g. It can be measured by its reliability), but not the
‘WHAT’ questions (E.g: What needs to be reliable?) in-relation to each of its five
dimensions (Li et al. 2002).
Ko and Pastore (2004) suggested that for the best conceptualization of SQ,
researchers should focus on: (a) how the SQ construct is conceptualized; (b) which
factors determine the consumer’s perception of SQ; and (c) how to measure the
constructs. They also mention that “the differences in the conceptualization of SQ
suggest that a comprehensive conceptual model needs to be developed for better
understanding of this construct (SQ)” (Ko and Pastore 2004). The absence of a
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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comprehensive conceptual model (E.g: existing SQ conceptualizations and
measurement approaches are problematic) coupled with the intentions of
SERVQUAL to measure SQ globally, give rise to this timely review and
harmonization of these concepts and measurement approaches to form a better
understanding of SQ. Such an understanding seeks also to assist in facilitating the
benchmarking of SQ across various industries and service types.
1.3 Research Questions
The candidate, having reviewed prior studies on SQ and its measurement, raises the
following research questions:
1) From the literature, does there exists a global SQ measurement model that
encompasses the content/nature of SQ dimensions represented across various
industries and service types?
2) From the literature, in-relation to the two approaches of measuring SQ (I.e.
disconfirmation, perceptions-only), would one approach be better than the other?
1.4 Research Objectives
This research project seeks to develop a conception of SQ, via literature, that (1)
encompasses the content/nature of factors related to SQ; and (2) addresses the
benefits and weaknesses of various measurement approaches (disconfirmation versus
perceptions-only). This understanding of SQ seeks to transcend various industries
and service types.
1.5 Research Background
Since the 1980s, increasingly industries and researchers have turned their attention to
the quality of services (Brogowicz et al. 1990; Kunst and Lemmink 1996) as services
have grown in importance (Rust and Oliver 1994) and the provision of services
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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(rather than goods) is fundamental to economic exchange (Vargo and Lusch 2004).
Vargo and Lusch (2004) mentions that marketing has shifted much of its dominant
logic away from the exchange of tangible goods (manufactured things) and toward
the exchange of intangibles, specialized skills and knowledge, and processes (doing
things for and with). They believe that the latter move points marketing towards a
more comprehensive and inclusive dominant logic – one that integrates goods with
services.
Services are the largest and fastest growing sector in developed countries. In Europe,
the service sector accounts for between 60 and 80 percent of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) (Sundbo and Gallouj 1999). During the 2004-05 financial years, the
services-producing industries' overall contribution to the total production of goods
and services in the Australian economy (gross domestic product - GDP) was 56%.
Average annual total employment in the Australian service industries in 2005-06
was 7,530,600 people, which represented 75% of all employment (Trewin 2007).
To maintain customer-bases and compete effectively in the international service
markets, organizations must be able to measure and maintain the quality of their
services at a level that meets or exceeds the expectations of their customers. There
exist various SQ models depicting various nature/content of SQ dimensions. Many
studies on SQ have made progress in ‘how’ service quality should be measured but
little advancement in ‘what’ should be measured.
Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) mentioned that a major debate has focused
on whether SQ should be measured as perceptions-only or as disconfirmation. Both
measurement approaches (perceptions-only and disconfirmation) have their fair
share of support from researchers as well as advantages and disadvantages. Support
for the disconfirmation approach comes from SQ being traditionally conceptualized
as a disconfirmation process, which was founded on the disconfirmation paradigm
(employed in the physical goods literature), which posits that quality results from a
comparison of perceived with expected performance. Support for the perceptions-
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only approach comes from the lack of support for the disconfirmation approach
(Carman 1990) and evidence that current performance adequately captures
consumers’ SQ perceptions (Cronin and Taylor 1992).
1.6 Significance Of Research
This study aims to make two main contributions. First, the conceptual understanding
of SQ would better assist researchers in understanding: (1) the content/nature of SQ
dimensions that customers use when evaluating SQ across various industries; and (2)
the strengths and weaknesses of each measurement approach (I.e. disconfirmation
versus perceptions-only). Second, this understanding can then be applied globally (as
a potential set of best practices) to better assist management in maintaining and
improving their organization’s SQ. The rationale being that a better informed
management would then be able to take proactive steps into improving and bringing
about better SQ to consumers.
1.7 Structure Of Report
The following Chapters document the following:
Chapter 1 - goal of the report, structure of the report, the motivation for the research
and documents the research problem, questions and objectives.
Chapter 2 - literature review.
Chapter 3 - chosen research method.
Chapter 4 - archival analysis of data and discussion of mapping results.
Chapter 5 - conclusions of the report, research limitations and future research.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This Chapter documents a review of literature from the fields of services, SQ and IS.
2.1.1 Objectives Of The Literature Review
The objectives of the Literature Review are as follows:
• To review various definitions of a ‘service’ prior to understanding SQ as this
forms the basis of the candidate’s research. The candidate also adopts a
definition of a ‘service’ that would be used throughout the project.
• To review the differences between a ‘product’ and a ‘service’ so as to clearly
differentiate one from another and to prevent any ambiguity.
• To review various definitions of SQ with the candidate adopting a ‘SQ’
definition that would be used throughout the project.
• To review various conceptualizations and measurement approaches of SQ.
• To identify the relationships between SQ and IS Success.
• To identify the relationships between SQ and SAT and the direction of
causality. Such an understanding would assist in understanding how SQ and
SAT contributes to the formulation of customers’ re-purchase intentions.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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2.1.2 Structure Of The Literature Review
Chapter 2.1 states the objectives, limitations and structure for the Literature
Review.
Chapter 2.2 documents the various definitions of a ‘service’ before adopting a
definition of a ‘service’ that would be used throughout this project. The differences
between a ‘product’ and a ‘service’ are also documented to help differentiate one
from another and prevent any confusion.
Chapter 2.3 builds upon the previous Chapter by documenting the various
definitions of SQ before adopting a definition of ‘SQ’ that would be used throughout
this project. This Chapter documents the reasons why measuring SQ is important as
well as the problems associated with it.
Chapter 2.4 documents the various definitions of ‘SAT’ before adopting a definition
of ‘SAT’ that would be used throughout this project. This Chapter focuses and
documents the direction of influence between ‘SQ’ and ‘SAT’ and how each affects
the other. Such an understanding is important in order to obtain an accurate view on
how customers evaluate a successful service encounter.
Chapter 2.5 documents the definition of IS Success followed by documenting how
SQ has a potential influence on IS Success. This Chapter also puts the B&C (2001)
model alongside the IS-Impact model with the aims of cross-fertilizing ideas and
further validating the IS-Impact model (if necessary) by conceptualizing IS as a
‘service’ The latter would be carried out via an Australian Research Council (ARC)
discovery grant proposal.
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2.2 Services
The candidate understands that in order to evaluate SQ, it is vital to take a step back
to first understand ‘services’.
2.2.1 Definitions Of A Service
Across service literature, there have been various definitions of the term ‘service’
and some of them have been documented in Table 1.
Authors Definitions
(Edvardsson and Olsson
1996)
A detailed description of what is to be done for
the customer and how this is to be achieved
(Johns 1999) A service is a process that has a style or manner
of its own that incorporates the delivery.
(Clark, Johnston and
Shulver 2000)
A mental picture (E.g: service in the mind) held
by not only customers but employees and
designers as well.
(Rathmell 1966) “A verb; an act; a deed; a performance; an
effort” (Rathmell 1996, 33)
(Gronroos 1988) Services as processes.
(Gallouj 2002) A process or a sequence of operations.
(Berry 1980) Acts, deeds, performance or efforts.
Table 1: Definitions of a service
Fisk, Gountas, Hume, Gountas, Grove and John (2007), in their book, mention and
adopt Rathmell’s (1996) definition of a ‘service’ which is “a deed, a performance,
and an effort” (Rathmell 1996, pg 33) that reflects a process (activity). Table 2 maps
the ‘service’ definition given by Rathmell (1996) to the characteristics of a ‘service’
(intangibility, simultaneity, heterogeneity and perishability). Results from Table 2
suggest that Rathmell’s (1996) definition of a service appears to have encompasses
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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the characteristics of a ‘service’. In-agreement with the results from Table 2, the
candidate has adopted Rathmell’s (1966) definition of a ‘service’ for this study.
Characteristics Of A Service Rathmell’s (1966)
Definition
Intangibility of a service means it cannot be
seen, touched, held or put on a shelf. Such
intangible aspects of a service are those that
cannot be physically perceived and whose
performance is difficult to measure. The
intangible nature of services makes the service
evaluation and establishing of expectations
more difficult as compared to the tangible
nature of products (Fisk, Gountas, Hume,
Gountas, Grove and John 2007). Because of the
intangibility of services, customers often
evaluate services based on the limited tangible
elements.
A deed
Simultaneity of a service suggests that in order
for the service to happen, interaction between
the customer and service provider must occur.
And in most services, the production and
consumption of the service performance occur
simultaneously. This simultaneity makes the
separation of the service from its provider
difficult (Fisk et al. 2007). In comparison to
products, the consumption of the product
normally occurs after its production and this
implies that the product is easier to separate
from its provider.
An effort
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Heterogeneity refers to the difference and
diversity of customers’ needs. Due to this
diversity, it makes the offering of a standard
service that satisfies all customers very
difficult. Unlike physical products, services
depend on human performance which is
subjected to variations across workers and
customers and from one service encounter to
another (Fisk et al. 2007).
A performance
Perishability of a service refers to its temporal
existence in the sense that it cannot be
produced and stored before consumption but
only exists at the time of production (Fisk et al.
2007). This is in contrast to a product whereby
it can be produced, stored and consumed at a
later date.
A performance
Table 2: Comparison of the characteristics of a ‘service’ to Rathmell’s (1996)
‘service’ definition
2.2.2 Products Versus Services
A product can be defined as “anything that can be offered to a market for attention,
acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need”. This includes
physical objects, services, persons, places, organizations and ideas (Kotler, Adam,
Brown and Armstrong 2003). Kotler, Adam, Brown and Armstrong (2003), in their
study, defined product broadly to include both tangible goods as well as services in-
response to the notion that there exist few “pure’ versions of either physical products
or services.
While Kotler, Adam, Brown and Armstrong (2003) state that services are
encompassed by products, Fisk, Gountas, Hume, Gountas, Grove and John (2007)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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argue that services can be distinguished from products by several characteristics
namely intangibility, simultaneity, heterogeneity, and perishability. Intangibility of a
service means it cannot be seen, touched, held or put on a shelf. Such intangible
aspects of a service are those that cannot be physically perceived and whose
performance is difficult to measure. The intangible nature of services makes the
service evaluation and establishing of expectations more difficult as compared to the
tangible nature of products (Fisk et al. 2007). Because of the intangibility of
services, customers often evaluate services based on the limited tangible elements.
Simultaneity of a service suggests that in order for the service to happen, interaction
between the customer and service provider must occur. And in most services, the
production and consumption of the service performance occur simultaneously. This
simultaneity makes the separation of the service from its provider difficult (Fisk et
al. 2007). In comparison to products, the consumption of the product normally
occurs after its production and this implies that the product is easier to separate from
its provider. Heterogeneity refers to the difference and diversity of customers’ needs.
Due to this diversity, it makes the offering of a standard service that satisfies all
customers very difficult. Unlike physical products, services depend on human
performance which is subjected to variations across workers and customers and from
one service encounter to another (Fisk et al. 2007). Perishability of a service refers
to its temporal existence in the sense that it cannot be produced and stored before
consumption but only exists at the time of production (Fisk et al. 2007). This is in
contrast to a product whereby it can be produced, stored and consumed at a later
date.
A comparison between goods and services (in-relation to economic offerings) has
been attempted by Kotler, Adam, Brown and Armstrong (2003) and documented in
Table 3.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Economic
Offering
Goods Services
Economy Industrial Service
Economic Function Make Deliver
Nature Of Offering Tangible Intangible
Key Attribute Standardized Customized
Method Of Supply Inventoried After
Production
Delivered On Demand
Seller Manufacturer Provider
Buyer Customer Client
Factors On Demand Features Benefits
Table 3: Economic distinctions between goods and services (Kotler et al. 2003)
Shostack (1977) distinguishes between goods and services along a continuum from
intangible dominant services to tangible dominant physical goods. Her work
suggests that services can have tangible aspects and goods can have intangible
aspects. Stemming from her work is a proposed model (theory) that posits that the
proportion of tangibles to intangibles in a product determines whether it should be
classified as a good or service. Lovelock and Yip (1996) commented that every
tangible product necessarily contains some service because without it the exchange
would be impossible. The candidate is in-agreement with Shostack’s (1977) theory
over Kotler, Adam, Brown and Armstrong’s (2003) use of a collective classification
term of ‘products’ to reflect both goods and services. Shostack’s (1977) theory
seems to better explain and distinguish between goods and services along the
tangibility aspects. Concluding this discussion of products versus services, it seems
that services can be differentiated from products by the proportion of intangible to
tangible aspects (E.g: a service has a higher proportion of intangible to tangible
aspects) and the presence of service-related characteristics (E.g: intangibility,
simultaneity, heterogeneity and perishability)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
17
2.3 Service Quality
2.3.1 Definitions Of Service Quality
Across SQ literature, there have been various definitions of the term ‘SQ’ and some
of them have been documented in Table 4.
Authors Definitions
(Jiang, Klein, Tesch and
Chen 2003)
“The comparison between what the customers feel
should be offered (expectations) and what is
actually delivered (perceptions)” (Jiang, Klein,
Tesch and Chen 2003, 72).
(Parasuraman et al.
1988)
The global overarching judgment or attitude
relating to the overall excellence or superiority of
the service.
(Conceptual aspect)
(Parasuraman et al.
1988)
“A form of attitude, related but not equivalent to
satisfaction, that results from the comparison of
expectations with performance” (Parasuraman et
al. 1988, 15).
(Discriminatory aspect)
(Parasuraman et al.
1988)
The degree of discrepancy between customers’
normative expectations for the service and their
perceptions of the service performance.
(Measurement aspect)
(Lewis and Booms
1983)
How well the service level delivered matches the
expectations of the customer.
(Zeithaml 1987) Consumer’s judgment about an entity’s overall
excellence or superiority.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
18
(Gronroos 1984) A perceived judgment resulting from an
evaluation process where customers compare their
expectations with the service they perceive to
have received.
(Ghobadian, Speller and
Jones 1994)
“A measure of the extent to which the service
delivered meets the customer’s expectations”
(Ghobadian, Speller and Jones 1994, 49).
Table 4: Definitions of service quality
A review of the various definitions of SQ can be summarized as the “degree and
direction of discrepancy between consumers’ perceptions and expectations”
(Parasuraman et al. 1988) and this approach has been adopted in this study.
The candidate has also adopted Bitner and Hubbert’s (1994) view on perceived SQ
being similar to an attitude because it represents a general, overall appraisal of a
product or service. The classic definition of an attitude is “a learned predisposition to
respond to an object in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way” (Allport 1935).
2.3.2 Why Measure Service Quality?
Over the years, organizations have become aware that it is not feasible to rely on
products (or product quality per se) for the upper edge in profitability because such
is common in the contemporary context. There have been several studies that
confirm an empirical link between superior SQ and key performance indicators (or
SQ dimensions) that positively impact upon financial returns (Imrie, Cadogan and
McNaughton 2002). Key outcomes of good SQ include: (a) a higher than normal
share of the market; (b) improved profitability relative to the competition; (c)
consumer loyalty; (d) the realization of a competitive price premium; and (e) an
increased probability of purchase (Ko and Pastore 2004). The former and latter
statements have encouraged organizations to shift their attention from product
quality to SQ which serves as a key competitor differentiator (Dabholkar et al. 1996;
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
19
Parasuraman et al. 1988; Brady, Voorhees, J. Joseph Cronin and Bourdeau 2006;
Fassnacht and Koese 2006; Mohanty, Seth and Mukadam 2007; Ko and Pastore
2004). This shift has made organizations realize that in order to retain customers,
survive , grow and thrive financially, they must be able to provide high quality
services (Dabholkar et al. 2000). The resulting effect from the latter statement is the
organization’s shift of focus from profit maximization to maximizing profits through
increased customer satisfaction (Seth, Deshmukh and Vrat 2005). Satisfaction with
SQ has an impact on behavioral intentions which drives repurchase intentions
(Dabholkar et al. 2000; Brady, Knight, J. Joseph Cronin, Tomas, Hult and Keillor
2005).
2.3.3 Problems With Measuring Service Quality
Studies have noted that a leading measure of performance in the service sector is
quality, however, SQ is neither easy to define nor operationalize (Rosen and Karwan
1994). SQ evaluations are complex and this is evident in the many failed attempts to
replicate the dimensional structure of SQ perceptions (E.g: SERVQUAL) (Dagger et
al. 2007).
Across different industries, there are many interpretations of the term ‘SQ’ from the
collection of SQ literature (both past and present). There has been considerable
progress to how SQ perceptions should be measured but little advance as to what
should be measured. Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) made a vital
contribution to the former by stating (from their research) that both approaches (I.e.
disconfirmation and perceptions-only) of measuring SQ perceptions have their
merits and the more appropriate approach would depend on the objective(s) of the
study. Although it is apparent that the perceptions of SQ are based on multiple
dimensions, there is no agreement as to the nature or content of these dimensions
(Brady and Cronin 2001). Even within a particular industry (E.g: banking), there
have been various models consisting of varying number and nature of SQ
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
20
dimensions. The latter is an example of the little advancement to what should be
measured.
Rosen and Karwan (1994)’s conducted a study on the claims that SQ dimensions
have similar relative importance across various service types. Results from their
study claim the relative importance of SQ dimensions varies according to the service
setting. This is in-contrast to Parasuraman et al.’s (1988) and Zeithaml et al.’s (1990)
results that indicate that the ‘reliability’ dimension consistently proved to be most
crucial (important) in all services investigated and ‘empathy’ dimension being the
least important. Rosen and Karwan (1994) also add that a major debate still
continues to be waged in marketing literature regarding the relationships and
distinctions among SQ, satisfaction and service value (Rosen and Karwan 1994).
SQ is difficult to measure due to the unique characteristics of a service which
comprises of intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability and perishability (Bateson
1995). The measurement approach of SQ seems to be dependent on how SQ is
perceived. To-date, no concrete consensus has been found. If SQ is perceived based
on the satisfaction theory (E.g: SERVQUAL), the disconfirmation (comparison of
perceptions to expectations) approach is supported. If SQ is perceived as an attitude,
the attitudinal theory is adopted which supports the perceptions-only approach. Over
a span of several years, there has been a major debate focusing on whether SQ
should be measured as perceptions (Cronin and Taylor 1992; Cronin and Taylor
1994) or as disconfirmation (Parasuraman et al. 1988; Parasuraman, Zeithaml and
Berry 1994). Both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses.
2.3.4 Conceptualizations Of Service Quality
Since the rise in importance of SQ, several global SQ models (conceptualizations)
have been developed and they are documented in Table 5. The candidate
acknowledges that there are many other existing SQ models not documented in
Table 5. Reason being they pertain to specific industries (E.g: Dabholkar, Thorpe
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
21
and Rentz’s (1996) model which only pertains to the retail industry) and the purpose
of this study is to concentrate on models developed to measure SQ across all
industries.
An analysis of the models reveals that several models (E.g: Gronroos (1984),
Parasuraman et al. (1988), Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1991), Rust and Oliver (1994))
seem to reflect a categorical classification of dimensions used in the evaluation of
SQ. For example, the Gronroos (1984) model suggests that SQ evaluation is
categorized under two dimensions namely technical and functional quality. These
models, however, do not seem to state what factors fall under each dimension (E.g:
In the Gronroos (1984) model, what factors does the ‘technical quality’ dimension
encompass). Dabholkar, Thorpe and Rentz (1996) mention that literature on SQ
focus on the categorical level and there is a lack of discussion of SQ at the factor
level (E.g: What factors come under each classification dimension?). Such
categorical models, as termed by the candidate, do little to suggest the separate and
critical factors of SQ that would be useful to organizations and practitioners
(Dabholkar et al. 1996).
The candidate inventoried the dimensions of various SQ models and analyzed their
dimensional descriptions. The candidate notes that these dimensional descriptions
seem to fall into three generic high level dimensions namely physical environment,
process and product. Physical environment can be generally referred to as general
surroundings of a particular context that entails visual and/or non-visual experiences;
Process can be generally referred to how customers receive the service and the
experiences they experienced as they receive the service; Product can be generally
referred to as what the customer gets at the end of the service. Table 6 documents
this classification. From the table, there appears to be a consensus that SQ evaluation
is made up of the process and product dimensions. Later models (Rust and Oliver
1994; Brady and Cronin 2001) seem to suggest some consensus that physical
environment is also part of SQ evaluation. The reason might be because there has
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
22
been recent evidence that the service environment affects SQ perceptions (Bitner
1990; Rust and Oliver 1994; Bitner 1992).
Two Popular And Distinct Schools Of Thought Regarding Service Quality
Conceptualization
The conceptualizations of SQ are based on two distinct schools led by Parasuraman,
Berry and Zeithaml (1995; 1998) and Gronroos (1982; 1990) or alternatively called
“the 1orth American School” and “the 1ordic School” respectively (Brogowicz et al.
1990). The 1ordic School noted that SQ, as perceived by customers, consists of two
dimensions namely (1) functional quality and (2) technical quality. Functional
quality refers to the service delivery process and technical quality refers to the SQ
outcomes (Gronroos 1982; Gronroos 1990). The 1orth American School identified
five dimensions that represent service encounter characteristics that customers use to
evaluate SQ. These dimensions are: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance
and empathy (Parasuraman et al. 1988). The identified dimensions gave birth to a
SQ measurement tool called SERVQUAL. SERVQUAL is widely-used and has
been the basis of many SQ models (E.g: Johns and Tyas 1996; Owlia and Aspinwall
1996; Kettinger and Lee 1997; Mels, Boshoff and Nel 1997; Owlia and Aspinwall
1998; Watson et al. 1998; Wang, Xie and Goh 1999; Wong, Dean and White 1999;
Dabholkar et al. 2000; Frochot and Hughes 2000; Lee, Delene and Bunda 2000; Lim
and Tang 2000; Andaleeb 2001; Sullivan and Walstrom 2001; Tan and Theresia
2001; Li et al. 2002; Lai 2006; Saravanan and Rao 2007) and thus makes
SERVQUAL appropriate as a basis for investigation in this study.
SERVQUAL
The purpose of the SERVQUAL tool is to provide a basic “skeleton” (group of core
evaluation criteria) underlying SQ that would transcend multiple measurement
contexts and provide managers with deeper insights concerning the areas
(dimensions) for improvement.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
23
The initial SERVQUAL was developed based on a set of focus group interviews of
consumers and in-depth interviews of executives in four nationally recognized
service firms. Their responses fell into ten key dimensions (Parasuraman, Berry and
Zeithaml 1985) which were later revised to five that are encompassed by 22
statements (Parasuraman et al. 1988). Parasuraman et al. (1988) mention that
customers use these five dimensions to evaluate SQ. The definitions of the ten
dimensions (Parasuraman et al. 1985) are as follows: Tangibles - appearance of
physical facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials; Reliability -
ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately; Responsiveness -
willingness to help customers and provide 7prompt service; Competence –
possession of the required skills and knowledge to perform the service; Courtesy –
politeness, respect, consideration and friendliness of contact personnel; Credibility –
trustworthiness, believability and honesty of the service provider; Security – freedom
from danger, risk or doubt; Communication – keeping customers informed in the
language that they can understand and listening to them; Access – approachability
and ease of contact; Understanding the customer – making the effort to know
customers and their needs. Over time, only the ‘tangibles’, ‘reliability’ and
‘responsiveness’ dimensions from the original SERVQUAL(1985) remained. The
‘competence’, courtesy’, ‘credibility’, security’ and ‘communication’ dimensions
formed the ‘assurance’ dimension which is defined as knowledge and courtesy of
employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence. The ‘access’ and
‘understanding the customer’ dimensions formed the ‘empathy’ dimension which is
defined as caring, individualized attention the firm provides its customers
(Parasuraman et al. 1988).
There have been several studies in-support of SERVQUAL (1998) and they include:
the presence of the conceptual matching of SERVQUAL’s (1988) dimensions with
IS settings (Jiang, Klein and Carr 2002); empirical support for SERVQUAL (1988)
in-terms of reliability (Pitt, Watson and Kavan 1997) and dimensionality (Kettinger
and Lee 1997); and studies could not discern any unique features of IS that make
dimensions underlying SERVQUAL (1988) inappropriate for measuring IS SQ or
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
24
excluding some meaning of SQ in the IS domain (Pitt, Watson and Kavan 1995) thus
this supports the use of SERVQUAL to measure SQ in an IS context, just to name a
few.
Benefits Of SERVQUAL
SERVQUAL provides superior managerial diagnostic capability via the gap measure
(Jiang et al. 2002) by indicating SQ strengths and shortfalls (Pitt et al. 1997;
Kettinger and Lee 1997). Inferring from the latter statement, one of the key benefits
of SERVQUAL is its ability to identify gaps (discrepancies between consumers’
perceptions and expectations) that would provide vital process-improvement
information (Saravanan and Rao 2007). Such information would greatly assist in
improving SQ. Another benefit of SERVQUAL is its ability to evaluate the relative
importance of SQ dimensions in influencing customers’ overall perceptions of a
service.
Problems With SERVQUAL
There have been several problems associated with SERVQUAL.
Conceptual problems. Problems include subtraction as a “simulation” of a
psychological process, ambiguity of the “expectations” construct and applicability
issues of SERVQUAL across industries.
Empirical difficulties. Difficulties include reliability problems with different scores,
predictive and convergent validity issues with difference scores and unstable
dimensionality (Dyke, Kappelman and Prybutok 1997).
Paradigmatic objections. Buttle (1996) states that SERVQUAL has been
inappropriately based on an expectations-disconfirmation model, which is widely
adopted in the customer satisfaction literature, rather than on an attitudinal model of
SQ. Cronin and Taylor (1992; 1994) agree with Buttle (1996) by stating that
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
25
perceived quality is best conceptualized as an attitude and suggest the adequacy-
importance model of attitude measurement be adopted instead. This model states that
an individual’s attitude (towards SQ in this case) is defined by his/her importance-
weighted evaluation of the performance of specific dimensions of a product or
service (Cohen, Fishbein and Ahtola 1972). Experimental evidence indicates that the
performance dimension alone predicts behavioral intensions and behavior thus
suggesting that perceptions-only (and not the comparison of perceptions to
expectations) is a good measure of SQ (Cronin and Taylor 1992).
Process orientation. SERVQUAL’s dimensions have been criticized for focusing
more on the service delivery process rather than the outcomes of the service (Cronin
and Taylor 1992; Buttle 1996; Kang 2006). Results from a mapping exercise (Table
9) appear to be in support of the latter statement.
Dimensionality. SERVQUAL’s (1988) intention is to be able to transcend various
industries to measure SQ, however, studies have indicated that SERVQUAL (1988)
can’t be used just as it is and had to be customized to fit into a particular context
(Dyke et al. 1997; Carman 1990; Bouman and Wiele 1992; Li et al. 2002; Dagger et
al. 2007; Cook, Heath and Thompson 2001; Saravanan and Rao 2007). Li et al.
(2002) further illustrates the latter point by applying SERVQUAL to various
contexts with the aim of identifying the total number of SQ dimensions (Table 7) for
each context. Results from Table 7 indicate disarray in the total number of SQ
dimensions and seem to suggest the non-global applicability of SERVQUAL’s five
dimensions.
Reliability of dimensions. The reliability of SERVQUAL’s (1998) dimensions was
questioned when tested. The results showed the ‘tangibles’ dimension being broken
down into two parts namely (1) appearance and (2) hardware and software (Pitt et al.
1995). There have been situations whereby users perceive the ‘responsiveness’,
‘assurance’ and ‘empathy’ dimensions very similarly because they are closely
aligned and semantically similar in concepts (Pitt et al. 1995). Spreng and Singh
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
26
(1993) are in-agreement with the latter statement by commenting that SERVQUAL
lack in discrimination between several of the dimensions.
Culture issues. Imrie, Cadogan and McNaughton(2002) mention that SERQUAL
was developed in the North American context and did not take into consideration the
culture values of other “foreign” contexts (in their study, they used Taiwan as an
example of a foreign context) which in combination make up the variety of cultures
found in International markets. They state that culture values endow consumers with
rules that guide their evaluation of SQ, and therefore is the focus of their study.
Results from their study, revealed that SERVQUAL (1988) did not fully encompass
the dimensions that Taiwanese consumers use to evaluate SQ. They found that
Taiwanese consumers consider relational factors as a dimension of SQ evaluation
which consists of three main themes namely sincerity, generosity and
courtesy/politeness. Results from applying SERVQUAL in the Taiwan context
revealed only four (reliability, assurance, tangibles, responsiveness) out of five
SERVQUAL (1988) dimensions were evident while the ‘empathy’ dimension failed
to truly capture the relational factors. From their study, they concluded that culture
values not only influence the nature (content) and hierarchy of SQ dimensions but
also put the global applicability of SERVQUAL into question.
Gaps model. Babakus and Boller (1992) found that the “gap” approach (or
difference scores), which has been adopted by SERVQUAL, does not provide any
additional information beyond that already contained in the perceptions component
of the SERVQUAL scale. They found that the dominant contributor of difference
scores was the perceptions score due to a generalized response tendency of rating
expectations high. It was noted that although difference scores might be sensible,
they are problematic in that they are notoriously unreliable (Iacobucci, Grayson and
Omstrom 1994).
Components model. SERVQUAL has been classified as a components model by
Dabholkar et al. (2000) whereby SQ is not viewed as a separate construct but rather
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
27
the sum of the components and they have a direct effect on behavior intentions. In
their study, they argue that consumers evaluate different factors related to SQ and
also form a separate overall evaluation of SQ (which is not a straightforward sum of
the components). They state that these factors serve as antecedents to the overall
evaluation which in-turn influences behavior intentions. This conceptualization gave
birth to the antecedents model of SQ. They claim that this model reflects a better
understanding of how consumers evaluate SQ (Dabholkar et al. 2000).
Validating The Global Applicability Of SERVQUAL’s (1988) Five Dimensions
Gronroos (1988) mentions six criteria that customers consider when evaluating good
perceived SQ. These criteria include: professionalism and skills; attitudes and
behavior; accessibility and flexibility; reliability and trustworthiness; recovery; and
reputation and credibility. The candidate conducted a logical definition-to-definition
mapping of these six criteria onto SERVQUAL’s (1988) five dimensions with the
aim of identifying commonality (Table 8). The candidate took the definition of each
of Gronroos’s (1988) six criteria and tried to identify which dimensional
definition(s) of SERVQUAL has/have the closest fit in-terms of definition. Should a
fit be found, that SERVQUAL dimension(s) would be assigned to the particular
criteria. Results appear to suggest that SERVQUAL’s (1988) five dimensions seem
to encompass the six criteria that customers use to evaluate good SQ.
The candidate also consolidated a collection of SQ dimensions and descriptions
identified from seven different industries. The candidate conducted a logical
definition-to-definition mapping of the collection of SQ dimensions from seven
different industries (seven SQ models) onto SERVQUAL’s ten dimensions
(Parasuraman et al. 1985) and followed by onto SERVQUAL’s five dimensions
(Parasuraman et al. 1988). The mapping process was as follows: (1) For each of the
dimensions within a particular industry model, its dimensional description was
compared with the description of each of SERVQUAL’s ten and five dimensions to
find commonality in meanings; (2) Should commonality be found, the appropriate
SERVQUAL dimension(s) would be mapped onto that particular industry model’s
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
28
dimension. Steps (1) and (2) were repeated for all the dimensions of all seven
industry models. Table 9 illustrates the mapping of SQ dimensions. The intentions
were to identify commonalities and exceptions between the various SQ models and
SERVQUAL. From Table 9, it is observed that the ‘assurance’ and ‘empathy’
dimensions seem to be common to all seven industries. The ‘reliability’ dimension
occurs in five out of the seven industries and did not occur in the call center and
education industries. The ‘tangibles’ dimension occurs in three of the seven
industries and did not occur in the call center, academic libraries, E-service and
banks and credit unions industries. The ‘responsiveness’ dimension occurs in six out
of the seven industries and did not occur in the call center industry. Attributes that
are unmapped (unclassified) include flexibility, efficiency, quality of information
(Tan, Xie and Li 2003), effect of service, library as ba, collection and access
(Nagata, Satoh, Gerrard and Kytomaki 2004), efficiency, incentive (Santos 2003)
and cost / time (Joseph and Joseph 1997). Several of the unmapped attributes like
‘quality of information’ (Tan et al. 2003), ‘effect of service’, ‘library as ba’ (Nagata
et al. 2004) and ‘cost / time’ (Joseph and Joseph 1997) seem to be able to be
classified as dimensions of technical quality because they seem to represent
outcomes of a service. The candidate acknowledges this mapping exercise was part
of his paper submitted to the 18th Australasian Conference on Information Systems
which was accepted.
From the two mapping exercises, some doubts have been cast over the global
applicability of SERVQUAL’s (1988) five dimensions. The first mapping exercise
seems to support the global applicability of the five dimensions (Table 8). However,
the second mapping exercise (Table 9) seems contrary to that. Results from Table 9
appear to be in-agreement with Kang (2006) who mentioned that the dimensions of
SERVQUAL seem to focus on the functional quality aspect but neglects the
technical quality aspect.
Imrie, Cadogan and McNaughton(2002) further criticizes SERVQUAL by arguing
that SERVQUAL did not fully take into account the diverse variety of cultures
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
29
(other than its own – North America) and questioned the global applicability of
SERVQUAL. Results from their study indicate that SERVQUAL fell short of
measuring SQ in the Taiwan context.
The candidate acknowledges that the five dimensions have gained much credibility
and validity in the SQ realm with many researchers in-agreement (either fully or
partially) with them and/or using them as a basis for comparison. From a managerial
point-of-view, the SERVQUAL dimensions provide a valuable starting point for
understanding what constitutes (characterizes) a given service (Gronroos 2000).
Despite SERVQUAL’s credibility, validity, popularity and benchmarking
capabilities, the candidate is in-agreement with Brady and Cronin (2001) that
SERVQUAL’s (1988) five dimensions do not address the crucial questions of what
needs to be reliable, assured, tangible, empathetic, responsive. The candidate
believes that this is a fundamental gap that needs to be addressed.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
30
Service Quality M
odels
Dim
ensions
Explanation O
f Dim
ensions
Bord
ic M
odel
(Gronroos 1984)
Technical Quality
What the consumer receives as a result of his/her
interactions with the service firm (E.g: What the
customer gets).
Functional Quality
Expressive performance of a service (E.g: How the
customer gets the service).
SERVQUAL
(Parasuraman et al.
1988)
Tangibles
Physical facilities, equipment, and appearance of
personnel.
Reliability
Ability to perform the promised service dependably
and accurately.
Responsiveness
Willingness to help customers and provide prompt
service.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
31
Leh
tinen
& L
ehtinen
Model
(Lehtinen and Lehtinen
1991)
Service Quality M
odels
Dim
ensions
Explanation O
f Dim
ensions
Assurance
Knowledge and courtesy of employees and their
ability to inspire trust and confidence.
Empathy
Caring, individualized attention the firm provides its
customers.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
32
Service Quality M
odels
Dim
ensions
Explanation O
f Dim
ensions
Output Quality
Consumer’s evaluation concerning the result of a
service production process. The result, the output,
can be divided into two categories: tangible (or
physical) and intangible.
Three-Componen
t M
odel
(Rust and Oliver 1994)
Service Product
The service as it is designed to be delivered.
Service Delivery
Consumers are thought to possess expected
sequences of events and provider role expectations
within most service encounters.
Service Environment
Internal Environment – focuses on organizational
culture and the overriding philosophy brought to
service provision by management.
External Environment – focuses primarily on the
physical ambience of the service setting.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
33
Service Quality M
odels
Dim
ensions
Explanation O
f Dim
ensions
Bra
dy &
Cro
nin M
odel
(Brady and Cronin 2001)
Interaction Quality
Attitude – a function not only of the inherent
personality of the provider but also of the client’s
perception, the client-provider interaction, and the
given situation (Czepiel, Solomon and Surprenant
1985).
(Meaning from dictionary.com – a manner;
disposition; feeling; state of mind)
Behavior – actions of service provider (E.g:
helpfulness, openness, friendliness, warmth,
concern, etc) (Czepiel et al. 1985). (Meaning from
dictionary.com – behaving; acting; action)
Expertise – extent to which the individual provider
can affect the outcome of the service through his or
her skills (Czepiel et al. 1985).
(Meaning from dictionary.com – skill or
knowledge in a particular area)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
34
Service Quality M
odels
Dim
ensions
Explanation O
f Dim
ensions
Physical Environment
Quality
Ambient Conditions – non-visual aspects (E.g :
temperature, scent, music, etc).
Design - layout or architecture of the environment
(either functional – practical, or aesthetic – visually
pleasing)
Social Factors – number and type of people
evident in the service setting as well as their
behaviors.
Outcome Quality
Waiting Time – amount of time before service was
experienced.
Tangibles - physical facilities, equipment, and
appearance of personnel.
Valence – attributes that control whether customers
believe the service outcome is good or bad,
regardless of their evaluation of any other aspect of
the experience. The degree to which the object of
interest is considered favorable or unfavorable.
Table 5: Global service quality m
odels
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
35
Dimensions
Models
Physical
Environment
Process Product
Bordic Model
(Gronroos
1984)
Functional Quality Technical
Quality
SERVQUAL
(Parasuraman
et al. 1988)
Tangibles Reliability
Assurance
Tangibles
Empathy
Responsiveness
Lehtinen &
Lehtinen
Model
(Lehtinen and
Lehtinen 1991)
Process Quality Output Quality
Three-
Component
Model
(Rust and
Oliver 1994)
Service
Environment
Service Delivery Service
Product
Brady &
Cronin Model
(Brady and
Cronin 2001)
Physical
Environment
Interaction Quality Outcome
Quality
Table 6: Classification of service quality model dimensions
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
36
Authors Sectors Of Study Bumber Of
Dimensions
(Johns and Tyas 1996) Foodservice outlet 7
(Owlia and Aspinwall
1996)
Higher education 4
(Kettinger and Lee 1997) Information systems 4
(Mels, Boshoff and Nel
1997)
Banks, insurance, repair
service station
2
(Owlia and Aspinwall
1998)
Engineering education 6
(Watson, Pitt and Kavan
1998)
Information systems 5
(Wang, Xie and Goh
1999)
Internet search engines 3
(Wong, Dean and White
1999)
Hotel 3
(Dabholkar et al. 2000) Pictorial dictionary industry 4
(Frochot and Hughes
2000)
Historic houses 4
(Lee, Delene and Bunda
2000)
Hospital 7
(Lim and Tang 2000) Hospital 6
(Andaleeb 2001) Hospital 6
(Sullivan and Walstrom
2001)
Electronic commerce 5
(Tan and Theresia 2001) Tourism 3
(Lai 2006) E-Business 4
Table 7: Applications of SERVQUAL and their related dimensions (Li et al.
2002)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
37
Gronroos(1988) 6 Criteria Of Good
Perceived Service Quality
SERVQUAL(1988) 5 Dimensions Of
Service Quality
Professionalism and Skills
Customers realize that the service
provider, its employees, operational
systems, and physical resources have
the knowledge and skills required to
solve their problems in a professional
way. (outcome-related criteria)
Assurance, Tangibles
Attitudes and Behaviour
Customers feel that the contact
persons are concerned about them and
genuinely interested in solving their
problems in a friendly and
spontaneous way. (process-related
criteria)
Empathy
Accessibility and Flexibility
Customers feel that the service
provider, its location, operating hours,
employees and operational systems
are designed and operate so that it is
easy to gain access to the service and
so that they are prepared to adjust the
demands and wishes of the customer
in a flexible way. (process-related
criteria)
Empathy
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
38
Gronroos(1988) 6 Criteria Of Good
Perceived Service Quality
SERVQUAL(1988) 5 Dimensions Of
Service Quality
Reliability and Trustworthiness
Customers know that whatever takes
place or has been agreed upon, they
can rely on the service provider, its
employees and systems to keep
promises and perform with the best
interest of the customers at heart.
(process-related criteria)
Reliability, Assurance
Recovery
Customers realize that whenever
something goes wrong or something
unpredictable unexpectedly happens,
the service provider will immediately
and actively take corrective action.
(process-related criteria)
Responsiveness
Reputation and Credibility
Customers believe that the operations
of the service provider can be trusted
and that it stands for good
performance and values which can be
shared by them. (image-related
criteria)
Assurance
Table 8: Mapping of Gronroos (1988) 6 criteria of good service quality onto
SERVQUAL’s (1988) five dimensions
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
39
Industry
(Context)
Dim
ension
Explanation O
f Dim
ension
Mapping O
f
Dim
ension T
o
SERVQUAL’s
(1985) 10
dim
ensions
Mapping O
f
Dim
ension T
o
SERVQUAL’s
(1988) 5
dim
ensions
Call C
enters (Dean 2002)
Adaptiven
ess
Ability to solve and help to interpret
different customer problems and questions.
Competence
Assurance
Assura
nce
To clearly explain the steps in the
procedure of solving the customer’s
question and to explain exactly for what
purposes the customer’s information would
be used by the firm.
Competence
Assurance
Empath
y
To empathize with the customer’s situation
and give the customer a feeling that the
customer and his/her problem are important
to the firm.
Understanding the
customer
Empathy
Auth
ority
The authority and the ability to perform the
required tasks.
Competence
Assurance
Web
-based Inform
ation Systems (W
IS) (Tan et al. 2003)
Reliability
The ability of the WIS to provide accurate
information and to perform the promised
service.
Reliability
Reliability
Responsiven
ess
The ability of the WIS to perform the web-
based service consistently and accurately.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
40
Acc
ess
Quick access to the site and the company
when needed.
Access
Empathy
Flexibility
Choices of way to pay, ship, buy, search for
and return items.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Ease of
navigation
Intuitive on-page navigation to improve
ease-of-use.
Communication
Assurance
Efficiency
Simplicity of usage.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Assura
nce
/
trust
The ability of WIS to convey trust and
confidence.
Assurance
Assurance
Sec
urity
Customers’ confidence in the safety of the
site from intrusion and protection of
privacy.
Security
Assurance
Site aesth
etics
The appearance of the site
Tangibles
Tangibles
Customization /
per
sonaliza
tion
The ability of WIS to provide caring and
individual attention.
Understanding the
customer
Empathy
Quality of
inform
ation
The ability of WIS to provide quality
information.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Aca
dem
ic L
ibra
ries (Nagata et al. 2004)
Effec
t of serv
ice
(per
sonal)
Scenarios where library staffs serve the
customer in association with the service
encounter.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Libra
ry as ba
(place
)
Composed of not only of physical elements
such as reading rooms and study rooms, but
also mental aspects of quietness, comfort
and exchanges with other users and library
staff.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
41
Collec
tion and
acc
ess
Materials and information the library offers
such as convenient access to library
collections, availability of required
information and timely document delivery.
Reliability,
responsiveness
Reliability,
responsiveness
Effec
t of serv
ice
(org
anizational)
Assuring users of the accuracy and
confidentiality of their personal information
/ data and keeping users informed about
when services will be performed.
Security,
communication
Assurance,
empathy
E-ser
vice (Santos 2003)
Reliability
Ability to perform the promised service
accurately and consistently including
frequency of updating the web site, prompt
reply to customer enquiries and accuracy of
on-line purchasing and billing.
Reliability,
responsiveness,
credibility
Reliability,
responsiveness,
assurance
Efficiency
Speed of downloading, search and
navigation.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Support
Technical help, user guidelines and
personal advice available to customers
from a web site.
Understanding the
customer,
responsiveness
Empathy,
responsiveness
Communication
Keeping customers properly informed and
communicating with them in a language
they can understand.
Communication
Assurance
Sec
urity
Freedom from danger, risk or doubt during
the service process.
Security
Assurance
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
42
Ince
ntive
Encouragement given by web providers to
consumers to browse and use the web site
including rewards for doing so.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Educa
tion (Joseph and Joseph 1997)
Aca
dem
ic
reputation
Prestigious degree program, recognized
nationally and internationally and which
has excellent instructors.
Credibility
Assurance
Pro
gra
m issues
The availability of specialist programs,
degree flexibility, a practical component in
the degree, the availability of several
course options and flexible entry
requirements.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness
Physica
l
facilities
Excellent academic, accommodation and
sports and recreational facilities as well as
an appealing campus layout.
Tangibles
Tangibles
Cost / tim
e Length of time it takes to complete a degree
and the costs involved in doing so.
Unclassified
Unclassified
Loca
tion
Geographical location of the institute.
Access
Empathy
Caree
r
opportunities
How employable will students be after
getting a degree from a specific institution
and the information the institute provided
on career opportunities.
Security
Assurance
Oth
er
Influence of word-of-mouth
communication as well as of family and
peers when selecting a university.
Communication
Empathy
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
43
Banks And C
redit U
nions (Allred and Addams 2000)
Reliability
Accurate, consistent, dependable
performance.
Reliability,
credibility
Reliability,
assurance
Responsiven
ess
The willingness and capabilities of
employees.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness
Competen
ce
Skill and knowledge to provide expected
service at all levels of the organization.
Competence
Assurance
Acc
ess
Ease of contact, convenient hours, minimal
waiting time and approachability of
employees.
Access
Empathy
Communication
Using language that the customer can
understand and sincerely listening to the
customer.
Communication
Assurance
Retail (Siu and Cheung 2001)
Per
sonal
intera
ction
Individual attention, knowledge and
responsiveness of the employee.
Understanding the
customer,
responsiveness
Empathy,
responsiveness
Policy
Matter of return / exchange, quality of
merchandise, operating hours as well as
safely and error-free transactions.
Credibility, security
Assurance
Physica
l
appea
rance
Visually appealing physical facilities,
equipment and service material.
Tangibles
Tangibles
Pro
mises
Trustworthiness of the department store
perceived by its customers.
Credibility
Assurance
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
44
Pro
blem solving
Handling customers’ complaint directly and
immediately, sincere interest to solve
problem and clean, attractive and
convenient public areas.
Responsiveness,
credibility
Responsiveness,
assurance
Conven
ience
Convenience of store layout and the
availability of merchandise.
Access, reliability
Empathy,
reliability
Table 9: M
apping of dim
ensions of serv
ice quality fro
m various industries onto SERVQUAL
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
45
Brady And Cronin (2001) Model – A Hierarchical Model Of Service Quality
It is apparent that SQ evaluations are highly complex processes that may operate at
several levels of abstraction (Carman 1990; Dagger et al. 2007) and customers tend
to break SQ dimensions into various sub-dimensions (Brady and Cronin 2001;
Dagger et al. 2007) which seem to more fully account for the complexity of human
perceptions (Dabholkar et al. 1996). There has been support for conceptualizing SQ
as a hierarchical (third-order) construct from authors like Hightower, Brady and
Baker (2002) who have developed models including specific aspects of SQ such as
environment and perceived waiting time which are posited as affecting overall SQ
and ultimately behavioral outcomes (Hightower, Brady and Baker 2002). The latter
statement supports the mediating approach to SQ. The establishment of the
mediating effect underscores the importance of measuring overall quality
perceptions and gives credence to the hierarchical (third-order) conceptualization of
SQ (Dagger et al. 2007).
There has been consensus that SQ perceptions are multilevel and multi-dimensional
(Fassnacht and Koese 2006; Kang 2006; Brady and Cronin 2001; Dabholkar et al.
1996; Carman 1990; Dagger et al. 2007; Ho and Lee 2006; Loiacono et al. 2007;
Bauer et al. 2006; Ko 2000; Ko and Pastore 2004; Collier and Bienstock 2006; Caro
and Garcia 2007; Liu 2005), however, there has been little effort in identifying: (1)
the attributes or factors that define the sub-dimensions; (2) a unifying theory or
conceptualization that reflects this complexity (SQ evaluation); and (3) the
hierarchical nature of SQ (Brady and Cronin 2001). The B&C (2001) model (Figure
1) proposes a hierarchical conceptualization of SQ and defines the content of the
sub-dimensions. The basis of their model draws upon earlier conceptual work by
Gronroos (1984) and Bitner (1992). Gronroos (1984) states that SQ evaluation is
based on what customers get (technical/outcome quality) and how customers get it
(functional/interaction quality). Bitner (1990, 1992) and others (Dabholkar et al.
1996; Fassnacht and Koese 2006) state recent evidence that service environment
affects SQ perceptions. The former and latter statements gave birth to three primary
dimensions (outcome quality, interaction quality and physical environment quality)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
46
of the model. Brady and Cronin (2001) further broke down the three primary
dimensions into nine sub-dimensions to account for the way customers evaluate SQ.
The interaction quality primary dimension was broken down into ‘attitude’,
‘behavior’ and ‘expertise’ sub-dimensions. The physical environment quality was
broken down into ‘ambient conditions’, ‘design’ and ‘social factors’ sub-dimensions.
The outcome dimension was broken down into ‘waiting time’, ‘tangibles’ and
‘valence’ sub-dimensions. These sub-dimensions were evaluated based on three of
SERVQUAL’s (1988) attributes namely reliability, responsiveness and empathy.
The tangibles attribute is included as a sub-dimension (and not a factor of the sub-
dimensions) because of evidence suggesting that customers use tangibles as a proxy
for evaluating service outcomes (Booms and Bitner 1981). The assurance attribute
was dropped completely because it did not remain distinct in factor analyses and it
was found to load on several different factors depending on the industry context
(Babakus and Boller 1992; Carman 1990; Dabholkar et al. 2000). These three factors
are modifiers of the sub-dimensions (as opposed to direct determinants of SQ) and
address the ‘what’ questions that SERVQUAL did not address (E.g: what needs to
be reliable, etc).
Attitude Behaviour ExpertiseAmbient
ConditionsDesign
Social
Factors
Waiting
TimeTangibles Valence
Interaction
Quality
Environment
Quality
Outcome
Quality
Service
Quality
R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E
Figure 1 – The Brady and Cronin (2001) Model (Brady and Cronin 2001)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
47
Support For The B&C (2001) model Being The Basis For Service Quality
Measurement
Over recent years, there has been considerable support for the B&C (2001) model
being the basis for SQ measurement. Some examples are listed below. Alexandris,
Zahariadis, Tsorbatzoudis and Grouios (2004)’s application in the context of health
club (fitness industry) (Alexandris, Zahariadis, Tsorbatzoudis and Grouios 2004).
Alexandris et al. (2004) tested the applicability of a simplified version of the B&C
(2001) model in the context of a health club. Results support the three primary
dimensions of the B&C (2001) model with emphasis on ‘outcome quality’ in the
context of sports services. Ko and Pastore (2004)’s application in the context of the
sports industry. Their paper uses the B&C (2001) model as the basis for measuring
SQ in the sports industry. Results suggest 4 primary dimensions (program quality,
interaction quality, outcome quality and physical environment quality) and 11 sub-
dimensions (range of programs, operating time, information, client-employee
interaction, inter-client interaction, physical change, valence, sociability, ambience,
design and equipment). To add to the support for the B&C (2001) model, Liu
(2005) successfully replicated the procedures developed by Brady and Cronin for
testing the hierarchical nature of perceived SQ.
Benefits Of A Hierarchical Model Of Service Quality
One of the benefits of such a hierarchical model allows for analysis at several levels
of abstraction – overall, primary dimension and sub-dimensional. Perspectives taken
at the different levels allow the identification of different dynamics which can be
used in understanding attitudes or perceptions (Cook et al. 2001). Coupled with the
latter, the ability to dissect the quality experience will allow managers more control
and faster response to areas that are weakening the service experience (Collier and
Bienstock 2006). Depending on the purposes, practitioners can measure SQ at any
one or all of the levels. For example, the practitioner could measure the overall SQ if
he/she wants to get a broad indication of an organization’s SQ performance.
Practitioners can measure SQ at the sub-dimensional level for a detailed analysis of
SQ perceptions. Within the latter statement, the practitioner is also able to identify
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
48
the primary dimensions that require improvement and develop a strategic plan
(Dagger et al. 2007).
Another benefit, besides being used as a diagnostic tool for identifying poor and/or
excellent service performance, the scale can be used for benchmarking across
multiple functions within a single organization, across multiple locations, or within a
particular industry (Dagger et al. 2007). Furthermore, any of these situations can also
be compared across time, information generated from the scale can be used as a
platform for funding and to set priorities and allocation resources (Dagger et al.
2007).
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
49
Priority Of Service Quality Dimensions
There has been considerable support for the prioritizing/weighting of dimensions.
For example, Li et al. (2002) state that the ‘quality of information’ and ‘competence’
dimensions are more important over the other dimensions in their web-base service
quality model (Li et al. 2002). Fassnacht and Koese (2006) in their development of a
QES model, suggested further research into looking for potential differences
concerning the perception of Electronic SQ in various contexts. For example,
emotional benefit might have a higher relevance for news and weather services than
for online shopping (Fassnacht and Koese 2006). Syed and Amiya (2004) examined
the relationship between customers’ assessment of SQ of an auto service facility and
five factors (perceived fairness of the facility; empathy; responsiveness; reliability;
convenience) and found perceived fairness to be significantly more important than
the other four factors when the task was complex and customers did not feel
knowledgeable (Syed and Amiya 1994). Collier and Bienstock (2006) in their study
on measuring SQ in E-Retailing, note that consumers place an important emphasis
on the ‘outcome’ dimension over the process and recovery dimensions (Collier and
Bienstock 2006).
The functional and environment quality dimensions have gained much insight over
the years with prior research focusing on the implications of those dimensions with
Gronroos (1998, 2001) suggesting the focus be on those dimensions when faced with
limited resources. There, however, have been relatively little insights into the
implications and importance of the technical quality dimension. Reasons cited for
the lack of attention towards the technical quality dimension include: the general
nature of services being described as acts of “process consumption” rather than acts
of outcome consumption (Gronroos 1998); and the difficulties of evaluating
technical quality for service products (Brady et al. 2006), give top priority to
functional and environment quality.
Brady et al. (2006) conducted a study to investigate the effect of valence, a key
component of technical quality (Brady and Cronin 2001), on service perceptions and
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
50
outcomes. They noted that in most cases, valence of the outcome is uncontrollable
but often tied to customer service perceptions. Their research focuses on valence-
orientated industries (E.g: sporting events, banking, casino) and highlights that for
such industries, valence (or technical quality dimension per se) is more important
that functional and technical quality. They gave an example of a casino, where a
gambler places bets, could very well provide excellent service (functional quality)
and a great environment (environment quality), but all these will not prevent the
gambler from inevitably losing money (negative valence). For such a situation, the
emphasis seems to be on the outcome (valence or technical quality) and not so much
on the functional and environment quality. The satisfaction of the customer
(gambler) could very well rest on whether he/she wins money (outcome).
Brady et al. (2006) in-line with Gronroos (1998, 2001) seem to suggest that the
importance and focus of SQ dimensions depends on the type of service industry in-
terms of how much control it has over the outcome. Less control over the outcome
(E.g: a sporting event) appears to suggest that technical quality attributes (E.g:
outcome of the sporting event – whether the team wins or loses) tend to have a
higher influence on customer satisfaction while more control (E.g: hotel experience)
would suggest higher influence of functional (E.g: hotel service) and environment
(E.g: hotel ambience) quality attributes.
2.3.5 Measurements Of Service Quality
Over a span of several years, there has been a major debate focusing on whether SQ
should be measured as perceptions (Cronin and Taylor 1992; Cronin and Taylor
1994) or as disconfirmation (Parasuraman et al. 1988; Parasuraman et al. 1994).
Disconfirmation in general can be defined as the comparison of perceptions
(performance) with expectations and this definition has been adopted in this study.
Disconfirmation can be classified into two categories namely computed
disconfirmation and measured disconfirmation. The difference between the two
categories of disconfirmation is computed disconfirmation uses mathematical
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
51
calculations (E.g: Perceptions minus Expectations) while measured disconfirmation
uses a mental estimation of the comparison of perceptions with expectations
(Dabholkar et al. 2000).
It should be noted that the disconfirmation approach mentioned and criticized in this
study refers to computed disconfirmation (Dabholkar et al. 2000), unless otherwise
stated, which is operationalized by SERVQUAL. The candidate has used the term
‘SERVQUAL’ in the following paragraphs to refer to computed disconfirmation and
the self-created term ‘generic disconfirmation’ to refer to both computed and
measured disconfirmation with focus on the difference (comparison) between
perceptions and expectations.
Disconfirmation Approach
Traditionally, SQ has been conceptualized as a disconfirmation process
(Parasuraman et al. 1988; Gronroos 1984; Lewis and Booms 1983) founded on the
disconfirmation paradigm employed in the physical goods literature (Brady and
Cronin 2001). This paradigm suggests that quality results from a comparison of
perceived with expected performance as reflected in Gronroos’s (1982, 1984)
conceptualization of SQ. Various studies have measured SQ using the
disconfirmation model (Dabholkar et al. 2000) with results being mixed. The
candidate has adopted the classification suggested by Dabholkar et al. (2000) that
SERVQUAL is considered as computed disconfirmation.
Parasuraman et al. (1988) operationalized SQ as the difference between performance
perceptions and expected levels of service (Babakus and Boller 1992).
SERVQUAL’s measurement approach is such that SQ for each of the five
dimensions is captured by a gap score (G) which is the comparison of expectations
(E) and perceptions (P), or by the formula G = P – E where ‘P’ and ‘E’ represent the
average ratings of a dimension’s corresponding ‘P’ and ‘E’ statements (Jiang et al.
2003). Overall perceived SQ is captured by the sum of ‘P’ items ratings minus sum
of ‘E’ items ratings (Parasuraman et al. 1988).
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
52
Benefits
There are several benefits associated with the generic disconfirmation approach and
they have been documented below.
The generic disconfirmation approach allows the determination of the relative
weight that customers seem to give each SQ dimension by comparing the overall
SAT data with differences between expectations and perceptions. It provides
superior managerial diagnostic capability via the gap measure (Jiang et al. 2002) by
indicating SQ strengths and shortfalls (Pitt et al. 1997; Kettinger and Lee 1997).
Though perceptions-only (performance-based) measures of SQ had both higher
convergent and predictive validities, gap measurement (SERVQUAL) incorporates
and measures customers’ (users’) expectations and perceptions. For example in an IS
context, the results of such a measurement would assist IS managers to identify
areas for improvement as well as identify areas where changes have occurred over
time (Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithaml 1993). IS managers find the concept of gap
measurement (difference between perception and expectation) most useful for it
indicates SQ strengths and shortfalls, that managers would like to know and should
know, in-relation to what the customers expect (Pitt et al. 1997; Kettinger and Lee
1997).
Problems
There are several problems associated with the disconfirmation approach and they
have been documented below.
Gap scores (difference scores or computed disconfirmation). SERVQUAL’s primary
area of criticism is the reliance on gap scores. Gap scores are calculated as the
difference score between the users’ perceptions and expectations (Kettinger and Lee
2005). This criticism is based on the conceptualization of gap scores being equated
to ‘perceptions minus expectations’ and that ‘minus’ is too simplistic of a measure of
explaining the complex psychological processes behind the whole equation. Gap
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
53
scores also have reliability problems, predictive and convergent validity issues and
lower predictive power. The two components of SERVQUAL (perceptions and
expectations) are designed to measure consumers’ “desired level” of service from a
service sector and “existing level” of service from a particular provider. Babakus and
Boller (1992) state that customers seldom rate “desired level” scores lower than
“existing level” scores and this brings about a psychological constraint. The
consequence of this constraint is the resulting “deficiency” (difference) scores may
be dominated primarily by the “existing level” scores. There has also been empirical
evidence that such difference scores typically have unstable factor structures from
one application to another. Results from their test (testing of correlations of
SERVQUAL and its components with overall quality ratings and complaint
resolution scores) suggest that expectation scores did not contribute to difference
scores materially and perceptions scores was the dominant component (Babakus and
Boller 1992).
Conceptual problems and empirical difficulties. Conceptual problems which include
subtraction as a “simulation” of a psychological process, ambiguity of the
“expectations” construct and applicability issues of SERVQUAL across industries.
Empirical difficulties include reliability problems with different scores, predictive
and convergent validity issues with difference scores and unstable dimensionality
(Dyke et al. 1997).
SERVQUAL’s conceptualization is flawed because it’s based on a SAT paradigm
rather than an attitude model (Cronin and Taylor 1992). Parasuraman et al. (1988)
describes SQ as a form of attitude, however, doesn’t operationalize it as such. If SQ
has an impact on predicting behavior or behavior intentions then based on the
adequacy-importance model (Mazis, Michael, Ahtola and Klippel 1975), it appears
SQ should be conceived as an attitude and measured by perceptions alone.
Problems with expectations. Parasuraman et al. (1988) defined expectations as
“desires or wants of customers”. The expectations component was designed to
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
54
measure “customers normative expectations” (Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithaml
1990) and is similar to the ideal standard in customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction
literature (Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman 1991). Teas (1993) commented that
these explanations are “somewhat vague” and suspects the “fault” lies in the
respondents’ interpretation of the term ‘expectations’. He believes that respondents
could be using any one of six interpretations namely: (1) service attribute
importance; (2) forecasted performance; (3) ideal performance; (4) deserved
performance; (5) equitable performance; and (6) minimum tolerable performance
(Teas 1993b). Inferring from the six interpretations, each interpretation is somewhat
different and Teas suggests that a considerable percentage of variance in
SERVQUAL’s expectations measure can be explained by the difference in
respondents’ interpretations (Buttle 1996). Parasuraman et al. (1991, 1994), noted
the criticisms of Teas and acknowledged that the expectations component of
SERVQUAL lacks discriminant validity, responded by redefining expectations as
the service customers would expect from “excellent service organizations” instead of
the previous definition of “what customers should expect from a given service
provider.
Gronroos (2000) mentions certain validity problems related to the measurement of
expectations. Firstly, if expectations are measured after the service experience or at
the same time, then what is measured is not really expectation but something which
has been biased by experience. Secondly, it doesn’t make sense to measure
expectations prior to the service experience as the expectations which the customers
have beforehand might not be the expectations with which they will compare their
experiences to. Thirdly, due to the fact that experiences are perceptions of reality,
prior expectations are inherent in these perceptions.
Scale points. The SERVQUAL scale employs the use of the seven-point Likert scale
which has been criticized on several grounds (Buttle 1996). Lewis (1993) criticizes
the scale on three issues. Firstly, the scale lacks verbal labeling for points two to six.
She believes that this may cause respondents to overuse the extreme ends of the
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
55
scale. Secondly, she raises the issue of the respondents’ interpretation of the mid-
point of the scale. Different respondents have different interpretations of what it
means to them. Thirdly, she raises the issue of the scale consisting of only whole
numbers. For example, a respondent may have expectations of 5.4 and perceptions
of 4.6. There is technically a gap of 0.8. However, when the respondent uses the
SERVQUAL scale, he/she is unable to put those integers in and may put the value of
5 for both expectations and perceptions thus it seems like there is no gap. This
results in a Type II error.
Two administrations. To measure both expectations and perceptions of a service,
two administrations of a survey must be carried out (one for expectations and one for
perceptions). The drawback of such an approach is respondents might appear bored
and sometimes confused by the two different administrations which might imperil
data quality (Bouman and Wiele 1992).
Perceptions-Only Approach
There have been little (if any) theoretical or empirical evidence supporting the
relevance of the expectations-minus-perceptions (computed disconfirmation)
approach adopted by SERVQUAL (Carman 1990). Cronin and Taylor (1992)
introduce the perceptions-only approach (SERVPERF) of measuring SQ to counter
SERVQUAL’s inadequacies in its conceptualization and operationalization. Their
approach appears to have considerable support from literature stating the superiority
of the performance-based (perceptions-only) approach for measuring SQ (Bolton
and Drew 1991a; Bolton and Drew 1991b; Dabholkar et al. 2000; Dabholkar and
Overby 2005; Collier and Bienstock 2006). SERVPERF directly measures
perceptions-only to avoid the problem of an unambiguous expectations measure.
SERVPERF generally have both higher convergent and predictive validities and may
possess stronger statistical properties as compared to SERVQUAL (Pitt et al. 1997).
Bolton and Drew (1991a) mention that current performance ratings strongly affect
attitudes (assuming SQ is an attitude) whereas the effects of disconfirmation are
generally insignificant and transitory. Inferring from SAT and attitude literature, it
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
56
appears that current performance adequately captures consumers’ perceptions of SQ
offered by a specific service provider (Cronin and Taylor 1992). Practitioners often
measure the determinants of overall perceived quality by having customers assess
the performance of the company’s business processes (Cronin and Taylor 1992).
Benefits
There are several benefits of the perceptions-only approach which include providing
a more construct-valid explication of SQ because of evidence of content and
discriminant validities (Cronin and Taylor 1992); measuring experiences
(perceptions-only) only over a set of appropriate attributes can lead to a good
approximation of perceived quality (Gronroos 2000); and a perceptions-only survey
is easier to administer and the data is easier to analyze (Gronroos 2000), just to name
a few.
Problem
A critical problem with the perceptions-only approach is that it does not identify
gaps (E.g: discrepancies between customers’ expectations and perceptions) that
provide valuable process-improvement information for practitioners. The candidate
acknowledges that although it appears the perceptions-only approach has fewer
problems and issues (or fewer documented criticisms) as compared to SERVQUAL,
the latter problem is deemed crucial and worthy of mention. Such a problem appears
to have put some doubt as to whether the perceptions-only approach, though
seemingly more favorable, is the better of the two measurement approaches in
measuring SQ. The candidate acknowledges that this problem is one of the strengths
of SERVQUAL but a weakness of the perceptions-only approach.
Disconfirmation Approach Versus Perceptions-Only Approach
By doing a simple cross-analysis of the benefits and problems of each approach, it
appears that both approaches have their merits. However, it appears the perceptions-
only approach has fewer problems as compared to the disconfirmation (computed)
approach.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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It would seem naive to totally discredit the disconfirmation approach just because
the “net benefits” of the perceptions-only approach appears to outweigh the “net
benefits” of the disconfirmation (computed) approach. Regarding the problems with
the expectations construct, Carman (1990) argues that they are important in
determining SAT. Gronroos (2000) argues that a comparison of experiences
(perceptions) and expectations makes sense because expectations clearly influence
the perception of quality. The former and latter statements coupled with the merit of
being able to identify SQ gaps within the generic disconfirmation approach (general
comparison of perceptions to expectations), beg the question of how best to
operationalize such an approach. Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) conducted
a recent study to identify if: (1) perceptions-only is superior to measured
disconfirmation; (2) perceptions-only is superior to computed disconfirmation; and
(3) measured disconfirmation is superior to computed disconfirmation. The results
from their study showed full support for points (2) and (3) and had partial support
for point (1). Reason given for the partial support of perceptions-only being superior
to measured disconfirmation is that the latter had better fits in most cases but
perceptions-only had excellent fits as well as better fits in a few cases. The candidate
also believes that another reason for the support of measured disconfirmation (and
not to rule out disconfirmation totally) is its ability to identify SQ gaps which is
crucial and a vital flaw of the perceptions-only approach. It is also clear from their
study that computed disconfirmation is inferior to both perceptions-only and
measured disconfirmation. The measured disconfirmation approach appears to have
many benefits that overlap and outweigh the computed disconfirmation approach.
Some of the benefits include: (1) allows for the identification of SQ gaps; (2) retains
the expectations construct; and (3) overcomes the psychological problems associated
with using arithmetic calculations, just to name a few. In-relation to which
measurement approach is better, Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) concluded
their study by stating that it boils down to the objectives of the analysis. They
suggest that if the objective is to evaluate SQ or gauge its determinants, then
perceptions-only approach is better. However, if the objective is to identify gaps that
provide process-improvement information, then measured disconfirmation (but not
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
58
computed disconfirmation) is better. The candidate is in-agreement with Dabholkar,
Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) as he understands that both approaches have their
strengths (and weaknesses) and it appears that their conclusions have both managed
to utilize each approach’s strengths and cater to what appears to be key objectives of
SQ analysis (E.g: to evaluate overall SQ, to identify gaps in SQ).
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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2.4 Relationships Between Perceived Service Quality And
Satisfaction
In the services realm, there exists a nomological net that states both SQ and
satisfaction (SAT) influence purchase intentions. It’s to the candidate’s
understanding that ‘purchase intentions’ is a form of behavior which is similar to
‘behavioral intentions’ (BI) as termed by Brady et al. (2005). The candidate has
adopted the term ‘BI’ to represent ‘purchase intentions’ for this study. In the
services realm, the customers’ BI at the end of any service encounter determines the
success or failure of the service(s) offered. BI is also a crucial driver of profitability.
There, however, exist two schools of thought in-relation to the direction of causality
between SQ and SAT which influences BI. One school of thought states SQ is an
antecedent (->) of SAT while the other states SAT -> SQ. The former and latter
statements advocate the need to analyze the direction of causality between SQ and
SAT and how SQ and SAT influence BI. Dagger, Sweeney and Johnson (2007)
mention the need to consider both SQ and customer satisfaction as important
strategic objectives, because these constructs provide a way for managers to ensure
positive BI.
Defining Satisfaction
Across literature, there have been various definitions of the term ‘SAT’ and they
have been documented in Table 10.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
62
Table 10: Definitions of satisfaction (Giese and Cote 2002, 6)
Zeithaml and Bitner (2003) mention that SAT is the consumer fulfillment response
and it is a judgment that a product or service feature, or the product or service itself,
provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment (Zeithaml and Bitner
2003). Giese and Cote (2000), in their analysis of twenty definitions used during a
thirty year period of consumer SAT research, identified three general components
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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embedded in these definitions. These three components are: (1) consumer SAT is a
response (emotional or cognitive); (2) the response pertains to a particular focus
(E.g: expectations, product, consumption experience, etc); and (3) the response
occurs at a particular time (E.g: after consumption, after choice, based on
accumulated experience, etc). These three components can be classified as the type,
focus and timing of the SAT response respectively (Giese and Cote 2000). Giese and
Cote (2000) state that a generic definition of SAT is not feasible due to the
innumerable contextual variables that would affect the way SAT is viewed. Such a
generic definition is also susceptible to chameleon effects (due to the latter
statement). To overcome the former and latter issues, Giese and Cote (2000) propose
a framework for developing context-specific definitions of SAT. The framework
(after reviewing literature and validating data from group and personal interviews)
consists of three essential components of consumer SAT: (1) affective response
(which reflects SAT as a holistic evaluation outcome); (2) focus; and (3) timing
(Giese and Cote 2000). The candidate notes that these three essential components are
similar to the three components (that were embedded in the definitions) as
mentioned above.
Oliver (1989) defines SAT as an “evaluate, affective, or emotional response”. The
candidate has attempted to map Oliver’s (1989) definition to Giese and Cote’s
(2000) three essential components to identify commonality (Table 11).
Oliver’s (1989)
Definition
Giese and Cote’s (2000) Essential Three
Components
Affective
Response
Focus Timing
evaluate, affective, or
emotional response
Affective Experience During or
after
consumption
Table 11: Mapping of Oliver’s (1989) definition to Giese and Cote’s (2000)
three components
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Spreng and MacKoy (1996) mentioned that although there is no clear consensus
regarding the definition of SAT, most definitions are similar to how Oliver (1989)
described it. The results of the mapping attempt (Table 11) appear to incorporate the
three components suggested by Giese and Cote’s (2000). The candidate, in review of
the former and latter statements, has adopted Oliver’s (1989) definition of SAT for
this study.
SQ And SAT – Are They Similar Or Distinct Constructs?
Several researchers have raised the issue of whether SQ and SAT are similar or
distinct constructs (Dabholkar 1993; Dabholkar 1995b; Iacobucci et al. 1994; Oliver
1993).
A few examples where both constructs were found to be similar include: (1)Spreng
and Singh (1993) in their study of service evaluations of banking customers failed to
find discriminant validity among the two constructs; (2) Dabholkar (1995a) in her
study of retail customers found the two constructs to be distinct for recent customers
but overlap in meaning for long-term customers as customer SAT grew increasingly
cognitive over time; and (3) Dabholkar et al. (2000) mention that for situations with
minimum emotional content, or where performance always falls within the zone of
indifference, or over time, there might be even greater overlap between the 2
constructs.
A few examples where both constructs were found to be distinct include: (1)
Dabholkar et al. (2000) in their study of correlations among various types of
measurement (perceptions, measured disconfirmation, computed disconfirmation)
data found the constructs to be distinct although highly correlated; and (2)
Parasuraman et al. (1988) describe SQ as a form of attitude that is similar but not
equivalent to SAT.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Direction Of Causality Between SQ and SAT
There have been two notions regarding the causality of SQ and SAT. The first notion
is SQ -> SAT and the second notion is the direct opposite of the first. Support for
both notions have been tabulated in Table 12 below.
SQ -> SAT SAT -> SQ
• Cronin and Taylor (1992) state
(from their findings) that SQ has a
significant effect on SAT. They
state that SQ is an antecedent of
SAT and that SAT exerts a
stronger influence on purchase
intentions.
• Parasuraman et al. (1988)
conceptualized perceived SQ as a
long-run overall evaluation about
a service, whereas SAT is a
transaction-specific evaluation.
Based on these conceptualizations,
they posited that incidents of SAT
over time result in perceptions of
SQ.
• Oliver (1993) suggested that SQ
would be antecedent to SAT
regardless of whether these
constructs were measured for a
given experience or over time.
• Traditionally, researchers have
suggested that SAT with a given
service experience would lead to
an overall evaluation/attitude of
SQ over time (Bitner 1990; Oliver
1981; Parasuraman et al. 1988)
• Several researchers (E.g: Anderson
and Sullivan 1993; Spreng and
MacKoy 1996) found empirical
support for this model (SQ ->
SAT), wherein SAT is a
consequence of SQ.
• Dabholkar et al. (2000) mention
that for situations with high
emotional content, or where
performance always falls outside
the zone of indifference, the causal
sequence between the two
constructs may be reversed.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
66
• Gronroos (2000) states that a
person consuming a service first
perceives the quality of the
dimensions of the service and only
then is either satisfied or not with
the quality of that service.
• Dabholkar and Overby (2005)
mention that for extreme situations
(E.g: when expectations are
greatly exceeded or unfulfilled),
customer SAT evaluations will
precede and influence SQ
evaluations.
• SAT is characterized by the
surprise (Oliver 1981), the
contentment, the pleasure
and/or the relief (Woodruff et
al. 1983) a customer
experiences after a purchase or
service encounter (Roest and
Pieters 1997).
• Lee, Lee and Yoo (2000)
proposed customers can
evaluate an object only after
they have interpreted the
object.
• Dabholkar and Overby (2005)
mention that for non-extreme
situations (E.g: service is
within an acceptable range),
customers will evaluate the
service more rationally and
cognitively whereby SQ
evaluations will precede and
influence customer SAT
evaluations.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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• Chien and Tsaur (2007)
mention that IS departments
evaluate user SAT primarily to
improve their SQ.
• Chien and Tsaur (2007)
mention that SQ is included as
one of the dimensions that
affect use and user SAT.
• Alexandris et al. (2004)
mention that SAT is a broader
concept, whereas SQ
judgments are specific, and its
assessment focuses specifically
on dimensions of SQ. This
view suggests that SQ
perceptions influence customer
SAT.
Table 12: Tabulation of support for both notions
Ellis and Johnson (2002) mention that when customer SAT is transaction-specific, it
is regarded as an antecedent to SQ. However, if customer SAT is measured as an
overall assessment (global scale), SQ is an antecedent of SAT (Oliver 1997; Ellis
and Johnson 2002). Parasuraman et al. (1994) pointed out that the conflicts in the
causality could be related to the differing perspectives (focuses) of SQ and SAT
research. They mention that a global focus is adopted for most SQ research (SQ ->
SAT) and a transaction-specific focus is adopted for most SAT research (SAT ->
SQ).
Parasuraman et al. (1994) argue that SQ and SAT could be examined from both
perspectives (transaction-specific and global). The candidate is in-agreement with
Parasuraman et al. (1994) and Oliver’s (1989) definition of SAT which implies that
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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customers can only evaluate an object after they have interpreted it. In other words,
regardless of whether SAT is evaluated on a global scale or based on a specific
transaction, customers can only be satisfied / dissatisfied only after they have
evaluated the quality of the service. Dabholkar et al. (2000) in their study of whether
SAT has an incremental effect (and if yes, is this effect independent or a mediating
one?) over that of SQ and BI, found that SAT mediates the influence of SQ on BI
and SQ is an antecedent of SAT. They also found the mediating role of SAT to be
more natural in the way people make evaluations. Dabholkar and Overby (2005) also
mention, in their study of how customers evaluate SQ and SAT, that seventy-two
percent of their respondents said they first evaluated SQ and then decide if they are
satisfied. With all these being said, the candidate has adopted the notion of SQ being
an antecedent of SAT for this study.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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2.5 Relationships Between Service Quality And IS Success
In today’s context, organizations need to look beyond the traditional role of IS
(which was to design, build and install systems) and look towards improving their
SQ. Improved SQ has a positive “domino” effect on the organization’s productivity
as improved SQ would increase the client’s productivity and this would in-turn
increase the organization’s productivity (Watson et al. 1998). It was stated that IS
managers have put their focus on the product viewpoint (outcome quality) and
process viewpoint (information quality) and have neglected the service viewpoint
(SQ) of IS (Whyte, Bytheway and Edwards 1997). When a customer buys a tangible
product, he/she also buys a service and the product is only a means of accessing a
service (Shostack 1977) thus the emphasis from the customer’s point-of-view is not
only on the product but on the service that accompanies the product.
2.5.1 Definition Of IS Success
The candidate has adopted the definition of IS-Impact as “a measure at a point in
time of the stream of net benefits from the IS, to date and anticipated, as perceived
by all key user groups” (Gable, Sedera and Chan 2008, 381) as the basis for IS
Success measurement. Reasons for the adoption are that the candidate is part of the
ITPS track that utilizes this definition of IS success coupled that this definition of IS
success was taken from a top-tier journal publication (Journal of the Association for
Information Systems).
2.5.2 Service Quality And IS Success
Information System (IS) organizations have been placed in dual roles (information
provider and service provider) due to the emergence of end user computing and the
realization of the importance of IS support. The rise in importance of SQ in IS
brought about the inclusion of the ‘SQ’ construct in the updated version of a popular
and widely-cited IS Success model (DeLone and McLean 2003). Pitt et al. (1995)
highlights that IS effectiveness consists of multiple constructs (measures) and that
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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there is no single construct that can measure IS success. An example that Pitt et al.
(1995) gave was the IS success model (DeLone and McLean 1992) consisting of
constructs grouped into six categories namely system quality, information quality,
use, user satisfaction, individual impact and organizational impact. Pitt et al. (1995)
argued that the service component should be included into the IS success model
(DeLone and McLean 1992) due to the underlying theory that when a customer
purchases a tangible product, he or she also buys a service and that a product is only
a way of accessing a service. Lin (2007) in her study on measuring IS (online
learning systems) success by applying the D&M (2003) model showed that system
quality, information quality and SQ influenced actual online learning systems (OLS)
use through user SAT and behavioral intentions. Her study revealed a high score for
SQ (E.g: visual appeal, availability of help, and response of the OLS) had a
significant and positive influence on user SAT and behavioral intentions (Lin 2007).
SQ has an apparent relationship to customer SAT (Siu and Cheung 2001) and
customer SAT influences IS effectiveness. Therefore, IS Success is brought about by
the SAT with SQ.
The latter notion is supported by DeLone and McLean in their IS Success Model
(DeLone and McLean 2003), whereby they state that IS SQ is an antecedent of use
and user SAT (Pitt et al. 1995). By neglecting SQ, the evaluation of IS effectiveness
might be inaccurate (Pitt et al. 1995). This paragraph highlights and reiterates that
SQ and the measurement of SQ are important and vital to IS Success.
The above paragraph highlights the key influences of SQ on IS success via SAT. As
mentioned earlier in this report, the candidate’s project is part of a larger research
project , that via an Australian Research Council (ARC) discovery grant proposal,
seeks to alternatively conceptualize IS as a ‘service’ and ultimately triangulating
measures of IS SQ with the IS-Impact model (Figure 2 A) – an IS Success
measurement model developed by the candidate’s research track (Sedera 2006;
Gable, Sedera and Chan 2003). Details of the ARC discovery grant proposal are
documented below.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Grant Proposal
The measurement of SQ has been of central interest to the Services Marketing
discipline for several decades; ‘SERVQUAL’(Parasuraman et al. 1988) being the
most widely employed and cited measurement model. More recent work by Brady
and Cronin (2001), consistent with ideas espoused by Dabholkar et al. (1996, 2000),
represents SQ perceptions as multilevel and multidimensional (the ‘B&C’ Model)
(Brady and Cronin 2001); the rationale being that customers tend to cognitively
decompose SQ dimensions into various sub-dimensions (Carman 1990), and a
hierarchical structure accounts for the complexity of human perceptions (Dabholkar
et al. 1996). Brady and Cronin (2001) bring substantial clarity and harmony to the
measurement of SQ. Their third order model (Figure 2B) relates SQ perceptions to
the three dimensions – Interaction quality, Environment quality, and Outcome
quality; each of which has three sub-dimensions that define the basis of SQ
perceptions. They further suggest that for each of these sub-dimensions to contribute
to improved SQ perceptions, the quality must be perceived to be reliable, responsive
and empathetic. This hierarchical structure is analogous with that of the IS-Impact
model (Figure 3). The IS-Impact sub-model (Figure 2A and Figure 3) includes four
dimensions in two halves representing “the stream of net benefits from an
Information System to date and anticipated as perceived by all key-user-
groups”(Gable 2008). The ‘impact’ half measures benefits to date, or Individual- and
Organizational-Impact. The ‘quality’ half, uses System-Quality and Information-
Quality as proxy measures of probable future impacts. There is much potential here
for cross-fertilization of ideas between the IS and Marketing fields. In example,
Gronroos (1982), as cited in Brady and Cronin (2001:35), suggest two main SQ
dimensions where “Functional quality represents how the service is delivered; that
is, it defines customers’ perceptions of the interactions that take place during service
delivery. Technical quality reflects the outcome of the service act, or what the
customer receives in the service encounter.” With the ‘operational’ IS (the focus of
the IS-Impact evaluation approach), where the system itself is conceived as a stream
of services or a systematized (automated) service, the system (and its quality) are the
‘functional’ and its impacts are the ‘technical’ (or outputs). Note that the key
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
72
distinction made in the IS-Impact model between its Quality and Impact halves, is
also similar to Alter’s (as cited in Seddon et al, 1999) distinction between ‘internal
performance’ and ‘external performance’ which respectively refer to ‘how well the
system operates internally’ versus ‘how well the system achieves it purpose’
(1999:48), or which he more simply refers to as the “system” versus “the system’s
performance” (1999:43). From a Services Marketing perspective, main intended
outcomes of the proposal are to: (1) develop, operationalise and empirically validate
a new SQ measurement model; and (2) extend the ‘service’ notion to ‘operational
information systems in organisations’ or IS. From an Information Systems
perspective, main intended outcomes are to: (3) explore implications for evaluating
IS from conceptualising the IS as a service; (4) bring conceptual clarity to the IS
discipline regarding the alternative notion of SQ as a ‘dimension’ of IS Success as
first suggested by (DeLone and McLean 2003); and (5) further validate the IS-
Impact model (Gable 2008). The candidate’s research assists in contributing
knowledge to points (4) and (5).
The B&C Service Quality Model (Brady and Cronin 2001)
The IS-Impact Model (Gable et al 2008)
Attitude Behaviour ExpertiseAmbient
ConditionsDesign
Social
Factors
Waiting
TimeTangibles Valence
Interaction
Quality
Environment
Quality
Outcome
Quality
IS-SvQ
R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E
Service
Quality
(D&M 2003)
SV1 SV2 9 SVx
Quality Impact
System
Quality
SQ1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9
Information
Quality
IQ1 IQ2 IQ3 IQ4 IQ5 IQ6
Individual
Impact
II1 II2 II3 II4
Organisational
Impact
O11O12 OI3 OI4 OI5 OI6 OI7 OI8
IS-Impact
Satisfaction
S1
S2
9
Sx
IS-Impact+
The B&C Service Quality Model (Brady and Cronin 2001)
The IS-Impact Model (Gable et al 2008)
Attitude Behaviour ExpertiseAmbient
ConditionsDesign
Social
Factors
Waiting
TimeTangibles Valence
Interaction
Quality
Environment
Quality
Outcome
Quality
IS-SvQ
R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E R SP ER SP E
Service
Quality
(D&M 2003)
SV1 SV2 9 SVx
Service
Quality
(D&M 2003)
SV1 SV2 9 SVxSV1 SV2 9 SVx
Quality Impact
System
Quality
SQ1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9
System
Quality
SQ1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ1SQ2SQ3SQ1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ7SQ8SQ9
Information
Quality
IQ1 IQ2 IQ3 IQ4 IQ5 IQ6
Information
Quality
IQ1 IQ2 IQ3 IQ4 IQ5 IQ6IQ1 IQ2 IQ3IQ1 IQ2 IQ3 IQ4 IQ5 IQ6IQ4 IQ5 IQ6
Individual
Impact
II1 II2 II3 II4
Individual
Impact
II1 II2 II3 II4II1 II2 II3 II4
Organisational
Impact
O11O12 OI3 OI4 OI5 OI6 OI7 OI8
Organisational
Impact
O11O12 OI3 OI4 OI5 OI6 OI7 OI8O11 O12 OI3 OI4 OI5 OI6 OI7 OI8
IS-Impact
Satisfaction
S1
S2
9
Sx
Satisfaction
S1
S2
9
Sx
S1
S2
9
Sx
IS-Impact+
Figure 2 – Discovery grant model (Gable 2008)
A
B
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Figure 3 – IS-Impact model
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Chapter Summary
This Chapter first sourced and analyzed various definitions of SQ before adopting
the definition proposed by Rathmell (1966) that a ‘service’ is “a deed, a
performance, and an effort”. In order to avoid confusion between a ‘service’ and a
‘product’, a comparison between the two was done and outcome of which is the
candidate’s adoption of Shostack’s (1977) proposed model (theory) which
distinguishes between goods and services along a continuum from intangible
dominant services to tangible dominant physical goods. Her model posits the
proportion of tangibles to intangibles in a product determines whether it should be
classified as a good or service. Various definitions of SQ were sourced and analyzed
from literature before adopting the definition by Parasuraman et al. (1988) that SQ is
the “degree and direction of discrepancy between consumers’ perceptions and
expectations”. This Chapter revisited two main conceptualizations of SQ namely the
Nordic and North American schools. A popular and widely-used SQ model
developed by the North American School (SERVQUAL), with intentions of being
able to measure SQ globally, was documented and results from a mapping exercise
(Table 9) to test its global feasibility seemed to be contrary to its intentions. Despite
the contrary results, researchers have noted the value in SERVQUAL’s
conceptualization of its five dimensions being pivotal as a starting point to
measuring SQ (Li et al. 2002). Researchers also noted SERVQUAL seemed to
indicate the “key” criterion of SQ (five dimensions of SQ), however, it didn’t seem
to indicate WHAT needs to be asked for each criterion (Li et al. 2002). A seemingly
successor of SERVQUAL, which adopted three of SERVQUAL’s five dimensions
(responsiveness, reliability and empathy), the Brady and Cronin (2001) model, was
introduced in a bid to better explain how customers evaluate SQ (hierarchical/multi-
level instead of single-level nature). The Brady and Cronin (2001) model, or B&C
(2001) model, gained favor as its conceptualization seemed to have overcome some
of SERVQUAL’s shortfalls (E.g: the ‘what’ question in-relation to SERVQUAL’s
(1988) five dimensions) coupled with support from many other researchers. The
candidate is in-agreement with Li et al. (2002) that due to the unique characteristics
of each industry, dimensional (or sub-dimensional in the B&C (2001) model)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
75
weighting is supported. Two main approaches (perceptions-only and
disconfirmation) of measuring SQ as well as their benefits and problems were
documented. A cross-analysis was conducted to try and identify if a particular
approach (if any) was better in measuring SQ. The conclusion was that both
approaches were valid and depending on the objectives of the analysis, one approach
would be better over the other. Various definitions of SAT were sourced and
analyzed from literature before the candidate adopted Oliver’s (1989) definition of
SAT being an “evaluate, affective, or emotional response”. Two notions of causality
between SQ and SAT were documented. Dagger, Sweeney and Johnson (2007)
mention the strong association between SQ and BI is noteworthy because SAT is
generally viewed as more closely aligned with BI, in that SAT is typically modeled
as mediating the relationship between SQ and BI (in-support for SQ->SAT->BI)
where ‘->’ represents influence. Results from the candidate’s analysis coupled with
the latter statement bring about support and adoption of the notion of SQ ->SAT-
>BI. The importance of SQ and the potential influence SQ has on IS Success was
also highlighted. The latter statement suggests organizations should look beyond the
traditional role of IS and move towards improving its SQ. The inclusion of the ‘SQ’
dimension in a well-known and widely-cited IS Success model (DeLone and
McLean 2003) greater emphasizes the importance of SQ in IS. Recent research
suggests SQ perceptions are better represented as multilevel and multidimensional
and such perceptions were represented by the Brady and Cronin (2001) or ‘B&C’
model. The ‘B&C’ model was put alongside the IS-Impact model (an IS Success
measurement model developed by the candidate’s research track) with the aims of
cross-fertilizing ideas and further validating the IS-Impact model (if necessary) by
conceptualizing IS as a ‘service’.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
76
Chapter 3: Research Design
The candidate has employed the archival analysis research method, which is defined
as “a form of the observational method, whereby the researcher examines the
accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines,
and newspapers)” (archival analysis - Lexikon 2006), for his research. The research
approach is essentially qualitative, treating literature as evidence. The candidate’s
research is composed of two phases (inventory and deductive) with archival analysis
applied in each.
The inventory phase, being by nature open-ended and exploratory, is first used to
identify and consolidate SQ dimensions from various industries. The aim of the
inventory phase is to consolidate a collection of SQ dimensions derived from a
diversity of industries, thereby facilitating generalizability of results from the
deductive phase. SQ evidence (articles) from IT online databases (E.g: ACM Digital
Library, Emerald Management Xtra, ProQuest, ScienceDirect, Web Of Science, etc)
and marketing journals (E.g: Marketing Science, Journal of Marketing, Journal of
Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Retailing, Harvard
Business Review, Journal of Service Research, Journal of Business Research,
European Journal of Marketing, etc) were sourced via links from QUT’s library web
site. Key words such as “service quality”, “service quality dimensions”, “service
quality conceptualization” and “service quality measurement” were entered into the
search function under the ‘title’ and ‘key words’ categories of each database. The
aim of the key words was to narrow the search to those articles of relevance; those
which document: (1) how SQ is conceptualized in the particular industry and (2)
what are the SQ dimensions in the particular industry. This search resulted in a
collection of fifty-nine SQ articles reflecting diverse industries (Appendix A). This
collection of industry-related SQ articles was then filtered to a sub-set of only those
that documented and defined the SQ dimensions (Appendix A). Articles that made
mention of SQ dimensions but failed to define them, were excluded, as they would
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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not be useful in the deductive phase (see following). A total of seventeen out of fifty-
nine SQ articles included appropriate detail.
In the deductive phase, a mapping exercise (Appendix B) was conducted (by the
candidate and his colleague) using the B&C (2001) model as the basis, to classify
the SQ dimensions identified from the seventeen SQ articles. The seventeen SQ
articles coincidentally represented seventeen different industries. Table 6 documents
the classification of SQ dimensions based on five global SQ models (Table 5)
documented thus far in the service marketing literature. These five global SQ models
were developed over time due to the rise in importance of SQ and the necessity to
measure SQ with a measurement model that is not developed based on any specific
industry. From Table 6, it can be seen that SQ dimensions fall into three categories
namely physical environment, process, and product. Classification results from
Table 6 suggest only two global SQ models were feasible to be used as the basis of
classification in the mapping exercise: (1) the (B&C (2001) model, and (2) the Rust
and Oliver (1994) model). The B&C (2001) model was chosen over the Rust and
Oliver (1994) model because the B&C (2001) model had based certain measurement
aspects (E.g: SERVQUAL’s ‘responsiveness’, ‘reliability’ and ‘empathy’
dimensions were used to measure the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions) on
the credible and widely cited SERVQUAL while Rust and Oliver’s (1994) model
didn’t state how their model’s SQ dimensions were measured. The purpose of the
mapping exercise is to further validate an existing global SQ model by testing its
global applicability across various industries and service types. For the candidate’s
research, the existing global SQ model being tested is the B&C (2001) model and
the seventeen industries (Appendix A) singled out represent the various industries
and service types. Tests of the B&C (2001) model include: (1) do the nine sub-
dimensions encompass the SQ dimensions identified from seventeen different
industries?; and (2) do the three primary dimensions encompass the SQ dimensions
identified from seventeen different industries? Each definition of the SQ dimensions
(from seventeen different industries) was compared and mapped logically to each of
the definition of the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions. For each of the SQ
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
78
dimensions mapped onto the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions, the
corresponding B&C (2001) model’s primary dimension(s) was/were mapped to that
SQ dimension.
Chapter Summary
This Chapter documents the research method used by the candidate (archival
analysis) as well as the procedures of how this method was applied to the candidate’s
research. The candidate’s research method can be summarized as consisting of two
phases (inventory and deductive) with archival analysis being performed
respectively in each phase.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Chapter 4: Archival Analysis Of Data And Discussion
Of Mapping Results
Validating The Global Applicability Of The B&C’s (2001) Model
The candidate first consolidated a collection of SQ journal articles that were industry
focused. Secondly, he filtered through the collection and excluded articles that
either had no SQ dimensions mentioned or had the latter mentioned but no
descriptions of them (Appendix A). The outcome of which are seventeen articles that
represented seventeen different SQ models/industries (Table 13).
The candidate conducted a logical definition-to-definition comparison of the
seventeen industries’ SQ dimensions with that of the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-
dimensions and subsequently the model’s three primary dimensions. It should be
noted that the seventeen industry models’ dimensional descriptions were not
compared to the B&C (2001) model’s three measures (reliability, responsiveness and
empathy) because the measures were merely descriptors of the sub-dimensions and
not direct determinants of SQ (Brady and Cronin 2001).
The mapping process was as follows:
(1) For each of the dimensions within a particular industry model, compare its
dimensional description with the description of each of the B&C (2001) model’s
nine sub-dimensions to find commonality in meanings (either in-terms of similar
“key words” or similar inferential meanings).
“Key words” can be described as similar words or phrases within the descriptions of
the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions and the industry model’s dimensions.
For example, the key word for the ‘ambient conditions’ sub-dimension of the B&C
(2001) model would be “non-visual” and the key word for the ‘ambience’ dimension
under the ‘recreation sport’ industry would be “non-visual”. The former and latter
suggest commonality in meanings in-terms of key words.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Similar inferential meanings can be described as phrases or sentences within the
descriptions of the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions and the industry
model’s dimensions with similar meanings. For example, the description of the
‘adaptiveness’ dimension (“ability to solve and help to interpret different customer
problems and questions”) under the ‘call centers’ industry has a similar inferential
meaning to the description of the ‘expertise’ dimension (“extend to which the
individual provider can affect the outcome of the service through his or her skills”)
in the B&C (2001) model. For example, the expertise of the staff would be seen by
his/her ability to interpret the customer’s problem/question accurately and solve it
appropriately. Should the staff lack expertise in the sense that the staff
misunderstands or misinterprets the customer’s issue, tension could arise on the
customer’s end (if not on both ends) as both parties are not able to see things on the
same wavelength. Should the staff be unable to solve the customer’s issue, the
outcome of the service encounter would be more negative. In short, it takes expertise
on the staff’s end to accurately interpret, identify and solve a customer’s issue with
the end result of closing the issue.
(2) Should commonality (in dimensional meanings) be found, the appropriate sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model would be mapped onto that particular industry
model’s dimension. An example of the latter, based on commonality in-terms of key
words, would be the mapping of the ‘ambience’ dimension under the ‘recreation
sport’ industry to the ‘ambient conditions’ sub-dimension of the B&C (2001) model.
Should a particular industry model’s dimension map onto more than one sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model, the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimension with
the closest match in dimensional meaning would be mapped to that particular
model’s dimension. For example, the description of the ‘graphic quality’ dimension
(“how well the various elements of the user interface are visually represented”)
under the ‘electronic services’ industry seems to represent a tangible appearance
(and therefore conforming to the ‘tangibles’ sub-dimension of the B&C (2001)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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model), however, the latter’s description more closely aligns to the description of the
‘ambient conditions’ sub-dimension of the B&C (2001) model in the sense that the
description of the ‘graphic quality’ dimension implicitly describes the layout and
architecture of the environment rather than just being tangible in appearance.
Should NO commonality be found, label the particular industry model’s dimension
‘unclassified’. An example is the ‘support’ dimension under the ‘health’ industry
whereby the candidate was not able to find a match in meanings between the latter
dimension and the sub-dimensions of the B&C (2001) model. The ‘support’
dimension was therefore labeled as ‘unclassified’ to indicate ambiguity. It should be
noted that each industry model’s dimension should map onto only ONE sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model.
(3) For each sub-dimension of the B&C (2001) model mapped onto the particular
industry model’s dimension, its associated primary dimension (on the B&C (2001)
model) would be mapped. For example, taking the mapping of the ‘ambience’
dimension under the ‘recreation sport’ industry to the ‘ambient conditions’ sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model, the associated primary dimension of the B&C
(2001) model in-relation to the ‘ambient conditions’ sub-dimension is ‘physical
environment quality’. Thus, it is said that the ‘ambience’ dimension maps onto the
‘physical environment quality’ primary dimension of the B&C (2001) model. The
purpose for step (3) is to assist the candidate in validating the classification of SQ
dimensions on a higher level based on the three primary dimensions of the B&C
(2001) model.
(4) Steps (1 – 3) to be repeated for all dimensions of all seventeen industry models.
Appendix B documents the mapping exercise attempted by the candidate and his
colleague. It is to be noted that all industries’ dimensional descriptions were cut and
pasted direct from the literature.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Mapping Exercise Results In-Relation To The B&C (2001) Model’s Sub-
Dimensions
The following observations were made by the candidate after analyzing the mapping
results (agreed upon by both the candidate and his colleague) in-relation to the B&C
(2001) model’s sub-dimensions (Appendix C).
The mapping results appear to show confusion with the ‘behavior’ and ‘expertise’
sub-dimensions. This could be due to the cognitive interpretation that ‘expertise’ can
also be a type of behavior. An example is the definition of the ‘authority’ SQ
dimension under the ‘Call Centers’ industry which could be interpreted as a verb
(behavior) by the phrase in the definition “…perform the required tasks” or as
‘expertise’ by the phase in the definition “…ability to perform…”.
The mapping results appear to show confusion with the ‘design’ and ‘valence’ sub-
dimensions. This could be due to the definitions of industry SQ dimensions being
encompassed by either the ‘valence’ or ‘design’ sub-dimension of the B&C (2001)
model. An example is the definition of the ‘ease of use’ SQ dimension under the
‘electronic services’ industry which could be interpreted as a customer’s perspective
(valence) or as part of the web site design (design).
The mapping results appear to show confusion with the ‘attitude’ and ‘behavior’
sub-dimensions. The definitions of ‘attitude’ and ‘behavior’ defined by Brady and
Cronin seem to implicitly encompass each other. For example in the definition of
‘attitude’ which is defined as “a function not only of….situation”, the phrase
“…client’s perception, client-provider interaction, and the given situation” within
the latter’s definition seems to implicitly encompass the definition of “behavior”.
The mapping results appear to show confusion with the ‘ambient conditions’ and
‘design’ sub-dimensions. A possible rationale for the latter could be the definition of
the industry SQ dimension having implicitly encompassed the definitions of
“ambient conditions and “design”. An example is the “transcendence” SQ dimension
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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which is defined as “appearance and color...clarity and readability of text” by which
the phrase “clarity and readability of text” might be more aligned to the definition of
“design” while the rest of the latter’s definition is more aligned to the definition of
“ambient conditions”.
The candidate notes that such confusions between the above mentioned sub-
dimensions of the B&C (2001) model could contribute to perceptual
misinterpretations during the execution of the mapping exercise due to overlaps in
definitions between the sub-dimensions and industry SQ dimensions. Though the
sub-dimensional definitions defined by Brady and Cronin are valuable, the candidate
suggests a review of these sub-dimensional definitions with the aim of reviewing
them to be more precise and to avoid perceptual overlaps in interpretations.
Mapping Exercise Results In-Relation To The B&C (2001) Model’s Primary
Dimensions
The following observations were made by the candidate after analyzing the mapping
results (agreed upon by both the candidate and his colleague) in-relation to the B&C
(2001) model’s primary dimensions (Appendix D).
For the ‘Call Centers’, ‘Banks And Credit Unions’, ‘Retail’, Web-based Services’
and ‘E-travel’ industries, focus appears to be solely on interaction quality. This could
be due to the nature of the industry being more interactive between service provider
and customer. Emphasis on physical environment and outcome qualities appear
negligible as contact is mainly focused on the interaction between service provider
and customer.
For the ‘Web-based Information Systems (WIS)’ industry, focus appears to be on all
three of B&C (2001) model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on the interaction
and physical environment quality dimensions. An example of such an industry is an
inventory retrieval system which gathers and displays information according to the
requests of the customer. For this industry, emphasis is on how well the system
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
84
(service provider) is able to interact with the customer, gather and deliver what the
customer requests (interaction quality) as well as the environment that the system
provides in supporting the customer’s requests (physical environment quality).
For the ‘Academic Libraries’ and ‘Health’ industries, focus appears to be equal
across all three B&C (2001) model’s primary dimensions.
For the ‘E-service’ industry, focus appears to be on the interaction and outcome
quality primary dimensions of the B&C (2001) model with emphasis on interaction
quality.
For the ‘Education’ industry, focus appears to be on the physical environment and
outcome quality primary dimensions of the B&C (2001) model with emphasis on
outcome quality. A possible rationale for the latter could be due to students being
more concerned with the outcome of their education (E.g: if they obtained a degree
at the end of their course) rather than the environment that they are studying in.
For the ‘Electronic Services’ industry, focus appears to be on all three of B&C
(2001) model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on outcome quality. A possible
rationale for the latter is that customers in this particular industry might be more
concerned with the outcome of the service rather than the interaction between
service provider and customer and the quality of the physical environment. An
example of an electronic service is the automated teller machine. Customers are
more concerned about the outcome quality of the service (E.g: being able to
withdraw money) rather than the quality of interaction between customer and service
provider (E.g: machine screen) and the quality of the physical (or screen-based)
environment. This industry unlike the ‘web-based information system’ industry has
more tangible outcomes because the latter’s objective is just to deliver information to
the customer (via a screen). Thus for the WIS industry, emphasis is more on the
quality of the interaction and physical environment.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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For the ‘Web Sites’ industry, focus appears to be on all three of B&C (2001)
model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on physical environment and outcome
quality dimensions. An example of a web site would be Queensland University of
Technology (QUT) web site. The customer might be more concerned about the
environment of the web site (E.g: look and feel of the web site) and if he/she
managed to get the required information he/she seeks rather than the quality of
his/her interaction between the web site and himself/herself.
For the ‘Automobile’ industry, focus appears to be on all three of B&C (2001)
model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on physical environment and outcome
quality dimensions. An example of such an industry is a car dealer showroom. A
possible rationale for the emphasis could be the customer might be more concerned
if the showroom had the cars all neatly parked in an organized manner (physical
environment quality) so he/she can more easily browse through the variety of cars
and if the purchase transaction for the car goes through successfully (outcome
quality).
For the ‘E-Business’ industry, focus appears to be on all three of B&C (2001)
model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on physical environment and interaction
quality dimensions. An example of such an industry could be Yahoo Auctions. A
possible rationale for the emphasis could be the customer might be more concerned
about the reliability and accuracy of information provided by the seller (interaction
quality) as well as the ease of securing the purchase online (physical environment
quality).
For the ‘Online Shopping’ industry, focus appears to be on the interaction and
physical environment quality primary dimensions of the B&C (2001) model with
emphasis on interaction quality. An example of such an industry is E-Bay. A
possible rationale for the emphasis is customers might be more concerned about the
reliability of the purchase transaction and accuracy of information on the web site as
there is no tangible product that the customers can view and verify.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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For the ‘Recreation Sport’ industry, focus appears to be on the outcome and physical
environment quality primary dimensions of the B&C (2001) model with emphasis
on outcome quality. An example of such an industry is a football organization. A
possible rationale is that customers (or football teams in this context) might be more
concerned if their team wins the football match as compared to the quality of the
interaction (between players in the team or even between team and organization) and
physical environment (E.g: how neat the football pitch looks).
For the ‘E-Retailing’ industry, focus appears to be on all three of B&C (2001)
model’s primary dimensions with emphasis on physical environment. An example of
such an industry is the Symantec online store. A possible rationale is that customers
might be more concerned about the look and feel as well as the ease of navigation of
the web site (physical environment quality).
The tabulation procedures in-relation to the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-
dimensions, for the candidate and his colleague, were as follows: (1) For each of the
B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions, the presence of that sub-dimension (in a
particular industry) as mapped similarly by the candidate and his colleague was
checked against the mapping results (Appendix C). For example, the ‘expertise’ sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model was mapped by both the candidate and his
colleague onto the ‘adaptiveness’ SQ dimension in the ‘call centers’ industry. (2)
Should there be at least one match (agreed by the candidate and his colleague)
between the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimension and the industry model’s SQ
dimensions, it was noted that the particular B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimension was
present in that particular industry. For example, the ‘expertise’ sub-dimension of the
B&C (2001) model was mapped onto two SQ dimensions (‘reliability’ and
‘support’) in the ‘E-Service’ industry as compared to one SQ dimension
(‘competence’) in the ‘Banks and Credit Unions’ industry. Steps (1) and (2) were
carried out for all SQ dimensions in all seventeen industries.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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The tabulation procedures in-relation to the B&C (2001) model’s three primary
dimensions, for the candidate and his colleague, were as follows: (1) For each of the
B&C (2001) model’s three primary dimensions, the presence of that primary
dimension (in a particular industry) as mapped similarly by the candidate and his
colleague was checked against the mapping results (Appendix D). For example, the
‘interaction quality’ primary dimension of the B& C (2001) model was mapped onto
the ‘adaptiveness’ SQ dimension in the ‘Call Centers’ industry. (2) Should there be
at least one match (agreed by the candidate and his colleague) between the B&C
(2001) model’s primary dimension and the industry model’s SQ dimensions, it was
noted that the particular B&C (2001) model’s primary dimension was present in that
particular industry. For example, in the ‘E-Travel’ industry, the ‘interaction quality’
primary dimension of the B&C (2001) model was mapped onto two SQ dimensions
(‘security’ and ‘responsiveness’) as compared to one SQ dimension (‘tailored
information’) in the ‘Web Site’ industry. Steps (1) and (2) were carried out for all
SQ dimensions in all seventeen industries.
Results from the tabulation (Tables 14) would give the candidate an approximation
of the global validity of the B&C (2001) model. For each B&C (2001) model’s
primary dimension, support is deemed should the presence of the primary dimension
be present in more than or equals to fifty percent among the seventeen industries.
Results from the tabulation (Tables 14) appear to suggest strong support for all three
(interaction, physical environment and outcome) B&C (2001) model’s primary SQ
dimensions and considerable support for the nine sub-dimensions (attitude, behavior,
expertise, ambient conditions, design, social factors, waiting time, tangibles and
valence).
In-relation to the ‘interaction quality’ primary dimension, there appears to be
considerable support for the expertise sub-dimensions. However the ‘attitude’ and
‘behavior’ sub-dimensions appear to have a low presence. In-relation to the ‘physical
environment quality’ primary dimension, there appears to be considerable support
for only the ‘design’ sub-dimension. However, ‘ambient conditions’ and ‘social
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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factors’ sub-dimensions appear to have a low presence. In-relation to the ‘outcome
quality’ primary dimension, there appears to be considerable support for the
‘valence’ sub-dimension. However, ‘tangibles’ and ‘waiting time’ sub-dimensions
appear to have a low presence.
All in all, it appears that the B&C (2001) model’s three primary dimensions serve as
an appropriate basis for global SQ measurement across industries. The candidate
acknowledges that although all three B&C (2001) model’s primary dimensions were
not present in all seventeen industries, the tabulation results (>= 50% presence)
suggest that they are a reliable starting point (at a higher level of dimensional
classification) and basis for SQ measurement. The candidate also acknowledges that
although all the B&C (2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions were not present in all
seventeen industries, with some sub-dimensions appearing low in presence, none of
the sub-dimensions had a zero presence which appears to suggest the sub-
dimensions’ existence. A possible reason for the low presence of sub-dimensions
could be the existence of sub-dimensions is context-specific and what would be
considered as a dimension of SQ in one context might not apply to another.
The candidate notes that confusions as stated above between the B&C (2001)
model’s sub-dimensions and industry SQ dimension could contribute to the low
presence of sub-dimensions with the resultant effect of support for the primary
dimensions.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Dean 2002)
Service
quality
Adaptiveness, assurance,
empathy, authority
Call centers
(Burgers, Rutyer, Keen
and Streukens 2000)
framework
(Tan et al.
2003)
Service
quality
Reliability, responsiveness,
access, flexibility, ease of
navigation, efficiency,
assurance/trust, security, site
aesthetics,
customization/personalization,
quality of information
Web-based
information
systems (WIS)
(Zeithaml, Parasuraman
and Malhotra 2000)
framewrok
(Nagata et al.
2004)
Service
quality
Effect of service, library as ba,
collection and access, effect of
service
Academic
libraries
SERVQUAL(Parasuram
an et al. 1988)
(Santos 2003)
Service
quality
Reliability, efficiency, support,
communication, security,
incentive
E-service
Not stated
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
90
Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Joseph and
Joseph 1997)
Service
quality
Academic reputation, program
issues, physical facilities,
cost/time, location, career
opportunities, other
Education
Not stated
(Allred and
Addams 2000)
Service
quality
Reliability, responsiveness,
competence, access,
communication
Banks and
credit unions
SERVQUAL(Parasuram
an et al. 1988;
Parasuraman et al. 1985)
framework; (Berry ,
Parasuraman and
Zeithaml 1994)
framework
(Siu and
Cheung 2001)
Service
quality
Personal interaction, policy,
physical appearance, promises,
problem solving, convenience
Retail
(Dabholkar et al. 1996)
framework
(Li et al.
2002)
Service
quality
Responsiveness, Competence,
Quality of information,
Empathy, Web assistance,
Callback systems
Web-based
services
SERVQUAL(Parasuram
an et al. 1988)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
91
Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Dagger et al.
2007)
Service
quality
Interpersonal quality
(interaction, relationship),
technical quality (outcome,
expertise), environment quality
(atmosphere, tangibles),
administrative quality
(timeliness, operation, support)
Health
Brady and Cronin
(2001) framework;
Retail service quality
framework (Dabholkar
et al. 1996)
(Fassnacht and
Koese 2006)
Service
quality
Environment quality (graphic
quality, clarity of layout),
delivery quality (attractiveness
of selection, information
quality, ease of use, technical
quality), outcome quality
(reliability, functional benefit,
emotional benefit)
Electronic
services
(Rust and Oliver 1994)
framework
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
92
Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Loiacono et
al. 2007)
Web site
quality
Usefulness (informational fit-
to-task, tailored information,
online completeness, relative
advantage), ease of use (ease of
understanding, intuitive
operations), trust, response
time, entertainment (visual
appeal, innovativeness,
emotional appeal, consistent
image)
Websites
Theory of reasoned
action (Ajzen and
Fishbein 1980);
technology acceptance
model (Davis, Bagozzi
and Warshaw 1989)
(Ho and Lee
2006)
Service
quality
Information quality, security,
website functionality, customer
relationships, responsiveness
Websites
Not stated
(Saravanan
and Rao 2007)
Service
quality
Human aspects of service
delivery, core service, social
responsibility, systematization
of service delivery, tangibles of
service, service marketing
Automobile
SERVQUAL(Parasuram
an et al. 1988);
(Sureshchandar,
Rajendran and
Anantharaman 2002)
framework
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
93
Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Mohanty et
al. 2007)
Service
quality
Performance, features,
serviceability, accuracy/clarity,
responsiveness, structure,
customization, integrity,
flexibility, reliability, time and
timeliness, security/system
integrity, accessibility,
communication and feedback,
usability/navigability,
availability, functionality,
reputation, trust
E-Business
(Kano, Seraku,
Takahashi and Tsuji
1984) framework
(Bauer et al.
2006)
Service
quality
Functionality/design,
enjoyment, process, reliability,
responsiveness.
Online shopping
Not stated
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Stu
dy
Domain O
f
Measu
re
Dim
ensions
(Sub-dim
ensions)
Scope Of
Application
Theoretical Reference
(Ko and
Pastore 2004)
Service
quality
Program quality (range of
programs, operating time,
information), interaction quality
(client-employee interaction,
inter-client interaction),
outcome quality (physical
change, valence, sociability),
physical environment quality
(ambience, design, equipment)
Recreation sport
(Brady and Cronin
2001) and (Dabholkar et
al. 1996) frameworks
(Collier and
Bienstock
2006)
Service
quality
Process (privacy, design,
information accuracy, ease of
use, functionality), outcome
(order timeliness, order
accuracy, order condition),
recovery (interactive fairness,
procedural fairness, outcome
fairness)
E-Retailing
Not stated
Table 13: Service Quality M
odels Across Industries
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
95
Table 14: Mapping results of service quality dimensions mapped onto B&C
(2001) Model that was agreed by the candidate and his colleagues in their own
separate mapping exercise.
Primary
Dimension
Presence
(Out of 17
Industries)
Sub-Dimensions Presence
(Out of 17
Industries)
Interaction
Quality
15 Attitude 4
Behavior 3
Expertise 13
Physical
Environment
Quality
11 Ambient
Conditions
2
Design 8
Social Factors 1
Outcome
Quality
11 Waiting Time 4
Tangibles 1
Valence 8
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96
Chapter 5: Conclusions
Since the 80s, there has been increasing recognition that SQ is vital and influential to
the success of businesses (and Information Systems) as well as being a key
competitive differentiator. In recent years, there has been a shift in the structure of
SQ models (from single-level to multi-level) to better represent the complexity of
human perceptions and to better portray how consumers evaluate SQ.
A popular and widely-used global SQ model (SERVQUAL – a single-level model)
was analyzed in the candidate’s research because of its prominence and stature; it
being the basis for the conceptualization of many other SQ models; and it being
regarded by most as the basis of SQ measurement. The candidate tested the intended
global applicability of SERVQUAL’s five dimensions on seven different industries
(via a mapping exercise) with results suggesting limitations (Table 9). The results
(Table 9) concur with many of SERVQUAL’s known limitations as reported in the
literature. Most importantly, SERVQUAL failed to address the ‘what’ questions in-
relation to its five dimensions. The candidate notes that each of the five dimensions
is important to the evaluation of SQ, however, the five dimensions should also
address the ‘what’ question (E.g: what needs to be reliable, assured, tangible,
empathetic and responsible.). The ‘what’ question needs to be addressed so that
researchers know what to measure in-relation to the five SERVQUAL dimensions.
In the past few years, another global SQ model, the Brady and Cronin (2001) model
or the B&C (2001) model, has gained traction in academe with its conceptualization
of SQ as multi-level and multi-dimensional. Consistent with the views of several
prominent researchers (E.g: Kang (2006), Dabholkar et al. (1996)), the B&C (2001)
model (a hierarchical model) overcomes several of the weaknesses of SERVQUAL
(E.g: the ‘what’ question in-relation to the five SERVQUAL dimensions). The
authors of the B&C (2001) model, however, state that although it is apparent that
perceptions of SQ are based on multiple dimensions, there is no agreement as to the
nature or content of these dimensions (Brady and Cronin 2001; Ko and Pastore
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
97
2004). The candidate tested the global applicability of the B&C (2001) model’s
primary and sub-dimensions (via a mapping exercise – Appendix B), and results
(Appendix C and D, Tables 14) indicate strong support for the three primary quality
dimensions (interaction, physical environment and outcome) and considerable
support for the nine sub-dimensions (attitude, behavior, expertise, ambient
conditions, design, social factors, waiting time, tangibles, valence). In-terms of
matched mapping results in-relation to the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimensions, the
candidate and his colleague scored a percentage of 51.42% (seventy-two out of one
hundred and forty SQ dimensions across seventeen industries). Such a low
percentage could be attributed to the lack of explicitness in some of the definitions of
the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimensions (E.g: attitude, behavior) and the unique
features of each industry. The candidate notes that some of the sub-dimensions do
cognitively overlap in meanings resulting in varied mapping results. The candidate
suggests that work still needs to be done on the sub-dimensional level to better
define these sub-dimensions more explicitly (both logically and cognitively) to
reduce the probability of overlaps in meanings. In-terms of matched mapping results
in-relation to the B&C (2001) model’s primary dimensions, the candidate and his
colleague scored a percentage of 70% (ninety-eight out of one hundred and forty SQ
dimensions across seventeen industries). Such a high percentage suggests agreement
between the candidate and his colleague that the B&C (2001) model’s three primary
dimensions are existent among the seventeen industries and serve as a good basis for
evaluating SQ across various industries and service types.
The candidate acknowledges that SQ dimensions can be classified at a higher level
which is encompassed by the B&C (2001) model’s three primary dimensions
(interaction, physical environment and outcome). The candidate also notes that it
might be viable to re-word the ‘physical environment quality’ primary dimension to
‘environment quality’ so as to better encompass both physical and virtual scenarios
(E.g: web sites). The candidate does not rule out the global feasibility of the B&C
(2001) model’s nine sub-dimensions, however, acknowledges that more work has to
be done to better define the sub-dimensions. The candidate observes that based on
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
98
the tabulation of mapping results (Table 14), it appears that the ‘expertise’, ‘design’
and ‘valence’ sub-dimensions are supportive representations (I.e. highest presence
among the other sub-dimensions within the same primary dimension) of the
‘interaction’, physical environment’ and ‘outcome’ primary dimensions respectively.
The latter observation appears to suggest the significance of the ‘expertise’, ‘design’
and ‘valence’ measures across various industries and could suggest their global
validity in the conceptualization of a global SQ model. With respect to the
conceptualization of a global SQ model, the existence of the B&C (2001) model’s
primary dimensions coupled with considerable support for its sub-dimensions
advocate the candidate’s proposal for the B&C (2001) model being the unifying
theory that acts as a starting point to measuring SQ globally.
Two SQ measurement approaches dominate, namely the disconfirmation (difference
between perceptions and expectations) approach and the perceptions-only approach.
The disconfirmation approach can be further broken down into computed (arithmetic
calculations) and measured (mental estimation) disconfirmation. Both approaches
have their strengths and weaknesses and one approach’s strength is another’s
weakness and vice-versa. Just focusing on both approaches’ strengths, the
disconfirmation approach has the ability to identify gaps so improvements can be
made while the perceptions-only approach has the ability to give a more hassle-free
overall evaluation of SQ. The candidate is in-agreement with Dabholkar et al. (2000)
that the appropriate approach depends on the objective(s) of the study. The
(measured) disconfirmation approach is encouraged should the objective be to
identify SQ shortfalls while the perceptions-only approach is encouraged should the
objective be to analyze the overall SQ.
In-relation to the causality between SQ and SAT, the candidate agrees with the
notion of SQ being an antecedent of SAT. Reason being that regardless of the type
of evaluation (E.g: global, transaction-specific), the candidate believes (with support
from many other authors) that SQ has to be evaluated first prior to the evaluation of
SAT.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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5.1 Limitations Of Research
Due to time constraints of the Masters project (1.5 years), only a clear and concise
understanding of SQ was sought via a comprehensive literature review. The main
focuses of the research were on the conceptualizations of SQ among a variety of
industries and the measurements of SQ.
For the mapping exercise (Appendix B), the B&C (2001) model was adopted to test
its global validity and the seventeen industries were used to represent a global
sample of industries. The mapping exercise (Appendix B) should be replicated and
conducted on more industries that were not covered by the seventeen. This mapping
exercise (Appendix B) should also be attempted by a larger targeted audience (E.g:
volunteers from QUT of all ages and occupations) to further validate the B&C
(2001) model.
5.2 Future Research
There has been a lack of attention given to the theoretical development of formative
and reflective constructs. Over the years, there has been support for formative (E.g:
Dagger et al. (2007); Collier and Bienstock (2006)), reflective (E.g: Ho and Lee
(2006); Fassnacht and Koese (2006); Lai (2006); Kilbourne, Duffy, Duffy and
Giarchi (2004)) and mixed directional constructs (E.g: Brady and Cronin (2001)).
Freeze and Raschke (2007) state such lack of attention can lead to measurement
model misspecification. Three implications that can stem from it involve: (1)
construct misspecification; (2) construct identification; and (3) construct validation
(Freeze and Raschke 2007). Collier and Bienstock (2006) suggest the SQ construct
should be made up of formative indicators as SQ is a summation of its dimensions
(Collier and Bienstock 2006). The candidate notes that the B&C (2001) model is
made up of reflective constructs and future research is needed to address the
concerns pointed out by Freeze and Raschke (2007) and Collier and Bienstocl
(2006).
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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From the candidate’s research, it appears beneficial to review all the definitions of
the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimensions with the aim of defining them more
explicitly followed by a re-attempt of the mapping exercise. Should results of the
mapping exercise suggest that the ‘expertise’, ‘design’ and ‘valence’ sub-dimensions
are significant across the various industries (as similar to the candidate’s results), the
candidate suggests scaling down the sub-dimensions of the B&C (2001) model to
just the ‘expertise’, ‘design’ and ‘valence’ sub-dimensions followed by another re-
attempt of the mapping exercise. It would be interesting should the results suggest
that the above three sub-dimensions appear to encompass the majority of industry
SQ dimensions. The results would help to further the development of a global
conceptualization of SQ.
There has been consensus that SQ is pivotal to IS success (E.g: DeLone and McLean
(2003); Pitt et al. (1995); Lin (2007)) and therefore an accurate conceptualization of
IS SQ is vital. The candidate’s research acts as the foundation for future work into
cross-fertilizing the B&C (2001) model with an IS Success measurement model (IS-
Impact model) to exploit potentials with outcomes of: (1) further validating the IS-
Impact model; (2) further validating the B&C (2001) model; or (3) conceptualizing a
new IS SQ model.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Appendices
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
102
Appendix A – List Of Journal Articles Considered For B&C
(2001) Model Mapping Exercise
S/� Title Of Article Journal/Conference Accepted?
1. A Hierarchical Model of
Health Service Quality
(Dagger et al. 2007)
Journal of Service
Research
2. Investigating the success
of ERP systems: Case
studies in three
Taiwanese high-tech
industries
(Chien and Tsaur 2007)
Computers in Industry
3. Quality Dimensions of E-
Commerce and their
Implications
(Mohanty et al. 2007)
Total Quality
Management
4. Measurement of Service
Quality from the
Customer's Perspective -
An Empirical Study
(Saravanan and Rao
2007)
Total Quality
Management
5. Measuring Service
Quality in E-Retailing
(Collier and Bienstock
2006)
Journal of Service
Research
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6. Measuring Service
Quality in Sport Services
(Tsitskari, Tsiotras and
Tsiotras 2006)
Total Quality
Management
7. eTransQual: A
transaction process-based
approach for capturing
service quality in online
shopping
(Bauer et al. 2006)
Journal of Business
Research
8. The development of an e-
travel service quality
scale
(Ho and Lee 2006)
Tourism Management
9. WebQual: An Instrument
for Consumer Evaluation
of Web Sites
(Loiacono et al. 2007)
International Journal
of Electronic
Commerce
10. Quality of Electronic
Services.
Conceptualizating and
Testing a Hierarchical
Model
(Fassnacht and Koese
2006)
Journal of Service
Research
11. Assessment of employees'
perceptions of service
quality and satisfaction
with e-business
(Lai 2006)
International Journal
of Human-Computer
Studies
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12. A framework for
measurement of quality of
service in supply chains
(Seth, Deshmukh and
Vrat 2006)
Supply Chain
Management: An
International Journal
13. The applicability of
SERVQUAL in cross-
national measurements of
health-care quality
(Kilbourne, Duffy, Duffy
and Giarchi 2004)
Journal of Services
Marketing
14. Hospital service quality: a
managerial challenge
(Rose, Uli, Abdul and Ng
2004)
International Journal
of Health Care
Quality Assurance
15. An empirical
investigation of the
relationships among
service quality, customer
satisfaction and
psychological
commitment in a health
club context
(Alexandris et al. 2004)
European Sport
Management
Quarterly
16. Current Issues and
Conceptualizations of
Service Quality in the
Recreation Sports
Industry
(Ko and Pastore 2004)
Sport Marketing
Quarterly
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17. Services, e-Services and
e-Service Innovations -
Combination of
Theoretical and Practical
Knowledge
(Jarvinen and Lehtinen
2004)
Frontiers Of E-
Business Research
18. The dimensions that
construct the evaluation
of service quality in
academic libraries
(Nagata et al. 2004)
Performance
Measurement and
Metrics
19. E-Services
(Stafford 2003 )
Communications Of
The ACM
20. Measuring E-Commerce
Effectiveness: A
Conceptual Model
(Pather, Erwin and
Remenyi 2003)
Proceedings Of The
2003 Annual Research
Conference Of The
South African
Institute Of Computer
Scientists And
Information
Technologists On
Enablement Through
Technology
21. A service quality
framework for Web-
based information
systems
(Tan et al. 2003)
The TQM Magazine
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22. Mapping service quality
in the tourism industry
(Atilgan, Akinci and
Aksoy 2003)
Managing Service
Quality
23. E-Service Quality: a
model of virtual service
quality dimensions
(Santos 2003)
Managing Service
Quality
24. Measuring web-based
service quality
(Li et al. 2002)
Total Quality
Management
25. SYSTRA-SQ: a new
measure of bank service
quality
(Aldlaigan and Buttle
2002)
International Journal
of Service Industry
Management
26. A probabilistic approach
to measure hotel service
quality
(Erto and Vanacore 2002)
Total Quality
Management
27. Service quality in call
centres: implications for
customer loyalty
(Dean 2002)
Managing Service
Quality
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28. Users' Hierarchical
Perspectives on Library
Service Quality: A
"LibQUAL+" Study
(Cook et al. 2001)
College & Research
Libraries
29. User satisfaction and
service quality of the IS
department: closing the
gaps
(Watson, Pitt,
Cunningham and Nel
2001)
Journal of Information
Technology
30. Evaluating the service
quality of information
services using a new "P-
C-P" attributes model
(Philip and Hazlett 2001)
Journal of Quality &
Reliability
Management
31. A measure of retail
service quality
(Siu and Cheung 2001)
Marketing
Intelligence &
Planning
32. Service quality at banks
and credit unions: what
do their customers say?
(Allred and Addams
2000)
Managing Service
Quality
33. Service quality in
education: a student
perspective
(Joseph and Joseph 1997)
Quality Assurance in
Education
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34. Perceived Service Quality
and User Satisfaction
with the Information
Services Function
(Kettinger and Lee 1994)
Decision Sciences
35. Attributes of Service
Quality: The Consumers'
Perspective
(Mersha and Adlakha
1992)
International Journal
of Service Industry
Management
36. Importance-performance
analysis and the
measurement of service
quality
(Ennew et al. 1993)
European Journal of
Marketing
37. A customized measure of
service quality in the
UAE
(Jabnoun and Khalifa
2005)
Managing Service
Quality
38. A hierarchical framework
for a quality information
system
(Naveh and Halevy 2000)
Total Quality
Management
39. Customer-centric service
quality management for
SK telecom's mobile
packet service
(Kim, Park, Kim, Lee,
Kim and Jin 2006 )
International Journal
of Network
Management
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40. Ensuring IT Consulting
SERVQUAL and User
Satisfaction: A Modified
Measurement Tool
(Yoon and Suh 2004)
Information Systems
Frontiers
41. E-Services
(Stafford 2003 )
Communications Of
The ACM
42. From intangibility to
tangibility on service
quality perceptions: a
comparison study
between consumers and
service providers in four
service industries
(Santos 2002)
Managing Service
Quality
43. Measurement of
outpatients' views of
service quality in a
Finnish university
hospital
(Hiidenhovi, Nojonen and
Laippala 2002)
Journal of Advanced
Nursing
44. Measuring Tourist
Judgment On Service
Quality
(Weiermair and Fuchs
1999)
Annals of Tourism
Research
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45. Online Travel Service
Quality: the Role of Pre-
Transaction Services
(Riel, Semeijn and
Pauwels 2004)
Total Quality
Management
46. Customers' perspectives
on service quality and
relationship quality in
retail encounters
(Wong and Sohal 2002)
Managing Service
Quality
47. Quality Measurement in
Service Industries
(Silvestro, Johnston,
Fitzgerald and Voss
1990)
International Journal
of Service Industry
Management
48. Quality measurement in
the public sector: Some
perspectives from the
service quality literature
(Rowley 1998)
Total Quality
Management
49. Quality of service in an
information economy
(Braumandl, Kemper and
Kossmann 2003)
ACM Transactions on
Internet Technology
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50. REFERQUAL: a pilot
study of a new service
quality assessment
instrument in the GP
exercise referral scheme
setting
(Cock, Adams, Ibbetson
and Baugh 2006)
BMC Health Services
Research
51. Relationship quality,
relationship marketing,
and client perceptions of
the levels of service
quality of charitable
organisations
(Bennett and Barkensjo
2005)
International Journal
of Service Industry
Management
52. TQM implementation:
comparing Singapore's
service and
manufacturing leaders
(Woon 2000)
Managing Service
Quality
53. Service Quality: A
Concept Not Fully
Explored
(Hernon and Nitecki
2001)
Academic Research
Library
54. Service quality in China's
hotel industry: a
perspective from tourists
and hotel managers
(Tsang and Qu 2000)
International Journal
of Contemporary
Hospitality
Management
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112
55. Service quality in the
management of
simulation projects
(Robinson and Pidd 1995
)
Proceedings of the
27th conference on
Winter simulation
56. The ASP-Qual model:
measuring ASP service
quality in Greece
(Sigala 2004)
Managing Service
Quality
57. The LibQUAL+ gap
measurement model: the
bad, the ugly, and the
good of gap measurement
(Thompson, Cook and
Heath 2000)
Performance
Measurement and
Metrics
58. Analyzing service quality
in the hospitality industry
(Wong et al. 1999)
Managing Service
Quality
59. Consumer perspectives
on service quality of
electronic commerce web
sites
(Sullivan and Walstrom
2001)
Journal of Computer
Information Systems
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Appendix B – Mapping Protocol
Attitude Behaviour ExpertiseAmbient
ConditionsDesign
Social
Factors
Waiting
TimeTangibles Valence
Interaction
Quality
Environment
Quality
Outcome
Quality
Service
Quality
R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E R SP E
Brady & Cronin (2001) Model (Brady and Cronin 2001)
Instructions
(1) For each of the dimensions within a particular industry model, compare its
dimensional description with the description of each of the B&C (2001) model’s
nine sub-dimensions to find commonality in meanings (either in-terms of similar
“key words” or similar inferential meanings).
(2) Should commonality (in dimensional meanings) be found, the appropriate
sub-dimension of the B&C (2001) model would be mapped onto that particular
industry model’s dimension.
Should a particular industry model’s dimension map onto more than one sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model, the B&C (2001) model’s sub-dimension
with the closest match in dimensional meaning would be mapped to that
particular model’s dimension.
Should NO commonality be found, label the particular industry model’s
dimension ‘unclassified’.
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Note: Each industry model’s dimension should map onto only ONE sub-
dimension of the B&C (2001) model.
(3) For each sub-dimension of the B&C (2001) model mapped onto the particular
industry model’s dimension, its associated primary dimension (on the B&C
(2001) model) would be mapped.
(4) Steps (1 – 3) to be repeated for all dimensions of all seventeen industry
models.
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Brady &
Cro
nin (2001) M
odel D
escription
Primary
Dim
ensions
Sub-D
imen
sions
Explanation O
f Sub-D
imen
sions
Intera
ction Q
uality
Attitude
A function not only of the inherent
personality of the provider but also of the
client’s perception, the client-provider
interaction, and the given situation (Czepiel
et al. 1985).
(Meaning from dictionary.com – a manner;
disposition; feeling; state of mind)
Beh
avior
Actions of service provider (E.g: helpfulness,
openness, friendliness, warmth, concern, etc)
(Czepiel et al. 1985).
(Meaning from dictionary.com – behaving;
acting; action)
Exper
tise
Extent to which the individual provider can
affect the outcome of the service through his
or her skills (Czepiel et al. 1985).
(Meaning from dictionary.com – skill or
knowledge in a particular area)
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Primary
Dim
ensions
Sub-D
imen
sions
Explanation O
f Sub-D
imen
sions
Physica
l Environmen
t Quality
Ambient Conditions
Non-visual aspects (E.g : temperature, scent,
music, etc).
Design
Layout or architecture of the environment
(either functional – practical, or aesthetic –
visually pleasing)
Social Factors
Number and type of people evident in the
service setting as well as their behaviors.
Outcome Quality
W
aiting T
ime
Amount of time before service was
experienced
Tangibles
Physical facilities, equipment, and
appearance of personnel.
Valence
Attributes that control whether customers
believe the service outcome is good or bad,
regardless of their evaluation of any other
aspect of the experience. The degree to
which the object of interest is considered
favorable or unfavorable.
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Sample M
apping W
ork
shee
t
Industry
(Context)
Dim
ension
Explanation O
f Dim
ension
Mapping
Of
Dim
ension
Onto
Bra
dy & Cro
nin
(2001)
Sub-
Dim
ensions
Mapping
Of
Dim
ension
Onto
Bra
dy
&
Cro
nin
(2001)
Primary
Dim
ensions
Call C
enters
(Dean 2002)
Adaptiven
ess
Ability to solve and help to
interpret different customer
problems and questions.
Assura
nce
To clearly explain the steps in
the procedure of solving the
customer’s question and to
explain exactly for what
purposes the customer’s
information would be used by
the firm.
Empath
y
To empathize with the
customer’s situation and give the
customer a feeling that the
customer and his/her problem
are important to the firm.
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Auth
ority
The authority and the ability to
perform the required tasks.
Web
-based
Inform
ation
System
s
(WIS
)
(Tan et al.
2003)
Reliability
The ability of the WIS to provide
accurate information and to
perform the promised service.
Responsiven
ess
The ability of the WIS to
perform the web-based service
consistently and accurately.
Acc
ess
Quick access to the site and the
company when needed.
Flexibility
Choices of way to pay, ship, buy,
search for and return items.
Ease of navigation
Intuitive on-page navigation to
improve ease-of-use.
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Efficiency
Simplicity of usage.
Assura
nce
/ tru
st
The ability of WIS to convey
trust and confidence.
Sec
urity
Customers’ confidence in the
safety of the site from intrusion
and protection of privacy.
Site aesth
etics
The appearance of the site
Customization /
per
sonaliza
tion
The ability of WIS to provide
caring and individual attention.
Quality of inform
ation
The ability of WIS to provide
quality information.
Aca
dem
ic
Libra
ries
(Nagata et al.
2004)
Effec
t of serv
ice
(per
sonal)
Scenarios where library staffs
serve the customer in association
with the service encounter.
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120
Libra
ry as ba (place
) Composed of not only of
physical elements such as
reading rooms and study rooms,
but also mental aspects of
quietness, comfort and
exchanges with other users and
library staff.
Collec
tion and acc
ess
Materials and information the
library offers such as convenient
access to library collections,
availability of required
information and timely
document delivery.
Effec
t of serv
ice
(org
anizational)
Assuring users of the accuracy
and confidentiality of their
personal information / data and
keeping users informed about
when services will be performed.
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E-ser
vice
(Santos 2003)
Reliability
Ability to perform the promised
service accurately and
consistently including frequency
of updating the web site, prompt
reply to customer enquiries and
accuracy of on-line purchasing
and billing.
Efficiency
Speed of downloading, search
and navigation.
Support
Technical help, user guidelines
and personal advice available to
customers from a web site.
Communication
Keeping customers properly
informed and communicating
with them in a language they can
understand.
Sec
urity
Freedom from danger, risk or
doubt during the service process.
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In
centive
Encouragement given by web
providers to consumers to
browse and use the web site
including rewards for doing so.
Educa
tion
(Joseph and
Joseph 1997)
Aca
dem
ic rep
utation
Prestigious degree program,
recognized nationally and
internationally and which has
excellent instructors.
Pro
gra
m issues
The availability of specialist
programs, degree flexibility, a
practical component in the
degree, the availability of several
course options and flexible entry
requirements.
Physica
l facilities
Excellent academic,
accommodation and sports and
recreational facilities as well as
an appealing campus layout.
Cost / tim
e Length of time it takes to
complete a degree and the costs
involved in doing so.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
123
Loca
tion
Geographical location of the
institute.
Care
er opportunities
How employable will students
be after getting a degree from a
specific institution and the
information the institute
provided on career opportunities.
Oth
er
Influence of word-of-mouth
communication as well as of
family and peers when selecting
a university.
Banks And
Cre
dit U
nions
(Allred and
Addams 2000)
Reliability
Accurate, consistent, dependable
performance.
Responsiven
ess
The willingness and capabilities
of employees.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
124
Competen
ce
Skill and knowledge to provide
expected service at all levels of
the organization.
Acc
ess
Ease of contact, convenient
hours, minimal waiting time and
approachability of employees.
Communication
Using language that the
customer can understand and
sincerely listening to the
customer.
Retail
(Siu and
Cheung 2001)
Per
sonal intera
ction
Individual attention, knowledge
and responsiveness of the
employee.
Policy
Matter of return / exchange,
quality of merchandise,
operating hours as well as safely
and error-free transactions.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
125
Physica
l appea
rance
Visually appealing physical
facilities, equipment and service
material.
Pro
mises
Trustworthiness of the
department store perceived by its
customers.
Pro
blem solving
Handling customers’ complaint
directly and immediately, sincere
interest to solve problem and
clean, attractive and convenient
public areas.
Conven
ience
Convenience of store layout and
the availability of merchandise.
Web
-based
serv
ices
(Li et al. 2002)
Responsiven
ess
The ability of web-based service
systems to perform the online
service consistently and
accurately.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
126
Competen
ce
Ability of e-mail systems and
web site to provide accurate
information and perform the
promised service; the ability of
web-based system to convey
trust and confidence.
Quality of inform
ation
The attributes of information
contained in e-mails or web
sites.
Empath
y
The ability of e-mail systems or
web site to provide caring and
individual attention.
W
eb assistance
The function of FAQs to help
customers solve their problems,
either by themselves or with
technical support.
Callback
system
s Complementary role of callback
systems in web-based customer
services.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
127
Hea
lth
(Dagger et al.
2007)
In
tera
ction
The attitude and behavior of a
service provider in the service
setting. The interactive nature of
the interpersonal process.
Communication includes the
transfer of information between
a provider and a customer, the
degree of interaction, and the
level of two-way
communication.
Relationsh
ip
The closeness and strength of the
relationship developed between a
provider and a customer.
Exper
tise
A provider’s competence,
knowledge, qualifications, or
skill. Expertise reflects the
ability of a service provider to
adhere to high standards of
service provision.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Outcome
What a consumer receives as a
result of his or her interactions
with a service firm.
Atm
osp
her
e The intangible, background
characteristics of the service
environment.
Tangibles
The physical elements of the
service environment that exist at
the forefront of awareness.
Tangibles comprise the design,
function, or layout of the
environment and the signs,
symbols, and artifacts found in
the environment.
Tim
eliness
The factors involved in
arranging to receive medical
services, such as appointment
waiting lists, waiting time, the
ease of changing appointments,
and hours of operation.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
129
Oper
ation
The general administration of the
clinic and the coordination,
organization, and integration of
medical care.
Support
An augmented service element
that adds value to the core
service.
Electro
nic
Ser
vices
(Fassnacht and
Koese 2006)
Gra
phic quality
How well the various elements
of the user interface are visually
represented.
Clarity of layout
The degree to which the design
structure of the user interface
helps users to find their way.
Attra
ctiven
ess of
selection
The extent to which the available
range of offerings appeals to the
customer.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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In
form
ation quality
The extent to which complete,
accurate, and timely information
is provided for the customer
during the interaction process
with the user interface.
Ease of use
The degree to which the
functionality of the user interface
facilitates the customer’s
retrieval of the electronic
service.
Tec
hnical quality
The goodness of data transfer
and data processing during the
delivery of the electronic service.
Reliability
The extent to which the provider
keeps its service promise. The
accuracy and timeliness with
which the underlying service
promise is fulfilled.
Functional ben
efit
The extent to which the service
serves its actual purpose.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
131
Emotional ben
efit
The degree to which using the
service arouses positive feelings.
Web
Sites
(Loiacono et
al. 2007)
In
form
ational fit-to-
task
The concern that information
provided is accurate, updated,
and appropriate. The extent to
which users believe that the Web
site meets their needs.
Tailore
d inform
ation
Communications can be tailored
to meet the user’s needs.
Tru
st
Secure communication and
observance of information
privacy.
Response tim
e Time to get a response after a
request or an interaction with a
Web site.
Ease of under
standing
Easy to read and understand.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
132
In
tuitive oper
ations
Easy to operate and navigate.
Visual appea
l The aesthetics Web site.
In
novativen
ess
The creativity and uniqueness of
a web site.
Emotional appea
l The emotional affect of using the
Web site and intensity of
involvement.
Consisten
t im
age
The Web site does not create
dissonance for the user by an
image incompatible with that
projected by the firm through
other media.
On-line co
mpleteness
Allowing all or most necessary
transactions to be completed on-
line
(E.g: purchasing over the Web
site).
Relative advantage
Equivalent or better than other
means of interacting with the
company.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
133
E-tra
vel
(Ho and Lee
2006)
In
form
ation quality
Service attributes related to the
information provided by
websites. Service attributes
namely accuracy, concise nature,
and timeliness of information.
Sec
urity
Protection of customers’
information, site reputation, and
confirmation of payment.
W
ebsite functionality
Service characteristics regarding
the functions and availability of
the site. These include items
related to the ease of use,
provision of profound and
comprehensive information in
regard to customers’ wants and
needs, and encompass the
determinants of accessibility and
navigation.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
134
Customer
relationsh
ips
Personalised services a website
provides for its customers and
their interactions with other
website users through the online
community. It encompasses the
exchange of travel information
and experiences among website
users.
Responsiven
ess
Attributes that describe the
ability of website personnel to
respond to customers’ inquiries.
Automobile
(Saravanan and
Rao 2007)
Human asp
ects of
serv
ice deliver
y
Role of human elements (E.g:
employee’s behaviours,
personalization, etc) in service
delivery.
Core
ser
vice
Various schemes and facilities
that are offered by the service
organization. Core service
describes the ‘content’ of a
service.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
135
Social resp
onsibility
The responsibility of the
organization to support the
society upon which it thrives.
Social responsibility helps in
improving the organization’s
image and goodwill and
influences the customers’ overall
evaluation of service quality and
their loyalty to the organization.
System
atiza
tion of
serv
ice deliver
y
The streamlining of systems and
procedures involved in the
service delivery. Customers
always expect the service
delivery processes to be
simplified and standardized in
such a way that they could
receive the service without any
hassles.
Tangibles of serv
ice
(ser
vicesca
pes)
The tangible aspects of service
(man-made environment) like
employee’s dress, colour of
equipment, effect of atmosphere
(E.g: light, ventilation, etc)
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
136
Ser
vice mark
eting
The marketing techniques and
strategies adopted by the
organization in order to attract
the customers and retain the
market share. Service providers
have to improve their customer
bases by advertising in the audio
and visual media, by providing
attractive schemes, by keeping
close contact with the customers,
etc.
E-B
usiness
(Mohanty et al.
2007)
Tra
nscen
den
ce
Appearance and colour
combination; selection and
attractive use of media; audio-
visual effects; clarity and
readability of text.
Reliability
Accuracy of information; timely
updation; validity of contents;
accuracy in billing; delivering
product/service in time; website
links and pages working
properly.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
137
Tim
e and tim
eliness
Freshness of information;
frequency of updation; updation
process; timeliness in delivery of
goods/services/refunds/payments
.
Ser
vicea
bility
Policy of the website for the
return of goods; prior
verification if possible (by 3rd
party); provision of toll free
number; order tracking process;
rectification/modification time in
billing; delivery; personal
contact; payment mode
preference; cost of transactions
on site for customer; website
links and pages working
properly and other bugs.
Sec
urity &
system
integrity
Privacy and security policy; laws
and regulations; credibility of
third party verification; use of
latest technologies such as SSL,
encryption algorithms; disaster
recovery mechanism/business
continuity plan.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
138
Acc
essibility
Ease of search (search engine);
details present in the meta
tag/other metadata source for the
pages; availability; 24/7
availability; accessibility through
different browsers (can web site
be opened on different platforms
and browsers); communication
mode/channel supported (E.g:
mobile, palm top, etc); ease of
use.
Acc
ura
cy/clarity
Logical organization or structure
(whole project range on the main
page itself); maintenance of
links; information about stock
availability; warranty and
conditions of purchase;
additional taxes and currency
exchange information; time
standards for response;
audio/visuals and its relevance.
Responsiven
ess
Delivery of services; response
time/feedback time;
acknowledgement time; post sale
service support time.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
139
Courtesy/empath
y
Unwanted banner ads and pop-
ups; giving a warning when a
link to an external site is clicked;
informing customer about
secondary/supplementary
charges; reporting transactional
statements; acknowledgement
after transaction/change/enquiry.
Communication &
feed
back
Emails response; order tracking;
readability; online help for using
the website; degree of
interaction; error reporting
mechanism; communication of
changes in usage policies.
Retriev
ability
Availability of information on
past transactions; time to retrieve
information; search facility;
hardware redundancy and
disaster recovery mechanism;
duplication of documents lost or
misplaced by customer.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
140
Structure
Navigational ease; use of
keywords and headings;
classification of information in
groups; site map; ease of use.
Rep
utation/bra
nd
Familiarity of users with the
website; refunds/payment
delays; defaults (delivery,
payment/refund, query, service
support, brand).
W
ebsite intractability
E-commerce handling capability;
file size transfer capability;
interactive scripts usage.
Customization
Web page look; web page
presentation; customization of
products/services; ease of
changing user profile; tracking
visitors preferences and interests.
Usa
bility/navigability
Multiple language support;
simplicity in comprehending;
consistency in formats; ease of
navigation.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
141
Availability of web
site
Downtime of web site.
In
tegrity &
tru
st
Privacy and security policy;
information sharing;
acknowledgement after
transaction/change/enquiry;
accuracy in billing; delivery of
services.
Functionality &
featu
res
Ease of searching of relevant
information; ease of navigation;
links to related websites;
grouping/clustering of
information; availability of
additional information sources;
comparative charts of the
products and services available
in the market.
Per
form
ance
Time lag to show the home page
and other linked pages clicked;
time to acknowledge after
transaction/change/enquiry.
Ser
vice differe
ntiation
Unique feature.
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Objectivity
Availability of one line
detail/abstract for link/tag; the
links/tags convey the desired
meaning to reach to information
page.
Flexibility
Customization/personalization;
upgrade ability; compatibility
with newer software and
hardware.
Online
shopping
(Bauer et al.
2006)
Functionality/design
Efficiency of navigation;
accessibility of relevant content;
clarity of the web site; relevance
of information; timeliness of
information; visual appeal;
professional web site design.
Enjoymen
t Personalization of information
and offerings; fun of using the
web site; excitement when
shopping online; entertainment
provided the web site.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
143
Pro
cess
Availability of the web site;
stability of data transmission;
efficiency of online order
processing; waiting time.
Reliability
Timeliness of order delivery;
accuracy of order delivery;
product availability; breadth and
depth of product range; encoding
of personal information;
confidentiality.
Responsiven
ess
Availability of alternative
communication channels; return
policy; availability of service
personnel; promptness of
reactions to requests.
Rec
reation
sport
(Ko and
Pastore 2004)
Range of pro
gra
ms
The variety and attractiveness of
classes/programs offered to
participants.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
144
Oper
ating tim
e Whether classes start and finish
on time, and whether the
operating hours are convenient
to the customers.
In
form
ation
The ease of getting a variety of
up-to-date information about
programs and other services.
Clien
t-em
ployee
intera
ction
The customer’s subjective
perception of how the service is
delivered during the service
encounter in which the attitude,
behaviour, and expertise of
service personnel are
highlighted.
In
ter-client intera
ction
The customer’s subjective
perception of how the service is
delivered during the service
encounter in which the attitude
and behaviour of other clients
are highlighted.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
145
Physica
l ch
ange
Consumers usually experience
physical change following the
consumption of the activity. In
other words, they experience the
tangible benefits after
consumption.
Valence
The consumers’ post
consumption evaluation whether
the service outcome was good or
bad, regardless of their
evaluation of any other aspect of
the service experience.
Sociability
The positive social experience
which resulted from the social
gratification of being with others
who enjoy the same activity.
Ambience
The non-visual aspects of the
service environment such as
temperature, lighting, noise,
scent, and music.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Design
The service facility’s layout or
architecture including functional
(E.g: practical) and aesthetic
(E.g: visually pleasing) nature.
Equipment
The devices utilized for the
maximization of sport
consumption.
E-R
etailing
(Collier and
Bienstock
2006)
Privacy
Companies not sharing
information with third parties
unless the customer gives
permission. It also includes the
security of sensitive information
between the customer and the
company. In addition, this
includes providing visual
symbols so customers know a
secure connection is being
achieved.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
147
Design
Visual appearance and audible
applications of a site. This
includes factors such as uses of
colour, animation, pictures, text,
format, and sound.
In
form
ation acc
ura
cy
Information about a product or
service in a clear and concise
manner. Information accuracy
also includes the currency of
information presented on a web
site, as well as full disclosure of
policies, procedures, and any
charges that may occur during
the ordering process.
Ease of use
The ability of a customer to find
information or enact a
transaction with the least amount
of effort. Ease of use includes
the issue of navigation.
Navigation is having consistent
menus that lead to key pages on
a site. Ease of use also includes
effective search engines, the
ability to easily change or cancel
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
148
an order, and the ability to
inform customers of missing
information.
Functionality
A web site operates or executes
the commands of the customer.
Functionality includes quick
page loads, links that do not dead
end, and payment options.
Functionality also refers to the
ability to appeal to a universal
audience by multilingual
translations and disability access
and services.
Ord
er tim
eliness
Receiving the service within an
expected amount of time.
Ord
er acc
ura
cy
Processing the online order to
the exact specification of the
customer, which includes place
of receipt, quantity, and agreed
price of the service.
Ord
er condition
Product being free from damage
and decay.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
149
In
tera
ctive fairness
The customer’s ability to locate
and interact with technology
support on a web site and how a
company’s employees treat the
customer. Interactive fairness
from a technology support
standpoint includes online
tutorials, frequently asked
questions, and an email address
where customers can voice a
problem or a concern. Interactive
fairness also includes easy
access to telephone numbers of
operators at the company that
can assist the customer. In
addition, interactive fairness
consists of how the company
interacts with the customer over
the phone or through email.
Pro
cedura
l fairness
The policies, procedures, and
responsiveness in the complaint
process.
Outcome fairness
Includes issues such as monetary
compensation, future free
services, or an apology.
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150
Appendix C
- M
apping O
f Industries’ Service Q
uality D
imensions To The B
&C (2001)
Model’s Sub-dim
ensions
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social Factors
Waiting Time
Tangibles
Valence
Call C
enters (Dean 2002)
Adaptiven
ess
X Y
Assura
nce
X Y
Empath
y
XY
Auth
ority
Y
X
Web
-based Inform
ation Systems (W
IS) (Tan et al. 2003)
Reliability
X Y
Responsiven
ess
X Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
151
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Acc
ess
Y
X
Flexibility
X Y
Ease of
navigation
X Y
Efficiency
X Y
Assura
nce
/
trust
X
Y
Sec
urity
X Y
Site aesth
etics
X Y
Customization /
per
sonaliza
tion
X Y
Quality of
inform
ation
X Y
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152
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Aca
dem
ic L
ibra
ries (Nagata et al. 2004)
Effec
t of serv
ice
(per
sonal)
Y
X
Libra
ry as ba
(place
)
Y
X
Collec
tion and
acc
ess
Y
X
Effec
t of serv
ice
(org
anizational)
X Y
E-ser
vice (Santos 2003)
Reliability
X Y
Efficiency
X
Y
Support
X Y
Communication
X Y
Sec
urity
X
Y
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153
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
In
centive
Y
X
Educa
tion (Joseph and Joseph 1997)
Aca
dem
ic
reputation
Y
X
Pro
gra
m issues
Y
X
Physica
l facilities
Y
X
Cost / tim
e
X Y
Loca
tion
Y
X
Care
er
opportunities
X Y
Oth
er
X
Y
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154
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Banks And C
redit U
nions (Allred and Addams 2000)
Reliability
X
Y
Responsiven
ess
Y
X
Competen
ce
X Y
Acc
ess
Y
X
Communication
X Y
Retail (Siu and Cheung 2001)
Per
sonal
intera
ction
Y
X
Policy
Y
X
Physica
l
appea
rance
Y
X
Pro
mises
X Y
Pro
blem solving
Y
X
Conven
ience
X
Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
155
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Web
-based ser
vices (Li et al. 2002)
Responsiven
ess
X Y
Competen
ce
X Y
Quality of
inform
ation
Y
X
Empath
y
Y
X
W
eb assistance
X
Y
Callback
system
s
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
156
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Condition
s Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Hea
lth (Dagger et al. 2007)
In
tera
ction
X Y
Relationsh
ip
X Y
Exper
tise
X Y
Outcome
X Y
Atm
osp
her
e
X Y
Tangibles
X Y
Tim
eliness
Y
X
Oper
ation
Y
X
Support
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
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Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Electro
nic Ser
vices (Fassnacht and Koese 2006)
Gra
phic quality
X Y
Clarity of layout
X Y
Attra
ctiven
ess of
selection
Y
X
In
form
ation
quality
X Y
Ease of use
Y
X
Tec
hnical quality
Y
X
Reliability
X
Y
Functional ben
efit
X Y
Emotional ben
efit
X Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
158
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Condition
s Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Web
Sites (Loiacono et al. 2007)
In
form
ational fit-
to-task
X
Y
Tailore
d
inform
ation
X Y
Tru
st
Y
X
Response tim
e
XY
Ease of
under
standing
Y
X
In
tuitive
oper
ations
Y
X
Visual appea
l
X Y
In
novativen
ess
X Y
Emotional appea
l
Y
X
Consisten
t im
age
X Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
159
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
On-line
completeness
Y
X
Relative
advantage
X Y
E-tra
vel (Ho and Lee 2006)
In
form
ation
quality
Y
X
Sec
urity
X
Y
W
ebsite
functionality
Y
X
Customer
relationsh
ips
Y
X
Responsiven
ess
X Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
160
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Condition
s Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Automobile (Saravanan and Rao 2007)
Human asp
ects of
serv
ice deliver
y
X
Y
Core
ser
vice
Y
X
Social
resp
onsibility
X Y
System
atiza
tion of
serv
ice deliver
y
X Y
Tangibles of
serv
ice
(ser
vicesca
pes)
Y
X
Ser
vice mark
eting
X Y
E-B
usiness (Mohanty et al. 2007)
Tra
nscen
den
ce
Y
X
Reliability
X
Y
Tim
e and tim
eliness
X Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
161
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Ser
vicea
bility
X Y
Sec
urity &
system
integrity
X Y
Acc
essibility
Y
X
Acc
ura
cy/clarity
X Y
Responsiven
ess
XY
Courtesy/empath
y
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
162
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Condition
s Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Communication
& fee
dback
Y
X
Retriev
ability
Y
X
Structure
X Y
Rep
utation/bra
nd
X Y
W
ebsite
intractability
Y
X
Customization
X Y
Usa
bility/navigabi
lity
X Y
Availability of
web
site
X
Y
In
tegrity &
tru
st
X Y
Functionality &
featu
res
X Y
Per
form
ance
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
163
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Ser
vice
differe
ntiation
X Y
Objectivity
X Y
Flexibility
X Y
Online sh
opping (Bauer et al. 2006)
Functionality/desi
gn
X Y
Enjoymen
t
Y
X
Pro
cess
X Y
Reliability
X Y
Responsiven
ess
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
164
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
Rec
reation sport (Ko and Pastore 2004)
Range of
pro
gra
ms
X Y
Oper
ating tim
e
Y
X
In
form
ation
Y
X
Clien
t-em
ployee
intera
ction
X
Y
In
ter-client
intera
ction
Y
X
Physica
l ch
ange
X
Y
Valence
X Y
Sociability
Y
X
Ambience
X Y
Design
X Y
Equipment
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
165
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Sub-D
imen
sions
Unclassified
Attitude
Behavior
Expertise
Ambient
Conditions
Design
Social
Factors
Waiting
Time
Tangibles
Valence
E-R
etailing (Collier and Bienstock 2006)
Privacy
X Y
Design
X Y
In
form
ation
acc
ura
cy
Y
X
Ease of use
X Y
Functionality
X Y
Ord
er tim
eliness
XY
Ord
er acc
ura
cy
Y
X
Ord
er condition
X
Y
In
tera
ctive
fairness
Y
X
Pro
cedura
l
fairness
Y
X
Outcome fairness
Y
X
Legend
X - The candidate
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
166
Y - The candidate’s colleague
Mapping match (agreed upon) between candidate and his
colleague
Note: The industries’ SQ dimensional description can be found in Appendix B.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
167
Appendix D
- M
apping O
f Industries’ Service Q
uality D
imensions To The B
&C (2001)
Model’s Primary Dim
ensions
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Call C
enters (Dean 2002)
Adaptiven
ess
XY
Assura
nce
XY
Empath
y
XY
Auth
ority
XY
Web
-based Inform
ation Systems (W
IS) (Tan et al. 2003)
Reliability
XY
Responsiven
ess
XY
Acc
ess
Y
X
Flexibility
XY
Ease of navigation
XY
Efficiency
XY
Assura
nce
/ tru
st
X
Y
Sec
urity
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
168
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Site aesth
etics
XY
Customization /
per
sonaliza
tion
XY
Quality of
inform
ation
XY
Aca
dem
ic L
ibra
ries (Nagata et al. 2004)
Effec
t of serv
ice
(per
sonal)
Y
X
Libra
ry as ba
(place
)
XY
Collec
tion and
acc
ess
XY
Effec
t of serv
ice
(org
anizational)
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
169
Industry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
E-ser
vice (Santos 2003)
Reliability
XY
Efficiency
XY
Support
XY
Communication
XY
Sec
urity
XY
In
centive
XY
Educa
tion (Joseph and Joseph 1997)
Aca
dem
ic
reputation
Y
X
Pro
gra
m issues
Y
X
Physica
l facilities
XY
Cost / tim
e
XY
Loca
tion
XY
Care
er
opportunities
XY
Oth
er
X
Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
170
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Banks And C
redit U
nions (Allred and Addams 2000)
Reliability
XY
Responsiven
ess
XY
Competen
ce
XY
Acc
ess
Y
X
Communication
XY
Retail (Siu and Cheung 2001)
Per
sonal
intera
ction
XY
Policy
Y
X
Physica
l
appea
rance
Y
X
Pro
mises
XY
Pro
blem solving
XY
Conven
ience
X
Y
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
171
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Web
-based ser
vices (Li et al. 2002)
Responsiven
ess
X
Y
Competen
ce
XY
Quality of
inform
ation
Y
X
Empath
y
XY
W
eb assistance
XY
Callback
system
s Y
X
Hea
lth (Dagger et al. 2007)
In
tera
ction
XY
Relationsh
ip
XY
Exper
tise
XY
Outcome
XY
Atm
osp
her
e
XY
Tangibles
XY
Tim
eliness
XY
Oper
ation
Y
X
Support
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
172
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Electro
nic Ser
vices (Fassnacht and Koese 2006)
Gra
phic quality
XY
Clarity of layout
XY
Attra
ctiven
ess of
selection
XY
In
formation
quality
XY
Ease of use
Y
X
Tec
hnical quality
Y
X
Reliability
X
Y
Functional ben
efit
XY
Emotional ben
efit
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
173
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Web
Sites (Loiacono et al. 2007)
In
form
ational fit-to-
task
X
Y
Tailore
d
inform
ation
XY
Tru
st
Y
X
Response tim
e
XY
Ease of
under
standing
Y
X
In
tuitive oper
ations
Y
X
Visual appea
l
XY
In
novativen
ess
XY
Emotional appea
l
Y
X
Consisten
t im
age
XY
On-line
completeness
Y
X
Relative advantage
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
174
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
E-tra
vel (Ho and Lee 2006)
In
form
ation quality
Y
X
Sec
urity
XY
W
ebsite
functionality
Y
X
Customer
relationsh
ips
Y
X
Responsiven
ess
XY
Automobile (Saravanan and Rao 2007)
Human asp
ects of
serv
ice deliver
y
X
Y
Core
ser
vice
XY
Social resp
onsibility
XY
System
atiza
tion of
serv
ice deliver
y
XY
Tangibles of serv
ice
(ser
vicesca
pes)
XY
Ser
vice mark
eting
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
175
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
E-B
usiness (Mohanty et al. 2007)
Tra
nscen
den
ce
XY
Reliability
XY
Tim
e and tim
eliness
XY
Ser
vicea
bility
XY
Sec
urity &
system
integrity
XY
Acc
essibility
Y
X
Acc
ura
cy/clarity
XY
Responsiven
ess
XY
Courtesy/empath
y
XY
Communication &
feed
back
Y
X
Retriev
ability
Y
X
Structure
XY
Rep
utation/bra
nd
XY
W
ebsite
intractability
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
176
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Customization
XY
Usa
bility/navigability
XY
Availability of web
site
X
Y
In
tegrity &
tru
st
XY
Functionality &
featu
res
XY
Per
form
ance
XY
Ser
vice differe
ntiation
XY
Objectivity
XY
Flexibility
XY
Online sh
opping (Bauer et al. 2006)
Functionality/design
XY
Enjoymen
t
Y
X
Pro
cess
XY
Reliability
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
177
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
Rec
reation sport (Ko and Pastore 2004)
Range of
pro
gra
ms
XY
Oper
ating tim
e
XY
In
form
ation
XY
Clien
t-em
ployee
intera
ction
X
Y
In
ter-client
intera
ction
Y
X
Physica
l ch
ange
Y
X
Valence
XY
Sociability
XY
Ambience
XY
Design
XY
Equipment
XY
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
178
In
dustry
(Context)
Industry
SQ
Dim
ension
B&C (2001) M
odel’s Primary
Dim
ensions
Unclassified
Intera
ction
Quality
Physica
l Environmen
t
Quality
Outcome Quality
E-R
etailing (Collier and Bienstock 2006)
Privacy
XY
Design
XY
In
form
ation
acc
ura
cy
Y
X
Ease of use
XY
Functionality
XY
Ord
er tim
eliness
XY
Ord
er acc
ura
cy
Y
X
Ord
er condition
X
Y
In
tera
ctive
fairness
XY
Pro
cedura
l
fairness
Y
X
Outcome fairness
Y
X
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
179
Legend
X - The candidate
Y - The candidate’s colleague
Mapping match (agreed upon) between candidate and his colleague
Note: The industries’ SQ dimensional description can be found in Appendix B.
Masters Degree Candidate: Yap Zhi Wei David (05461502)
180
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